AFFORESTATION IN INDIA

Introduction

Afforestation and its benefits Afforestation is planting seeds or trees to make a forest on land which has not been a forest recently, or which has never been a forest Benefits of Afforestation It restores ecological balance of all eco systems. It maintains biological diversity It act as catchments for the soil and water conservation Plating tress can stabilize soils by increasing interception, Bring soil together and prevent soil erosion Prevent floods and safeguard future of the tribal people. Stabilized the climate and the forest products.

Facts of Afforestation in INDIA Total Forest Cover of India is 630 sq.km. which is 19.45 per cent of total geographical area which states that there is imbalance in forest management. India contribute 18% of World Population. 15 % of the Worlds livestock Just 2% of Geographical area Forest Area is 1% and per capita is 0.08% which is even lower than world average of 0.8%. Large Scale Deforestation and non optimal Afforestation are root and branch cause for the present crisis. Ninth Five Year Plan is already started and results of previous of plans shows depressing result Afforestation in India Afforestation a programme to protect the requirements of society, economy and environment is divided to broad categories. Production forestry : Afforestation programme wherein emphasis is given on production of timber and wood for industrial use. Social forestry : A programme which is instrumental in Protecting social/public by increasing fuel, wood supply, fodder supply, protection of agriculture fields against winds Social Forestry are Farm Forestry, Rural forestry and Urban Forestry In India Afforestation is not a programme but a mission which requires public participation Emerging Trends in India Even after completion of Eight Five Year Plan, our Contribution to world forest coverage is far below the world average. Till now we have only 1% of world forest coverage. Below figure indicates that for 2 years i.e. 87 & 90 we were moving in right direction, however emerging trends indicate that in majority of cases, the development of forest is haphazard Lapses in distribution system which virtually affect the implementation process Innovate strategy for Marketing Afforestation is thus a need of an hour

Afforestation Marketing and its Justifications Afforestation Marketing focuses on the application of marketing principles for the time honoured and effective implementation of programme social interest are protected, ecological balance is maintained and avenues are paved for the development of economy. Following Points justify the application of societal marketing principles An Optimal mix for Afforestation programme. Inculcating Mass Awareness. Cost effectiveness Benefits of Sensitive Segment Benefits of Rural Economy Maintaining the Ecological Balance Transforming the Programme into mission. Afforestation MIX & Promotion Afforestation Afforestation MIX: Based on the properties of different groups of plants, formulation of package which will help in making the programme profitable and thus succeeding in having fair bending of environmental and commercial considerations. Afforestation MIX constitutes Rural Forestry: Ownership of land is of Public or forestry is found in community and panchayat land Farm Forestry: Ownership of land is of individual and its a process of technological benefits to farm sector. Urban Forestry: Urban forestry aims at bringing trees to doors of urban people and developing aesthic sense. Industrial Forestry: Industrial forestry is process of industrial transformation by supplying them necessary raw materials. Promoting Afforestation: Throws more light on promotional creative efforts which helps in inculcating mass awareness. Using Sophisticated media and highly professional advertisement agencies

Emphasis on Rural Segment by using Songs and Drama Division of Govt of India. Folks songs and dramas based on Afforestation would be helpful in motivating the rural prospects Pricing, Distributions Pricing: Good Support from different global organizations, however there are cases of financial insolvency. The financial constraint in affecting proper maintenance and protection of plants. State Forest Department should assign due weightage to those plants which are more productive or have commercial value. Implementing innovative strategy for identifying the leakage Distribution: Need of Innovation strategy in the distribution system which contracts the gap and makes the distribution process smooth and fast. Involvement of voluntary social organizations for distribution. Minimizing the no of channel for distribution and activating the lower level personnel by offering them incentives. Question 1: Do you find Formulation of Afforestation MIX an Essential Dimension for making Afforestation Program productive? Justify your answer Afforestation mix for rural economy includes both rural forestry (community

land) and farm forestry (individual land). An Optimal Afforestation MIX makes possible a flair blending of Environmental and Economic considerations . Comment on this statement and suggest the Afforestation mix that you find suitable for Rural forestry. Blind Afforestation has proved to be non productive. Without knowing the nature and properties of plants, Afforestation programme cannot be profitable. Majority of Sate Forest Department personnel are not aware of the nature and properties of plants Most Vital Process in the Blending process is selection of suitable tress which on the one hand generates more oxygen and are also found productive. It is important that different constituents of the programme is well tested in view of of changing social, economic requirements. Thus based on the different groups of plants, a package should be formulated which help in making the programme profitable and thus can succeed in having a fair blending of environmental and commercial conditions Afforestation Mix suitable for Rural Forestry In rural economy of India, due weightage needs to be assign to rural and farm forestry for fulfilling multi- faceted needs of rural society . Fodder for Livestock Fuel wood for Kitchen Small Timber for house construction Protection of Degraded Land Productive Utilization of idle land Making Organic Manure from Cow Dung In addition, the mix should also take into consideration the development of industries of different categories by supplying raw materials such as wood for timber industry, sports items, silk industry, bee- keeping industry, dairy industry and paper industry which would be strong foundation for the development of small and cottage industries In a true sense we are at the brink of an Environmental Disaster. In the light of this statement justify the rationale of Innovative Marketing for Afforestation Program? .

Background Indias share of the Global Forest cover is merely 1 % Despite initiatives undertaken for afforestation in the various 5 year plans, the results have been limited. Afforestation initiatives have not been very successful on account of several barriers Lack of Awareness among the masses Poor support from the Govt Agencies Unplanned afforestation Lack of Financial Support

The concept of Afforestation Marketing focuses on a managerial approach in promoting afforestation which keeps pace with our socio-economic and environmental requirements

The need of the hour is thus an Innovative Marketing approach to Afforestation by looking at the entire marketing mix and variables that impact the results. This is critical considering the situation that we find ourselves with unplanned industrialization, polluted cities, degraded forests, ecological imbalances requiring a sense of urgency.

Formulating an optimal afforestation mix that will ensure that a good mix of trees & plants are selected which makes the program commercially viable. Inculcating Mass Awareness so that barriers are removed from the minds of the people. Making the Afforestation Cost Effective so that it becomes a self-sustaining initiative which is commercially viable. Segmenting the market to identify sensitive Target Segments. Developing and Improving on the Benefits the program will have especially for the Rural Masses. Maintaining Ecological Balance taking into account the geography of the region and specific needs of the local populace. Transforming Afforestation from a mere program into a mission for change. Thus we can see that there is a need for an Innovative Marketing Program that integrates all the above elements to achieve the desired results through various Marketing Techniques. What we lack is the managerial proficiency and commitment required to undertake such a mission which is what we should aim to bridge in this session. What is the relevance of Social Forestry to the Development of Rural India ? Discuss. Social Forestry Afforestation undertaken as a community development program aimed at protecting the social / public interest, protecting the environment, and supplying essential materials to different category of users / industries.

3 Key Constituents Rural Forestry ..Undertaken on Community Panchayat Land Farm Forestry..Undertaken on Individual Farm Land Urban Forestry..Undertaken in City Land.

Farm Forestry Afforestation initiative undertaken by Individuals on their farms lands with or without Government support.

Benefits are as follows Source of supply of firewood replacing Cow Dung which can now be used for fodder improving productivity Helps build a balanced rural economy through supply of firewood, small timber and fodder meeting daily requirements and also generating income. Helps protect agricultural fields against winds, sand casting & erosion Rural Forestry

Undertaken on Community Land, Panchayat Lands, Degraded Forests, Road and Railway sides, canal banks, etc

It includes restoration of derelict area bearing scars of industrial activity like quarrying, mining, road construction, lime burning,etc.

Rural Forestry helps supply essential raw materials to support the cottage industry like honey, sport goods, silk, edible oil from seeds, paper, etc.

The rural masses also benefit by way of employment opportunity the initiative provides In order to make this work 2 important issues are (1) Optimal Blend of Rural & Farm Forestry (2) To formulate a mix of different groups of trees found commercially viable, environmentally friendly and geographically acceptable. A fair blend of Rural Forestry and Farm Forestry is a crying need of the rural economy and if we professionally manage the afforestation it will have a great economic and social impact besides protecting the environment. A crying need of the hour is to inculcate Mass Tree Consciousness. Discuss this statement in the face of creative promotional strategies that you expect to be more sensitive in the Indian Setting. The biggest barrier to change is resistance from people especially with illiteracy levels being high, people are not sensitive to the need for afforestation The challenge here is to create mass awareness about the need for afforestation by effectively selling the benefits of these initiatives. If we succeed in creating awareness, the Tree Consciousness among the masses would remove all the hurdles in the implementation of the program. Segmentation Target each segment differentlyIn polluted cities and specific areas

people would be more affected by the environmental degradation. Mass Media needs to be used and Creative Advertisements that draw attention and simulate interests In rural areas, it is important to take the help of Opinion Leaders like Panchayat Heads, to drive the message across to community In a rural setting, religious sentimental values associated with trees (eg. Pipal, Neem) can be exploited to reach out to an audience who may not be receptive to logic. Financial incentives can be offered to the farmers for undertaking afforestation where the idle land is provided by the Govt and benefits of the trees grown are shared by the individual Govt Personnel to be trained effectively to manage the promotion activity, be given adequate incentives to motivate them to convince people. Folk songs, dramas, road shows to be organized to create awareness among the masses.

Public Relation Tools to be used by organizing events, conferences that get media coverage and draw attention to the need for afforestation. Govt can tie-up with schools where children are involved in planting saplings so that the tree consciousness is created at a young & impressionable age. Seminars to be organized in villages during gathering highlighting the Economic benefits when they see potential for additional income they would be attracted to contribute.

Service Providers can encourage their consumers to subscribe to email bills and help reduce paper consumption, thereby saving trees. Example Idea Campaign on Ebills. Govt can tie-up with Service Providers, Websites, where urban population can contribute financially to Afforestation initiatives.

Govt should initiate a national day for Tree Plantation with several celebrities appealing to different section of the population being involved in the initiatives. Town / City planners to be educated on the need for Afforestation and how it can help improve the aesthetics of the city besides being environmentally friendly

Benefits of Afforestation : It restores ecological balance of all eco systems. It maintains biological diversity

It act as catchments for the soil and water conservation Plating tress can stabilize soils by increasing interception Prevent floods and safeguard future of the tribal people. Bring soil together and prevent soil erosion. Afforestation act as windbreaks Stabilized the climate and the forest products.

There is the constant need to develop massive afforestation programmes for the protection nad preservation of the forestry on the suitable land including the wasteland. A massive social forestry programme is needed to meet demands of the local people for the fodder, timber and fuel wood.

Both the governmental and Non Governmental Organizations have been propagating afforestation programmes.

Due to the industrial revolution many countries have seen the rapid decline in forests. Cutting of trees is not only a threat to the environment but also to the quality of life and to the economy also. Reasons for the decline in forests : Explosion of human and livestock population Increased demand of timer, and fuel wood Expansion of the agricultural land Construction of the infrastructure along the mountains

National

Afforestation

and

Eco

Development

Board

:-

With the view to promote afforestation in the country, National Afforestation and Eco Development Board was set up in August 1992, which is responsible for promoting tree plantation, ecological restoration, and the eco development activities. The NAEB was concerned with the following functions:Suggests measures for the ecological restoration of degraded forest areas and adjoining lands through the systematic planning and implementation. To meet the fuel wood, fodder and other needs of the rural communities. Restore fuel wood, fodder, timber and other forest produce on the degraded forest and the adjoining lands in order to meet the demands for these items. Support the people,s movement for promoting afforestation and eco development with the assistance of the voluntary agencies, Panchayati Raj Institutions, non Governmental

Organizations. Coordinate and monitor action plans for afforestation, tree planting, ecological restoration and eco development.

For more information log on to http://www.ecoindia.com/jungles/

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Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where the preceding vegetation or land use was not forest. Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover either naturally (by natural seeding, coppice, or root suckers) or artificially (by direct seeding or planting), usually maintaining a same or similar forest type, and done promptly after the previous stand or forest was removed. Many governments and non-governmental organizations directly engage in programs of afforestation to restore forests, increase carbon capture and sequestration, and assist in preservation of biodiversity. (In the UK afforestation may mean legally converting land into a royal forest.)

afforestation in areas of degraded soil In some places, forests need help to reestablish themselves because of environmental factors. For example, once forest cover is destroyed in arid zones, the land may dry and become inhospitable to new tree growth. Other factors include overgrazing by livestock, especially animals such as goats, and over-harvesting of forest resources. Together these may lead to desertification and the loss of topsoil; without soil, forests cannot grow until the long process of soil creation has been completed - if erosion allows this. In some tropical areas, forest cover removal may result in a duricrust or duripan that effectively seal off the soil to water penetration and root growth. In many areas, reforestation is impossible because people are using the land. In other areas, mechanical breaking up of duripans or duricrusts is necessary, careful and continued watering may be essential, and special protection, such as fencing, may be needed.

World regions Brazil Because of the extensive Amazon deforestation during the last decades and ongoing, the small efforts of afforestation are insignificant on a national scale of the Amazon Rainforest. China China has deforested most of its historically wooded areas. China reached the point where timber yields declined far below historic levels, due to over-harvesting of trees beyond sustainable yield. Although it has set official goals for reforestation, these goals were set for an 80 year time horizon and are not significantly met by 2008. China is trying to correct these problems by projects as the Green Wall of China, which aims to replant a great deal of forests and halt the expansion of the Gobi desert. A law promulgated in 1981 requires that every citizen over the age of 11 plant at least one tree per year. As a result, China currently has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 square kilometers of afforestation in 2008. However, the forest area per capita is still far lower than the international average. An ambitious proposal for China is the Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System North Africa In North Africa, the sahara forest project coupled with the Seawater Greenhouse has been proposed. Some projects have also been launched in countries as Senegal to revert desertification. At present (2010) African leaders are discussing the combining of national countries in their continent to increase effectiveness. In addition, other projects as the Keita project in Niger have been launched in the past, and have been able to locally revert damage done by desertification. See Development_aid#Effectiveness Europe Europe has deforested the majority of its historical forests. The European Union has paid farmers for afforestation since 1990, offering grants to turn farmland back into forest and payments for the management of forest. Between 1993 and 1997, EU afforestation policies made possible the re-forestation of over 5,000 square kilometres of land. A second program, running between 2000 and 2006, afforested in excess of 1000 square kilometres of land (precise statistics not yet available). A third such program began in 2007.

In Poland, the National Program of Afforestation was introduced by the government after World War II, when total area of forests shrank to 20% of country's territory. Consequently, forested areas of Poland grew year by year, and on December 31, 2006, forests covered 29% of the country (see: Polish forests). It is planned that by 2050, forests will cover 33% of Poland. According to FAO statistics, Spain had the fastest afforestation rate in Europe in the 1990-2005 period. In those years, a total of 44,360 square kilometers were afforested, and the total forest cover rose from 13,5 to 17,9 million hectares. In 1990, forests covered 26,6% of the Spanish territory. As of 2005, that figure had risen to 35,4%. Spain today has the third largest forest area in the European Union, after Sweden and Finland. Iran Iran is considered a low forest cover region of the world with present cover approximating seven percent of the land area. This is a value reduced by an estimated six million hectares of virgin forest, which includes oak, almond and pistacio. Due to soil substrates, it is difficult to achieve afforestation on a large scale compared to other temperate areas endowed with more fertile and less rocky and arid soil conditions. Consequently, most of the afforestation is conducted with non-native species, leading to habitat destruction for native flora and fauna, and resulting in an accelerated loss of biodiversity.

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What is Afforestation?

Afforestation is the process of planting trees, or sowing seeds, in a barren land devoid of any trees to create a forest. The term should not be confused with reforestation, which is the process

of specifically planting native trees into a forest that has decreasing numbers of trees. While reforestation is increasing the number of trees of an existing forest, afforestation is the creation of a new forest.

Our Earth has been constantly trying to cope with the way in which human beings use natural resources, clear forest lands, cut trees, and contaminate the air, land, and water. Industrial revolution, population bursts, and pollution create permanent damage to the earth, and the result is global warming and climate change. In such situations,something that can help extend the life of the planet and its living organisms is the increase of natural resources and decrease of exploitation of these resources. By planting trees and creating forests, many of the commercial needs of human beings are fulfilled, while not destroying what is left of the planet. Afforestation is, therefore, a practice that has been propagated by government and non-government agencies of many countries as a way to stop over-exploitation of nature.

Importance

The importance is immense in today's scenario because it is mainly done for commercial purposes. In a natural forest or woodland, the trees are heterogeneous. Owing to the sensitivity to over usage and slow growths, these forests cannot be used continuously for commercial purposes like wood products. The process of planting trees in empty lands helps promote the fast propagation of specific types of trees for the wood industry. With the increasing demand for wood fuels and building materials, this process helps to meet these demands without cutting down the natural forests. Deforestation can lead to the depletion of trees in water catchments and riverside zones. Afforestation ensures trees and plants that hold the soil in these sensitive areas remain protected. Many countries have introduced the practice of planting trees along with agricultural crops in croplands. The benefits of this practice, which is called agroforestry, are: It provides a supply of timber, fruit, and fodder for cattle apart from crop production It prevents soil erosion It enables better retention of water It shields crops from excessive wind and sun damage In terms of the environmental benefits, planting trees is always beneficial whether it takes place in a barren land or is used as a method to regenerate a depleted forest. Trees help check atmospheric carbon dioxide; large scale afforestation can curb the problems caused due to burning of fossil fuels, industrialization and so forth. Current Efforts

In the central hardwood forest region of the US, increasing numbers of land owners are converting crop land marginally into a forest. This is being done to decrease the pressure on the use of existing hardwood species of the forest like black cherry, black walnut, and northern red oak.

In South Africa, about 0.5 percent of land is covered with indigenous forests, and 1.1 percent by forests formed by Total Commercial Afforestation (TCA) and containing trees like pine, gum trees, black wattle, and so forth. This has helped provide wood to be used for charcoal, poles, mining timber, paper pulp, and other commercial applications. The advantage of planting a tree species, like pine, is it helps check infections the tree is prone to in its native country and climate, thus producing higher production. Pursuant to better growth and higher yields due to afforesting of these alien species, South Africa can produce and export close to two million tons of wood and wood products. In China, the government has earmarked a bulk amount equivalent to almost 300 billion US dollars that would be completely utilized for afforesting schemes the country is planning. To combat soil erosion in Central and West China, the government has already started the process of converting farmland back to woodland. Conclusion Afforesting is a positive effort in curbing the over-use and destruction of natural forests. If done with proper planning and at appropriate sites, it can become a commercially viable solution for many human needs without harming the balance of nature. Reference http://www.energy-enviro.fi/index.php?PAGE=3&NODE_ID=5&LANG=1&ID=3246 http://www.agriculture.purdue.edu/fnr/htirc/pdf/publications/Afforestationinthecentralhardwoodf orestregionoftheUSA.pdf http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/envfacts/facts/afforestation.htm Image Credit McD22 via cc/Flickr http://www.flickr.com/photos/smcdevitt/3091208756/ Read more: http://www.brighthub.com/environment/science-

environmental/articles/91133.aspx#ixzz1DuzRcFD8 Advantages: It helps meet the world's increasing demands for timber and forest products Soil erosion is avoided as trees prevent rapid run off after heavy rainfall. Tourism is encouraged. Jobs are provided. Wildlife is preserved

Trees provide oxygen The beauty of the landscape is preserved Disadvantages: Blanket planting spoils the natural look of the landscape It increases fire risks It is sometimes cheaper to import timber from other countries It limits access for hikers and recreational users. It may reduce tourism

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more:

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_advantages_and_disadvantages_of_afforestation#ixzz 1DuyskdrA Afforestation Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where the preceding vegetation or land use was not forest.[1] Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover either naturally (by natural seeding, coppice, or root suckers) or artificially (by direct seeding or planting), usually maintaining a same or similar forest type, and done promptly after the previous stand or forest was removed.[2] Many governments and non-governmental organizations directly engage in programs of afforestation to restore forests, increase carbon capture and sequestration, and assist in preservation of biodiversity. (In the UK afforestation may mean legally converting land into a royal forest.) Afforestation in areas of degraded soil In some places, forests need help to reestablish themselves because of environmental factors. For example, once forest cover is destroyed in arid zones, the land may dry and become inhospitable to new tree growth. Other factors include overgrazing by livestock, especially animals such as goats, and over-harvesting of forest resources. Together these may lead to desertification and the loss of topsoil; without soil, forests cannot grow until the long process of soil creation has been completed - if erosion allows this. In some tropical areas, forest cover removal may result in a duricrust or duripan that effectively seal off the soil to water penetration and root growth. In many areas, reforestation is impossible because people are using the land. In other areas,

mechanical breaking up of duripans or duricrusts is necessary, careful and continued watering may be essential, and special protection, such as fencing, may be needed. World regions Brazil Because of the extensive Amazon deforestation during the last decades and ongoing,[3] the small efforts of afforestation are insignificant on a national scale of the Amazon Rainforest.[4] China China has deforested most of its historically wooded areas. China reached the point where timber yields declined far below historic levels, due to over-harvesting of trees beyond sustainable yield.[5] Although it has set official goals for reforestation, these goals were set for an 80 year time horizon and are not significantly met by 2008. China is trying to correct these problems by projects as the Green Wall of China, which aims to replant a great deal of forests and halt the expansion of the Gobi desert. A law promulgated in 1981 requires that every citizen over the age of 11 plant at least one tree per year. As a result, China currently has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 square kilometers of afforestation in 2008.[6] However, the forest area per capita is still far lower than the international average.[7] An ambitious proposal for China is the Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System North Africa In North Africa, the sahara forest project coupled with the Seawater Greenhouse has been proposed. Some projects have also been launched in countries as Senegal to revert desertification. At present (2010) African leaders are discussing the combining of national countries in their continent to increase effectiveness.[8] In addition, other projects as the Keita project in Niger have been launched in the past, and have been able to locally revert damage done by desertification. See Development_aid#Effectiveness Europe Europe has deforested the majority of its historical forests. The European Union has paid farmers for afforestation since 1990, offering grants to turn farmland back into forest and payments for the management of forest. Between 1993 and 1997, EU afforestation policies made possible the re-forestation of over 5,000 square kilometres of land. A second program, running between 2000

and 2006, afforested in excess of 1000 square kilometres of land (precise statistics not yet available). A third such program began in 2007. In Poland, the National Program of Afforestation was introduced by the government after World War II, when total area of forests shrank to 20% of country's territory. Consequently, forested areas of Poland grew year by year, and on December 31, 2006, forests covered 29% of the country (see: Polish forests). It is planned that by 2050, forests will cover 33% of Poland. According to FAO statistics, Spain had the fastest afforestation rate in Europe in the 1990-2005 period. In those years, a total of 44,360 square kilometers were afforested, and the total forest cover rose from 13,5 to 17,9 million hectares. In 1990, forests covered 26,6% of the Spanish territory. As of 2005, that figure had risen to 35,4%. Spain today has the third largest forest area in the European Union, after Sweden and Finland. Iran Iran is considered a low forest cover region of the world with present cover approximating seven percent of the land area. This is a value reduced by an estimated six million hectares of virgin forest, which includes oak, almond and pistacio. Due to soil substrates, it is difficult to achieve afforestation on a large scale compared to other temperate areas endowed with more fertile and less rocky and arid soil conditions. Consequently, most of the afforestation is conducted with non-native species, leading to habitat destruction for native flora and fauna, and resulting in an accelerated loss of biodiversity

VIII. CONCLUSIONS A key conclusion that emerges from the relevant anthropological and ecological literature is that, when not disrupted by economic or political forces, the indigenous mode of production generally preserves rather than destroys biodiversity and natural resources. In fact, in any particular region, capitalist development through promotion of large-scale, commercial agriculture is bound to affect natural resource conservation more than some of the existing traditional systems. In fact, many studies have proven that many traditional systems are highly sustainable and productive, offering an alternative to the capital intensive agriculture currently promoted by many development agencies. Besides using crop diversity, traditional farmers use a set of practices that

cause minimal land degradation. These include the use of terraces and hedgerows in sloping areas, minimal tillage, mulching, small field sizes, and long fallow cycles (Grigg, 1974; Brush, 1980; Richards, 1985; Netting, 1993). It is clear that the peasant strategy towards complexity has a deep ecological rationale, as the kinds of agriculture with the best chance to endure are those that deviate least from the diversity of the natural plant communities within which they exist (Altieri, 1995; Gliessman, 1998). It is not a matter of romanticizing subsistence agriculture or considering development per se as detrimental. The intention is rather to stress the value of traditional agriculture in the preservation of biodiversity, native crop diversity and the adjacent vegetation communities (Toledo, 1980). Basing a rural development strategy on traditional farming and ethnobotanical knowledge not only assures continual use and maintenance of valuable genetic resources but also allows for the diversification of peasant subsistence strategies (Alcorn, 1984; Caballero and Mapes, 1985), a crucial issue in times of economic uncertainty. In addition, the study of traditional agroecosystems and the ways in which peasants maintain and use biodiversity can speed considerably the emergence of agroecological principles, which are greatly needed in order to develop more sustainable agroecosystems and biodiversity conservation strategies both in the industrial and developing countries. REFERENCES Alcorn, J. B. 1984. Huastec Mayan Ethnobotany. University of Texas Press, Austin. Altieri, M. A. 1987. Agroecology: the scientific basis of alternative agriculture. Westview Press, Boulder. Altieri, M.A. and M.K. Anderson. 1986. An ecological basis for the development of alternative agricultural systems for small farmers in the Third World. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 1:30-38.