Introduction to communication system

The physical transfer of data ( normally a digital bit stream ) over a point-to-point or point-tomultipoint communication channel by means of some standard transmission methods. This methods include electrical signals carried along a conductor , optical signals along the optical fibers and electromagnetic signals.

Essential components in a data communication system

MessageThe data/information to be transmitted. It can be in the form of text, audio, video, photos or combination of them. Transmission device or sender - A device that actually do the sending out of the message. (eg.computer,telephone,etc). A medium - a physical channel where the information travels from the sender to the receiver. Receiving device or receiver - a device that receives the message then process the information in the message

History of optical fibers

The research phase of fiber-optic communication systems started around 1975 and can be grouped in several distinct phases. In every generation, BL increases initially, but then begins to saturate as the technology matures. Each new generation brings a fundamental change that helps to improve the system performance further.

First generation (Graded-index fibers) - Year implemented: 1980 - Bit rate: 45 Mb/s - Repeater spacing: 10 km - Operating wavelength: 0.8 um - Semiconductor: GaAs

Second generation (Single-mode fibers) - Year implemented: 1985 - Bit rate: 100 Mb/s to 1.7 Gb/s - Repeater spacing: 50 km - Operating wavelength: 1.3 um - Semiconductor: In GaAsP

Third generation (Single-mode lasers) - Year implemented: 1990 - Bit rate: 10 Gb/s - Repeater spacing: 100 km - Operating wavelength: 1.55 um

Fourth generation (Optical amplifiers) - Year implemented: 1996 - Bit rate: 10 Tb/s - Repeater spacing: > 10,000 km - Operating wavelength: 1.45 um to 1.62 um

Fifth generation (Raman amplification) - Year implemented: 2002 - Bit rate: 40 Gb/s to 160 Gb/s - Repeater spacing: 24,000 km to 35,000 km - Operating wavelength: 1.53 um to 1.57 um

Architectures of Fiber-optic Communication Systems

Fiber-optic communication systems can be classified into three broad categories - point-to-point links, distribution networks, and local-area networks.

Point-to-Point Links Point-to-point links is the simplest form in fiber-optic communication systems. Their main role is to transport information, in the form of digital bit stream, from one place to another with high accuracy. The length of the link can vary from less than a kilometer to thousands of kilometers, depending on the application required. For example, optical data links are used to connect computers and terminals within the same building or between two buildings with a relatively short transmission distance (< 10 km). They are used mainly due to their immunity to electromagnetic interference, rather than their low loss and wide bandwidth. On the other hand, undersea lightwave systems are used for high-speed transmission across continents with a link length of several thousands of kilometers. There is a need for low losses and a large bandwidth, in order to reduce the operating cost.

The figure about shows the point-to-point fiber links with periodic loss compensation through (a) regenerators and (b) optical amplifiers. A regenerator consists of a receiver followed by a transmitter. Compensation is required when the link length exceeds a certain value, depending on the operating wavelength, to prevent the signal from coming too weak to be detected reliably.

Distribution Networks In the case of distribution networks, information is not only transmitted, but is also distributed to a group of subscribers. Examples include local-loop distribution of telephone services and broadcast of multiple video channels over cable television. Such networks have the ability to distribute a wide range of services, including telephone, facsimile, computer data, and video broadcasts. Transmission distances are relatively short (< 50 km), but the bit rate can be as high as 10 Gb/s for a broadband ISDN.

The figure about shows the structure of (a) hub topology and (b) bus topology for distribution networks.

For hub topology, channel distribution takes place at central locations, where an automated cross-connect facility switches channels in the electrical domain. Such networks are called metropolitan-area networks (MANs) as hubs are typically located in major cities. The role of fiber is similar to the role of point-to-point links. Several offices can share a single fiber headed for the main hub as the fiber bandwidth is generally much larger than that required by a single hub office.
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A concern for the hub topology is related to its reliabilityoutage of a single fiber cable can affect the service to a large portion of the network. However, additional point-to-point links can be used to guard against such a possibility by connecting important hub locations directly. For bus topology, a single fiber cable carries the multichannel optical signal throughout the area of service. Distribution is done by using optical taps, which divert a small fraction of the optical power to each subscriber An example is the common-antenna television (CATV) application of bus topology consists of distributing multiple video channels within a city. The use of optical fiber permits distribution of a large number of channels, because of its large bandwidth, as compared to coaxial cables. For high definition television (HDTV), it also requires lightwave transmission because of a large bandwidth (about 100 Mb/s) of each video channel, unless compression techniques are used.

Local-Area Networks Local-area networks, also known as LANs, refers to networks in which a large number of users within a local area are interconnected in such a way that any user can access the network randomly to transmit data to any other user. Optical-access networks used in a local subscriber loop also fall in this category For such networks, transmission distance are relative short (<10 km). Fiber losses are not a big concern due to the short transmission distance. The main difference between MANs and LANs is related to the random access offered to multiple users of a LAN. The system architecture plays an important role for LANs, since the establishment of predefined protocol rules is a necessity in such an environment. Common toplogies that are used for such networks include bus, ring, and star configurations.

The figure about shows the structure of (a) ring topology and (b) star topology for localarea networks. For bus topology, the structure is similar to the one used in distribution networks. An example is the one provided by Ethernet, whereby a network protocol used to connect multiple computers and used by the Internet. The Ethernet operates at speeds up to 1 Gb/s by using a protocol based on carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA) with collision detection. Although the Ethernet LAN architecture has proven to be quite successful when coaxial cables are used for the bus, a number of difficulties arise when optical fibers are used. There is also a major limitation is related to the losses occurring at each tap, which limits the number of users. In the case of the ring topology, consecutive nodes are connected by point-to-point links to form a closed ring. Each node can transmit and receive the data by using a transmitterreceiver pair, which also acts as a repeater. A token, as known as a predefined bit sequence, is passed around the ring. Each node monitors the bit stream to listen for its own address and to receive the data. It
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can also transmit by appending the data to an empty token. The use of ring topology for fiberoptic LANs has been commercialized with the standardized interface known as the fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) . The FDDI operates at 100 Mb/s by using multimode fibers and 1.3-mtransmitters based on light-emitting diodes. It is designed to provide backbone services such as the interconnection of lower-speed LANs or mainframe computers. In the case of the star topology, all nodes are connected through point-to-point links to a central node called a hub, or simply a star. Such LANs are further subclassified as active-star or passivestar networks, depending on whether the central node is an active or passive device. In the active-star configuration, all incoming optical signals are converted to the electrical domain through optical receivers, before being distributed to drive individual node transmitters. Switching operations can also be performed at the central node since, distribution takes place in the electrical domain. In the passive star configuration, distribution takes place in the optical domain through devices such as directional couplers. The power transmitted to each node depends on the number of users, since the input from one node is distributed to many output nodes. As in the case of bus topology, the number of users supported by passive-star LANs is also limited by the distribution losses

Why Use an LAN? There are two basic reasons for developing an LAN: information sharing and resource sharing. Information sharing: This refers to having users who access the same data files, exchange information via electronic mail, or search the Internet for information. The main benefit of information sharing is improved decision making, which makes it generally more important than resource sharing. Resource sharing: It refers to one computer sharing a hardware device (e.g., a printer) or a software package with other computers on the network. The main benefit of resource sharing is cost savings. Types of LANs By the categories, there are three common types of LANs. Dedicated server LANs account for more than 70 percent of all installed LANs. Dedicated Server Networks Peer-to-Peer Networks Zero-Slot LANs Dedicated Server Networks: A dedicated server LAN can connect with almost any other network, can handle very large databases, have a dedicated network server, and uses sophisticated LAN software. Moreover, high-end dedicated server LANs can be easily interconnected to form enterprise-wide networks or, Sometimes, replace the host mainframe central computer. Generally speaking, the dedicated server is a powerful microcomputer.
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Three software components must work together and with the network hardware to enable communications: the network operating system (NOS) in the dedicated server, the network communication software that interconnects the server to the user computers, and the application software that runs on the server and client computers. Four common types of dedicated server LANs are file servers, database servers, print servers, and communication servers. Peer-to-Peer Networks: This network is a local area network that allows all users access to data on all workstations. In this networks, any computer can perform as both a client and a server. Each computer on the network shares its resource such as hard disk and printer with any other computer on the same network. This network is usually slower, has less capability, supports a limited number of computers, provides less sophisticated software, and is more difficult to manage than dedicated server LANS. However, this LAN uses cheaper computers and programs. Examples of peer-to-peer LANs include Artisoft's LANtastic, Novell's NetWare Lite, and Windows for Workgroups. Zero-Slot LANs: This LAN operates like peer-to-peer LAN, but offers limited, simple abilities such as sharing files and printers one another, transfer files, and transmit e- mail. It is inexpensive. It does not require a network interface circuit card. Its adapter plug can be plugged into a serial or parallel port. This network usually can handle up to 30 computers. LAN Components There are five basic components to an LAN. Server Client Computer NIC (Network Interface Card) Network Cables/Hubs NOS (Network Operating System)

Server: A server is a computer in a network that shared by multiple users. There are many kinds of servers in dedicated server networks. For example, file servers, printer servers, and communication servers are they. Client Computer: In a communications network, the client computer is the requesting machine from the supplying machine, server. NIC: The Network Interface Card (NIC) is a printed circuit board that plugs into a network server or client computer. It enables the computer to be physically connected to the network cable, which provides the physical layer connection among the computers in the network. The NIC performs the electronic functions of the access method, or data link protocol, such as Ethernet, Token Ring and LocalTalk. Network Cables/Hubs: Network cable physically connects each computer to the other computers in the network. The selection of an LAN topology can be influenced greatly by the type of cable.

Network Cable: Most LANs use a combination of unshielded twisted pair (UTP) wires, shielded twisted pair (STP), coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable. The advantage of the shielded and unshielded twisted pair wires is in the low cost. Coaxial cable is also commonly used and physically larger and heavier than twisted pairs. The fiber optic cable is thin and light. Its high capacity makes it perfect for backbone networks. It is beginning to use fiber optic cable for LANs. Network Hubs: A network hub is called in many different names such as concentrator, multistation access unit, transceiver, or repeater. It serves two purposes. First, they provide an easy way to connect network cables. Second, hubs act as repeaters or amplifiers. Wireless LANs: Wireless LAN is an alternative method of cabling a local area network. They use the same protocols as other LANS, but they deliver data and information through the air rather than through physical cable. Wireless LAN offers an alternative for an old building where wiring is difficult and expensive. It provides new capability for mobile computing for laptop computers. Its disadvantages are the noise and insecurity. NOS: The NOS (network operating system) is the control program that resides in a server or workstation within an LAN. This controls the network. The NOS handles the requests for data from all the users on the networks. It is responsible for data link layers and the network layers. It must interact with the application programs and the computer's own operating system. One of the well-known NOS for microcomputer is a NetWare. This is an NOS from Novell, Inc. This runs on 286 and higher personal computers and supports DOS, OS/2 and Macintosh operating system. It also supports many LAN access methods such as Ethernet, Token Ring, ARCNET and Starlan. Two Most Common LANs The two most commonly used LANs are Ethernet and Token Ring local area networks. ETHERNET

The Ethernet is a local area network developed by Xerox, Digital (DEC) and Intel and is the most popular LAN in the world, accounting for almost 50 percent of all LANs. Topology: Ethernet uses a bus topology. A major circuit running the length on the network connects all computers. When the Ethernet uses a central hub, the topology of it looks like a star (physically) from the outside, but it is really a bus (logically). Types of Ethernet: 10Base5: The original Ethernet specification was a 10Mbps data rate using Baseband signaling on thick coaxial cable, called "Thick Ethernet (5)."

10Base2: Today, thin coaxial cable is rapidly replacing the original thick coax because it is considerably cheaper and easier to work with. The 10Base2 standard is often called "Thin Ethernet (2)." 10BaseT: This is the most commonly used type of Ethernet. The name means 10 million bits per second, Baseband, and the "T" means it uses twisted pair wiring. The extremely low cost of 10BaseT made Ethernet very inexpensive and the most popular type of LAN. 10Broad36: It means 10 Mbps, broadband, with a maximum distance of 3600 meters. This standard is most commonly used in backbone networks. Token Ring This is a local area network developed by IBM that uses a special twisted wire and the token passing access method. Token Ring LANs are the second most popular type of LAN, with almost 40 percent of all LANs worldwide. Topology: A Token Ring network uses a ring topology. All messages pass to each computer in turn. Computers receive all messages, but only process those addressed to themselves. They deliver the rest of messages to the next computer in the network. When central hubs are used, it also looks like a star configuration (physically), but it really is a ring network (logically). Media Access Control: Token Ring network uses a token passing technology. A computer with a message to deliver waits until it receives free token. The computer then changes the free token into a busy token, attaches its message to it, and retransmits it on the circuit to the next computer. Types of Token Ring: There are two common types of Token Ring networks. The Token Ring developed first was Token Ring-4, transmitting data at 4Mbps over twisted wire. The newer Token Ring network is Token Ring- 16, delivering information at 16Mbps over high quality twisted wire.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) / Wide Area Networks (WANs) MANs The next larger network than LAN may be the Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs). MAN usually spans a geographical area that usually encompasses a city or county area. It interconnects various buildings or other facilities within this citywide area. For example, linkages can be established between two commercial buildings. A more recent use of MAN technology has been the rapid development of cellular phone systems. WANs A wide area network (WAN) is one that operates over a vast distance (e.g., nationwide). Its nodes may span cities, states, or national boundaries. This network interconnects computers, LANS, BNs, MANS, and other data transmission facilities. Typically, WAN will employ communications circuits such as long- distance telephone wires, microwaves and satellites. FOR
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example, nationwide automated teller machines used in banking represent a common application of a wide area network.

Backbone Networks A BN is a large network to which many networks within an organization are connected. It usually is a network that interconnects all networks on a single site, but it can be larger if it connects all the organization's terminals, microcomputers, mainframes, local area networks, and other communication equipment. NetBIOS NETwork Basic Input/Output System is a commonly used transmission protocol for PC LANs. This is an extension to DOS, which examines all functions and direct to DOS. It provides a program called "redirector" that resides on top of DOS.

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