7 By Amy Boyes

Strong Connections
Building Positive Teacher-Student Relationships Based On Personality Types, Learning Styles, Methods Of Communication And Contrasting Perspectives.
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lthough multiple factors contribute to the success of a students musical education, a healthy relationship between a student and teacher greatly contributes to a positive learning experience. A student sometimes thrives or wilts under the tutelage of one teacher more than another, and a strong connection between a student and a teacher can be difficult to achieve. Although the teacher leads the relaInspiration tionship by transferring The better you know [your students] the better you will be able to teach them. When knowledge, sharing wisyou know your students individual needs, you can adjust your approach to their learn- dom and providing ing styles, [and] emotional makeup. direction, an Never underestimate the effect you may astute have on your students lives. Bonnie Blanchard teacher will Marking Music and Enriching Lives also consider the emotional and psychological needs of the student. This paper analyzes four sample personality types, three learning styles (aural, visual and kinesthetic), two methods of communication (behavioral and cognitive) and two perspectives (macro and micro). This theoretical background lays the basis for a practical model: The instruction of a C-major scale to four piano students with contrasting personality

types. If teachers understand their students personality types and learning styles, they can modify the teaching approach and perspectives within the piano lesson. Theoretical Background Personality types The quest to understand personalities can be found in civilizations as early as Ancient Greece. Hippocrates (460 BC375 BC) developed the theory of the humorism, which suggested that the bodys four fluids, or humors, regulated its health. This theory was later explored by Galen (129 AD199 AD), who hypothesized that the balance of the four humors contributed to moods or temperaments. According to historian J. F. Payne, in Galens dissertation De Temperamentis we find developed the theory of humours and temperaments, which formed the physiological basis of Galens system of medicine; and which, conveyed through many popular medical works to the lay public, entered largely into the current philosophy of the time.1 Although undoubtedly influential, the theory of physical and emotional temperaments has been critically analyzed by modern science. Even as early as the 1800s, researchers and philosophers were searching for other analysis of human behavior than Galens theory of temperaments. In 1861, for example,

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Scottish philosopher The most up-to-date studies of character Alexander Bain formation, glandular function, metabolic wished to sepaprocesses, and developmental and family rate the funcpatterns have not contradicted in any way tions of the the conclusions drawn by keen observers of body from the the four temperaments down through the emotional temages. peraments and Randy Rolfe argued that the The Four Temperaments doctrine of the temperaments was a retention of an ancient and clumsy device.2 More recently, American psychologist Jerome Kagan hypothesized that a theory of temperaments or personality types based on physicality alone was too simplistic, suggesting that age and experience influence personalities as well.3 In 2011, American Robert R. McCrae argued that because personality types are a universal element of human behavior regardless of geography or genetics, the ancient theory should be revised.4 Despite the controversy surrounding the study of temperaments or personality types, the observation of behavioral characteristics

Current Perspective

Inspiration
They [temperaments or personality types] are not to be used to pigeon-hole yourself or anyone else. Instead let them help you spread your wings. This ancient wisdom is not meant to limit anyones sense of his own potential, or to cause you to underestimate the reach of theirs. Instead it can open up new vistas and possibilities. Randy Rolfe The Four Temperaments is a helpful exercise for a teacher. If a teacher realizes the inherent personality differences between students and embraces these differences, rather than attempting to change or mold them, perhaps appreciation and empathy will develop in the lesson instead of frustration or strife. Although categorizing the whole of humanity into four personality types

is unrealistic and utterly simplistic, the use of four personality types as an example of potential personality types is a useful mechanism. There are a plethora of theories on personality types prevalent in modern psychology. Popular personality type theories include the MyersBrigg Type Indicator and Friedmans Type A and Type B Theory. For the purpose of this paper, the theories of American psychologist David Keirsey will be used as a basis for discussion and explanation. Keirsey named his four personality types Artisan, Guardian, Rationalist, Idealist.5 Martha Baker-Jordan makes the following observations in Practical Piano Pedagogy: 8 The Artisan Type: These people are impulsive and hunger for stimulation. They take great chances to gain the rush. The Artisan refuses to be tied down, and if they become burdened with responsibilities or if they feel life is too binding, they can become restless and have the urge to escape. This type is also the great performer. As students, they are highly active and easily excitable. An artisan might be energetic and enthusiastic but perhaps not very thorough. He will have a hard time being patient enough to take concrete advice or direction.
8 The Guardian Type: These people are

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responsible, stable and reliable. They seek to do what is expected and enjoy fulfilling their duty. They want to belong, and they want to establish and preserve social units. They are steady as a rock. Guardians are realistic, practical, reliable, protective and helpful to others. For this reason, they have a be prepared attitude. As students, they are conformers and are usually seen as good students. They like to know what is expected and enjoy following the rules. A guardian will be conscientious but may not be ready to take initiative for new concepts. He is dutiful but may have problems judging himself objectively because he is always looking to others for approval.

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8 The Rational Type: These people have

competence hunger. They want to be intelligent, to be able to do things well under varying circumstances. They get hooked on storing up wisdom. They want insight into problems and are thrilled with problem solving. This person is always looking for the most efficient and effective way to do things. This student is calm and emotionally cool. They question the limits and want logical reason for those limits. A rational student might think for himself and may show a willingness to experiment and to take advice.
8 The Idealist Type: These people do not

live in a world of actions, or responsibilities, or competencies to be acquired, rather they live in the world of people and relationships. They hunger to have deep and meaningful relationships. They strive to be sincere and to communicate with others in an empathic manner. Idealist types search for their unique identity. The idealist needs to feel special, valued for their unique qualities, to have significance, to have a sense of being worthwhile. As students they are receptive, friendly, sensitive and emotionally intense. They require a great deal of time and attention from their parents or teacher. They care deeply about family members and are easily affected by how others treat them.6 The idealist student seeks approval and would likely make strong emotional connections with a teachers opinions. The dependency could become burdensome on the teacher. These personality types are narrow categories but are insightful profiles of potential student personalities. Personality types must be considered in a synthesis with learning styles.

Learning Styles Each personality type prefers a certain way of processing information and is more comfortable with specific kinds of presentation.7 This way of processing is influenced by the way the information is presented. Just as there are differing personality types there are also differing styles of teaching and learning. An invisible boundary or crossover-point occurs between the presentation (or teaching) of knowledge and information and the assumption (or learning) of the same. For example, if a teacher presents information aurally, the student will have learned aurally. The teaching style has become fused, appropriately or not, with the learning style. There are three basic styles of communication (aural, visual and kinesthetic). If the reciprocal and mutual nature of teaching and learning was to be acknowledged, these styles might be entitled communication styles for the teacher must communicate (teach) in a way that the student can easily accept the communication (learn). The teacher must absorb the students learning style in order to teach in that style. In recent decades, this concept of learning styles has steadily gained influence.8 8 Visual learning is the processing of any information absorbed through vision. Perhaps there is no real differentiation between what one views and what one thinks. Some suggest that vision and thinking are one process; they cannot be separated, either logically or pysciologically.9 For music students, visual stimulation might originate from the music score, written instructions on an assignment notebook, or watching another musician perform. Visual learner musicians might be strong sight-readers or theoriticians.
8 Aural learning is the processing of any

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information absorbed through hearing. For music students, aural stimulation originates from teachers spoken directions, record-

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ings, performances or their own playing. Aural learners might enjoy playing by ear and may develop superior sensitivity to musical elements such as tone quality.
8 Kinesthetic learning is the processing of

might contribute to a teaching style, but that awareness is only one factor in a comprehensive teaching technique. This teaching technique can include the basic format that a teacher requires a student to process the material. Behavioral And Cognitive Learning Theories The four personality types (Artisan, Guardian, Rationalist and Idealist) may prefer one learning style (visual, aural, kinesthetic) to another. They may also respond differently to different approaches to information processing. A behavioral learning approach and a cognitive learning approach are two examples. The behavioral learning theory defines learning as the process of forming connections between stimuli and responses. Motivation to learn develops from drives, such as hunger and the availability of external forces, such as rewards and punishments.12 Students must obey the teachers questions or instructions and provide the correct answers or behaviors. Students understanding is being formed from sources outside of themselves.13 The behavioral learning theory grew in popularity following the experiments of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (18491936) who developed the theory of classical conditioning. By repeatedly ringing a bell when food was given to a dog, Pavlov conditioned the dog to salivate at the sound of a bell regardless of the presence of food. It is perhaps difficult to consider any experimentation that was proven with animals rather than with humans, but Pavlov claimed that as humans and higher-order animals share the foundation of the nervous system, some very general and tentative inferences could be drawn from the latter to the former. Pavlovs principle of classical conditioning led to the mergence of the doctrine of behaviorism.14 Similarly American psychologist Edward Thorndike (18741949) theorized that trialand-error repetition was an essential factor in the learning of the connections (or associa-

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any information absorbed through physical activity. For music students, kinesthetic stimulation might originate from mimicking teachers actions, applying physical motions from everyday life to musical study, dancing or moving to a specific rhythm. Kinesthetic learners might have an excellent sense of rhythm, could be closely attached to the feel of a certain instrument and might memorize repertoire based on physical memory. Although these learning styles provide helpful perspectives for teachers, they must be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism as well. Researchers find that although the literature on learning styles is enormous, very few studies have used an experimental methodology capable of testing the validity of learning styles applied to education.10 Like personality-type assessments, learning-style assessments are only a beginning place for teachersa starting point for further exploration. To confine students to a narrow personality type or single learning style could limit their ability to develop into well-rounded students and individuals. At present there is little research to determine the results of multi-modal learning. If a visual learner spent time in an aural teaching environment would a transformation occur? Currently researchers do not have conclusive answers. Furthermore, any example of education failure cannot be blamed solely on the teachers lack of understanding, methods of teaching and approach to the subject material.11 Again, this explanation is too simplistic. Learning styles can evolve as the student becomes more disciplined or mature, or as environmental factors change. An awareness of learning styles

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tions) between stimulus and response.15 Claiming that psychology is the science of the intellects, characters and behaviors of animals including man, Thorndike also based the majority of his theories on animal experimentation. He concluded that if a response is rewarded with something pleasurable (such as a gold star or praise for a music student), the tendency to respond in that particular manner is strengthened. If, however, the response is followed by displeasure (perhaps by criticism or scolding) or no reward (the response is ignored), the tendency to respond is weakened. The behavioral learning theory is built on the fundamental principle that stimulus and response is a sufficient model for learning. One can only wonder if positive reinforcement is truly sufficient to motivate and sustain human behavior in complex learning situations.16 Although most music teachers would not instruct their students at a demeaning, animalistic level that the behavioral learning theory may imply, perhaps music teachers would admit that stimulus-response teaching could easily occur. For example, imagine an extreme case in which a music teacher who speaks sharply to students when they play a note, chord or passage incorrectly and rewards them with kind words when they play correctly. The student will most likely improve, either by pure accident or by a superior sense of self-preservation, but may not have understood the concepts of score-reading. Often it is much easier, albeit much less effective, for a teacher to treat the symptoms of confusion or ignorance rather than to remedy the deficiency. How much simpler can it be to give orders, dictate information and berate the student than to properly explain or demonstrate a particular point. In contrast, the cognitive learning theory regards learning as the thought process of a student in an individual situation, subject to the influences of that particular environment.17 The student first connects to her own experience and prior knowledge, then works in

A Word of Warning
A logical extension of the view that new knowledge must be constructed from existing knowledge is that teachers need to pay attention to the incomplete understandings, the false beliefs, and the naive renditions of concepts that learners bring with them to a given subject. Teachers then need to build on these ideas in ways that help each student achieve a more mature understanding. If students initial ideas and beliefs are ignored, the understandings that they develop can be very different from what the teacher intends. Bransford, Brown and Cocking How People Learn
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reverse to assertain the theories and principles that contributed to that truth. A music teacher, for example, may wish to teach the terms forte and piano to a young music student. A behaviorist teacher might verbally define the terms then demand the student verbally regurgitate that information. A cognitive learning theory teacher might play a loud passage at the instrument, then a soft passage, asking the student to describe what they heard. Every student with normal hearing and basic speech skills can describe the difference between the examples because what they heard confirmed what they already knew: Some things in life are loud, and some things are quiet. Hearing the differences on an instrument was only building on their previously attained knowledge. The teacher might then provide verbal and visual definitions of the terms forte and piano but only after the concept of loud and soft were experienced and absorbed. J. H. Pestalozzi (17461827) theorized that concepts should be taught through direct experience before the introduction of names or symbols,18 and his theories were further developed by J. H. Naef, who made the following recommendations to music teachers: 8 Teach sounds before signs. 8 Lead [students] to observe by hearing imitating soundsinstead of explaining these things to him in a word, to make active instead of passive in learning.

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8 Give the principles and theory after the

practice.

19

These approaches will be preferred in different quantities by some personality types more than others. The last component of a teaching technique involves the awareness of the micro- and macro-perspectives to every musical issue or occurrence. Micro And Macro Perspectives Micro perspective: Build on small pieces of information. Jean Pigat (18961980) proposed that emphasizing structure and building upon it aids in the memory and retention process.20 The small steps, building on each other, contribute to the understanding of the whole. This process of teaching is easily controlled by the teacher but can result in regimentation. A student might believe the pieces of information are pointless if they are not connected to a larger, global picture. For example, a music theory teacher might teach a student several harmonic cadences. The student might be able to identify and perhaps even construct them on paper. However, if no connection is made between this theoretical concept and aural memory or recognition of cadences, the performance of cadences or an analysis of the cadences in the students current performance repertoire, the student may feel a disconnection between the theoretical element and the aural sound. Although students that prefer a step-by-step or sequential approach can solve problems with incomplete understanding of the material and their solutions are generally orderly and easy to follow, they may lack a grasp of the broad context of a body of knowledge and its interrelationships with other subjects and disciplines21 Macro perspective: Establish a global understanding before details. The German Gestalt psychologists suggested that structural (or comprehensive) understanding could produce greater success than

rote learning.22 These psychologists theorized that the human mind could grasp large concepts and then break them down into smaller components and that the understanding of the whole is a stronger determinant of successful learning than the accumulation of understandings about separate contingent parts.23 Before global learners can master the details of a subject, they need to understand how the material being presented relates to their prior knowledge and experience.24 However, the practical problems of presenting the larger, global picture cannot be ignored. For example, most music teachers work within a strict lesson time schedule. If a teacher attempts to comprehensively explain every element of musical knowledge very few elements will be taught within one lesson or class. Practical Model Teaching a C-major scale Understanding that there are many theories on personality types, learning styles, and teaching approaches and perspectives, a music teacher is faced with practical challenges. If a teacher settles into one modus operandi based on his or her personal preferences, there is potential for a dissatisfying learning experience for the students who do not share the teachers preferences. For example, if a teacher only presents material in a behavioral style, giving step-by-step directions but little explanation or opportunity for the student to experiment or explore, a precocious student might lose interest in the process. Likewise a teacher who teaches with broad explanations and elaborate analogies might confuse and discourage a student who requires detailed explanation and specific instructions. Practical concerns such as the length of the instruction period, examination or performance deadlines and student attention span may also contribute to the format of the lesson. There is also, of course, the consideration of personality type. The rational or

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idealist student might appreciate the step-bystep instruction of the behavioral approach and may enjoy moving from specific details to a broader view (micro perspective). The artisan student, though, might have a greater level of interest if a global perspective or big picture was provided before the details were explained. Furthermore, learning styles must also be considered. An artisan student might learn more easily if the concept was demonstrated with a physical action (kinesthetic learning style) that encourages them to experience information. The rational student might learn easily with a chart (visual learning style) or detailed explanation (auditory learning style) that helps her understand the principles or rationale. There is no scientific formula to aid the teacher through the maze of potential teaching ideas, but rather, the teacher must rely on

an awareness of the multiple learning theories and personality types that exist and should endeavor to embrace new ways of teaching. When a teacher understands the importance of altering a teaching style to fit the learning style of a student, the teaching of every concept and skill can be transformed into a creatively fulfilling experience for both the teacher and the student. The following is an example of how a piano teacher might teach a C-major scale to four different piano students in the context of private lessons. The chance to tailor ones teaching style to the needs of a specific student is one of the major advantages of private lessons. Using David Keirseys four personality types, the teacher might first ascertain the dominant personality traits of the students:

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Artisan: Needs to be emotionally engaged. Loves thrills and enjoys performing.

Guardian: Needs to understand the rules and will dutifully follow them.

Rationalist: Needs to comprehend the theory and design behind a concept.

Idealist: Needs a personal connection to the concept and the teacher.

The teacher will then develop a response to these needs: Emphasis: Performance The Artisan will most likely be intrigued by how scales sound, feel and look (potentially from an audience members perspective). They might be interested how quickly, loudly or impressively they can play these scales. Emphasis: Security of Rules The Guardian appreciates rules and direction. A step-by-step approach to fingering will be necessary. They may be very interested in the continuity of scale-design throughout all of the major/minor keys and will thrive in learning them all one-by-one. Emphasis: Structural Analysis The Rationalist may need both an understanding of the rules and structure and an overall understanding of how all scales are constructed before they agree to learning scales. An emphasis on construction will be appreciated as they will want to understand how scales work. Emphasis: Personal Achievement The Idealist will need see how a C-Major scale fits into what they have already learned about music. They will need feedback that what they are learning is important, that they are doing well, and that this will help them learn more about music. They made need to be rewarded after they learn a scale.

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The teacher formulates a lesson plan specific to the needs of the student. Although there are many ways to teach a concept, conscientious planning will enable the piano teacher to teach a topic in the most appropriate way for a specific student. The lesson plan may be transformed throughout the lesson but a starting point should at least be established. Because the Artisan loves to perform and be physically engaged, the first step will be to hook their interest (see Figure 1). The Artisan will not be interested in a detailed explanation of scale construction or fingering but will, instead, need to be challenged as performers and thrill seekers. The teacher might begin by playing scales in contrasting contexts. Simple examples such as Ferdinand Beyers C-major scale exercises in Vorschule im Klavierspiel could be used. The opening theme from the first movement Mozarts Piano Sonata K. 545 in C provides a perfect example from the classical repertoire. The performance of scales from repertoire will provide a visual and auditory explanation and will establish a cognitive understanding because the student first experiences the scale in the context of performance (something that excites the Artisan). Then the teacher explains that scales exist in different kinds of repertoire, can sound differently from each other, can be played in different tempi and dynamic levels, and could be exciting to play. The teacher offers the experience (cognitive learning theory) of hearing and seeing scales performed (visual/aural learning style), which helps the student to experience the big picture (a macro perspective).

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Figure 1: Artisan

Once the Artisan student is hooked or interested in performing scales, a natural desire to learn scales will develop and further details will be needed. The teacher moves from showing (visually and aurally providing a cognitive experience) scales in several contexts to the more tedious and potentially tiresome aspects of intervals, notes and fingering.

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This second portion of the explanation should be kept as brief and uncomplicated as possible. The Artisan is quite interested in playing scales but may lose interest if swamped with too many details. Because an Artisan likes motion and movement, the details of the scales might be taught with a kinesthetic approach. The teacher plays C-D-E with right hand (RH) fingers 1-2-3 (visual learning) and asks the student to repeat (kinesthetic learning). This is followed by F-GA-B-C, RH 1-2-3-4-5. The teacher demonstrates thumb crossing under finger 3 and the whole scale is put together. At this point, after some trial and error and feedback from the teacher, the teacher may simply end the teaching session with the right hand playing a oneoctave, C-major scale. The explanation is purposely left short to keep the Artisan enthusiastic and focused. Because the Artisan loves to perform and experience new things, the teacher might assign the scale in different rhythms, tempi, registers on the piano or dynamic levels. All of these changes will keep the Artisan excited to play scales. As time goes by, the Artisan is introduced, one at a time, to different keys, hands together, and a more detailed explanation of intervallic construction and scale degrees. The initial instruction, however, is designed to spark the students interest and keep him motivated. In contrast, the Guardian student understands and appreciates rules (see Figure 2). For an Artisan, rules are somewhat tiresome but for a Guardian, rules are the foundation and guidelines for everything they do. They like security and gain confidence from knowing they are following a process. When teaching a C-major scale the teacher might use a behavioral approach, perhaps starting with stimulus and response that introduces the details. The Guardian student is unlikely to chafe under a step-by-step approach and will appreciate receiving small bits of instruction at a time. The teacher might begin by presenting the scale in notation to the student

(visual learning style). Emphasizing that the fingering rules cannot be broken, the teacher would demonstrate a two-octave, hands-separate scale noting that right-hand and lefthand fingering are exact mirrors of each other. As the student repeats, step-by-step, one hand then hands together, one octave then two octaves, the rules of the scale fingering are constantly being reinforced both verbally and visually and by referring to the notated scale. In time, the Guardian student is made aware of scales in a global perspective. Her understanding grows and she is comfortable with scales in different keys, tempi, rhythms and so on. This larger picture is presented gradually as the small, step-by-step pieces (micro perspective) grow into a larger understanding (macro perspective).

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Figure 2: Guardian

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Whereas a Guardian student finds security and satisfaction in following rules, the Rational student finds enjoyment and satisfaction in understanding concepts and construction (see Figure 3). This student may be less interested in performing scales than the Artisan and may show a great deal of attention to the small details. Because they are able to grasp complex structures, the Rational student might appreciate a cognitive approach and a micro perspective. In other words, the teacher helps the Rational student experience the smallest details. By having the student build the intervallic structure of a major scale (tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone) either by playing, drawing or notating from any note on the piano, the teacher is providing the student an experience (cognitive approach) with the minutest details of the major scale. The intervallic construction is just a beginning place (micro perspective) on which more steps will be added (specific fingering, hands together). Once the Rational student experiences the construction of major scale and can recreate it anywhere on the piano simply by its intervals, the student has an experience to which more specific details (such as scale fingering rules) can be contributed. This is the cognitive approach details being added once an experience has occurred. Throughout the process of adding details, the rules behind issues such as scale fingering must be reiterated. Whereas the Guardian student would have been content to know the fingering rules, the Rational student must know the reason behind the rules. For example, scale fingering rules that help the student avoid thumbs on black keys, twisting hands or uncomfortable positions, should all be explained.

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Figure 3: Rational

The fourth and final sample student is the Idealist (see Figure 4). This student is particularly sensitive to the health of the teacher-student relationship and cares deeply about the teachers impression of himself. How diligently the Idealist applies himself to the subject matter is affected by the emotional atmosphere of the lesson, how inspiring the lesson subject matter might be and how enthusiastically it is presented. The teacher might first approach the C-major scale by explaining that there are many scales, and as the Idealist masters each scale he is perfecting his skills, improving his playing and growing into an

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accomplished musician. Although this is a slightly different macro perspective then demonstrating to the Artisan student different examples of scales in repertoire or explaining to the Rationalist student the intervallic construction of all major scales, it is still a perspective that encompasses more than just a C-major scale. Once the Idealist realizes that learning a C-major scale is just the first step of many, he may begin to note his own progress and will be motivated to learn multiple scales or to incrementally increase his tempo. When the teacher celebrates each of the students achievements, such as number of scales learned, the Idealist has an increased sense of self-worth and pride. It is important that the Idealist student feels special that his efforts are appreciated. Appreciation is what motivates this personality type. The Idealist should not be overwhelmed with details or explanations but should be taught the fundamentals of scale fingering with as much personal connection between the teacher and student as possible. Conclusion This paper has not attempted to catalogue theories on personalities, learning styles, teaching techniques or even lesson planning. Instead, the purpose of this paper is to encourage music teachers to use the theories proposed by educators and psychologists to better understand their students and create a healthy learning environment. By being aware of personality types, learning styles, behavioral versus cognitive learning theories, and macro and micro perspectives, teachers can expand their teaching techniques to allow for the differences between students and experience greater joy and fulfilment in their own teaching. 7

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Figure 4: Idealist

Notes 1. Joseph Frank Payne, Introduction to facsimile edition Galeni Pergamensis de temperamentis (Cambridge: C. J. Clay Publishing, 1881), 44. 2. Alexander Bain, On the Study of Character (London: Parker, Son, and Bourn, 1861), 32. 3. Jerome Kagan, Galens Prophecy (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1997), 35. 4. Robert McCrae, Personal Profiles Cultures Project, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88 (2005), 547561.

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5. David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates, Please Understand Me: Character and Temperament Types (Del Mar, CA: Prometheus Nemesis Book Co. 1978). 6. Martha Baker-Jordan, Practical Piano Pedagogy: The Definitive Text for Piano Teachers and Pedagogy Students (Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Music Publishing, 2003), 150, 154. 7. Marienne Uszler, Stewart Gordon, and Scott McBride Smith, The Well-Tempered Keyboard Teacher, (Belmont, CA: Schirmer Books, 2000), 252. 8. Harold Pashler, Mark McDaniel, Doug Rohrer, and Robert Bjork, Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9, (2008), 105119. 9. David Sless, Learning and Visual Communication, (London: Taylor and Francis, 1981), 16. 10. Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, and Bjork, Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence, 105119.

Amy Boyes holds music degrees from Brandon University and the University of Alberta. She is a teacher, performer, member of the Canadian Music Festivals Adjudicators Association and council member for the Ontario Registered Music Teachers Association (Ottawa).

11. Ibid. 12. Commission on Behavior and Social Sciences and Education (CBSSE), How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School, (National Academies Press, 2000), 6. 13. Uszler, Gordon, and Smith, The WellTempered Keyboard Teacher, 227. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid., 228. 16. Ibid. 17. Ibid., 231. 18. H. F. Abeles, C. F. Hoffer, and R. H. Klotman, Foundations of Music Education (2nd Edition), (New York: Schirmer, 1994). 19. Ibid., 11. 20. Edward J. Parker, Piano Pedagogy: A Practical Approach, (Surrey, BC: Longbow Publishing, 2006) 259. 21. G. Pask, Learning Strategies, Teaching Strategies, and Conceptual or Learning Style, in Learning Strategies and Learning Styles, ed. R. Schmeck, (Plenum Press, New York, 1988). 22. Anthony Orton, Learning Mathematics: Theories, Issues and Classroom Practices, (New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004), 78. 23. Uszler, Gordon, and Smith, The WellTempered Keyboard Teacher, 22. 24. Richard Felder, Meet Your Students: 2. Susan and Glenda, Chem. Engr. Education, 24(1), (1990) 78.

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