Tlines Third Year

AN INTRODUCTION TO
TRANSMISSION LINES

Prepared by

Dr ESSAM A. HASHISH

Dept. of Electronics and Communications

Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University

COPYRIGHTS ARE RESERVED FOR THE AUTHOR

1
CONTENTS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Data use
+ Data transmission
+ Data type

Maxwell's Equations
+ INTRODUCTION
+ Statement of Maxwell's equations
+ Maxwell's Equations in the Integral Form
+ Maxwell's Equations in Differential Form

Wave Propagation in Source-free Regions
+ Time Harmonic Fields
+ Propagation of Uniform Plane Waves
+ SOLUTION OF THE UNIFORM PLANE WAVE
+ Propagation in Different Media
Reflection and Refraction of Plane Waves
TRANSMISSION LINES
Introduction
+ Uses of transmission lines
2
+ Types of transmission lines
+ Planar Transmission Lines

Analysis of theTwo Parallel-Plate Transmission Line
+ Voltages and Currents
+ Line Capacitance
+ Line Inductance
+ Circuit model of the transmission line
+ Effect of Dielectric Losses
+ Effect of Conductor Loss
+ Complete circuit representation
+ General Transmission Line Equation
+ Line parameters of some line configurations
+ Relation between the two parallel plate line and
other lines

Types of Transmission Lines
+ Lossless line
+ Low-loss line
+ Distortionless line
+ ATTENUATION CONSTANT FROM POWER RELATION

3

Propagation along transmission lines with different
terminations
+ Propagation of a wave along an infinite line
+ Propagation of a wave along a line terminated with
Z
0

+ Two semi-infinite lines connected together
+ A line terminated by Z
L

+ Special cases
+ Voltages and currents at distance d from the load
+ Spatial Distribution of the Voltage and Current
+ Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
+ Spatial distribution using the unity circle

Graphical Representation of Voltages
+ THE VOLTAGE AT THE LOAD
+ The voltage at any point
+ Properties of the Graphical Representation
1. DIRECTION OF MOTION
2. Location of the voltage maxima and minima
3. Location of open- and short-circuits
4
4. Location of different loads
5. Expressing Z in terms of I
6. Voltage standing wave ratio
Graphical Representation of Currents

The Smith Chart
+ Details of the Smith Chart
+ Applications of the Smith Chart
1. Calculation of I
l
from Z
L

2. Calculation of Z
i
and I
d
at a distance d
3. Determination of V
max
and its first location
min
5. Determination of VSWR
6. Transition from impedance to admittance chart
7. Impedance Matching in Transmission Lines
8. Methods of matching
+ Matching using a /4 section
+ Matching using a single stub
+ Double-stub Matching

Transients in Transmission Lines
Scattering matrix
5
+ Two-port Parameters: The Scattering Matrix
+ Scattering parameters evaluation
+ General definition of scattering parameters
+ Important properties of the S matrix
+ Active source representation
+ Available power
+ Case of source and load connection

6

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

GOODS DELIVERY
Direct
Car
Train
7

Transmission Line
DATA TRANSMISSION
DATA TYPE
Direct Contact
''''''''''''''''''''
''''''''''''''''''''
Satellite Link
8

+ Audio

+ Video

+ Text

+ Graph

+ Picture

- Analog

- Digital

9
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Electrostatic Field Equations

0
4
v
V V dv
r
tc
'
V = V =
'
= V =
}
E D
E

Where c = D E
Magnetostatic Field Equations

0
4
v
dv
r
t
'
V = V =
' =V =
}
H J B
J
B A A

Where = B H
Continuity Equation
0 =
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ V
t
c
D
J

Maxwell's Equations (Time Varying Case)

These equations establish the relation between the electric
and magnetic fields in the general time varying case.

Maxwell's Equations in the Differential Form

0
t t
c c
V = V = +
c c
V = V =
B D
E H J
D B

10
Maxwell's Equations in the Integral Form
0
s s
v
d d d d
t t
d dv d
c c
| |
= = +
|
c c
\ .
=
} } } }
} } }
B D
E l s H l J s
D s B s

Wave Propagation in Source-free Regions

In a source-free region, both and J are equal to
zero. Maxwell's equations in this case take the form

(1) (2)
0 (3) 0 (4)
t t
c
c c
V = V =
c c
V = V =
H E
E H
D B

Taking the curl for equation (1)
( )
( )
0 Also
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
V
=
c
c
V
c
c
= V V V
c
c
V = V V
t
t
t
t
H
H
E
E
E
E E
H
E
c
c
c

The last two equations are called homogeneous wave
equations.

11

Time Harmonic Fields

In the case of time harmonic fields, sinusoidal variations are
considered.
( ) { }
( ) { } t e t z y x
t e t z y x
m
t j
m
m
t j
m
e
e
e
e
sin Im , , , or
cos Re , , ,
E E E
E E E
= =
= =

Thus, depending whether we consider cos(et) or
sin(et) variations, the real or imaginary part of the
complex exponent is considered.

Taking the above note into consideration, we can simply put
Maxwell's equations in this case reduce to
0 0
j j e ec V = V =
V = V =
E H H E
D B

And the wave equation can then have the form

c e =
= + V
= + V
k
k
k
where
0 &
0
2 2
2 2
H H
E E

k is called the wave number or the complex phase
constant in general.

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
, , , , ,
, , ,
Hence, , , ,
, , ,
& , , ,
j t
m
x y z t x y z e
x y z t
j x y z t
t
x y z t
x y z t
t
e
e
e
=
c
=
c
c
=
c
E E
E
E
E
E
12
Similar to the current and voltage relations, it can be
shown that the average of the power density vector P is
given by
{ }
*
Re
2
1
H E P =
av

and the power transmitted over any cross sectional area A is
given by
S P d W
A
av
.
}
=

The wave equation is used to get the solution of
propagating waves under any conditions. One of the most
essential types of propagating waves is the uniform plane
wave.

Propagation of Uniform Plane Waves

In a uniform plane wave, the fields have the same
direction, magnitude and phase in the plane of uniformity
at any time t.

If the XY-plane is the plane of uniformity, then
0 =
c
c
=
c
c
y x

Using the div equation of D we get

From which it can be shown the Z-components of E must
equal to zero and similarly that of H is also zero.

This means that the electromagnetic fields are
totally confined to the plane of uniformity.
0 = V D
0 =
c
c
z
z
E
13

SOLUTION OF THE UNIFORM PLANE WAVE

Consider the XY-plane as the plane of uniformity
which is called the transverse plane, hence the fields
have components in general along X and Y-directions.
Let the axes be rotated such that the total electric field is
along the X-direction.

The solution is thus given by
( )
+
+ +
+ =
+ =
x x
t j jkz t j jkz
x
E E
e e E e e E z E
e e
0 0

which represents two traveling waves. Consider now the
first term of the above equation, the instantaneous
expression of the field is given by
( ) ( )
0
, cos
x
E z t E t kz e
+ +
=

When this expression is sketched with z for progressively
increasing values of t, the following remarks can be
made:

0
0
2
2
2
2 2
= +
c
c
= + V
x
x
E k
z
E
k E E
14

The curves are effectively traveling in the +ve
Z-direction.
Consider a point of the same phase on the wave
along the direction of propagation
( ) ( )
ph
v
k t
z
const z z k t t
const kz t
= =
A
A
= A + A +
=
e
e
e

which is called the phase velocity of the wave, note that
v
ph
in the free space =3x10
8
m/s.

The distance over which the phase changes by
2t radians is called the wavelength
z
E
x

t=0 t=t/2e
t=t/e
Direction of Propagation
15
f
v
k
= =
t
2

The relation between E and H is given by

1
and
y y
y x
H a
where H E
k
q
e
q
c
+
+ +
=
=
= =
+
H

is called the intrinsic impedance or the wave impedance
of the medium. In the case of free space we get,
0 0
,
120 377
c c
q t
= =
= = O

The average power density P
av
is given by

{ }
2
*
1
Re
2 2
av y z
H
q
= = P E H a

+
+
=
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= V
H
a a a
H E
e
e
j
E
jk
j
x
z y x
0 0
0 0
16
Important notes:

+ If the uniform plane wave contains an electric
field component E
y
and is propagating in the +ve
Z-direction, then
y
x
E
H
q
=

+ We note also that in the uniform plane wave, E
and H are perpendicular to each other and both
are perpendicular to the direction of propagation
such that
p H E
a a a =

where a
E
, a
H
and a
P
are vectors in the direction of the
electric field, magnetic field and the wave propagation
respectively.

Propagation in Different Media
In a general medium, the first Maxwells equation is
given by
which is called the conduction current density
which is called the displacement current density

E J
J J
D
E H
o
o
=
+ =
c
c
+ = V
c
d c
where
t
d
and j ec = J E
17
The media of propagation can be accordingly classified
to

On the other hand, the propagating waves can be classified to

+ TEM wave
Which has no electric, no magnetic field components along the
direction of propagation
In this wave, |E
tr
|/|H
tr
| =

+ TE wave
Which has no electric field component along the direction of
propagation but the magnetic field has a component along the
direction of propagation.
In this wave, |E
tr
|/|H
tr
| >

+ TM wave
Which has no magnetic field component along the direction of
propagation but the electric field has a component along the
direction of propagation.
In this wave, |E
tr
|/|H
tr
| <

0 0 = =
d c
or o J + Perfect Dielectric
+ Lossy Dielectric
+ Good Conductor
+ Perfect Conductor
ec o (( ((
d d c
or J J
ec o )) ))
c d c
or J J
=
c
o
18
Examples

z
x
y
H
x
E
Direction of propagation
TE WAVE
H
y
x
y
z
E
x

H
TM WAVE
E
y

z
x
y
H

E
TEM WAVE
19

Reflection And Refraction Of Plane Waves
Introduction
Consider an electromagnetic plane wave which is incident from an
infinite homogeneous dielectric medium at an angle
i
to the interface
with another infinite homogeneous dielectric medium as shown in the
figure below. Upon this incidence, a part of the incident energy is
reflected and another part is transmitted. The fields of the reflected and
transmitted waves are obtained by applying the boundary conditions at
the interface. These boundary conditions imply the equivalence of the
tangential electric and magnetic fields at both sides of the interface. In the
next section, the case of normally incident plane wave is only considered.

Normal Incidence
Consider a normally incident plane wave with its electric field E
parallel to the interface and directed to the x-axis as shown in the figure. It is
assumed that the interface between the two media is lying in the y-x plane. The
relative prmittivities of these media are assumed as
r1
and
r2
respectively. The
t
y
z
W
t
W
r
W
i
r1
r2

i
x
E
t
x
E
r
x
E

Reflection of a plane wave at the interface between two
inhomogeneous media (incidence from left to right).
20
time dependence is e
jt
, where is the angular frequency. The incident,
reflected and transmitted fields inside these media can be expressed as follows

Incident fields (z 0)
The electric field of the incident wave,
i
x
E can be expressed as

1
jk z i
x o
E E e
=
and the magnetic field component
y
i
H is obtained by the relation

1
1 1
i
jk z i o x
y
E E
H e
q q

= =
where
1 1 1
k e c = and
1
1
1
q
c
= ,

Reflected fields (z 0)
The electric field of the reflected wave,
r
x

1
jk z r
x o
E R E e =
r
y

1
1 1
r
jk z r o x
y
E E
H R e
q q
= =

Transmitted fields (z 0)
The electric field of the transmitted wave,
t
x

2
jk z t
x o
E T E e
=
t
y

2
2 2
t
jk z t o x
y
E E
H T e
q q

= =
y
z
W
t
W
r
W
i
r1

r2

R

i
x
E
t
x
E
r
x
E

Normal Incidence
T
21
where
2 2 2
k e c = and
2
2
2
q
c
= ,
and R and T

are the reflection and transmission coefficients at the interface
between the two media.
The boundary conditions at the interface z=0 imply the following
tangential tangential
0 0
tangential tangential
0 0
z z
z z
E E
and H H
+
+
= =
= =
=
=
This leads to
{ }
{ }
0 0
0 0
i r t
x x x
z z
i r t
y y y
z z
E E E
and H H H
+
+
= =
= =
+ =
+ =

Applying the above boundary conditions at the interface z=0, the reflection
coefficient R is then given by
2 1
2 1
R
q q
q q
=
+

and the transmission coefficient T is given by
2
2 1
2
1 T R
q
q q
= + =
+

Field Expressions in the First Medium (z 0)
i r
i r
E E E
H H H
= +
= +

or

( )
( )
1 1
1 1
jk z jk z
o o x
jk z jk z
o o y
E E e RE e a
H H e RH e a
= +
=

Field Expressions in the Second Medium (z 0)
t
t
E E
H H
=
=

or
2
2
jk z
o x
jk z
o y
E T E e a
H T H e a
=
=

Surface Impedance
The boundary conditions at the interface imply the continuity of the
tangential electric and magnetic fields at the interface. Hence, the ratio between
these fields is also continuous at any interface. The surface impedance Z
s
at any
location is imposed for this reason as the ratio between the total tangential
electric and magnetic fields at this location as follows
22
{ }
{ }
1
1
1
i r
x x
z z
s
i r
z y y
z
E E
R
Z
R
H H
q
+
+
= =
+
in the region (z 0), and
2
t
x
z
s
t
y
z
E
Z
H
q = = in the region (z 0)
It follows that the suface impedance in the first medium at a point located
at distance d from the interface (z=-d) is given as

{ }
{ }
1
1
1
i r
x x
z d z d
s
i r
z d y y
z d
E E
R
Z
R
H H
q
= =
=
=
+
+
= =
+

2
1 2
1 1 2
1
1 2 1
1
1
tan( )
tan( )
jkd
jkd
R e
R e
j k d
j k d
q
q q
q
q q
+
=
+
=
+

Case of Dielectric Slab of thickness d
This configuration is shown in the figure below

Special Cases
i) d=
1
/2
which implies that k
1
d = and hence Z
s
is given as
2 s
Z q =

and this means that the dielelectric slab is totally transparent in this case

r1

r2

i
x
E
t
x
E
r
x
E

Case of dielectric slab of thickness d
Z
s

ro

d
23
ii) d=
1
/4
which implies that k
1
d = /2 and hence Z
s
is given as
2
1
2
s
Z
q
q
=

and this means that the dielelectric slab is acting as a transformer in this
case

24

TRANSMISSION LINES AND THEIR USES

- Transmission lines are used to guide the
electromagnetic waves from one location to another in
the form of

Point-to-point communication:
From source to load.
From one subscriber to another.

Component-to-component connection within the
system:
From transmitter to antenna.
From antenna to receiver.
From one network to another.
25

TYPES OF TRANSMISSION LINES

Two wire line
Coaxial cable
Parallel plate line
Microstrip line
Rectangular Waveguide
Circular Waveguide
Optical Fiber
26
PLANAR TRANSMISSION LINES USED IN MICROWAVE
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

r
INVERED MICROSTRIP
SUSPENDED MICROSTRIP
r1
r2
MICROSTRIP WITH OVERLAY
r1
r2
STRIP DIELECTRIC
INVERTED STRIP
DIELECTTRIC WAVEGUIDE
r1
r2
r
MICROSTRIP
SLOTLINE
COPLANAR WAVEGUIDE COPLANAR STRIPS
27
Analysis of theTwo Parallel-Plate Transmission Line

Electromagnetic Fields

Phasor expression

Instantaneous expression
jkz
x
jkz
y
e
E
H
e E E
=
=
q
0
0

( ) ( )
( )
( )
q
e
t z E
t z H
kz t E t z E
y
x
y
,
,
cos ,
0
=
=

c q c e = = , k where

y
x
z
x
y
E
y
x
y
z
Transverse plane Longitudinal direction
H
28
Notes

The fields change sign every 2 .
The difference between the field distribution in the
transverse plane and along the direction of
propagation.
y
z
Longitudinal direction
E
z
/2
E
Spatial distribution of the electric field E
29
Voltages and Currents

( )
d E V
e V V
e d E V
d V
jkz
ab
jkz
ab
b
a
ab
0 0
0
0
where
or
.
=
=
=
=
}
l E

The ratio between the voltages across the two plates and the
currents entering them is thus given by

The voltage between the two plates is given by
Also the current entering the two plates is given by
( )
q
q
0
0
0
0
where
or
.
E
w I
e I I
e
E
w H w I
d I
jkz
jkz
x
=
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
=
}
l H
0
0
0
Z
w
d
I
V
I
V
= = = q
y
x
I
H
V
ab
+
_
Plate a
Plate b
E
W
d
30
Where Z
0
is called the characteristic impedance of the line and it
is constant for any line configuration.

Line Capacitance

The line capacitance is defined as the ratio between the charge
carried by the line segment and the potential difference between
its two conductors. It is calculated as follows

`
( )
z w E Q
z w A Q
E D
d E V
e E E
y a
sa sa a
y y sa
y ab
jkz
y
A = A
A = A = A
= =
=
=

c

c
0

d
w
C
z
d
w
V
Q
C
length unit
ab
a
c
c
=
A =
A
A
/
x
y
Az
E
V
ab
+
_
Plate a
Plate b
W
d
31
Line Inductance

The line inductance is defined as the ratio between the linked
magnetic flux carried by the line segment and the total electric
current carried by the conductors. It is calculated as follows

w
d
L
z
w
d
I
L
as obtained thus is inductance The
z d H
z d B A B
by given is flux magnetic The
H w I
e H H H
as calculated is current The
length unit
a
x
x x
x a
jkz
x x
=
A =
Au
A
A = Au
A = A = Au
=
= =

/
0
~
~ ~
~
~

y
x
H
I
W
Az
d
32
Circuit model of the transmission line

To this end, the line can be considered from the circuit point of
view as distributed sections each of which is an inductance L =
L Z and a capacitance C = C Z where L and C are the line
inductance and capacitance per unit length. This circuit model is
shown as follows

z
Az
LAz
CAz
Transmission Line
Az
Distributed circuit prameters
CAz
LAz
33
Effect of Dielectric Losses

In the case where the dielectric filling material is lossy, then, a
leakage current flows across the two conductors. This current is
related to the voltage between the two plates as

d
w
G
z
d
w
d
A
G
where
G V I
d
length unit
d d
ab leak
o
o o
=
A =
A
= A
A = A
/
/

GAz
x
y
Az
E
V
ab
+
_
Plate a
Plate b
CAz
LAz
W
34
Effect of Conductor Loss

When the two conductors which guide the wave along the
transmission line are not perfect conductors, an ohmic loss
occurs in the circuit. This is equivalent to the presence of a high
frequency resistance with a depth of one skin depth through the
metal surface. The expression of this resistance is as follows.

w
R
f
depth skin
w
z
A
l
R
c
length unit
c
c c
A
=
= A
A
A
=
A
= A
o
to
o o
1
1
where
/

x
y
Az
E
V
ab
+
_
Plate a
Plate b
W
RAz
35

COMPLETE CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION

The parameters of the transmission line per unit length are
thus represented by (R, L, G and C).

It is worth noting that the above parameters are related to each
other by the following relations

c
o
c = =
C
G
LC ,

L R
C G
36

Transmission Line Parameters Example
f = 10
6
Hz Z
O
=50 d =1 m d= 1000m No of sections = 1000

R= 0.1726 /m L=1.667E-07 H/m G=0.069 m /m C=66.7 pf/m

0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
100
200
300
400
500

I
N
P
U
T

I
M
P
E
D
A
N
C
E
NUMBER OF SECTIONS
Z
L
=ZO

0 2 0 0 4 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 0 1 0 0 0
0
5 0
1 0 0
1 5 0
2 0 0
2 5 0
3 0 0
3 5 0
4 0 0
4 5 0
5 0 0

IN
P
U
T IM
P
E
D
A
N
C
E
N U M B E R O F S E C T I O N S
Z L = I N F I N I T Y

37
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
50
100
150
200
250

Y

A
x
i
s

T
i
t
l
e
X Axis Title
ZL=0

0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500

I
N
P
U
T

I
M
P
E
D
A
N
C
E
NUMBER OF SECTIONS
ZL=0
ZL=INFINITY
ZL=ZO

38
General Transmission Line Equation

To obtain the general transmission line equation, let us examine
the relations between the voltages and currents at the input and
output of the shown segment line section

( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( )
( )( ) ( ) 1
0 to tends as limit the Taking
L j R z I
dz
z dV
z
L j R z I
z
z V z z V
z L j R z I z V z z V
e
e
e
+ =
A
+ =
A
A +
A + = A +
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( )
( )( ) ( ) 2 C j G z V
dz
z dI
C j G z z V
z
z I z z I
z C j G z z V z I z z I
e
e
e
+ =
+ A + =
A
A +
A + A + = A +
V(z)
V(z+Az)
I(z)
I(z+Az) Lz
Rz
Cz Gz
39

Note that is called the propagation constant and it can be
shown that it equals to jk, where k is the wave number that is
defined before.

The general solution of equation (3) is

( )
( )
z z
z z
e I e I z I and
e V e V z V

+ +
+ +
+ =
+ =
0 0
0 0

which represents two waves propagating in the positive and
negative z-directions. In the above equation, V
+
and I
+
represent
a wave propagating along the positive z direction while V
-
and I
-

represent a wave propagating along the negative z direction

Using equation (1), it can be shown that
C j G
L j R
Z
Z
I
V
I
V
e
e
+
+
=
= =

+
+
0
0
0
0
0
0
where

In fact, any transmission line is characterized by two
parameters, its propagation constant and characteristic
impedance Z
0
which are function of its circuit parameters R, L,
C and G.

( )
( )( ) C j G L j R
I
dz
I d
V
dz
V d
e e

+ + =
= =
where
3 ,
(2) and (1) From
2
2
2
2
2
2
40
In general, and Z
0
are complex and have the following forms
= + j where and are called the attenuation
constant and the phase constant per unit length.
While Z
0
= R
o
+ j X
o
where R
o
and j X
o
are respectively called
the characteristic resistance and reactance of the line.

Line parameters of some line configurations

Parameters

Coaxial Line

TWO-WIRE
LINE

Planar Line

R(/m)
( )
1 1 1
2
,
c
a b
a c b
t o
(
(

+
A
A((

( )
1
c
a
a
t o A
A((

( )
2
c
w
t
o A
A((

L(H/m)
ln
2
b
a
t

1
cosh
2
d
a
t

d
w

G(mho/m)
2
ln
b
a
to

1
cosh
2
d
a
to

w
d
o

C(F/m)
2
ln
b
a
tc

1
cosh
2
d
a
tc

( )
w
d
w d
c
>>

where

1
c c
f t o
A = =
skin depth of the conductor
;
cosh ln .
~
L
N
M
O
Q
P
))
1
2
2 2
1
d
a
d
a
if
d
a

41

Relation between the two parallel plate line and other
lines

Curved plates
Coaxial line
Two parallel plates
42

Two parallel plates
Curved plates
Two wire line
43

Types of Transmission Lines (according to their
parameters)

Lossless Line (R = G = 0)

LC
v
LC
LC j j
C
L
Z
ph
1
0
real pure
0
= =
=
=
= + =
=
|
e
e |
o
e | o

It is important to note that the phase velocity is independent of
frequency. Hence, the signal is not distorted upon propagating in
such a line. This line is an ideal case since Z
0
is real, is zero
and is linearly proportional to .

44

Low-loss Line |
.
|
\
|
<< << 1 , 1
C
G
L
R
e e

The characteristic impedance of the low loss line is given by

Which means that Z
0
is almost real like the lossless line.

The propagation constant is also given by
LC
v
LC
GR
R
R
C j
G
L j
R
LC j
C j G L j R
ph
1
,
2
1
2 2
1
0
0
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ + ~
+ + =
e |
o
e e
e
e e

Which means that the low loss line is almost distortionless.
0 ,
2 2
1
1 1
0 0
0
2 1 2 1
0
~ =
|
.
|
\
|
+ ~
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
+ =
+
+
=
X
C
L
R
L j
G
L j
R
C
L
Z
C j
G
L j
R
C
L
C j G
L j R
Z
e e
e e
e
e
45
Distortionless Line
|
.
|
\
|
=
C
G
L
R

The characteristic impedance of the distortionless line Z
0
is
given by

This means that Z
0
is actually real like the case of the lossless
line.

The propagation constant is also given by

LC
v and
LC
R
R
L j
R
LC j
ph
1
,
1
0
=
=
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
e |
o
e
e

0 ,
0
0
0
=
=
=
+
+
=
X
C L R
C
L
C j G
L j R
Z
e
e
46

General expression of the attenuation constant from
the power relation

For a wave traveling in the positive z-direction

The average power flow W at any distance z is given by

The power loss per unit length is obtained as

{ }
*
2
0
2
0 0 0
1
R e
2

1
2

z
W V I
W e
w h e re W I R
o
=
=
=
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
where Z
I
V
e e I e I I
e e V e V V
z z j z
z z j z
=
= =
= =

o |
o |
power flow
length unit per loss power
W
P
W
dz dW
W
dz
dW
L
2
2 2
) / (
2
=
=
=
=
o
o
o
G V R I P
L
2 2
2
1
2
1
+ =
47

Thus, the total attenuation constant is given by

Propagation along Transmission Lines with Different
Terminations

Case 1: Propagation of a wave along an infinite line

In the case of an infinite line extension, the wave propagates
along the line without reflection and the relation between the
voltages and the currents is as follows

This means that the ratio between the voltage and the current at
any point along the line is constant.

2 2
2
0
2
0
0
1 1
1 1
2 2
1
2 2
2
I R V G
R G Z
R
I R
o
| |
+
| |
| +
| = =
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
0
0
0
0 0
,
Z
I
V
e I I e V V
z z
=
= =

Z
48
Case 2: Propagation of a wave along a line terminated
with Z
0

The same in the above case applies for a line terminated by a
load equals to the characteristic impedance Z
0
.

The currents and voltages have the same relations as

Case 3: Two semi-infinite lines connected together

In the case of two semi-infinite lines connected together, the
incidence of a propagating wave on the junction results in a
reflected wave in the first line propagating along the negative z
direction and a transmitted one along the second line in the
positive z direction.
The voltages and currents in each region are given as follows

Z
0
0
0
0
0 0
,
Z
I
V
e I I e V V
z z
=
= =

Z
01
Z
02
V
1
+
V
1

V
2

Z
49

+
+
+ +
+ +
= =
+ =
+ =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 1
0 0 1
I
V
I
V
Z
e I e I I
e V e V V
z z
z z

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 0
2 0
0
0
0
z
z
V V e
I I e
V
Z
I
+
+
+
+
=
=
=

In terms of V
01
and I
01
, the values of
1 1
,
o o
V I

and
2 2
,
o o
V I
+ +
can be known by
applying the boundary conditions at the junction between the two lines.
These boundary conditions at the junction, where Z=0, imply that
V
1
= V
2
and I
1
= I
2

V
1
+
V
1

V
2

+ +
+
=
I =
1
01 02
01 01
V T V and
V V let Now
02
01
02
02
01
01 01
02 01 01
02 01 01
2 1 2 1
1
,
1
, : 0 at
Z
Z
T
V
Z
Z
V V
I I I
T
V V V
I I V V z
= I
=
= +
= I +
= +
= = =
+ +
+ +
+ +
50

Note that is called the reflection coefficient at the junction of the two
lines while T is called the transmission coefficient at that junction.

Case 4: A line terminated by Z
L

When the line is terminated by an impedance Z
L
, the reflection
coefficient is given by

( )
( )
z
L
z
z
L
z
e e I I
e e V V
by given are currents and voltages The

I =
I + =
0
0

Z
01
Z
02
V
01
+
IV
01
+
TV
01
+
z

Z
L
V
+
V

z=0

z= d

L
0
0
L
L
L
Z Z
Z Z
I =
+
01 02
0
01 02
01 02
2
2
Z Z
Z
T and
Z Z
Z Z
+
=
+
= I
51

Special cases
Case of an open circuit load Z
L
= , hence
L
= 1
Case of an open circuit load Z
L
= 0 , hence
L
= -1

Note that along the direction of propagation of the wave, the
electromagnetic fields undergo phase delay and also suffer from
attenuation if the line is lossy.

Voltages and currents at a distance d from the load

For a point at a distance d from the load, i.e. z = - d as shown

Z
L
V
+
V

z=0

z= d

( )
( )
d d
d d
e e I I
e e V V

I =
I + =
0
0
,
( )
( ) d Z Z
d Z Z
Z Z
get we , for ng Substituti
L
L
in
tanh
tanh
0
0
0
+
+
=
I
( )
( )
d d
d d
d d
d d
in
e e
e e
Z
e e I
e e V
I
V
Z

I
I +
=
I
I +
= =
0
0
0

52

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
0
1
: load the in dissipated power The
. . , . . 0 For
. . 0 , . . For
2 : 4 at
, 2 at general, In
: 2 at
I =
=
-
= =
= =
=
= = -
= =
=
= = -
i
r i L
in L
in L
L
in
L in
L in
W
W W W
c o Z c s Z
c s Z c o Z
Z
Z
Z
d d
Z Z n d
Z Z
d d
t |
t |
: that Note
( )
( )
( ) d jZ Z
d jZ Z
Z Z
j
L
L
in
|
|
o |
tan
tan
0 i.e. for and
0
0
0
+
+
=
= =
53

Spatial Distribution of the Voltage and Current

Case (a): Open-circuit (Z
L
=)

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) d
Z
V
j d I
d V e e V d V
L
L
d j d j
L
|
|
| |
sin 2 &
cos 2
1
0
+
+ +
=
= + =
= I

V

I

L
d

O.C.

54
Case (b): Short-circuit (Z
L
=0)

Note that

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) d
Z
V
d I
d jV d V
L
L
|
|
cos 2 &
sin 2
1
0
+
+
=
=
= I
( )
( )
2
0
0
0
cot ,
tan
Z Z Z
d jZ Z
d jZ Z
oc sc
oc
sc
=
=
=
|
|
V

I

SC

L
d

55

Case (c): Termination by any load impedance Z
L

0 0
2
0 0
z z
l
L
V V e V e
V V e

+
+
= +
= I
( ) 2
0
2
0
L L
1
1
But = e
L
l z z
L
z d
L
j
V V e e
V e e

u
+
+
(
= + I

(
= + I

I I
( )
( )
2
0
1
L
j d
z
L
V V e e
u |

+
= + I
V

I

Z
L
L
d

Z
56
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

S Z Z
S
Z
Z
Z Z Since
V
V
VSWR S
0 max
0
min
0
min
max
,
1
1
1
1
=
=
I
I +
=
I
I +
=

57
EXAMPLES

i) Resistive load with R
L
> Z
o

In this case,
L
=
L

( ) 2 / 1
0
max
n d at occurs which V V
L
= I + =
+

and
( ) 2 / ) 5 . 0 ( 1
0
min
+ = I =
+
L

where n=0,1,2,.

0 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1 1 . 2 1 . 4 1 . 6 1 . 8 2
0 . 2
0 . 3
0 . 4
0 . 5
0 . 6
0 . 7
0 . 8
0 . 9
1
1 . 1
1 . 2
N o r m a l i z e d D i s t a n c e

( )
d j
L
e V V
| 2
0
1
+
I + =
V
I
Normalized distance
R
L
>Z
o
L
d

Z

58

ii) Resistive load with R
L
< Z
o

In this case,
L
= -
L

( ) 2 / ) 5 . 0 ( 1
0
max
+ = I + =
+
L

and
( ) 2 / 1
0
min
L
= I =
+

where n=0,1,2,.

0 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1 1 . 2 1 . 4 1 . 6 1 . 8 2
0 . 2
0 . 3
0 . 4
0 . 5
0 . 6
0 . 7
0 . 8
0 . 9
1
1 . 1
1 . 2

( )
d j
L
e V V
| 2
0
1
+
I =
V
I
Normalized distance
L
d

Z

R
L
<Z
o
59

iii) Inductive load with Z
L
= R + jX

In this case,
L
=
L
exp(j
L
) , 0<
L
<

( )
0
max
1 ( ) / 2
2
L
L
V V which occurs at d n
u

t
+
= + I = +

and
( )
0
min
1 ( 0.5) / 2
2
L
L
u

t
+
= I = + +

where n=0,1,2,.

0 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1 1 . 2 1 . 4 1 . 6 1 . 8 2
0 . 2
0 . 3
0 . 4
0 . 5
0 . 6
0 . 7
0 . 8
0 . 9
1
1 . 1
1 . 2

( )
d j
L
L
e V V
| 0 2 (
0
1
+
I + =
V
I
Normalized distance
L

L
d

R

60

iv) Capacitive load with Z
L
= R - jX

In this case,
L
=
L
exp(-j
L
) , 0<
L
<

( )
0
max
1 ( 1 ) / 2
2
L
L
|

t
+
= + I = +

and
( )
0
min
1 ( 0.5) / 2
2
L
L
|

t
+
= I = +

where n=0,1,2,.

0 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1 1 . 2 1 . 4 1 . 6 1 . 8 2
0 . 2
0 . 3
0 . 4
0 . 5
0 . 6
0 . 7
0 . 8
0 . 9
1
1 . 1
1 . 2

( )
d j
L
L
e V V
| | 2 (
0
1
+ +
I + =
V
I
Normalized distance
C

L
d

Z

R

61
Expressing The Wave Voltages in Terms of Voltages
and Currents

At any location, the voltage and current are given by

1
( )
o
o
V V V
and I V V
Z
or Z I V V
+
+
+
= +
=
=

from which it can be shown that
1
( )
2
1
( )
2
o
o
V V Z I
and V V Z I
+
= +
=

Thus, at the load side, we get

1
( )
2
1
( )
2
L L o L
L L o L
V V Z I
and V V Z I
+
= +
=

And at the Input side, we get
1
( )
2
1
( )
2
i i o i
i i o i
V V Z I
and V V Z I
+
= +
=

Z
L
V
+
V

L
62
Relation Between Input and Output Voltages and
Currents

1. Input Side Voltages in Terms of The Output
Side Voltages

At the load port, the incident and the reflected voltages are given
by
1
( )
2
1
( )
2
L L o L
L L o L
V V Z I
and V V Z I
+
= +
=

The voltages and currents at the input port are given in terms of
L
V
+
and
L
V
as

1
( )
L L
L L
L L
i
i
o
o i
V V e V e
and I V e V e
Z
or Z I V e V e

+
+
+
= +
=
=

Hence, we get
1 1
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
( ) ( ) )
2 2
i L o L L o L
i L o L L o L
V V Z I e V Z I e
I V Z I e V Z I e

= + +
= +

which can be put in the form

V
+
V

V
i

I
i
V
L
I
L
63
cosh( ) sinh( )
1
sinh( ) cosh( )
i L o L
i L L
o
V V Z I
I V I
Z

= +
= +

The last two equations can be put in the matrix form

cosh( ) sinh( )
1
sinh( ) cosh( )
o
i L
i L
o
Z
V V
I I
Z

(
( (
(
=
( (
(

(

| |
i L
i L
or
V V
T
I I
( (
=
( (

where | |
T
is the transmission matrix of the line, note that
1 T =
.
In the case of cascaded lines as shown below, the
relation between the input and output voltages and
currents are given by

| | | || | | |
1 2 3 4
i L
i L
V V
T T T T
I I
( (
=
( (

V
i

V
L

T
1

T
3

T
2

T
4

I
i

I
L

64

2. Output Side Voltages in Terms of The Input
Side Voltages

In terms of the input voltage and current, the output voltage and
current expressions can be expressed as

cosh( ) sinh( )
1
sinh( ) cosh( )
o
i L
L i
o
Z
V V
I I
Z

(
( (
(
=
( (
(

(

' L i
L i
or
V V
T
I I
( (
( =
( (

where
'
T (

is given by

cosh( ) sinh( )
1
sinh( ) cosh( )
o
o
Z
Z

(
(
(
(

We note also that
'
1 T =
.

The Voltage at Any Point Due to a Connected Source at
the Input Port of the Line

Case 1: Matched Source (Z
g
=Z
o
)

Consider a transmission line whose length is and characteristic
impedance is Z
o
. The line is connected at its input to a source whose
voltage is V
g
and its internal impedance is Z
o
.The line output is connected
to a load impedance Z
L
.

65

The incident voltage
o
V
+
at the input of the line is calculated on the basis
of dividing the source voltage between the line impedance Z
o
and the
source impedance which is also Z
o
in this case. Thus, the incident
voltage
o
V
+
is given by

1
2
o
o g g
o o
Z
V V V
Z Z
+
= =
+

The reflected voltage at the input of the line is calculated on the basis of
incident wave traveling to the load and then reflection an return back to
the input port. In this case, the reflected voltage wave can be expressed as
2
o o L
V V e
+
= I

With
o
V
+
and
o
V
known, the voltage at any point can then expressed as

( 2 )
1
( )
2
o o
z z
z z
g L
V V e V e
V e e

+

= +
= + I

It follows that the voltage at the load is given by
1
( )
2
L g L
V V e e

= + I

and the voltage at the input of the line is given by
2
1
(1 )
2
o g L
V V e

= + I

V
+
V

V
o
+
V
o

z

Z
L
Z
o
V
g

66
Another method to get the voltage at any point of the line is to obtain
first the input impedance of the line by the expression

tanh
tanh
o L
i o
o L
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z

+
=
+

the input voltage at the line is thus given by

i
i g
i o
Z
V V
Z Z
=
+

while the input current is given by
1
i g
i o
I V
Z Z
=
+

With the knowledge of
i i
V and I then the voltage and the currents can be
obtained by any prescribed method.

Case 2: Unmatched Source (Z
g
Z
o
)

The line in this case is connected at its input to a source whose voltage
is V
g
and its internal impedance is Z
g
. The line output is connected to a
load impedance Z
L
.
The input voltage at the line is thus given by

i
i g
i g
Z
V V
Z Z
=
+

while the input current is given by
1
i g
i g
I V
Z Z
=
+

With the knowledge of
i i
V and I
, then the voltage and the currents can be
obtained.
V
+
V

V
o
+
V
o

Z
L
Z
g
V
g
67

The other method using the concept of the incident and reflected waves
is explained as follows.

The incident voltage
1 o
V
+
at the input of the line is calculated on the
basis of dividing the source voltage between the line impedance Z
o
and
the source impedance Z
g
. Thus, the incident voltage
1 o
V
+
is given by

1
o
o g
o g
Z
V V
Z Z
+
=
+

The reflected voltage
1 o
V
at the input of the line is calculated on the basis

of incident wave traveling to the load and then reflection a return back to
the input port. In this case, the reflected voltage wave can be expressed as
2
1 1 o o L
V V e
+
= I

Upon the arrival of
1 o
V
at the input side of the line it reflects back

towards the load with a reflection coefficient
g
since the source
impedance is not Z
o
. the back reflected voltage
2 o
V
+
is expressed as
2 1 o g o
V V
+
= I and it travels along the load side till it reaches the load then it
reflects with a reflection coefficient
L
. The result is an infinite terms of
incident and reflected signals. The overall incident and reflected waves at
the input side
o
V
+
and
o
V
are given by
1 2 3 4
...
o o o o o
V V V V V
+ + + + +
= + + + +

1 2 3 4
...
o o o o o
and V V V V V

= + + + +

68

2
1
1
1
2
or
1 ( )
1

1
n
o o g L
n
o
g L
V V e
V
e
+ +
=
+
| |
= + I I
|
\ .
=
I I

2
1
1
1
2
1 ( )
1

1
n
o o g L
n
o
g L
and V V e
V
e
| |
= + I I
|
\ .
=
I I

The voltage at any location is thus given by

1 1
2
1
( )
1
o o
o o
z z
z z
g L
V V e V e
V e V e
e

+
+
= +
= +
I I

The multiple reflections in this case are shown in the following figure

V
+
V

V
o
+
V
o

Z
L
Z
g
V
g
1 o
V
+

e

L
I
g
I
e

e

e

e

e

L
I
L
I
g
I
g
I
69

Graphical Representation of Voltages

THE VOLTAGE AT THE LOAD

Consider a transmission line terminated by a load
impedance Z
L
. The reflection coefficient at the load, I
L
is given
by
0
0
Z Z
Z Z
L
L
L
+
= I

The total voltage at the load is

( )
L L
L L
L L
v
V V v
V V V V
I + =
=
I + = + =
+
+ +
1
Let
1

Z
L
V
+
V

V
+
I
L
V
+
V
L

I
L
1
v
L

+

V
L
__
70
The voltage at any point

At any point at a distance d from the load, an expression
for the normalized voltage can be derived as follows

( )
( )
d j
L d
d j
L
d j
d j d j
d
e V
e e V
e V e V V
|
| |
| |
2
2
1
1
+
+
+
I + =
I + =
+ =

d
d j
L
d d d
e
V V v
I + =
I + =
=
+
1
1
2 |

Z
L
v
+
v

v
d
+
v
d

d

1

I
L
I
d
2|d

v
d
v
d
71
Properties of the Graphical Representation

1. DIRECTION OF MOTION

- Constant radius
- Motion towards the generator is in clockwise
sense (2|d).
- Motion towards the load is in anti-clockwise
sense (2|d).
- One circle rotation = /2.
1

I
d
v
d
to load

to generator

Z
L
d

to load

to generator

72
2. Location of the voltage maxima and minima

The voltage maximum occurs when the reflected voltage
and the incident one are along the same direction.
The voltage minimum occurs when the reflected voltage
and the incident one are in opposite directions. The
VSWR is defined in terms of the voltage maximum and
the voltage minimum as
min
max
1
1
V
V
VSWR =
I
I +
=

v
min
v
max
73

3. Location of open- and short-circuits

In the case of an open circuit, we have
. .
1
o c
I =

In the case of an open circuit, we have
. .
1
s c
I =

.

o.c.
Unity circle

+
s.c.

Unity circle

+
74
4. Location of different loads

- Z
L
is pure resistive, i.e. Z
L
= R
L

1 , where
1
1
0
0
0
s I =
+
=
+
= I
R R r
r
r
R R
R R
L L
L
L
L
L
L

- Z
L
is pure reactive i.e. Z
L
= jX

s.c o.c.

Unity circle

Inductive

Capacitive

Resistive

( )
0
0
1
1
1
where /
1, 2tan
For 0 : 0
For 0: 0
L
o
L
jX R jx
jX R jx
x X R
x
x
x
t
t
t
I
I
I

I = =
+ +
=
I = u =
su s >
su s <
75

Spatial distribution using the unity circle

Z
L
=
Open Ct.
Z
L
= 0
Short Ct.
Z
L
= R
L
+jX
L

Inductive
Z
L
= R
L
> R
0
Resistive
Z
L
= R
L
jX
L

Capacitive
Z
L
= R
L
< R
0
Resistive
76

5. Expressing Z in terms of I

The input impedance at any point can be expressed in terms of the
reflection coefficient at that point as

( )( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
2
2
0
0
1
2 1
1
1 1
1
1
Let
1
1
1
1
v u
jv v u
jx r
v u
jv u jv u
jv u
jv u
z
jx r z and jv u
Z
Z
z
Z Z
in
in
in
in
+
+
= +
+
+ + +
=

+ +
=
+ = + = I
I
I +
=
I
I +
=

( )
2
2
2 2
1
1
v u
v u
r
+

=
( )
2
2
1
2
&
v u
v
x
+
=
77
Constant resistance curves

( )
0
1
1
1
2
1
1
2 2
2
2
2 2
=
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
+

=
r
r
r
r
u v u
v u
v u
r

which represents the equation of a circle

r= 0
r=0.5
r=1
r=2
r=4
Unity circle
r =
78
Constant reactance curves

( )
( )
2 2
2
2
2
1 1
1
1
2
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
x x
v u
v u
v
x

which represents the equation of a circle

Unity circle
x=0
x=0.5
x=1
x=2
x=4
x =
x=-4
x=-2
x=-1
x=-0.5
X is positive
X is negative
79

r= 0 r=0.5 r=1
r=2
r=4
r =
Unity circle
x=0
x=0.5
x=1
x=2
x=4
x =
x=-4
x=-2
x=-1
x=-0.5
X is positive
X is negative
Collection of constant r and constant x curves

or THE SMITH CHART
80

Voltage standing wave ratio

The voltage standing wave ratio is given by

When is positive real value, then S is given by

Where r represents the real normalized impedance, which is
greater than unity.
Hence, the SWR can be obtained from the graph as the value of
r at the intersection with the positive real axis.
Unity circle
r=S r=1/S
I
I +
=
1
1
S
1
1
S r
+ I
= =
I
81
Graphical Representation of Currents

The current at any point is given by

Where I
+
= V
+
/Z
0
and I
-
= -V
-
/Z
0

Normalizing I w.r.t. I
+
we get

The admittance chart which is based on the graphical
representaion of the current is shown below

Note that the location of the open circuit and the short circuit on
the graph are interchanged in the impedance and admittance
charts.
I

i

I

o.c.

s.c.

Admittance Chart

i
min i
max
+
+ = I I I
( ) I =
+
1 I I
I =
+
1
I
I
i
82

83

84
Applications of the Smith Chart

1. Calculation of I
l
from Z
L
.
2. Calculation of I
d
.
3. Calculation of Z
in
.
4. Calculation of Y
in
.
5. Calculation of v
max
and its location.
6. Calculation of v
min
and its location.
7. Calculation of VSWR.
8. Impedance matching

85
1. Calculation of I
l
from Z
L

From Z
L
and R
0
, get z
L
as
jx r
R
Z
z
L
L
+ = =
0

Locate (r, x)
Measure |I
l
| and u
L

EXAMPLE

Find I
l
for Z
L
= 60 +j 40 O, R
0
= 50 O

r
x
|I|
u
L

P
1.2 0.8
0.352 56
L
l
z j = +
I = Z
86
2. Calculation of Z
i
and I
d
at a distance d

Locate z
L
at P
1
.

Move d towards generator, i.e. rotate d/ in the
clockwise direction along a circle with a constant
radius |I
l
|

Locate P
2
.

Get z
i
= r
i
+ j x
i

Get I
d
as :
d d d
u Z I = I

I
l

u
d

P
1

P
2

d/
0 i i i i
Z z R R jX = = +
87
max

Locate z
L
.

Rotate till +ve horizontal axis.

Get
d

Get
d

( ) I + =
+
1
max
V V

I
l

P
1

P
2

d
V
V
max

d
88
min

Locate z
L
.

Rotate till ve horizontal axis.

Get d

Get d

( ) I =
+
1
min
V V

I
l

P
1

P
2

d
V
V
min

d
89

5. Determination of VSWR

0 when
1
1
Z I = I =
I
I +
=
= =
z
v
v
V
V
VSWR

Locate z
L
.

Locate v

Read z = r + j0

SWR = r

P
1

P
2

R
d
90

6. Transition from impedance to admittance chart

If we have a point on the line represented by an impedance z on the
Smith chart, the chart is called an impedance chart.

( )
( ) I
I +
=
I +
I
= =
I
I +
=
I
I +
=
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
Since
0
y
z
y
z
R Z

which equals to the value on the Smith chart at the point
(I), which is located at 180 rotation.

Hence, the same point on the line can be represented as an
admittance Y on the chart by rotating 180 and the chart in this case is
treated as an admittance chart.

P
1

P
2

z
y
91

Impedance and the admittance Smith charts

o.c. s.c.
z
Impedance Chart
s.c. o.c.
y
Admittance Chart
b is positive
b is negative X is negative
X is positive
92
7) Calculation of Y from Z

The steps of calculating Y from Z are as follows

Locate z at P
1
.

Rotate 180 and locate P
2
.

Get y = g + jb

Get Y = y .Y
0
= y/R
0

If P
1
represents z at any point on the line, then P
2

represents Y at the same point on the line

93
8. Impedance Matching in Transmission Lines

Why is matching required?
To optimize the load power.
To decrease the line losses.

Why is matching preferred near the load?
For matching stability against frequency drift of the
source.

Methods of matching
Using a /4 matching section.
Using a single parallel stub.
Using a double parallel stub.

94
1. Matching using a /4 section
a)- Resistive load R
L

+ The condition of the matching is

For a transmission line section of length /4:
L i
R Z Z
2
0
'
=
0
2
0
0 0
i
i L
L
Z Z
Z Z R
Z R Z
=
'
=
'
=
R
L
Z'
0
Z
0
Z
i
/4
95
b)- Complex Load

Z
i
is real at locations of V
max
and V
min
.
Matching is possible using a /4 section at these
locations.
At location of voltage maximum,
S Z Z
0 0
= '

At location of voltage minimum,
S Z Z
0 0
= '

Z
L
V
Z
i
=SZ
0

Z
i
=Z
0
/S Z
i
=SZ
0
Z
i
=Z
0
/S
96
Matching using a single stub

The stub is a short-circuited line with adjustable length.

The input admittance of the short-circuited stub is pure
imaginary and is given by.

( )
( )
s s is
s
is
jb l j y
l j
Y
Y = = = |
|
cot
tan
0

If the stub is connected to the line at any point having

Z
L
y
i
y
s
y
tot
L
s

Y
is

Short circuit stub
jb g y
i
+ =
jbs jb g y
tot
+ + =
97

To achieve matching, the following relation should be
satisfied

Which means that
1 =
=
g
b b
s

The last condition means that the stub should be connected to
a point along the line where g=1. Therefore, we move along
the line (towards generator) by a distance d such that the real
part of y
i
equals 1.

These steps of matching are summerized as follows
Locate z
L

Locate y
L
by invertion
Rotate with constant radius |I| clockwise
Intersect the circle g = 1
Get d/
Get the susceptance of the stub as b
s
= - b
Get the length of the short circuit stub as l
s

0 1 j
jbs jb g y
tot
+ =
+ + =
s s
i
l b b and
d jb y
get
get 1
=
+ =
98

Note that, when rotating with constant radius as we move along the line
to get the proper point for connecting the single short circuit stub, there
are two points of intersection with the unity circle (g = 1). The previous
steps are shown in figure below

z
L

y
L

b
b
s
=b
d/
l
s
/
99
2. Double-stub Matching

Using a single stub, matching cannot be achieved unless we
place the stub at a specific distance from the load.

Double stub is easier because the first stub is placed at
arbitrary distance.

Case (1): d = 0

Z
L
Stub 2
Stub 1
d d
s
z
L

y
L

b
b
s2
=b
l
s
/
b
1
b

b
2
b
s1
=b
2
-b
1
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5
100
The steps of matching are summarized as follows
Get z
L
.
Get y
L
.
Rotate with constant g.
Intersect with the unity g circle rotated by (d
s
/ )
counter clockwise (e.g. = + 90 for d
s
/ =1/8) .
Rotate the point of intersection 90 clockwise, till it intersects
with the unity g circle.

Case (2): d = 0
Move d/.
Continue as case (1) from the new point.
z
L

y
L

b
b
s2
=b
d/
l
s
/
b
1
b

b
2
b
s1
=b
2
-b
1
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5
P
6
101

EXAMPLE 1

A transmission line has a characteristic impedance R
0
=50 and
load impedance Z
L
=60+40j .

1. Calculate I
L
.
2. Calculate Y
L
.
3. Calculate the VSWR.
4. Calculate Z
in
and

I
L
at a distance 50 m from the load and
frequency = 2 MHZ.
5. Calculate v
max
and its location.
6. Calculate v
min
and its location.

102

P
1
Q
1
P
3
P
1
P
4
P
5
P
2
Q
4
Q
5
103

+ Calculation of I
l
from Z
L
.
Since Z
L
=60+40j and R
0
=50
Hence z
L
= 1.2+j0.8 , Locate P
1
and Q
1

L
= 0.35 ang(56
0
)

+ Calculation of Y
L
.
Invert Z to Y
Locate P
2
y
L
=0.57 j 0.38
Y
L
=0.0114 j 0.0076 mhos
+ Calculation of the VSWR.
Locate P
4
and read the corresponding value of r
VSWR = 2.08

+ At a distance 50 m from the load
= 150 m
d/ = 1/3 m
Locate P
3

Z
i
= 0.47 +j 0.035
Z
i
= 23.5 + j 1.75
I
d
= 0.352 ang(176
0
)

+ Calculate v
max
and its location.
Locate P
4
and Q
4

v
max
= 1.35
d
max
/= Q
4
Q
1
= 0.25-0.171 = 0.099
d
max
= 14.85 m

+ Calculate v
min
and its location.
Locate P
4
and Q
5

v
min
= 0.65
d
min
/= Q
5
Q
1
= 0.099 +0.25 = 0.349
d
min
= 52.35 m

104
EXAMPLE 2

0
=50 and
load impedance Z
L
=100+100j . Find the length and location
of a single shunt stub required to perform matching to the load.

The steps of matching
+ Location of z
L

z
L
= 2 + 2j point P
1

Locate y
L
by invertion
y
L
= 0.25 0.25j point P
2

Rotate with constant radius |I| clockwise direction and
intersect the unity g circle.
point P
3

Get d/
d/ = P
6

P
5
= 0.179+0.041 =0.22
Get the susceptance of the stub as b
s
= - b
b
s
= - 1.62
Get the length of the short circuit stub as d
s
/
d
s
/ = 0.25-0.16=0.09

Another solution
The other point of intersection with the g unity circle leads to another
solution resulting in the following
d/ = 0.362
d
s
/ = 0.411

105

P
1
Q
1
P
1
P
4
P
5
P
2
Q
4

P
1
P
2
`P
4
b

b
s2= -
b

d
s
/

P
9
P
8
P
5
P
7

P
3
P
6
d/

106
EXAMPLE 3

0
=50 and
load impedance Z
L
=100+100j . Find the lengths of two shunt
stubs required to perform matching to the load if the first stub is
connected at the load and the other one is separated by /8 .
The steps of matching (one solution only is shown)
+ Location of z
L

z
L
= 2 + 2j point P
1

Locate y
L
by invertion
y
L
= 0.25 0.25j point P
2

Move with constant g circle clockwise direction and intersect
the displaced unity g circle, point P
3
.
Find b
1
at point P
6
and b
2
at point P
7
. Get the susceptance of
the first stub b
s1
as
b
s1
= b
2
b
1

b
s1
= 0.35 (-0.25) = 0.6
Get d
s1
/ as
d
s1
/ = 0.25 + 0.086 = 0.336
Rotate with constant radius |I| clockwise direction and
Intersect the unity g circle, point P
4
,

(1.0 + j 1.92).
Move with constant g circle clockwise direction and intersect
the origin, point P
5
.
Locate b at point P
6
. Get the susceptance of the second stub as
b
s2
= - b
b
s2
= - j 1.92
Get the length of the short circuit stub d
s2
/ as
d
s2
/ = 0.334 - 0.25 = 0.084

107

P
1
P
2
P
3
P
5
b

b
s2= -
b

d
s2
/

P
10
P
9
P
6
P
8
b2-b1

P
4
P
7
b1

b2

108

Transients in Transmission Lines

Case 1: A unit step voltage applied to a lossless line of
infinite length or terminated by Z
0

t
V
LC
u
1
=
E
0
E
0
109

Case 2: A unit step voltage applied to a line terminated
in a load= 3Z0.

E
0
3Z
0

z
V
E
0

t < T
u
z
V
E
0
T< t < 2T
z
V
E
0
t > 2T
u
110

`
V
L

t
E
0

1.5E
0

z
t
T
3T
2T
4T
5T
6T
E
0

E
0
/2
E
0
/2
E
0
/4
E
0
/4
E
0
/8
E
0
/8
E
0
/16
111
Reflection of a pulse

At time t
1
:

V
t
1
Z

E(t)
3Z
0

Z

V
t
1
Z

u

u

112

At time t
2
, (t
2
> t
1
) :

At time t
3
, (t
3
> t
2
) :

V
t
2
Z

V
t
3
Z

t
3
Z

V
t
2
Z

113
The Scattering Matrix

In the shown network, if the characteristic impedance is
the same at both ports, the relation between the incident
and reflected voltages can be put in the form

(
=
(
=
(
+
+
2
1
2
1
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
i
i
o f
r i
r
r
V
V
s s
s s
V
V
or
V
V
s s
s s
V
V

where S
11
, S
12
, S
21
and S
22
are called the scattering parameters of the
given two-port network.

These parameters are the most suitable representation for multi-port
networks at high frequencies.

Two-port
Network
1
2
V
1
+1

V
1
-

V
2
+

V
2
-

Z
0 Z
0
114
Scattering parameters evaluation

The evaluation of the scattering parameters for the two-port network can
be performed as follows

The input and forward S parameters S
i
and S
f
can be evaluated as

0
1
2
2
&
=
=
i
V
i
r
f
V
V
s

which means that port 2 should be matched in order that V
i2
, (or the
reflected voltage at port 2) be zero. This is shown in the following figure.

Similarly S
12
and S
22
can be evaluated in the same manner.

0
1
1
2
=
=
i
V
i
r
i
V
V
s
Two-port
Network
1
2
V
1
+

V
1
-

V
2
-

Z
0
Z
0 Z
0
115
Why the S parameters are the most suitable ones in
representing networks at high frequencies?

+ Matched loads are used in the determination of the S parameters.
These matched loads are relatively easier to realize than the open
or short circuit which may caus4e instability specially, if active
sources are included.
+ When only the magnitudes of the S parameters are required, the
position of the reference planes at the input or the output ports are
not important.

General definition of scattering parameters

The scattering parameters can be evaluated also from the current
relations; however, these parameters are evaluated using more
general variables which are directly related to the power. This
representaion is put in the form

(
=
(
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
a
a
s s
s s
b
b

or the form
(
=
(
2
1
2
1
a
a
s s
s s
b
b
o f
r i

where a
1
, a
2
, b
1
, and b
2
are defined as follows
*
1 1
1
1
2
a a averageinputpowerflowingtowardsport =

*
2 2
1
2
2
a a averageinputpowerflowingtowardsport =

*
1 1
1
1
2
b b averageinputpowerflowingawayfromport =
*
2 2
1
2
2
b b averageinputpowerflowingawayfromport =

116

In terms of the voltages and currents at the input and output, the
a and b variables can be put in the form

01
2
2
01
2
2
01
1
1
01
1
1
Z
V
b
Z
V
a
Z
V
b
Z
V
a
+
=
=
=
=

or in the form

02
2 02 2
2
02
2 02 2
2
01
1 01 1
1
01
1 01 1
1
2
2
2
2
Z
I Z V
b
Z
I Z V
a
Z
I Z V
b
Z
I Z V
a
=
+
=
=
+
=
117

Note that it can be shown that the net power flow inside
port 1 is given by

and that the net power flow inside port 2 is given by

Important prperties of the S matrix

+ Lossless Network
In the case of lossless network, the net power flow inside the network
should be zero. This statement can be written in the form
b b a a
i i
i
N
j j
j
N
* *
= =

=
1 1
0

In matrix notation, we have
b b a a
or
S S I
t t
t
* *
*
=
=
0

+ Reciprocal Network
In the reciprocal network, since Z
ij
= Z
ji
, hence it can be proven
that S
ij
= S
ji
or that the S matrix is symmetrical
) (
2
1 2
1
2
1 1
b a W
f
=
) (
2
1 2
2
2
2 2
b a W
f
=
118

Active source representation

s
s s
s
s
s s
s s
Z Z
Z
V e
Z
e
a
b a a
I Z V V
+
= =
I + =
+ =
0
0
0
, where

Available Power

2
2 2 2
2
*
2
2
&
then
1
1
1
For , with 0
1
s s
l
s
s l
l
load s
s l
s l
s
av
s
a a b
b a
a
a
P a b a
l
a
P
= + I
= I
=
I I
I
= =
I I
I = I A =
=
I

119

Case of source and load connection

s o
s f r
o out
l o
l f r
i in
s
s s
s
s
s s
s
I
I
+ = I
I
I
+ = I
1
,
1

Example 1

Find the S parameters of
the shown network

Solution

To get S
11
and S
21
, consider a1 only
S
S e
j
11
21
1 2
0 =
=
. t

with a2 = 0,
S
S e
j
22
12
1 2
0 =
=
. t

=
L
N
M
O
Q
P
S
e
e
j
j
0
0
1 2
1 2
.
.
t
t

0.6
Z
0
120

Example 2

Find the S parameters of the shown network

Solution

To get S
11
and S
21
, consider a
1
only
S e
Z Z Z Z e
e
S e e
e
L
j
j
j
j j
j
11
2 6 8
0 0 0 0
2 6 8
1 5
21
3
4
1
2
5
4
05 05
1
3
2
3
2
3
=
= +
=
=
=
I
( / )
( / )
.
( . ) / ( . )
t
t
t
t t
t

with a
2
= 0 then S
22
and S
12
are given by,
S e
Z Z Z Z e
S S
L
j
j
22
2 2 4
0 0 0 0
12 21
05 05
1
3
=
= +
=
=
I
( / )
( . ) / ( . )
t
t

3 /8
Z
0
/4
Z
0
121
=

L
N
M
M
M
O
Q
P
P
P

S
e e
e
j j
j
1
3
2
3
2
3
1
3
1 5 1 25
1 25
. .
.
t t
t

GOOD
S
DELIV
Direct
Contact
z
Transmi
ssion
Line
Two
wire line
Coaxial
cable
Parallel
plate
line
Microstr
ip line
Rectangul
ar
Wavegui
de
Circular
Wavegui
de
Optical
Fiber
y x z x y E y x y z
Transve
rse
plane
Longitu
dinal
directio
n
Spatial
distribut
ion of
the
E E
x y Az y x
H
V
ab

I
H
E I H x y z Az LAz CAz
Plate b

G I(z) I(z+Az) V(z)
Rz

Lz

( ) 3
z

- A
nal
og

+ A
DATA
TRAN
SMISS
Train
Car
Direct
DATA
TYPE
Plate b

Longitu
dinal
directio
n
Plate a

z y
_

+

The
voltage
between
the two
Plate a

Also the
current
entering
the two
E
q
0
e
E
w
jkz
|
.
|
\
|

_

+

V
ab

Plate b

Transmis
sion Line
LAz CAz Distribu
ted
circuit
pramete
GAz
Plate a

_

+

V
ab

E Az y x Satellite
Link
LAz
z
d
w c
A =
'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
'
Plate b

Plate a

_

+

V
ab

E Az y x W W
C V(z+Az) RAz R L
Cz

Gz

Curved
plates
Coaxial
line
Two
parallel
plates
Two
parallel
plates
Curved
plates
Two
wire line
r1 INVERT
ED
STRIP
DIELEC
STRIP
DIELEC
TRIC
WAVEG
r2
r1 MICROS
TRIP
WITH
OVERLA
SUSPEND
ED
MICROST
RIP
INVERED
MICROST
RIP
r2
r1 COPLANA
R STRIPS
COPLANA
R
WAVEGU
IDE
SLOTLIN
E

MICROST
RIP
r
0 = V D
0 =
c
c
z
z
E

0
0
=
=
E
z E
x

t=0
t=t/2e t=t/e
Directio
n of
Propaga
tion
D
E
c
c
+
t
E e j =

0 =
d
or o

+ P
erf
ect
+ L
os
sy
+ G
oo
d
+ P
erf
ec
ec o ((
d
r

ec o ))
c
r

=
c
o z x y H

E Directio
n of
propagat
ion
TEM
WAVE
x y z E
x
H Directio
n of
propagat
ion
TM
WAVE
E
y
z x y H
x
E Directio
n of
propagat
ion
TE
WAVE
H
y
) t z y x , , ,
Az W W W d d

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AN INTRODUCTION TO

known, the voltage at any point can then expressed as

at the input of the line is calculated on the basis

at the input side of the line it reflects back

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