Sensors

viscometer

viscometer

Viscosity Sensor. To obtain a continuous reading of viscosity of a fluid such as oil fuel for an IC engine, the theory covering isothermal laminar flow in circular tubes has to be considered This involves a constant quantity of oil supplied under isothermal conditions and laminar flow to a capillary tube of constant cross section area and given length. Under these conditions the viscosity becomes a linear function of the pressure drop across the capillary tube. This theory is the basis of the design of the V AF Viscotherm

viscometer

Here a constant quantity of oil is taken from the flow into the meter and supplied by a precision gear pump, driven at 40 rpm by an electric motor via reduction gears, to a capillary tube through which it flows under laminar (streamline) conditions. (Laminar flow indicates that there are no cross currents or eddies). The pressure drop across the tube is measured by a d.p. cell and the signal obtained is directly proportional to the viscosity of the oil. This signal may then be used to operate a control system adjusting the steam valve to an oil fuel heater. The unit should be placed as near as possible to the heater discharge. All parts are of stainless steel

viscometer

viscometer
A typical system is shown in Figure .

The differential pressure signal from the measuring unit is fed to a transmitter and then to a control station, i.e. P+ I controller.

Any deviation from the desired value within the controller will bring about a signal to the control valve. The control valve movement will result in either an increase or decrease in the steam supply to the fuel oil heaters. This will result in either an increase or decrease in the fuel viscosity. In order to obtain a stable control of viscosity the measuring unit should be located close to the heater outlet flange.

thermocouples

If a circuit is formed consisting of two dissimilar metallic conductors A and B and the junctions are kept at different temperatures a current will flow in the circuit owing to two different e.m.f's being generated at the junctions.

thermocouples

thermocouples

Figure shows a simple thermocouple arrangement consisting of two dissimilar metal wire conductors with the two ends joined.

Good electrical and thermal contact is essential for efficient operation, If the temperature of one end is raised whilst the other is kept at a fixed lower temperature and a sensitive meter is placed in "the circuit an e.m.f. proportional to the temperature difference between the two ends is set up.

As the e.m.f. generated is a function of temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions, allowance has to be made for any temperature variation at the cold junction.

thermocouples

thermocouples

thermocouples

The instrument displaying the temperature is a very sensitive mille volt meter requiring only a small current for full scale deflection. For distant remote indication it would be feasible to leave the cold junction at the thermocouple head and extend the instrument wiring to the required read-out position. As the thermocouple output is only in the region of 100 mille volts, distant reading would need a degree of amplification

Thermocouples/noise

perhaps the biggest obstacle to the use of thermocouples for temperature measurement in engine room is their susceptibility to electrical noise. First, the voltages generated generally are less than 50 mV and often are only 2 or 3 mV, and in the engine room environment it is common to have hundreds of mill volts of electrical noise generated by large electrical machines . Second, a thermocouple constitutes an excellent antenna for pickup of noise from electromagnetic radiation in the radio, TV, and microwave bands

Thermocouples/noise reduction

Thermocouples/noise

To use thermocouples effectively , a number of noise reduction techniques are employed. The following three are the most popular: 1. The extension or lead wires from the thermocouple to the reference junction or measurement system are twisted and then wrapped with a grounded foil sheath. The measurement junction itself is grounded at the point of measurement. The grounding is typically to the inside of the stainless steel sheath that covers the actual thermocouple.

2.

3. . An instrumentation amplifier that has excellent common-mode rejection is employed for measurement.

Thermocouples/noise

Figure shows a typical arrangement for measurement with a thermocouple. Note that the junction itself is grounded through the stainless steel sheath. The differential amplifier must have very good common-mode rejection to aid in the noise-rejection process. The advantage to grounding the measurement junction is that the noise voltage will be distributed equally on each wire of the TC. Then the differential amplifier will, at least partially, cancel this noise because the voltage on these lines is subtracted. Twisting is done to decouple the wires from induced voltages from varying electric and magnetic fields that permeate our environment.

In principle, equal voltages are induced in each loop of the twisted wires but of opposite phase, so they cancel.

R T D SENSORS

resistance-temperature detector (RTD) is a temperature sensor that is based on the principles that metal resistance increasing with temperature. Metals used in these devices vary from platinum, which is very repeatable, quite sensitive, and very expensive, to nickel, which is not quite as repeatable, more sensitive, and less expensive.

R T D sensors/sensitivity

An estimate of RTD sensitivity can be noted from typical values of all the linear fractional change in resistance with temperature.

For platinum, this number is typically on the order of 0.004/C, and for nickel a typical value is 0.005/C.

with platinum, a change of 0.4ohm would be expected if the temperature is changed by 1C for a100ohm rtd sensor.

A specification will provide calibration information either as a graph of resistance versus temperature or as a table of values from which the sensitivity can be determined.

construction

An RTD,, is simply a length of wire whose resistance is to be monitored as a function of temperature. The construction is typically such that the wire is wound on a form (in a coil) to achieve small size and improve thermal conductivity to decrease response time. The coil is protected from the environment by a sheath or protective tube that inevitably increases response time but may be necessary in hostile environments. A standard sets the resistance of 100ohm for a temperature of 0 deg.

Rtd signal conditioning unit

Signal Conditioning

In view of the very small fractional changes of resistance with temperature (0.4%), the RTD is generally used in a bridge circuit. The compensation line in the R3 leg of the bridge is required when the lead lengths are so long that thermal gradients along the RTD leg may cause changes in line resistance. These changes show up as false information, suggesting changes in RTD resistance. By using the compensation line, the same resistance changes also appear on the R3 side of the bridge and cause no net Shift in the bridge null.

Optical pyrometers

In the past a pyrometer covered any type of thermometer capable of measuring relatively high temperatures. In recent times it is regard all devices measuring temperature, which are in direct contact with the body, fluid or gas as thermometers, and devices which are not in direct contact as pyrometers. Some diesel engine manufacturers still refer to exhaust gas thermocouples as pyrometers, deference to another definition which regards 500C as the dividing line.

Optical pyrometers

Optical pyrometers

The basic layout of a non-contacting pyrometer, one of a group known as radiation pyrometers is shown in fig. This is an optical or disappearing filament pyrometer. Operation depends upon extreme sensitivity of "the human eye to differences in brightness between two adjacent surfaces of the same color.

Optical pyrometers

The radiation given off by a burner flame, is measured by comparison with a source providing standard condition of brightness such as a tungsten lamp filament. By varying the brightness of the lamp so that it just disappears into the brightness of the burner flame viewed through the lens. The temperature of the flame can be measured from the meter reading, with modification for any filters used.