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Normal Modes of Vibration A molecule having N atoms will have 3N degrees of freedom For a nonlinear molecule: 3 degrees correspond to x, y, z translations 3 degrees correspond to Rx, Ry, Rz rotations The remainder (3N-6) are vibrational motions (normal modes) These normal modes form basis functions for a 1-D representation in the molecular symmetry group. (An irreducible representation) In general, all normal modes can be resolved into either one or a combination of these normal modes. For Linear Molecules, all vibrations can be resolved into 3N-5 normal modes Consider SO2: 3(3)-6 = 3 vibrational (normal) modes
S O O O S O O S O
S O O O
S O O
S O
1 Symmetric Stretch
2 Asymmetric Stretch
3 Bend
12-2
Experimentally (cm-1) 519 606 1151 1361 1871 2305 2499 assignment 2 1-2 1 3 2+3 21 1+3
Convention for Designating Vibrations - symmetric/antisymmetric stretch - Bends (in plane) -Bends (out of plane) Subscripts as asymmetric s symmetric d - degenerate
For CO2:
O C O O C O
(degenerate) 2
12-3
By convention 1 sym. Stretch 2 sym. Bend 3 asym. Stretch 4 asym. Bend Consider 1 (1340 cm-1) and 22 (667 2 = 1344 cm-1) are nearly degenerate. The wavefunctions describing these states will interact causing a resonance.
E B 1 1388 cm-1 2 2 ~ 1340 cm-1 A & B are now admixtures of these vibrational modes cannot call either "" or "22"
How does one assign vibrations? Optional Material Normal coordinate analyses solves the problem of the vibrating molecule wavefunctions in terms of internal coordinates
Example: H2O L11
H O
L22
O
L11, L22 are internal coordinates for OH bonds F11 & F22 are corresponding four constants L , F - bending motion
The wavefunctions & force constants can be related by a series of secular equations/determinant. GF-E = 0 Where: G matrix contains information about the kinetic energy of the molecule
12-4
G-matrix can be calculated from bond distances/angles F-matrix elements describe the potential energies of the vibrations F-matrix is usually incomplete because force constants are not well established. While =422 (from experiment) If meaningful force constants can be obtained, then the vibrational wavefunctions are determined by multiplying by the basis sets (internal displacements). GF-EL = 0 G = 33, F = 33, L = 31 (L11, L22, L) E = unit matrix This yields the wavefunctions for the normal modes: For H2O 1 = NL + N(L11 + L22) A1 symmetric stretch 2 = N(L11 + L22) + NL A1 symmetric bend B1 asymmetric stretch 3 = 1 (L11 L22)
2
For N >> N For a diatomic molecule: all matrices are 11 therefore where F11 is only unknown F11G11 - = 0 This becomes:
F11
= 422 =
F11 4 2
12-5
Raman Spectroscopy visible photons to obtain normal modes Energy Level Diagram molecule scatters a photon off at energies h O
vibrational state
2 1 12 0
1. Stokes Shift: h-o (o virtual state) 2. AntiStokes Shift: h + o (1 virtual state) 2 produces much weaker transitions because there are fewer molecules in 1 than o
antistokes Rayleigh line h-o stokes ** Stokes lines are always at energies = 1 vibrational quantum lower than Rayleigh line
h + o
Rayleigh line is the elastic scattering (h = h) and very intense. Raman lines (stokes and antistokes) do not result from absorption and reemission scattering phenomenon (T 10-15 s) Keypoint: h - o = vibrational energy for given normal mode (h + o) too weak to use as probe *very useful for large molecules that absorb broadly in IR region, but only 1 in 106 Raman photons produced inefficient
12-6
where: C- constant Io- intensity of incident radiation s- frequency of scattered radiation (I is greater for blue photons) For a Raman active vibration, there must be a change in the polarizability of the molecule during the vibration Polarizability is a measure of deformability: Consider CO2 (1)
O
extended
equilibrium
compressed
Summary for CO2 1) Symmetric Stretch: Polarizability changes () Raman allowed; Dipole constant (), IR forbidden 2) Asymmetric Stretch: - constant, Raman forbidden; - changing, IR-active Note: 1. If molecule has an inversion center, no vibrational mode can be both IR & Raman active 2. Raman bands that originate from the highest symmetry vibrations of a pt. group (A1, A1g, A1, etc) are polarized (Input of polarized excitation gives polarized scattering).
12-7
Quantum Mechanically: The polarizability of a molecule by radiation along the direction ij (recall xx, yy, zz polarizability along x, y, z) ij =
1 h
[
e
Where: m & n are initial & final states; e is an intermediate excited state (virtual) Mi & Mj are transition moments (electron) along i & j; e is energy of transition to e; s & o represent scattered & incident radiation Therefore: dependent upon o, Mij In order for a vibration to be Raman active:
r re
0 (must be a change in )
B o re
If If
r r
near re is small, Raman inactive mode (B) near re is larger, Raman active (A)