Chapter 12

OSI Model
Application Presentation Session Layer 7 Layer 6 Layer 5 Layer 4 Layer 3 Layer 2 Layer 1

Network Protocols TCP over Wireless (Mobile Transport Layer Issues) IPv6
Source: Stalling, Agrawal & Zeng, Schiller, Iyer

Transport Network Data link Physical

7 layer OSI model

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Data Link Layer Functions Physical Layer Functions Performs services requested by the Data Link layer. Concerned with the physical characteristics of interfaces and media. Representation of bits, transmission rate, synchronization of bits. Link configuration. Physical topology, and transmission mode.
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Provides functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities. Responds to service requests from the network layer and issues requests to the physical layer. Concerned with:
Framing. Physical addressing. Flow Control. Error Control. Access Control. TCP over wireless etc CS603 - Ajay Gupta, WMU-CS

Network Layer Functions

Provides for transfer of variable length sequences from source to destination via one or more networks. Responds to service requests from the transport layer and issues requests to the data link layer. Concerned with: Logical addressing. Network routing. Flow Control. Error Control. Segmentation and reassembly.
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Transport Layer Functions Provides transparent data transfer between end users. Responds to service requests from the session layer and issues requests to the network layer. Concerned with:
Service-point addressing. Segmentation and reassembly. Connection control; Flow Control. Error Control.
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Session Layer Functions Provides mechanism for managing a dialogue between end-user application processes. Responds to service requests from the presentation layer and issues requests to the transport layer. Supports duplex or half- duplex operations. Concerned with:
Dialogue control. Synchronization.
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Presentation Layer Functions Relieves application layer from concern regarding syntactical differences in data representation with end-user systems. Responds to service requests from the application layer and issues requests to the session layer. Concerned with:
Translation. Encryption. Compression.
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Application Layer Functions Interfaces directly to and performs common application services for application processes. Issues service requests to the Presentation layer. Specific services provided:
Network virtual terminal. File transfer, access and management. Mail services. Directory services.
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TCP/IP Model TCP/IP protocol consists of five layers. The lower four layers correspond to the layer of the OSI model. The application layer of the TCP/IP model represents the three topmost layers of the OSI model.

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OSI and TCP/IP Models

OSI layers
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Lower level vendor implementations Physical
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Internet Protocol (IP)

Provides connection-less, best-effort service for delivery of packets through the inter-network. Best-effort: No error checking or tracking done for the sequence of packets (datagrams) being transmitted. Upper layer should take care of sequencing. Datagrams transmitted independently and may take different routes to reach same destination. Fragmentation and reassembly supported to handle data links with different maximum transmission unit (MTU) sizes.
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TCP/IP layers
DNS Application FTP, Telnet, SMTP UDP

TCP IP

OSPF DHCP ICMP IGMP

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) Used to maintain multicast group membership within a domain. Similar to ICMP, IGMP query and reply messages are used by routers to maintain multicast group membership. Periodic IGMP query messages are used to find new multicast members within the domain. A member sends a IGMP join message to the router, which takes care of joining the multicast tree.
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Companion protocol to IP. Provides mechanisms for error reporting and query to a host or a router. Query message used to probe the status of a host or a router. Error reporting messages used by the host and the routers to report errors.
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

Internet Routing Protocols

Used to assign IP addresses dynamically in a domain. Extension to Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) Node Requests an IP address from DHCP server. Helps in saving IP address space by using same IP address to occasionally connecting hosts.
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Intradomain Routing
Distance Vector. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
u

Distance information about all the nodes is conveyed to the neighbors.

Link State Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

u

Neighbor information is conveyed to all the nodes in the network.

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Internet Routing Protocols (Contd)

Interdomain Routing Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) Forces treelike topology onto the Internet. Single Backbone and autonomous systems are connected in parents and children, not peers. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) Assumes Internet as arbitrarily interconnected set of Autonomous systems. Based on Path vector routing protocol.
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Typical mobile wireless scenario

FH: Fixed Host MH: Mobile Host BS: Base Station (gateway)
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TCP and wireless/mobility

TCP assumes congestion if packets dropped typically wrong in wireless networks
often packet loss due to transmission errors

Motivation for TCP adaptation

Performance of an unchanged TCP degrades severely for wireless/mobile environments TCP cannot be changed fundamentally
Widely deployed in the fixed network Internet interoperability requirement

mobility itself can cause packet loss

nodes roam from one access point or foreign agent to another with packets in transit
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TCP for wireless/mobility has to be compatible with standard TCP

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Adaptation for TCP over wireless

Several proposals to adapt TCP to wireless environments Modifications to TCP implementation at
Fixed Host Base Station Mobile Host

TCP over wireless

Wireless transmission may have Burst errors: may cause timeout Random errors: may cause fast retransmit Result: reduction in congestion window
Throughput suffers

Approaches
Hide error losses from the sender Let sender know the cause of packet loss
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Reducing congestion window in response to errors is unnecessary

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Example: Random errors

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Split connection approach

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End-to-end TCP connection is broken into one connection on the wired part of route and one over wireless part of the route FH-MH = FH-BS + BS-MH
FH BS MH

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Fixed Host
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Base Station
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Mobile Host
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I-TCP: Split connection

Per-TCP connection state TCP connection TCP connection application application application rxmt transport transport transport network link physical network link physical network link physical

I-TCP advantages
No changes to TCP for FH BS-MH connection can be optimized independent of FH-BS connection
Different flow / error control on the two connections Faster recovery due to relatively shorter RTT on wireless link

wireless
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Source: Vaidya

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I-TCP disadvantages
End-to-end semantics violated
ack may be delivered to sender, before data delivered to the receiver

Hand-off in I-TCP
Data that has been ackd to sender, must be moved to new base station
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BS retains hard state

Buffer space required at BS on a per-TCPconnection basis BS failure can result in permanent loss of data (unreliability) Hand-off latency increases
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MH

39 40 MH Hand-off

New base station

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Snoop Protocol
Retains local recovery of Split Connection approach and uses link level retransmission Improves on split connection
end-to-end semantics retained soft state at base station, instead of hard state

Snoop Protocol
Buffers data packets at the base station BS
to allow link layer retransmission

When duplicate ACK received by BS from MH

retransmit on wireless link, if packet present in buffer drop duplicate ACK

Prevents fast retransmit at TCP sender FH

FH BS MH

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Snoop Protocol
Per TCP-connection state TCP connection application transport network link physical application transport network link physical rxmt application transport network link physical

Snoop : Example
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TCP state maintained at link layer

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FH
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BS

wireless

MH
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Snoop : Example
37 38 39 44 FH 43 BS Discard dupack
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Snoop advantages
40 41 42 37 41 MH

Local recovery from wireless losses Fast retransmit not triggered at sender despite out-of-order link layer delivery High throughput can be achieved End-to-end semantics retained Soft state at base station
loss of the soft state affects performance, but not correctness
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Snoop disadvantages
Link layer at base station needs to be TCPaware Not useful if TCP headers are encrypted (IPsec) Cannot be used if TCP data and TCP ACKs traverse different paths
both need to go through the same BS
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Mobility and handoff

Hand-offs may result in temporary loss of route to MH
with non-overlapping cells, it may be a while before the mobile host receives a beacon from the new BS

While routes are being reestablished during handoff, MH and old BS may attempt to send packets to each other, resulting in loss of packets
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Impact of handoff
Split connection (Indirect-TCP or I-TCP) approach
hard state at base station must be moved to new base station

Mobile TCP (M-TCP)

Handling of lengthy or frequent disconnections M-TCP splits as I-TCP does
unmodified TCP for FH to BS optimized TCP for BS to MH

Snoop protocol
soft state need not be moved while the new base station builds new state, packet losses may not be recovered locally

BS (Foreign Agent)
monitors all packets, if disconnection detected set advertised window size to 0 sender automatically goes into persistent mode no caching, no retransmission
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M-TCP
BS does not send an ack to FH, unless BS has received an ack from MH
maintains end-to-end semantics

M-TCP
When a new ack is received with receivers advertised window = 0, the sender enters persist mode Sender does not send any data in persist mode
except when persist timer goes off

BS withholds ack for the last byte ackd by MH

Ack 999 Ack 1000

FH

BS

MH

When a positive window advertisement is received, sender exits persist mode On exiting persist mode, RTO and cwnd are same as before the persist mode
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FreezeTCP
M-TCP needs help from base station (BS)
BS withholds ack for one byte BS uses this ack to send a zero window advertisement when MH moves to another cell

3 dupacks
Freeze TCP Approach
Requires lower layer to predict disconnection

3DA (Three Duplicate ACKS) approach

At reconnection, MH sends 3 Dup ACKS Saves idle time of TCP sender at FH Does not prevent some congestion control actions
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FreezeTCP
Receiver sends zero window advertisement (ZWA), upon impending disconnection Receiver sends full window advertisement (FWA), upon reconnection
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Topics NOT covered

TCP in mobile ad hoc networks TCP over satellite links Asymmetric TCP Various other adaptations
Explicit notification Receiver-based discrimination Sender-based discrimination TCP-Unaware approximation of TCP-aware link layer
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Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

Designed to address the unforeseen growth of the internet and the limited address space provided by IPv4 Features of IPv6: Enhanced Address Space: 128 bits long, can solve the problem created
by limited IPv4 address space (32 bits).

Resource Allocation: By using Flow Label, a sender can request special

packet handling.

Modified Address Format: Options and Base Header are separated

which speeds up the routing process.

Support for Security: Encryption and Authentication options are supported

in option header.
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IPv4 Header Format

Version Header (4 bits) length (4 bits) Type of service (8 bits) Flags
(3 bits)

IPv6 Header Format

Total length (16 bits)

Version
Fragment offset (13 bits)

Traffic Class

Flow Label Next Header Hop Limit

Identification (16 bits) Time to live (8 bits) Protocol (8 bits)

Payload Length

Header checksum (16 bits)

Source Address Destination Address Data

Source address (32 bits) Destination address (32 bits) Options and padding (if any)

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Format of IPv6
Name Version Traffic Class Flow Label Payload Length Next Header Hop Limit Bits 4 8 20 16, unsigned 8 8, unsigned IPv6 version number. Internet traffic priority delivery value. Used for specifying special router handling from source to destination(s) for a sequence of packets. Specifies the length of the data in the packet. When set to zero, the option is a hop-by-hop Jumbo payload. Specifies the next encapsulated protocol. The values are compatible with those specified for the IPv4 protocol field. For each router that forwards the packet, the hop limit is decremented by 1. When the hop limit field reaches zero, the packet is discarded. This replaces the TTL field in the IPv4 header that was originally intended to be used as a time based hop limit. The IPv6 address of the sending node. The IPv6 address of the destination node.
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Differences between IPv4 and IPv6

Function

Expanded Addressing Capabilities Simplified Header Format Improved Support for Options and Extensions Flow Labeling Capabilities Support for Authentication and Encryption

Source Address Destination Address

128 128

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Network Transition from IPv4 to IPv6

Dual IP-Stack: IPv4-hosts and IPv4-routers have an IPv6stack, this ensures full compatibility to not yet updated systems.

IPv6-in-IPv4 Encapsulation (Tunneling): Encapsulate IPv6 datagram in IPv4 datagram and tunnel it to next router/host.

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