Ch. 10 - Thermal Physics 10.

1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Themodynamics Note: Temperature and Heat are related to one another but are not the same thing. Two objects with the same temperature do not always feel as hot or as cold as one another. Observe: 2 objects in contact tend to eventually approach the same temperature. Thermal Contact Can exchange energy (heat or radiation) with one another Thermal Equilibrium Two objects in thermal contact cease exchanging net energy. ZEROTH LAW of THERMODYNAMICS: If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with one another. A standard bulb thermometer is a device that displays its own temperature. When placed in thermal contact with another object and comes to thermal equilibrium with it it displays the temperature of both objects. We use it as Object C in the example above. Two objects in thermal equilibrium with each other are at the same temperature. 10.2 Thermometers and Temperature Scales We are free to choose any T-scales we want! But some are more useful than others, and all have 2 things in common: 1. A zero point 2. A scale Fahrenheit 0 F = T of a particular water/ice/alcohol bath 100 F = T of human body (originally) Celsius 0 C = T of water freeze/melt point at 1 atm. 100 C = T of water vaporize/condense at 1 atm. 9 9 TF = TC + 32 and !TF = !TC 5 5 You can verify the second statement yourself by trying a few numbers.

Question: A certain object has T = -40 C. What is its temperature in degrees Fahrenheit? Both Fahrenheit & Celsius Ts usually measured with mercury or alcohol thermometersnot too accurate! However, we will want a T-scale that measures the actual internal energy of things. This is whet the Kelvin scale does. To see how it is determined: Constant V gas thermometer. Immerse in water at ice (0 degrees)& steam (100 degrees) points. Result:

Pressure goes to zero at T = -273.15 C. THIS WILL BE ZERO FOR KELVIN SCALE (but keep !K = !C). T=0K " KE of gas = 0. This is the scale that makes physical sense. Unless otherwise specified, T will always be in Kelvins and we will not subscript it.
TC = T ! 273.15

Problem #CQ3 In an astronomy class, the temperature at the core of a star is given as 1.5x107 degrees. A student asks if this is Kelvins or Celsius. How do you respond? Problem The pressure in a constant-volume thermometer is 0.700 atm at 100C and 0.512 atm at 0 C. What is the temperature when the pressure is 0.0400 atm? What is the pressure at 450 C?

10.3 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids Over small !T. most materials expand linearly, and the same in all directions. Due to increased vibrational amplitudes as T increases.

!L = "!T # !L = " L0 !T L
Here, # is the coefficient of linear expansion. I have shown only 1D of the expansion here. The Expansion different for different materials:

Practical applications: roads, bridges, railroad tracks. Can you think of more? One can expand this formulation into 2 or 3 dimensions, to get the area expansion and volume expansion, respectively.

!A = " A0 !T

!V = #V0 !T

Example (Quick Quiz 10.3): Two spheres are made of the same metal and have the same radius, but one is hollow and the other is solid. The spheres are taken through the same temperature increase. Which sphere expands more? (Hint: What happens to the hole? Does it become larger, smaller, or stay the same size?) Application: Bimetallic Strips

Example: A cylindrical brass sleeve is to be shrink-fitted over a brass shaft whose diameter is 3.212 cm at 0C. The inner diameter of the sleeve is 3.196 cm at 0C (a) To what temperature must the sleeve be heated before it will slip over the shaft? (b) Alternatively, to what temperature must the shaft be cooled before it will slip into the sleeve? H2O Special property

Question: What would happen to the fish in a lake in winter if the lake began to freeze, and water continues to contract down to 0C?

10.4 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas IDEAL GAS: A collection of atoms or molecules that move randomly, exert no longrange forces on one another, and occupy a negligible fraction of the volume of their container. A typical volume has a LOT of atoms/molecules! 1 Mole = 6.02x1023 particles (Avogadros #) Molar Mass = Mass of 1 Mole of that particular gas. Standard: 1 mole of molar mass of 12.00g.
12

C has a

# moles n =
Equation of State for IDEAL GAS

mass of sample molar mass

PV = nRT
R = universal gas constant = 8.31 J/(mol K) Practical Example: What is the volume occupied by 1 mole of an ideal gas at 0C and 1 atm pressure?

1mole 8.31 J mol !1 K !1 273.15K nRT V= = P 1.013x105 Pa = 2.24 x10!2 m3 = 22.4 liters L

)(

)(

( )

where 1 L = 10-3 m3. General Changes in a Sealed Container If we have a gas in a sealed container, n is constant. Any change in T, P, and V going from state 1 to state 2 must obey:

nR = constant =

P V 1 1 T1

P2V2 T2

10.5 Avogadros Number and the Ideal Gas Law Electric current decomposes water. This always produces a volume of hydrogen gas that is twice that of oxygen, suggesting that there are 2 Hs for every O in water H2O. This would only be true if equal volumes of gas at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. (Avogadros Hypothesis) This way, because H occupies twice the volume that O does, it includes twice the number of molecules. Another version of the Ideal Gas law:

n=

N atoms N A atoms / mole N RT NA where k B = R = 1.38x10!23 J / K NA is Boltzmann ' s constant

PV = nRT = PV = Nk BT

What does a person do if not dealing with a fixed container volume? (Can you think of a case where this might be relevant?) PV = Nk BT

!N$ P = # & k BT "V % !N$ = # density of molecules # "V & %

Example: Problem 10-31 Gas is confined in a tank at a pressure of 10 atm and a temperature of 15C. If half of the gas is withdrawn and it is raised to 65C, what is the new pressure in the tank? Example: How many moles in 1 kg of O2?(NOTE: M=32 g/mole)

10.6 The Kinetic Theory of Gases Assumptions: 1. The number of molecules in the gas is large (allows use of statistical analysis) and the average separation between them is large compared with their dimensions (ideal gas). 2. The molecules obey Newtons law of motion, but as a whole they move randomly. 3. The molecules interact only by short-range forces during elastic collisions (a bit like perfect Billiard balls) 4. The molecules make elastic collisions with the walls (non-elastic collisions result in a net energy loss) 5. The gas under consideration is a pure substance all molecules are identical Lets look at a typical cube in space of dimension d: N molecules in volume V, wall area A: bounce off wall, transfer momentum ! mv = impulse F "t , n bounces/time so

Ftot ! n F !t " Ftot A = P

Elastic collision with container walls a force, and therefore pressure:

Exercise: Problem 43 Superman leaps in front of Lois Lane to save her from a volley of bullets. In a 1-min interval, an automatic weapon fires 150 bullets, each of mass 8.0 g, at 400 m/s. The bullets strike his mighty chest, which has an area of 0.75 m2. Find the average force exerted on Supermans chest if the bullets bounce back in an elastic, head-on collision.

(See detailed derivation on pp. 322-323 if you desire)

$ 2! N$! 1 P = # & # mv 2 & 3" V % " 2 %

! N $ # molecules where # & = volume "V %

REALITY CHECK: Note that the force applied goes as mv, but the rate of collisions increases linearly with v also hence P scales as v2. More molecules means more force, so higher P. Increasing V decreases the collision rate, decreasing P. Macroscopic versus Microscopic

$' 2 !1 N # mv 2 & ) $ 2! 1 3 "2 % ( + k BT = # mv 2 & 3" 2 % ) PV = NkbT * 3 1 , k BT = mv 2 average KE per molecule 2 2 PV =

The total internal energy U for N molecules is
R !3 $ 3 N " 3 U = N # k BT & = N A k B T = nRT 2 "2 % 2 NA ! n

( monatomic gas)

The macroscopic properties of the gas are determined by its microscopic properties. Exercise: Problem 38 (a) What is the total random kinetic energy of all the molecules in 1 mole of H2 at T = 300 K? (b) With what speed would a mole of H2 have to move so that the translational KE of the whole mass would be equal to the random (thermal) KE of its molecules?

Application: What are the mean speeds of molecules in the air at temperature T?

3RT m M m = mass of individual molecule RMS speed v 2 = or M = mass per mole

3k BT

Compare these to the escape speed of the Earth = 1.12x104 m/s (see Example 7.13)

For an ideal monatomic gas, the only energy is translational. Because the molecules move equally in all directions, each of the x, y, and z velocities must share the energy equally:

1 1 1 1 k BT = mv x2 = mv y2 = mvz2 2 2 2 2
This is referred to as the equipartition of energy for each degree of freedom.