Analysis of Capacity Development in Education Planning and Managment in Ethiopia

The book
Many initiatives in Ethiopia in recent years have aimed to strengthen the capacities
of educational planners and managers including on-the-job training programmes
for ministry staff, regional and district planners, and school principals. Although
progress has been made, several challenges will need to be overcome if planners
are to fulfll their missions successfully.
This study examines these challenges, which include the profle of planners, their
recruitment and evaluation, and the resources at their disposal. Several short-,
medium- and long-term strategies are proposed to overcome obstacles and
sustainably improve the capacity of educational planners and managers. These include: well-
designed professional development programmes, linking initial and on-the-job training; reform of
human resource management (in particular, of recruitment and evaluation); and open and regular
communication fows between offces and administrative levels.
The authors
This study was prepared by Dramane Oulai and Candy Lugaz (Programme Specialists,
IIEP), Alemayehu Minas (former Secretary-General for the UNESCO National Commission in
Ethiopia), and Haileselassie Teklehaimanot (former Ethiopian Vice-Minister for Technical and
Vocational Education and Training), in collaboration with Marc Bernal (Programme Specialist,
UNESCO Institute for Statistics) and Marcus Edward (Director of Planning in Saint Lucia).
Analysis of capacity development
in educational planning and
management in Ethiopia
Dramane Oulai, Candy Lugaz,
Alemayehu Minas, Haileselassie Teklehaimanot
International Institute
for Educational Planning
Rethinking capacity development
in educational planning and management in Ethiopia
in educational planning and management in Ethiopia
Dramane Oulai, Candy Lugaz, Alemayehu Minas, Haileselassie Teklehaimanot
In collaboration with
Marc Bernal and Marcus Edward
The views and opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not necessarily
represent the views of UNESCO or IIEP. The designations employed and the presentation of material
throughout this review do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of
UNESCO or IIEP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities,
or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.
The publication costs of this study have been covered through a grant-in-aid offered by UNESCO
and by voluntary contributions made by several Member States of UNESCO, the list of which will
be found at the end of the volume.
Published by:
International Institute for Educational Planning
7-9 rue Eugne Delacroix, 75116 Paris, France
info@iiep.unesco.org
www.iiep.unesco.org
Cover design: IIEP
Typesetting: Linale Production
Printed in IIEPs printshop
iiep/web/doc/2011/05
UNESCO 2011
5
Contents
List of abbreviations 6
List of tables 8
Foreword 9
Summary 10
Rsum 11
Introduction 12
1. The education sector in Ethiopia: an overview of its organization and achievements 17
1.1 The education system 17
1.2 Decentralization of education in Ethiopia 21
1.3 Initiatives to enhance the delivering capacity of the education sector 26
1.4 Lessons learned 27
2. Assessment and ndings of the study 30
2.1 Human resources management 30
2.2 Organizational arrangements 42
2.3 Technical environment 45
2.4 Motivation and retention of educational planners and managers 49
3. Strengths and challenges of educational planning and management in Ethiopia 55
3.1 Strengths 55
3.2 Challenges 56
4. Strategies to develop the capacities of educational planners and managers in Ethiopia 60
Conclusion 65
References 67
Annex 1. Terms of reference for the implementation of the study on capacity development
in educational planning and management in Ethiopia 70
Annex 2. Individual questionnaire administered to educational planners and managers
at the federal, regional and woreda levels 82
International Institute for Educational Planning www.iiep.unesco.org
6
List of abbreviations
ABE Alternative Basic Education
AED Academy for Educational Development
ARM annual review meeting
ATP Advanced Training Programme (IIEP)
BESO Basic Education Strategic Objectives
BOFED Bureau of Finance and Economic Development
BPR business process reengineering
CBSP Capacity Building Strategy and Programme
CSRP Civil Service Reform Programme
DAG Development Assistance Group
DFID United Kingdom Department for International Development
EFA Education for All
EMIS Education Management Information System
ESDP education sector development program
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
GDP gross domestic product
GEQUIP General Education Quality Improvement Programme
GER gross enrolment ratio
GNI gross national income
IICBA International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa
IIEP International Institute for Educational Planning
IMF International Monetary Fund
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
JRM joint review mission
KETB Kebele Education and Training Board
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MEDAC Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation
MOCB Ministry of Capacity Building
MOF Ministry of Finance
MOFA Ministry of Federal Affairs
MOFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
NCBP National Capacity Building Programme
NER net enrolment ratio
List of abbreviations
7
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
ODI Overseas Development Institute
PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty
PIM Programme Implementation Manual
PSCAP Public Sector Capacity Building Programme
REB Regional Education Bureau
SGP School Grant Programme
Sida Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
SNNP Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples
TDP Teacher Development Programme
TVET technical and vocational education and training
TWG technical working group
UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics
UN United Nations
UNCT United Nations Country Team
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nations Childrens Fund
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization
UNESS UNESCO National Education Support Strategy
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WEO Woreda Education Ofce
WOFED Woreda Finance and Economic Department
8
List of tables, boxes, gures and graphs
Tables
Table 1.1 Evolution of enrolment in Ethiopia, from 1994/1995 to 2004/2005 20
Table 1.2 Actors involved in the educational planning and management process
in Ethiopia 25
Table 2.1 Process of recruitment of educational planners and managers (in percentage) 32
Table 2.2 Educational planners with experience as a school teacher (in percentage) 34
Boxes
Box 1. Among the tasks for which you are responsible, which ones do you nd
the most difcult to complete? 40
Figures
Figure A1. A selection of issues to be considered in an analysis of capacity development
policies and strategies 81
Graphs
Graph 2.1 Distribution of planners by their highest level of academic qualications
(in percentage) 33
Graph 2.2 Academic background of the planners who responded to the questionnaire 34
Graph 2.3 Planners number of years of experience in educational planning
and management (in percentage) 35
Graph 2.4 Planners who have been evaluated over the past two years (in percentage) 36
Graph 2.5 Appreciation by the educational planners and managers of the relevance
of the training they received with the tasks they are expected to perform
(in percentage) 39
Graph 2.6 Educational planners and managers who have at their disposal
a computer to perform their work (in percentage) 47
Graph 2.7 Planners with access to the Internet in their ofce (in percentage) 48
Graph 2.8 Planners who use the Internet for work, at the federal, regional
and woreda levels (in percentage) 48
Graph 2.9 Educational planners and managers appreciation of the usefulness
of staff meetings organized in their department (in percentage) 50
Graph 2.10 Educational planners and managers number of years of experience
in their current post (in percentage) 53
Graph 2.11 Educational planners and managers who have already tried to obtain
another post since their appointment to their current post (in percentage) 54
9
Foreword
Capacity development is an important mandate of many international organizations. Much of
their work aims to strengthen national capacities through training, technical advice, exchange
of experience, research, and policy advice. Yet there remains considerable dissatisfaction within
the international community regarding the impact of many such efforts. While these have usually
strengthened the skills of individuals, they have not always succeeded in improving the effectiveness
of the ministries or organizations in which they are working. These shortcomings call for continued
research into how capacity development policies and strategies can be made more effective.
In this context, UNESCO received funds from the Norwegian Ministries of Education and Foreign
Affairs to focus on capacity development for achieving the Education for All goals. The objective
has been to identify appropriate strategies for UNESCO and others. Within UNESCO, IIEP has
coordinated this work. A wide range of activities was undertaken, including detailed case studies on
three countries (Benin, Ethiopia and Vietnam), a series of thematic studies and literature reviews,
and consultations with experts. The focus has been on educational planning and management,
since stronger capacities in these areas should lead to signicant improvements in the education
system as a whole.
IIEPs work has led to the identication of the following important principles:
The type of capacity development being considered here only works in a sustainable manner
when there is national leadership and ownership, and when international efforts match
national priorities and strategies.
Strategies need attention at several levels: the capacities of the individual, the effectiveness
of the organization (for example the ministry of education), the norms and practices which
rule public management as a whole, and the political, social and economic contexts.
Any intervention must recognize the intrinsic values of ownership and participation. When it
aims only to identify partners weaknesses or to strengthen the positions of those already
powerful, the deepest sense of capacity development is lost.
The series Rethinking capacity development has been prepared within this framework.
Khalil Mahshi
Director, IIEP
10
Summary
The aim of this study is to evaluate the level of capacity in educational planning and management
in Ethiopia by identifying actual constraints and good practices, in order to present appropriate
strategies to improve these capacities. The study is based on a series of interviews and eld visits
to the Federal Ministry of Education in 10 of the 11 regions.
Following an overview of the organization of the education sector in Ethiopia and the main lines
of progress achieved over the past years, the study presents the core ndings of the eld work
conducted in the country, focusing on four main issues which have an impact on the capacities of
educational planners and managers: human resources management, organizational arrangements,
the technical environment and the motivation of educational planners and managers.
Even though good progress has been made on these issues over these past years, it is a matter
of urgency to overcome challenges which still characterize the system. Among them are the
following: the high level of staff turn-over which contributes to the lack of institutional memory
in planning positions; shortfalls among educational planners and managers who need stronger
skills in key planning tasks such as strategic planning, data collection and analysis, projections
and simulations; a lack of consistency in an adequate prole for the position; in some locations
the lack of recognition of the post of planners in particular related to statistics or EMIS as a
permanent position.
This study identies several strategies for addressing these challenges and for improving the
capacities of educational planners and managers in Ethiopia. These strategies are either envisaged
for the short, medium or long-term, and cover several dimensions such as initial and on-the-job
training, human resource management (criteria and process of recruitment of planners, evaluation
procedures, motivation), communication ows inside ofces and between the different levels of
planning and the quantity and quality of resources for planners to carry out their tasks.
11
Rsum
Lobjectif de cette tude est dvaluer le niveau des capacits en planication et gestion de
lducation en thiopie en identiant les contraintes rencontres ainsi que les bonnes pratiques,
an de prsenter quelques stratgies visant amliorer ces capacits. Cette tude repose
principalement sur une srie dentretiens et denqutes de terrain conduits auprs du Ministre
fdral de lducation ainsi que de dix des onze Rgions.
Aprs une revue de lorganisation du secteur ducatif en Ethiopie et des principaux progrs atteints
ces dernires annes, ltude prsente les rsultats cls de lenqute de terrain mene dans
le pays, en se concentrant sur quatre thmes principaux qui ont un impact sur les capacits
des planicateurs et gestionnaires de lducation : la gestion des ressources humaines, les
arrangements organisationnels, lenvironnement technique, et la motivation des planicateurs et
gestionnaires.
Mme si des progrs ont t raliss dans ces domaines depuis plusieurs annes, il est urgent
de dpasser les ds qui caractrisent encore le systme, parmi lesquels les suivants : le niveau
de rotation du personnel est lev, et contribue au manque dune mmoire institutionnelle aux
postes de planication ; les planicateurs et gestionnaires ont besoin de comptences plus fortes
dans des tches cls de la planication comme la planication stratgique, la collecte et lanalyse
de donnes, les projections et simulations ; ils nont pas toujours le prol adapt leur poste ;
dans certains endroits, le poste de planicateur en particulier li au statistiques ou au SIGE ne
semble pas tre systmatiquement reconnu comme un poste permanent.
Ltude identie plusieurs stratgies visant dpasser ces obstacles et amliorer les capacits des
planicateurs et gestionnaires de lducation. Ces stratgies sont envisages sur le court, moyen
et long-terme, et couvrent plusieurs dimensions comme la formation initiale et continue, la gestion
des ressources humaines (critres et processus de recrutement des planicateurs, procdures
dvaluation, motivation), ux de communication au sein des bureaux et entre les diffrents niveaux
de planication, quantit et qualit des ressources la disposition des planicateurs pour mener
bien leurs activits.
12
Introduction
Rationale and objectives of the study
Numerous efforts have been made by a wide variety of actors to develop and strengthen the
capacities of UNESCO Member States to plan and manage their education systems. These efforts,
which combine training courses, workshops and technical assistance missions, have regularly
strengthened the skills of individuals. However, they have seldom succeeded in transforming the
organizations to which these individuals belong, in particular the ministries of education. There is
a need, therefore, to examine the reasons for this relative failure and to propose innovative and
relevant capacity development policies and strategies.
In this regard, IIEP was given the responsibility for preparing a UNESCO policy paper on capacity
development for achieving the EFA goals. After discussions within UNESCO and with the agencies
offering nancial support the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research and the Norwegian
Ministry of Foreign Affairs it was decided that IIEP would undertake two main activities to help
UNESCO draft this paper:
an analysis of approaches and good practices in capacity development, and
detailed case studies of capacity development modes in three focus countries namely,
Benin, Ethiopia and Viet Nam.
These countries were selected after discussions with national governments, the UNESCO Education
Sector at Headquarters, the relevant regional cluster and national ofces, and UIS. They were
chosen on the basis of their diversity in size, the importance of their capacity development activities,
the degree of involvement of external partners in their capacity development operations, and the
regional distribution of these countries.
This particular study focuses on Ethiopia and assesses its capacity in educational planning and
management at the federal, regional and district levels. It identies the main challenges and
proposes appropriate policy measures. More specically, the study aims to:
assess current organizational and individual capacities in educational planning and
management;
analyse how government policies, strategies and practices enhance or constrain the
development of such capacities;
identify particularly successful capacity development policies, modalities and strategies;
suggest ways of strengthening integrated capacity development policies and strategies.
The terms of reference of this study are given in Annex 1.
Operational denitions
The two key terms capacity development and planning and management need a clear denition
as they can be interpreted in a number of ways. In this regard, we need to be aware of two risks. On
the one hand, it is essential that the analysis does not become too vast, and therefore supercial,
by examining the many different issues related to capacity development (such as governance,
public management reform or accountability). On the other hand, we should not focus only on a
small number of issues, such as training needs or capacity gaps, without paying attention to the
Introduction
13
wider factors impacting upon this process. The following conceptual denitions are used in this
study.
Capacity development
The term capacity development can be, and has at times been, given a broad interpretation, in
a similar way as the term development. A well-known denition used by the OECD Development
Assistance Committee, for instance, interprets capacity development as the process whereby
people, organizations and society as a whole unleash, strengthen, create, adapt and maintain
capacity over time (OECD, 2006: 12). According to a second and very different denition, capacity
development refers to the reinforcement of civil servants professional skills through training
activities organized by international agencies. If the rst interpretation is accepted, an analysis
of capacity development would cover a very wide and potentially confusing set of issues, while
adopting the second, much more restrictive denition would lead to the neglect of key issues
that have an impact on the performance of individuals and organizations for example, staff
management or organizational structures.
In this context we interpret capacity development as a process with four complementary dimensions:
improving the skills and performance of individuals;
improving organizational performance through rethinking the mandate, structure and internal
management of the organizational units within which individual ofcers work;
improving the public administration to which these units belong through a reection on public
service management;
improving the social, economic and political context within which ofcers work and within
which education systems develop by limiting the constraints and strengthening the incentives
within the external environment.
The gure in Annex I (p. 81) presents the various dimensions of capacity development in a
somewhat simplied manner. It shows the four above-mentioned dimensions: the individuals who
work within the organizational units, which form part of the public administration and function
within a specic context.
The individual ofcers (i.e. the educational planners and managers) have a mandate, as reected
in their job descriptions, and perform certain tasks, which may be different from their mandate.
Their effectiveness depends on a combination of qualications, experience and training, on the
relevance of this combination to their mandate and tasks, and on the presence and strength of
incentives, as well as the absence of inhibitors.
The individual ofcers work within an organizational unit. This can be the planning department
within the MOE, but planners and managers also work at the regional or district levels, and the
unit can then be the Regional Bureau of Education and its planning department or the Woreda
Education Ofce (in Ethiopia, a district is called a woreda). Each of these units has a mandate
to full and tasks to perform. Their effectiveness depends on the performance of the individual
ofcers as well as three organizational elements. The rst is the way in which internal management
facilitates the efciency and motivation of individual ofcers, for instance, through the development
of efcient internal communication, clear lines of accountability and supportive supervision. The
second is the relevance of the organizational structure: whether it reects the units mandate and
is sufciently clear and simple. The third is the degree to which the necessary human, material
and nancial resources and relevant information are available.
14
Introduction
The organizational units in our analysis all form part of public administration. Three issues are
of specic importance in this area: (1) the distribution of tasks among units and their level of
autonomy; (2) the existence of an education policy and a capacity development strategy; and most
importantly, (3) the management of the public service, including, for instance, recruitment and
evaluation criteria and procedures and their impact on staff performance.
Finally, several factors related to the political, economic and social context may have a positive
or harmful impact on the performance of the public administration and its ofcers. Among these
factors is the ease with which employment can be found outside the public sector, as well as the
support of development partners (for instance, international and bilateral development agencies,
NGOs, and so on) which may inuence the building of national capacity through their contributions
to the design and implementation of the capacity development policy of the country.
Educational planning and management
Good planning and an efcient management system are the essential bases for any progress
towards achieving the EFA goals, given the limitations in the nancial resources available to
education. Good planning helps with the making of rational choices in investment strategies and
between the delivery systems, while efcient management raises the performance of the education
system in providing quality basic education to all. Lack of skills in planning and management,
together with an inoperative organizational structure in the education sector, can constitute serious
obstacles to the functioning of education systems and therefore hinder their chances of achieving
the EFA goals. For these reasons, the UNESCO policy paper and the case study in Ethiopia focus on
capacities in educational planning and management. Previous studies in particular, the training
needs assessment carried out by IIEP in 2005 at the request of USAID and the Academy for
Educational Development (AED) (IIEP, 2005) emphasized the strengths but also the challenges
facing educational planning and management in Ethiopia, which constitute obstacles to achieving
the EFA goals (see Annex 2 for further details of the conceptual framework).
In order to undertake the analysis of capacities in these areas with success, the main planning and
management tasks were covered following the logic of the planning process: sector analysis (data
collection and analysis); policy formulation; plan formulation; programming of the plan activities;
implementation; and monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of these activities.
Methodology of the study
This study involved descriptive and analytical research on three sources of information:
review of existing ofcial documents and data on capacity development in the education
sector, and in educational planning and management in Ethiopia in particular;
interviews organized with a wide range of individuals from selected target groups;
data collected through questionnaires administered to educational planners and managers
at the federal, regional, and woreda levels (Annex 2).
For the data collection process during the eld work and for data analysis and interpretation, a
research team composed of IIEP staff, national researchers and international consultants was set
up. The team members included two IIEP staff, an international consultant, two high-level national
consultants who were selected on the advice of the Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MOE) and the
UNESCO Cluster Ofce, and nally the UIS Regional Education Advisor based in Dar es Salaam,
who has worked in Ethiopia in the recent past. Throughout the implementation process, several
sessions were organized with the head of the Planning Department at the Federal MOE in order to
Introduction
15
discuss the coverage of the study and the progress being made, and to report some of the early
ndings.
The eld work, undertaken with the support of the UNESCO Cluster Ofce, consisted of two eld
missions, each of two weeks duration: the rst one was organized in November 2007 and the
second in March 2008.
The eld study involved interviews and focus group discussions with a wide range of actors,
comprising the following:
staff at the Federal Ministry involved in planning and management, including the Planning
Department head and planners;
ofcers at the Federal Civil Service Commission and the Ministry of Finance and Economic
Development (MOFED);
staff at the Regional Education Bureaux (REB) and Woreda Education Ofces (WEO) in charge
of planning, nancing and human resources;
senior ofcers working in the Bureaux of Finance and Economic Development at the regional
(BOFED) and at the woreda level (WOFED), as well as in the Regional Civil Service Commission;
education advisors of key development partners. The team met with the Task Force for Capacity
Development in Education, which is chaired by the head of the Planning Department at the
MOE and composed of representatives of the major international partners. The team also had
the opportunity for separate discussions with the education advisors and representatives of
the following agencies: the Academy for Educational Development (AED), the United Kingdom
Department for International Development (DFID), the International Institute for Capacity
Building in Africa (IICBA), the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), UNESCO, the United
Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID), the Government of the Netherlands and the World Bank;
a European Union consultant and an Overseas Development Institute (ODI) fellow, both of
whom have been working as advisors to the head of the Planning Department at the MOE;
the head of the Department of Educational Planning and Management at the College of
Education at Addis Ababa University;
several former trainees of the IIEP Advanced Training Programme (ATP).
At the request of the MOE, the research team visited ten Regional Education Bureaux (REB) (all the
regional states Afar, Amhara, Benishangul Gumuz, Gambela, Harari, Oromia, Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP), Tigray, and two city administrations: Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa
except for the Somali region, which was not visited), as well as two to three WEOs per region. Each
region was visited by two members of the research team, except for three regions (Gambela, Dire
Dawa and Harari), which were visited by one researcher. These interviews permitted the gathering
of a rich base of information on the process of educational planning and management in Ethiopia,
as well as on the strengths and challenges of this process.
In addition, individual questionnaires were prepared by the team and distributed to the educational
planners and managers in the Planning Department at the MOE, the ten REBs and the WEOs that
were visited by the researchers. The objective of using such questionnaires was to complete and
complement the qualitative information collected during the interviews. Overall, 74 questionnaires
were completed by such ofcers within the framework of this case study. The questionnaires were
completed by nine planners working at the Federal MOE, 26 regional planners, and 38 planners
of WEOs (74 planners overall).
16
Introduction
The present report is based on the analysis of these data, taking into account the results of previous
studies carried out recently in Ethiopia on the same topic (in particular, IIEP, 2005; Watson, 2005;
World Bank, 2005).
Structure of the report
This report presents and analyses the main ndings of the eld study, examines key challenges
to the capacity development of educational planners and managers in Ethiopia, and identies
strategies that could help in overcoming these constraints.
The report will examine the following topics:
overview of the organization and progress achieved in the education sector in Ethiopia;
assessment and ndings of the study;
main strengths and challenges of the educational planning and management system in
Ethiopia;
suggested capacity development strategies;
conclusion.
17
1 The education sector in Ethiopia:
an overview of its organization and achievements
Ethiopia is a federal country of 1,221,900 sq km with a population estimated at 77.4 million in
2005 (IMF mid-year estimate for 2005). It is sub-Saharan Africas second most populous country,
after Nigeria. The population grew at an average rate of 2.2 per cent between 1990 and 2000, and
if the same rate of growth persists between 2005 and 2010, the total population of the country will
reach 82.3 million in 2010 an increase of almost nine million in ve years. The population is very
young as 44.8 per cent are under 15 years old (World Bank, 2004 ), indicating the enormous efforts
to be undertaken in order to provide educational opportunities for all those who need education.
The country has an economy based on agriculture. The growth of the economy has been robust over
the past few years (11.9 per cent in 2004, 10.5 per cent in 2005 and 9.6 per cent in 2007)(IMF;
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development ) and real GDP is expected to continue to grow
at a rate of 8.4 per cent in 2008 and 7.7 per cent in 2009 (IMF estimate) as a result of sustained
growth in agriculture, horticulture and services as well as inows of donor aid and direct foreign
investment. Nevertheless, the per capita income in the country, which stood at US$170 in 2006,
remains at a very low level. This explains the generally low level of civil servant salaries observed
in the country.
The government has launched a new development programme called the Plan for Accelerated
and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP), which is based on Ethiopias strategy of
agriculture-based industrialization. The plan is expected to benet from a massive investment
in infrastructure with a view to facilitate the conduct of business in the country. The largest
component of the federal budget will be for capital investment in road building, agriculture, health
and education. Educational development is at the top of the governments development agenda.
Ethiopia receives EFA Fast Track Initiative funding and is one of the seven Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) pilot countries.
The following sections present: the education system in Ethiopia; its decentralization framework;
the initiatives undertaken to enhance the delivery of capacity in the education sector; and the
main lessons learned.
1.1 The education system
Main characteristics
The general education system in Ethiopia is framed as 8-2-2 which represents:
primary education of eight years (up to Grade 8) from age 7 to 14;
two years of general secondary education (Grades 9 and 10) for ages 15 and 16;
preparatory education (senior secondary), Grades 11 and 12, for ages 16 and 17.
There are three national examinations involved in the above structure. At the end of Grade 8, all
regions administer a primary school-leaving national examination. At the completion of Grade 10,
all students are expected to sit for the Ethiopian General Secondary Certicate Examination
administered by the Ethiopian General Education Quality Assurance and Examination Agency. This
18
Analysis of capacity development in educational planning and management in Ethiopia
examination is instrumental in assigning students to either the technical and vocational education
and training (TVET) system (of 10+1, 10+2 and 10+3) or the academic preparatory stream after
which another national exam is administered (at the end of year 12), which serves basically as a
means of placement of students in different faculties of universities.
In addition, there is a formal integrated system (Alternative Basic Education) and parallel
sub-systems of non-formal programmes of education and training, including special education,
which complement the existing structure of education.
The curriculum development of general education is the shared responsibility of the MOE and
REBs. The federal MOE prepares the curriculum structure, which is discussed and enriched by the
professionals in the respective regions. Consequently, primary school textbooks and guide books
are developed and produced by the regions in the mediums of instruction of their choice. For
Grades 9 and above, the development and production of these materials is the responsibility of
the federal MOE and is generally undertaken by engaging commissioned writers.
Trends in education sector development
The Ethiopian Government has shown a strong commitment to educational expansion and has
registered consistently high results in expanding educational services at all levels since the adoption
of the New Education and Training Policy in 1994 and its derivative, the 20-year Education Sector
Development Program (ESDP).
The ESDP has been in progress in phases of ve-year cycles. It is continuously redressing the
shortcomings in order to achieve quality universal primary education by the year 2015 with
corresponding expansion in the successive sub-sectors. This is in line with the objective of
increasing the literate pool of the Ethiopian population while producing the high- and middle-level
professionals required for accelerating economic growth.
The ESDP I was developed in 1994/1995 against the backdrop of very worrisome indicators of the
education system, most of which are documented in several assessments. At the time, the sector
was characterized, among other things, by a very low primary school gross enrolment ratio (GER)
of 51 per cent, a secondary school GER of 15 per cent and a tertiary education GER of about 0.8
per cent. Gender disparity was also very high at all levels, so much so that the combined primary
and secondary school enrolment rate for girls was 29 per cent, while that of boys was 42 per cent.
Furthermore, the sector had been suffering from inadequate facilities, insufcient trained teachers,
overcrowded classes, and a shortage of text books and other teaching materials.
In the years following the roll out of the ESDP, most of the hurdles in the primary schools have
been gradually overcome. By the end of 2004/2005, the number of public primary schools built
across the country had increased by 53 per cent, reaching over 19,412 (MOE, 2007: 3). The
gure for the pre-ESDP roll out in 1994/1995 was 8,434, thus showing more than a two-fold
increase. Consequently, primary school enrolment by the end of 2006/2007 (1999 Ethiopian
Calendar) stood at over 12, 657,342 students compared to 2,063,635 a little over ten years
earlier. Compared to the estimated 14,753,159 school-aged population of the country, this gave a
total gross enrolment rate of 85.8 per cent (78.5 per cent for girls and 92.9 per cent for boys). For
2006, the net enrolment ratio (NER) at primary level was estimated at 65 per cent.
When enrolment in the parallel mode of delivery known as Alternative Basic Education (ABE) is
considered, the cumulative GER becomes 91.3 per cent. According to the MOEs Annual Education
Statistics issued in February 2007, there were 6,425 ABE centres across the country, located mainly
in the pastoralist and hard-to-reach communities. With all of these accounted for, the sub-sector
The education sector in Ethiopia: overview of its organization and achievements
19
had an annual growth rate of 11.3 per cent between 1998/99 and 2002/2003 alone (Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2004: 3).
Urban-rural disparity has also been decreasing steadily in favour of the latter as the result of the
building of a large number of schools in the rural areas. During the period under review, 83 per cent
of all newly built schools were in rural areas and this resulted in a primary school geographical
coverage of over 64 per cent of the country. Consequently, a 75.7 per cent increase in the primary
school gross enrolment rate has been registered compared to just 24.3 per cent for the urban
localities. There has been a marked improvement in gender parity at the primary education level
as well, reaching 0.84 towards the end of 2006/2007 (MOE, 2007: 16).
Though the expansion of secondary education has not kept pace with that of primary education,
the gross enrolment rate has increased considerably, thus registering 33.2 per cent (41.6 per cent
for boys and 24.5 per cent for girls) by 2006/2007 (MOE, 2007: 9). This is nearly double the total
enrolment ratio recorded in 1994/95 when the new Education and Training Policy was adopted
and the roll out of the Education Sector Development Programme started.
The technical vocational education and training sub-sector, which was at a rudimentary stage at
the turn of the last decade, has made tremendous progress since 1994/1995. This was supported
by Proclamation No. 351/2004, giving impetus to its expansion and thereby providing broad
and multilevel foundations (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2004: 5). According to
the Ministry of Education Annual Abstract issued in February 2007, there were 269 technical
vocational education and training institutions versus a mere 17 in 1994/1995. Thus there
was a total enrolment of 123,557 students, of which 50.3 per cent was female by the end of
2006/2007 (MOE, 2007: 11). This is an impressive 50-fold increase compared to the enrolment
of 2,338 students recorded in 1994/95 (Leka, no date: 6).
The higher education sub-sector has not been well developed. Its participation rate of under
1 per cent is one of the lowest in the world even by sub-Saharan Africas standard which is 3 per cent
with its undergraduate intake not more than 9,000 towards the end of the last decade (Yizengaw,
2003: 23). During the past ve years, however, higher education in Ethiopia has expanded both in
terms of infrastructure and programme areas, and there are currently 21 public universities (eight
of them old and 13 new ones), along with eight private university colleges with a total enrolment
of 210,456 students in undergraduate and post-graduate programmes. This has resulted in an
annual average increase of 33 per cent since the last ESDP II (2002/2003 2004/2005) and the
current ESDP III (2005/2006 2010/2011) (MOE, 2007: 53). Indeed, the annual intake has also
increased over the years, registering an annual intake rate of 30,000 in 2003/2004 compared
to around 3,500 in 1994/1995 (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2004: 13). To address
the quality issues that accompany such an accelerated increment in the sub-sector, various
interventions have been and continue to be implemented within the context of the Higher Education
Reform Project since 2004. This includes the establishment of the Quality Assurance Agency and
Pedagogical Resource Centers, and giving internal managerial autonomy to the universities, among
other things (Yizengaw, 2003: 23).
Education nance has also shown considerable growth over the period considered. The education
expenditure, which was Birr 1.36 billion (13 per cent of the national budget) in 1994/1995 (MOE,
1996) has increased to Birr 4.64 billion (or 16.7 per cent of the national budget) in 2004/2005,
with over 50 per cent of it consistently allocated to primary education over the period in review.
The quality of the education system as a whole and of the primary education sub-sector in particular
remains unsatisfactory, although it is improving. For example, the MOE Educational Abstract of
20
2007 reports that 49.6 per cent of secondary school teachers, 97.6 per cent of rst cycle primary
school teachers and 59.4 per cent of second cycle primary school teachers are qualied. This is
in contrast to the target of 98.3 per cent for the rst cycle and 63 per cent for the second cycle
primary education, respectively, by 2005/2006 (MOE, 1996: 1920). On the other hand, at the
primary level, the pupil-teacher and pupil-section ratios need attention, given the current gures
of about 62 and 69 respectively (MOE, 1996: 19-20). These two gures are in contrast to the
standard pupil-teacher and teacher-section ratios of 50.
Table 1.1 gives the evolution of enrolment, gross enrolment ratio (GER) and gender parity index in
primary education, two years of general secondary education, preparatory, higher education and
technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in Ethiopia from 1994/1995 to 2004/2005.
Table 1.1 Evolution of enrolment in Ethiopia from 1994/1995 to 2004/2005
Enrolment
1994/1995
Enrolment
2004/2005
GER
1994/1995
GER
2004/2005
Gender
comparison
2004/2005
Primary
education
2,063,635 11,448,641 51% 79.8% GER girls 78.5%
Two years
of general
secondary
Education
n/a (no such
cycle existed
then)
860,734 n/a (no such
cycle existed
then)
27.3% GER girls 24.5%
Preparatory
education
n/a (no such
cycle existed
then)
92,483 n/a (no such
cycle existed
then)
n/a (not
computed in the
EMIS)
GER girls 27.3%
Higher education
(colleges and
universities)
6,354 * 191,165 ** ** **
TVET 2,634* 106,336 ** ** **
Source: Ministry of Education, 1997-.
* These gures refer to government institutions only.
** Enrolment rates cannot be calculated as the relevant age brackets for these levels are not yet dened.
Recently, the Ministry of Education and Regional Education Bureaux have come up with a package
that pools donors resources to address four priority quality issues under the umbrella programme
called the General Education Quality Improvement Programme (GEQUIP) (MOE, 2007a).
The programme intends to improve the quality of students education outcomes in the general
education sub-sector by improving the quality of teaching and learning as well as the capacity
of federal, regional and woreda education ofces to deliver. The major pillars of the programme
consist of the Teacher Development Programme (TDP); curriculum, textbooks and assessment;
management and administration; and the school improvement and School Grant Programme (SGP).
1.2 Decentralization of education in Ethiopia
The decentralization framework
Decentralization was introduced in Ethiopia under the 1995 Constitution, thus giving rise to the
federal system of administration. Since then, Ethiopia has become a federal country, composed
of nine regional states Afar; Amhara; Benishangul-Gumuz; Gambela; Harari; Oromia; Southern
21
Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP); Somali; Tigray and two city administrations Addis
Ababa and Dire Dawa. Each regional state has its own constitution with legislative, executive and
judiciary domains of government. Similarly, the woredas (district levels) under the regions, and the
municipalities under the city administrations, have their houses of representatives and executive
and court systems. There are about 700 woredas and 250 municipalities in the country. Below
the woredas, there are the kebeles which are the lowest form of government. There is an average
of about 20 kebele administrations below each woreda. In total, there are about 15,000 kebeles
in the country (Ministry of Education, 2006: 5).
In Ethiopia, education is organized according to the overall system of federalism in the country.
The Federal Ministry of Education is headed by a minister and three ministres dtats responsible
respectively for the general education, TVET and higher education sub-sectors. All the nine
regional states and two city administrations have their respective Regional Education Bureaux
(REBs), under which Woreda Education Ofces (WEOs) are organized. The Dire Dawa and Harari
regions are exceptions to the rule as they have neither sub-city administrations nor WEOs: these
regions are indeed much smaller than the others, and the REBs liaise directly with the schools for
administrative purposes. Below the woredas, the Kebele Education and Training Boards (KETB) are
the educational planning and management government organs at the community level.
From a nancial point of view, the federal government allocates block grant resources to the regions,
which in turn allocate resources under the same format to the woreda councils. Each level shares
the transferred resources to the different sectors including education. The woreda councils allocate
resources to WEOs and schools.
The educational administration at each level is politically accountable to its government,
and technically to the upper level of administration. However, the relationship between each
administrative level is not hierarchical: accordingly, the Ministry of Education has no direct line
authority over the Regional Bureaux of Education (Ministry of Education, 2006: 5).
Planning and management responsibilities at different levels
of the educational administration
The Ethiopian system of educational planning and management is both a bottom-up and top-down
exercise. Resource requests and plans and budget proposals come from the lower tiers, while
target setting, resource allocation and the approval of proposals descend from their respective
upper levels. But since the legislative line (i.e. the different levels of houses of representatives)
and the executive and the technical line (i.e. the sectoral bureaux and ofces) are also involved
in the process of planning and resource allocation, several horizontal and vertical interactive and
consultative processes are imperative.
The following sections present in more detail the roles and responsibilities played in educational
planning and management by the federal Ministry of Education (MOE), the Regional Education
Bureaux (REBs), the zones, the Woreda Education Ofces and the Kebele Education and Training
Boards (KETBs).
The federal MOE
With regard to the planning and management of education, the federal MOE is responsible for:
formulating national education policy;
setting education and training standards at all levels of education;
monitoring implementation and ensuring that standards are respected;
22
formulating the general framework of curricula of education and training.
In this context, the MOE Planning Unit monitors the implementation of policy interventions and
ensures that the REBs and WEOs have the capacity to plan and manage education at their levels.
This requires that this unit has the requisite skills to capacitate the REBs and WEOs. Presently, the
MOE Planning Unit comprises the unit head and 11 planners.
The Regional Education Bureaux
The Regional Education Bureau (REB) is the Ministry of Educations equivalent for the regional
state. The bureau is staffed with key professionals to plan, manage and assess the delivery of
education within the region. The REBs plan and provide for access to formal education, organize
teacher training programmes and develop curricula at the primary level. The REBs also prepare
strategic plans for the region at the federal level, within the approved framework. The organizational
structure of the REBs generally encompasses two major departments, namely general education
and TVET. The general education department is further subdivided into units such as the curriculum
unit and the supervision unit. In addition to those major departments, several smaller units form
part of the organizational structure, such as planning, legal services, public relations and nance.
The REB answers to two agencies the regional council (on policy, planning, management and
nancial matters) and to the sector ministry (on policy and standard matters). More precisely, the
REB has the following major responsibilities:
to plan, administer and direct education from the pre-school to junior college level in line with
the countrys education policy;
to provide basic education to all in the region;
to monitor the implementation of education policy in the region;
to adapt the national curricular framework, particularly that of primary and pre-primary
education, to the regions specic needs and culture;
to build, rehabilitate, maintain and repair educational establishments (secondary schools,
TVET and teacher training schools) in the region;
to train, employ, manage and dismiss teachers and other educational staff;
to supply educational materials and equipment, and issue certicates;
to license the establishment of private institutions of education (primary, secondary and
middle-level TVETs);
to initiate and enhance the participation of the community.
The organizational structure of the REBs includes the establishment of education planning units.
These units typically comprise three to four planners and, in some cases, an Education Management
Information System (EMIS) coordinator. Like the federal level, the planning unit at the regional level
is responsible for strategic and annual planning, as well as the management and dissemination of
education data. The unit also undertakes policy studies and provides support to planners at the
woreda level.
The zones
In some regions, particularly the larger ones such as Oromia, zones were created as an intermediary
level between the REB and WEO levels. The zone is another tier of governance situated between
the region and the woreda with a limited administrative role, with much coordination and without
legislative power (Ministry of Education, 2006: 5). In others, such as SNNPR, zones are endowed
with greater responsibility in the managing of education.
23
The Woreda Education Ofces (WEOs)
Woreda Education Ofces (WEOs) are the primary educational authorities responsible for the
establishment and implementation of all educational activities primary, secondary and TVET
at the district level. They monitor the delivery of instruction in schools and mobilize resources for
the operation of schools. The sub-city education administrations are the equivalent of woreda
education ofces in city administration.
The WEO is administratively subordinated to the Woreda Council, and also professionally and
technically answerable to the REB. Its specic mandates are the following:
planning education for the woreda up to secondary level;
ensuring standards and the accreditation of institutions;
implementing and evaluating projects;
administering primary and secondary schools;
monitoring and supervising programmes;
enhancing community participation by establishing administrative boards, PTAs and other
committees;
developing interschool integration and coordination;
allocating budgets to schools;
building the capacities of educational personnel in the woredas.
In principle, all WEOs have a planning unit comprising a head and one or two planners, one of whom
very often handles the EMIS function. These ofces engage in strategic and operational planning
for their level. All plans are based on the regional education plans and local district needs.
At the WEO level, the planning activities include data collection from the schools and preparation
of the woreda plan. The WEOs are also responsible for school-mapping and micro- planning
exercises that involve planners, school supervisors and the heads of the secondary schools within
the woreda. In carrying out these activities, the WEOs receive support from the kebele education
ofces (in municipalities), the experts and team leaders of which contribute to the inputs for the
woreda education plans. WEOs are supposed to undertake preliminary analysis of the data they
collect and provide feedback to the schools before they forward it to the REB. They also have the
responsibility of training kebele education ofcers, recruiting, training and deploying teachers and
head teachers, as well as supporting kebele ofces.
The Kebele Education and Training Board (KETB)
The KETBs have fewer responsibilities in educational planning, but play an important role in the
actual implementation of policies at the pre-primary and primary levels of education. Their staff
comprises two to ve people usually recruited among primary school teachers. They are responsible
for:
collecting educational data up to the primary level and forwarding it to the WEOs;
monitoring the operations of the school in the kebele;
participating in the evaluation of teachers performance;
organizing and facilitating community participation and support;
paying attention to the disciplinary affairs of teachers and students.
24
Planning and management role of other ministries
The Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MOFED)
Under Proclamation No. 256/2001, the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development inherited
all the responsibilities previously assigned separately (by Proclamation No. 4/1995) to the former
Ministry of Finance (MOF) and the Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation (MEDAC).
Federal responsibilities for planning, budgeting and aid management were thus assigned to a
single ministry. There was a major reorganization and integration of the previous MOF and MEDAC
structures. MOFED is currently organized into three main wings, each headed by a state minister,
covering economic development, economic cooperation and public nance respectively. Three of
the wings are involved in educational affairs at the macro level in their respective domains. The
regional share of the block grant budget subsidy is affected by this Ministry.
The Ministry of Capacity Building (MOCB)
The Ministry of Capacity Building was created in 2002 in the context of increasing democratization
and decentralization of the system. It was charged with implementing the National Capacity Building
Programme developed as part of the Civil Service Reform Programme launched in 1998 at
all levels of government, and across all sectors, including education. In the context of increased
decentralization, it was indeed essential to build the capacities of governments and civil servants
working at the local level. The Ministry of Capacity Building was created in order to provide policy
directions, coordination and implementation support with regard to capacity building (World Bank,
2005: 7) and, more specically, to:
initiate national capacity building policies as well as prepare and implement programmes and
budgets accordingly;
ensure that the necessary capacity is created for national capacity building;
perform other activities necessary for the enhancement of capacity building at all levels.
A survey carried out in 2008 on capacity development initiatives led in the education sector in
Ethiopia assessed the impact of the Ministry of Capacity Building at the time of the survey and
reached the following conclusion: the impact of the Ministry has not yet been fully felt, probably due
to its novelty (it was created only in 2002). Its role has been limited to the preparation of the major
(forthcoming) PSCAP (Public Sector Capacity Building Programme)(which will impinge indirectly on
education service delivery); handling the community and parent-teacher mobilization aspects of
the ESDP (...). It appears, however, that the Ministry has not kept abreast of, or contributed to, some
very signicant and innovative capacity building experiences in the education sector, particularly
those sponsored by USAID (Watson, 2005: 20).
The Ministry of Federal Affairs (MOFA)
The role of the Ministry of Federal Affairs is to:
oversee the administration of Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa;
give assistance to the regions with particular emphasis on the less developed ones.
The Ministry of Construction and Urban Development
The Ministry of Construction and Urban Development has an important role in the design,
construction and contracting of educational projects. It has responsibility for urban policy and
planning, and hence plays an important role with respect to Ethiopias municipalities.
25
Decision-making in a decentralized context: a summary
The responsibility for planning and managing education in Ethiopia is therefore entrusted to a
number of federal ministries, the REBs, the WEOs, the KETBs and the community, for different
aspects and at different levels. Development partners also play a role in this regard. Table 1.2
summarizes the distribution of responsibilities among the main actors involved in the process of
educational planning and management.
Table 1.2 Actors involved in the educational planning and management process in Ethiopia
Priority
denition
Setting
standards
Sector
analysis
Policy
formulation
Plan
formulation
Implementation
Monitoring
and
evaluation
Federal
Ministry of
Education

Ministry of
Economic
Development

Ministry of
Capacity
Building

Ministry
of Federal
Affairs

Ministry of
Construction

Regional
Education
Bureau

Woreda
Education
Ofce

Kebele
Education
and Training
Board

Community
Development
partners

Source: Data from various issues of MOE education abstracts.
This study focuses on capacity in planning and management at the MOE, REB and WEO levels and
has not dealt with activities at the kebele level or within other related ministries.
1.3 Initiatives to enhance the delivering capacity of the education sector
When the decision was taken in 1995 to set up a federal decentralized management structure, the
rst step was the initiative to build the delivering capacities of the newly established sub-national
education management structures. This began with the mobilization of a large number of staff from
the Ministry of Education to the regional states (Freeman, 2005: 7), thus laying the foundation
for the present federal government structures. This was followed by continuous orientation and
26
technical support in the key areas of project planning, evaluation and reporting by the Ministry
staff at the time.
A coordinated and systematic effort to address the sectors capacity limitations followed the
adoption of the Education Sector Development Program in 1995 in partnership with development
partners and stakeholders in the sector. In this regard, a coordinated effort by the bilateral agencies,
such as USAID, Sida, the Irish Development Cooperation, Government of Belgium and DFID, and
multilateral agencies, such as UNESCO, UNICEF and the World Bank, has been instrumental.
One particularly important initiative was the training of woreda education ofcers by the MOE,
supported by USAID as part of its woredas capacity building initiative in the context of the Basic
Education Strategic Objectives (BESO) project. The programme was implemented between 2004
and 2007. The training focused on planning and management, and reached about 4700 woreda
education ofcers. It is expected to continue under GEQUIP, supported by USAID and UNICEF, during
which 400 and 300 ofcials will be trained in a three-year period.
In 2006-2007, a specic training programme in educational planning and management was
designed for the heads and planners of REBs, as well as for planners from the central level. This
training was delivered by IIEP with the support of the MOE and USAID/Academy of Educational
Development (AED)/Basic Education Programme. It consisted of training teams rather than
individuals and covered about 300 planners.
In addition, the MOE and the REBs have been sponsoring their respective staff to enrol in summer
courses as well as undergraduate and post-graduate programmes that would enhance their
managerial and leadership capacity. This is, of course, in addition to the fragmented capacity
strengthening interventions undertaken during the last ten years in collaboration with other bilateral
agencies, notably the Irish Development Cooperation, JICA, the Governments of the Netherlands
and Finland, and multilateral ones such as UNICEF and UNESCO. For instance, from 2003 to 2007,
JICA trained planners from the regional and woreda levels of the Oromia Region on school mapping
and micro-planning. In 2007 UNICEF, in collaboration with Addis Ababa University, carried out a
training programme on the same topic for the Amhara Region.
The capacity development initiative was not limited to the management aspect of the system.
Key quality inputs such as teachers, curriculum and other related inputs intended to improve the
teaching-learning process have also been targeted. The Teacher Development Program (TDP) is
one of these and it has been in progress since 2004. Its major areas of intervention are pre- and
in-service teacher training, school leadership and management, higher diploma in interactive
teaching and learning, and the English Language Improvement programme.
The other major area of capacity building, focused on improving the institutional and technical
capacity of the federal MOE and the REBs, included the collection, storage, analysis and
dissemination of education data. Since 2006-2007, training and technical support is available
to statisticians and data encoders at all levels of the structure with the support of the UNESCO
Institute of Statistics (UIS), following the diagnostic study conducted in 2003 (Federal Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia, European Commission and UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2004).
Since 2005, these efforts of the MOE have been supported by technical and nancial development
partners, including the Government of the Netherlands , the UK Department for International
Development (DFID), USAID, Irish Development Cooperation (IDC), Sida, the World Bank, and
UNESCO. The Ministry of Education and these partners have set up a task force chaired by the
head of the planning department at MOE, with a representative of the partners group serving
27
as secretary on rotation. The task force also acts as a think-tank group for identifying areas of
capacity gaps that need to be tackled.
The latest development in the capacity building initiative is the production of a manual by the
MOE in collaboration with UNICEF (Ministry of Education, 2006), which serves as a reference for
day-to-day management tasks and a training package for organizing in-house training. The manual
emphasizes practical ways of decision-making and implementation [that] can be strengthened
at all levels, with particular emphasis on local level actions such as woredas and school levels
(Ministry of Education, 2006: 1). It deals with issues such as educational policy planning and
decentralization, human resources and decentralization, school-level responsibilities and school
cluster resource centres, community mobilization for resources and management, and school
infrastructure, among other things. It is a comprehensive reference intended as an in-house training
guide for continuous managerial and leadership skills development.
These various capacity-building initiatives have been further reinforced by the federal governments
overall civil service capacity building programme, which was introduced as early as 1996. The
reform process, which then began as a series of measures, developed into the Capacity Building
Strategy and Program (CBSP) in 1998/1999 with technical assistance from the World Bank. The
latter subsequently coordinated the support for its implementation by bilateral and multilateral
agencies, beginning in 2001.
The programme was later known as the National Capacity Building Program (NCBP) with the
purpose of strengthening working systems to improve organizational effectiveness and rapidly
develop human resource in the public sector (Freeman, 2005: 10). Currently, it is referred to
as the Public Sector Capacity Building Program (PSCAP) and is being implemented under the
leadership of the Ministry of Capacity Building. The programme has six sub-programmes, of
which Civil Service Reform embeds staff capacity building components. This sub-programme has
as its overall objective the promotion of the development of an efcient, effective, transparent,
accountable, ethical and performance-oriented civil service at the federal, regional and local levels.
The World Banks review of the programme in 2006 concluded that PSCAP represents a real
commitment by the government of Ethiopia to bring about genuine transformation in district and
local governance (Freeman, 2005: 10). This indicates that capacity is being developed despite
the rapid decentralization the country has undergone devolving power down to the lowest tiers (over
600 woredas) that took effect over the last 15 years (Bines and Woods, 2007).
1.4 Lessons learned
Much progress has been made in Ethiopia in recent years to develop the education sector as well
as its capacities at different levels. Education is indeed recognized as a priority at the national,
regional and woreda levels, and most education indicators have improved during the period. The
different initiatives described above, starting with education reform in the country in 1994 to the
recent elaboration and production of a manual on decentralization by the MOE and UNICEF, show
the growing importance the Ethiopian government and its development partners attach to capacity
development in order to enhance the development of education in the country.
Through these various initiatives, the education management structures have been revised and
improved, and at the same time the general framework as well as the long-term development goals
of the education system have been dened with responsibilities clearly dened for each level of
administration. Thousands of managers and planners, in addition to thousands of teachers, have
been trained and deployed to all levels of education administration. Many education ofces at
different levels of administration have been equipped with modern computing and communication
28
systems, though a large number of ofces still need to be equipped. Some of these decentralized
education ofces are operating very effectively. Not only the Regional Education Bureaux but
also the Woreda Education Ofces are now able to prepare their own long-term and operational
one-year plans, although these plans vary in their quality and realism. An assessment of the USAID
WEO training programme showed that 67.7 per cent of the planners trained were able to produce
adequate woreda education plans (USAID/BESO II, 2005). These efforts have been carried out
with strong support from the governing bodies at the federal, regional and woreda levels, but also
from the local communities and the population at large. External partners and donors also strongly
support the development of the education sector and of the capacities throughout the system
(Watson, 2005: 6).
However, in spite of these positive changes, several studies emphasized the challenges that
still characterize educational planning and management in Ethiopia. A training assessment of
educational planners and managers conducted by IIEP at the request of AED/BESO II and the
Ministry of Education emphasized in particular the following (IIEP, 2005):
There is a lack of linkage in the planning process: the policy demands that woreda plans feed
into regional plans which themselves are sources for the national plan. It seems however that
the process is much more top-down and is guided mainly by targets, set at the national level
and reproduced at the lower levels, without much adaptation. The regions and the woredas
dene their own plans, which take into account these targets, but the plans do not seem linked
in other ways and the planning processes seem to take place separately. The fact that targets
are not adapted leads to the existence of some very ambitious policy objectives, which will be
nearly impossible to achieve (IIEP, 2005: 5).
Planning is mainly input-oriented (...), the strategic vision to go beyond such type of planning
and develop alternative solutions, more appropriate to the specic challenges of each region,
seems to be lacking (IIEP, 2005: 15). In addition, while the efforts to collect data and to
publish regular reports are signicant, the analysis itself remains very descriptive and even
somewhat mechanistic, following a similar format in all regions. There is little examination of
relationships between indicators and nearly no reection on the possible reasons for signicant
changes in some. (...) The capacity to analyse data, to dene, on that basis, priorities and
develop plans remains limited (IIEP, 2005: 14).
The system is characterized by a high staff turnover, as well as by a large number of vacancies.
This problem is well known in Ethiopia and has been emphasized by other studies.
Technical criteria and professional experience are not always taken into account when
appointing heads of ofces. In addition, some heads emphasized their need for strengthening
their strategic leadership and management skills. They noted that they are expected to
undertake strategic planning, but have never received practical training on what this implies
(IIEP, 2005: 13).
Training programmes for educational planners and managers are not always closely linked
to the planning process, and they lack practical orientation. The training offered is mostly
linked to donor-funded support for specic activities. In general, it is a unique event of short
duration, not linked to a professional development plan or career promotion opportunities and
fragmented in nature (IIEP, 2005: 18).
Educational planners and managers suffer from limited material and nancial resources to
carry out their activities, particularly at the local level.
Another challenge indicated by Watson (2005: 6) and related to the capacity development of
educational planners and managers is the fact that personnel incentives are weak.
29
However, it is worth mentioning that these challenges differ from one region to the other, with some
regions having more resources and stronger capacities than others.
Keeping in mind the results of these studies, the following sections of this report will assess the
strengths and weaknesses of capacities in educational planning and management as they stand
today. This assessment will be based on the analysis of the views and perceptions of planners and
managers, as expressed during interviews and in response to the questionnaires. It will also draw
on the discussions with different groups of partners in education during the eld missions and on
the analysis of existing documents and reports.
This assessment will help to identify strategies to enhance capacities in educational planning and
management in Ethiopia.
30
2 Assessment and ndings of the study
The following sections examine in detail the various aspects of capacity development in educational
planning and management in Ethiopia, with an emphasis on cross-cutting issues, such as human
resources management, organizational arrangements, the technical environment and logistics.
These are key areas that inuence the way in which ofcers, and thus educational planners and
managers, full their mission in a specic organization, and hence their capacities.
The analysis is based on discussions and interviews held with the different actors met during the
eld study, as well as on the analysis of the questionnaires administered during the survey to a
sample of educational planners and managers working at the different levels of the administration.
This data is analysed in the following sections as a whole sample, and when relevant, per level for
example, federal, regional and woreda level in order to get both the global view and the detailed,
level-wide views.
The analysis will sometimes highlight concerns expressed by the actors encountered during the
eld study, while quoting the actors. The interactions with these actors allow a better understanding
of the contextual environment within which the planning and management activities are carried
out in the country.
At the end of each section, a short summary of the main strengths and challenges related to each
issue will be highlighted.
2.1 Human resources management
Despite several steps that have recently been taken to improve the management of educational
professionals, particularly regarding their recruitment and evaluation, specic constraints remain in
these areas. This section analyses key issues that have an impact on the capacity development of
educational planners and managers, for example, recruitment procedures, the existence of a clear
job description, the characteristics of the evaluation process as well as of the training programmes
delivered to these ofcers, and the civil service reform.
Recruitment procedures
Guidelines prepared recently by the Federal Civil Service Commission, and adapted at the regional
level, dene the procedures and criteria to follow when recruiting staff working at the federal,
regional, zonal and woreda levels. These guidelines require the announcement of vacancies for the
recruitment of educational professionals. This is done through advertisements in local newspapers
and on the ofces notice board. Applications are received and scrutinized by the ofces concerned.
A College Diploma or Bachelors degree in a relevant eld is the minimum requirement for
recruitment for an entry-level position corresponding to the job of planners. Interviews and exams
are organized for the selection of appropriate candidates. Specic attention is also given to the
professional experience of the applicant. The education administration at each level is autonomous
in undertaking this recruitment process.
Such procedures have several characteristics which, if applied, can impact positively on the capacity
development of educational planners and managers:
Assessment and ndings of the study
31
A specic level of qualications is required for such positions, and more attention is supposed
to be given to the professional background of the applicants.
Transparency characterizes the recruitment of educational professionals: vacancies are
announced with the detailed job description and the required prole for the candidate; the
positions are open to all competing applicants.
Such transparency is guaranteed by the existence of a set of guidelines to which applicants
can refer if they wish to contest a decision that is taken on their application; a control is also
supposed to be made by the regional service commission, which is to check compliance with
the legal recruitment procedures.
Most of the planners met by the research team during the discussions highly appreciated these
recent changes in the recruitment procedures. They consider indeed that the present process
allows for more transparency and gives more importance than before to qualication and
professional experience criteria. Little information was given to the research team concerning the
nature of the recruitment procedures before this reform; however, it seems that they were less
objective and neutral and sometimes guided by political considerations, as may be the case in
many other countries. The result is that ofcers are assigned to key positions without the necessary
qualications and professional background.
According to the planners met during the eld study, a positive step, at least in theory, was the
recent establishment of these rules. However, several planners complained about the fact that
such rules are far from being implemented and respected. Discussions with the planners as well
as the data collected through the questionnaires enable us to draw the following conclusions with
regard to the actual implementation of these rules.
Several actors met during the eld study emphasized in particular the fact that a vacancy
announcement does not always lead to competitive recruitment for a position. The ofcers
interviewed acknowledged that they were either promoted to the position without any competition
(by secondment) or that they were transferred from a unit to the one they occupy. For instance, in
one WEO, an ofcer indicated that: there was not proper planning in this WEO before. Now there
is a post for planning. A planner was recruited (...) but the post was not announced. The head
recommended a person, who was then appointed to this post. The Human Resources Department
head of one region visited by the team stressed that: the process is transparent but some problems
such as assignments remain.
An analysis of the planners questionnaire responses conrms the view that a vacancy announcement
does not always lead to competitive recruitment. Indeed, as shown in the last line of Table 2.1,
only 36 per cent of the planners who responded to the questionnaire said that they were recruited
for their position on the basis of competitive recruitment (22 per cent external and 14 per cent
internal). Others were recruited through promotion (31 per cent), transfer (22 per cent), nomination
(10 per cent) or secondment (1 per cent). There are some differences between the federal, regional
and woreda levels: while at the federal level the staff transfer mode was most frequently used, at
the regional level four modalities (promotion, internal and external competitions as well as staff
transfer mode) were used almost evenly. At the WEO level, promotion was the dominant mode of
recruitment followed by internal competitive recruitment.
32
Table 2.1 Process of recruitment of educational planners and managers (in percentage)
(N = 74)
Promotion
Internal
competitive
recruitment
External
competitive
recruitment
Nomination Secondment Transfer
MOE 0 11 22 11 0 56
REB 24 28 20 4 0 24
WEO 42 21 8 13 3 13
Total 31 22 14 10 1 22
Source: Individual questionnaires.
It appears, therefore, that the recruitment process does not yet systematically follow the new
rules. In such cases, little attention may be given to the qualications required for the post and
other factors seem to be of greater importance. This may lead to contradictions: ofcers with no
background in educational planning and management may be assigned as educational planners
and managers, while others with the relevant qualications will be denied such positions.
1. During the discussions with the planners, it became clear that the criterion of academic
qualications for the professional positions at least a College Diploma or Bachelors degree
in educational planning and management or in a relevant eld is often difcult to respect.
The ofcers met during the survey indicated that the main difculty in respecting this criterion
lies in the lack of a pool of qualied professionals at the different levels and especially at
the woreda level from which applications are received. This situation usually leads to delays
in lling vacancies, as was the case for instance in one REB visited by the research team,
where the EMIS post has been vacant for a long time because of the shortage of educational
planners and managers in the region. In addition, the emphasis may sometimes be put on
diplomas and degrees rather than on experience: the head of one WEO in Oromia emphasized
in this regard that according to the new recruitment rules, we need to nd degree holders.
However, we cannot nd such candidates for all positions, and therefore we have to wait for
staff with degrees. In some cases, this has resulted in the recruitment of new graduates
with the relevant level of academic qualications, but with no, or limited, experience in the
education sector.
A number of education ofces try to overcome these constraints through different solutions.
One solution has been to hire secondary school principals and teachers, who are then trained
on the job by an experienced ofcer in planning. The Education Bureau of Dire Dawa is an
example where secondary mathematics and science teachers were recruited and trained on
the job as planners. This has been a successful strategy leading to the building of a strongly
performing team of planners for the ofce. In case no candidate with the minimum required
diploma is found, the heads of ofce opt for a more experienced candidate, to make up for
the lack of qualications. They argued: to run ofces sometimes we must compromise; if
there are no candidates with a diploma in educational planning and management, we recruit
according to experience.
2. Because of these various situations, many planners do not have adequate qualications for
their posts.
3. Indeed, as shown in Graph 2.1, 22 per cent of the planners who completed the questionnaire
do not meet the required academic qualication criteria, as their highest level of education
33
is the end-of-secondary school certicate (6%) or teacher training certicate (16%). This
is particularly the case in WEOs where 28 per cent of the ofcers who responded to the
questionnaire had a teacher training certicate, while another 9 per cent had only an end-of-
secondary school certicate. We notice that the qualication prole of the planners at federal
MOE level is not much higher than that of the other levels. This is worrisome in a context where
these planners are supposed to design national plans and help the regions and woredas in
the elaboration of their own strategic plans; they are also required to undertake studies and
provide advice on critical issues identied in the implementation of national or regional plans.
Graph 2.1 Distribution of planners by their highest level of academic qualications
(in percentage)
In addition, their qualications are seldom related to planning, as emphasized by Graph 2.2. Only
12 per cent of the planners who completed the questionnaire have qualications in this area, and
overall, 28 per cent related to education or public administration. Twenty per cent of them have
qualications in teaching and pedagogy, while 52 per cent have qualications in other areas such
as mathematics, biology, history, geography or other subjects (such as language). This situation
was conrmed during the discussions with several planners. For instance, the research team met
a woreda planner who was appointed to this position although he had a degree in biology and
no experience in educational planning and management. In another WEO, the physical education
expert was designated by the ofce head as the acting statistician to ll in the vacant post: this
ofcer appeared to be quite worried about this situation, as he had no experience in statistics:
I did not volunteer for that position. If at least I had some background in mathematics ... but this
is not the case. I am not condent for this post. I feel apprehensive. The planners met during the
eld survey frequently complained that the right person was not in the right position.

11
56
33
5
81
14
9
28
53
9
6
16
63
15
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
End of secondary
school certificate
Teacher training
certificate
Bachelor's degree Master's degree
MOE
REB
WEO
Total
34
Graph 2.2 Academic background of the planners who responded to the questionnaire
4. In addition to the fact that a number of planners are without the requisite academic qualication,
the majority of them have only limited experience in educational planning and management.
Their professional experience extends mostly to teaching, as shown in Table 2.2. Graph 2.3
presents the distribution of planners who responded to the questionnaire by the number of
years of experience in educational planning and management. Overall, most of these planners
and managers (78 per cent) had less than ten years experience in this area, with more than
45 per cent having less than ve years experience. Furthermore, data show that 63 per cent
and 57 per cent of the planners working at the federal and regional levels respectively have
less than ve years experience in educational planning and management. At the woreda level
the situation appears to be much better, with 66 per cent of the planners having more than
ve years experience in educational planning and management, and 34 per cent of those
having more than 11 years experience in this area.
The fact that many planners working at the federal level have less experience in educational
planning and management than those working at the regional and woreda levels is surprising as
one would have expected more experienced planners at the federal than the other levels. Given
that planners at the federal level help reinforce the capacities of those at the regional and woreda
level, it would be normal to have more senior planners and managers at the former level.
Table 2.2 Educational planners with experience as a school teacher (in percentage)
Work place Experience as a school teacher No experience as a school teacher
MOE 89 11
REB 58 42
WEO 89 11
Total 78 22

12
15
1
20
18
4
30
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Educational
planning and
management
Educational
management
and
administration
Public
administration
Teaching and
pedagogy
Mathematics,
sciences,
biology
History,
geography
Others
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

r
e
s
p
o
n
d
e
n
t
s

Field/Academic discipline
35
Graph 2.3 Planners number of years of experience in educational planning and management
(in percentage)
Job description
The existence of a clear job description for an ofcer is an important element for appreciation of the
tasks meant to be carried out and objectives to be achieved. It facilitates a better understanding of
the role that each individual or unit has to play in order to achieve efciently the targets set. It also
has the advantage of facilitating the identication of appropriate proles for candidates seeking
a given employment opportunity in a given unit or department. Such a job description, when it is
clear, can facilitate the monitoring and evaluation of the work done by the professional staff of the
planning and management units.
The survey gave rather mixed information as to the existence and clarity of such job descriptions
for planners and managers in the Ethiopian education system. Indeed, most of the planners who
responded to the questionnaire (78 per cent) indicated that they had a proper job description.
However, during the meetings and discussions the research team had with planners at different
levels, most of them considered that they did not have specic job descriptions and, if they existed,
they were very old and not adapted to their current day-to-day activities. A job description may also
only exist for a department and not for individuals. This is the case, for instance, of the planners
working at the federal level.
However, several ofcers emphasized during the discussions that new job descriptions should be
developed within the framework of the ongoing civil service reform commonly known as Business
Process Re-engineering (BPR), on which more information will be given later.

63
38
57
35
9
34
32
29
5
45
33
19
3
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Less than 5 years 5 to 10 years 11 to 25 years More than 15
years
MOE
REB
WEO
Total
36
Evaluation process
The Ethiopian Government has established new procedures in order to improve staff evaluation.
Ofcers in the public service are now to be evaluated by their supervisors every six months based
on the individual ofcers work plan. Most of the planners met during the eld study emphasized
that they had been evaluated recently at least once during the past two years. Graph 2.4
conrms this information, but also shows that 21 per cent of the planners who responded to the
questionnaire refute this assertion. However, based on the analysis of the existing data and during
the discussions with the planners and their supervisors, it is not possible to conrm (for those who
were evaluated over the past two years) whether the evaluation effectively took place every six
months or not. While additional information may be needed to verify the regularity of the six-month
evaluation, it is apparently not yet a system applied to all staff.
Graph 2.4 Planners who have been evaluated over the past two years (in percentage)
Recruitment of educational planners and managers:
main strengths and challenges
Strengths:
Existence of guidelines on recruitment procedures.
Announcement of vacancies.
Qualication requirements for professional positions.
Challenges:
Vacancy announcement does not always lead to competitive recruitment.
Planners do not always have the required qualications for the post.
A majority of them have only limited experience in educational planning and management.
When they exist, job decsriptions are too old and may not be adapted to the planners day-to-day
activities.

Evaluated
over the past
two years
79%
Not
evaluated
over the past
two years
21%
37
The research team noticed mixed feelings among the planners concerning their appreciation of the
evaluation procedures. Many greatly appreciate the usefulness of the new rules but a few others
were not completely satised:
Some ofcers consider that it allows for a more objective evaluation: I prefer this new way of
evaluation. Before, the focus was on personal behaviour; now it is outcome based. Indeed,
even if it has limitations and does not lead to automatic reward, they appreciate the fact that
the evaluation report is kept in their personal le and can be taken into account in future
applications.
Other ofcers complained that their evaluation does not lead to any reward nor help them
to improve their performance: in principle, there must be a reward and recognition of good
work. But this does not happen in practice. The evaluation is not used to identify a person
who needs training; at the end of the evaluation form, there is a box for needed training,
which is never or seldom lled by the head of the ofce, even though he notices that we need
training. Others highlighted that the process is purely mechanical, to see if the performance
was achieved or not, and does not lead to any overall discussion about the work of the ofcer.
Such differences of opinion are not surprising, given the individual character of these evaluations.
Training programmes for educational planners and managers
In Ethiopia, different actors provide training for educational planners and managers: the MOE at
the different levels, external partners, as well as existing national and regional institutions.
Training programmes carried out by the MOE at the different levels
According to their mandate, each administrative level federal, regional, zonal, woreda and
kebele is responsible for providing advice and support to the lower administrative levels in
fullling their mission and implementing the national education policy. This includes the training
of ofcers working at these levels.
Most of the planners and managers encountered during the eld study expressed their
dissatisfaction with the training programmes organized by the upper levels of the administration.
Common criticisms were that these programmes lack regularity and frequency, and ofcers are not
consulted about their training needs. For instance, as regards the training programmes delivered
by the REB, a planner working in one WEO said: the requests for training do not come from the
bottom; the process is only top down. The REB has its own plan. If our request is in line with their
plan, they provide training. But they do not consult us. When they need data, they organize short-
term training sessions. Their training is not based on our day-to-day work. In another region, a
planner working at the woreda level emphasized the following concerning the training sessions
Evaluation of educational planners and managers:
Strengths:
New rules for staff evaluation: ofcers are to be evaluated by their supervisors every six months.
This allows for a more objective evaluation.
Challenges:
The evaluation does not help the staff to improve their performance.
38
delivered by the REB: they decide on their own the content of the programme, they dont ask
us our needs. Similar comments were made about the support given by the federal level to the
regions. Indeed, as stressed by a planner working at the regional level: sometimes they support
us because they need data and need us to prepare the plan well. But I dont think that they have
a plan to train us. This situation may be explained by the absence of a budget line for training
at the different levels, but above all, it reects the lack of priority given to this issue in the policy.
Educational planners and managers, as well as elected ofcials, also receive training from the
representative ofces of the Ministry of Capacity Building at the different levels. These training
sessions are organized within the framework of the Business Process Engineering (BPR), a new
approach introduced by the government in 2006 in order to improve the performance of the civil
service, and which we shall comment upon later. The sessions focus on more generic management
issues related to strategic planning and nancial management. Most of the planners met during
the study complained that these training programmes are not focused on education. They also
considered the programmes limited in scale and not regular enough to have an impact on their
job performance.
Training programmes organized by external partners
As already indicated, several aid agencies and international organizations, including UNESCO
through UIS and IIEP as well as UNICEF, USAID and JICA, have in the past few years developed and
organized training programmes for educational planners and managers, covering a wide range of
ofcers.
These training programmes focused either on individuals or teams. Some of them relied on a
cascade approach, so that higher level ofcers were later able to train lower level ofcers. The
efciency of the cascade training mode will depend not only on the degree of staff turnover, but
also on the resources available for the training to be organized by the trainers.
Self-learning materials were also developed in some cases. The ofcers met during the eld study
emphasized the usefulness and their appreciation of these training programmes. However, some
of them commented on the lack of continuity in training.
Existing training institutions
The Educational Planning and Management Department of Addis Ababa University, one of the oldest
departments in this university (established in 1962), provides pre-service training in educational
planning and management at the diploma and post-graduate levels. The department launched
an MA in Human Resources and Organization Management in 2006 and a PhD in Educational
Leadership and Policy in 2007.
The department also organizes summer courses in educational planning and management for
ofcers who cannot attend full-year courses. The students are sponsored by their respective REBs.
In this regard, the head of the department emphasized that the university has a good connection
with the REBs. A number of educational planners and managers from the MOE and the REBs have
participated in these training programmes.
Regional universities such as Debub University, Alemayay University and Mekele University are
also developing training programmes. Some focus on the training of heads of schools through
distance training modes and others on education professionals working in REBs and WEOs, but
these training programmes remain on a small scale.
39
Planners opinions on the ongoing training practices
From a general point of view, the planners met during the eld study emphasized their appreciation
of these different training programmes. In total, about 40 per cent of the planners consider these
training programmes very relevant to the tasks they are expected to perform (see Graph 2.5).
However, 34 per cent of them consider the programmes relevant but only somewhat.
At the woreda level, more than 12 per cent of the planners and managers who responded to
the questionnaire considered the training received not relevant. These more negative results are
probably related to the fact that the planners are not always consulted on their training needs,
and that these programmes are therefore not adapted to their day-to-day activities. In addition, it
seems that only a few follow-up studies are carried out on these programmes.
Graph 2.5 Appreciation expressed by the educational planners and managers of the
relevance of the training they received to the tasks they are expected
to perform (in percentage)
Training needs
In spite of the numerous training programmes carried out with educational planners and managers
during these past few years, many people still need to be trained. Graph 2.5 shows, for instance, that
nearly a third of REB staff had not received any training in educational planning and management.
The continued need for training, notwithstanding the many courses and workshops, can be
explained by several factors, in particular the fact that planners without the required qualications
and professional experience are recruited to planning posts. In addition, planners at the different
levels face a huge number of tasks to deal with, which increase in the context of decentralization
and for which they are not necessarily trained. Finally, staff turn-over is high in Ethiopia, and thus
the regular training of ofcers is required. This specic issue will be developed later.

44
56
42
25
4
29
44
35
12
9
43
34
7
15
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Very relevant Relevant, but
only somewhat
Not relevant No training
received
MOE
REB
WEO
Total
40
Educational planners and managers met during the eld study emphasized this lack of skills to
full their day-to-day activities and in particular, their lack of familiarity with these tasks. The tasks
found to be the most difcult to complete were the following: strategic planning, data collection and
analysis, projections and simulations, as well as project implementation, monitoring, evaluation
and reporting. Box 1 provides some answers from the planners who responded to the questionnaire
in this regard, which conrm the feelings expressed by most of the planners during the discussions.
Box 1. Among the tasks for which you are responsible, which ones do you nd the most
difcult to complete?
Planning is the most difcult task.
Preparing a plan and reporting.
Strategic planning preparation; budget estimation and monitoring; data collection.
I have difculty in conducting good and effective strategic planning and obtaining real data.
Educational planning and reporting educational tasks.
Preparing the plan and evaluation.
Projections and simulations.
Gathering data from schools and preparing statistical abstracts.
Collecting data.
Developing new databases for various education issues.
Because of limited experience, working on statistics is somewhat difcult.
Training programmes for educational planners and managers:
Strengths:
Several actors provide training for educational planners and managers: the MOE, external partners
and national and regional institutions.
Capacity development is a priority for the MOE and external partners.
Planners and managers highly appreciate the training programmes.
Challenges:
Training programmes lack regularity, frequency and continuity.
Ofcers are not always consulted about their training needs.
There is a lack of regional institutions offering training programmes at the diploma and undergraduate
levels.
Training programmes are not always evaluated after their implementation so as to measure their
impact on the development of capacities.
Training programmes are not always based on training needs or on well thought out development
plans elaborated by the REBs or MOE. At the REB level, 29% of the ofcers who replied to the
questionnaires considered the training they received not relevant to their needs.
41
The civil service reform
As indicated in the previous section, several initiatives have been taken in the past few years
to reform public sector management. The Civil Service Reform Program (CSRP) was introduced
in 1998, in parallel with the rst phase of decentralization to the regions. This programme was
designed to improve the efciency, effectiveness and transparency of public institutions, while
seeking to build on the bureaucracys reputation for discipline and compliance (World Bank,
2005: 6). It included several components, one of which related to human resources management.
However, as emphasized by the World Bank, the
implementation of the CSRP proved cumbersome, partly due to its attempt to plan the entire
process and get it right the rst time, and partly because the executing ofce was understaffed
and over-controlled. (...) The important Human Resources Management component was
virtually ignored. This created impatience and frustration within the civil service as well as in
the public at large. This initial experience, combined with the capacity problems experienced
in implementing the sector development programmes in health and education, not least at the
regional level, changed the governments approach to reform of public sector management.
(World Bank, 2005: 6)
On the basis of this experience, in 2001 the government launched the National Capacity Building
Program, and created the Ministry of Capacity Building in order to provide policy directions,
coordination and implementation support in this regard (World Bank, 2005: 7).
In the context of the National Capacity Building Program, the focus for the education sector includes
the following:
Education and training, including elementary education (quality of education, medium of
instruction, nance and administration);
technical, vocational education and training: systemic and structural reforms to improve
quality, and nancial and administrative mechanisms;
a similar strategy for higher education; and
civil service reform programmes focusing on expenditure management and control; human
resources development; service delivery; top management; ethics; revenue systems; and the
justice sector. (Watson, 2005: 4)
Business Process Reengineering (BPR) is a key element of this programme:
BPR is an approach to achieving measurable performance improvements by fundamentally
re-examining, rethinking and redesigning the processes that an organization uses to carry out
its mission. BPR is about change management and will necessitate fundamental changes to
existing processes and the creation of new ones. Reengineering will bring about comprehensive
changes not only to processes but to management structures, people, regulations, information
management etc. Developing a more service-oriented and outcome focused approach is a key
aspect. BPR will involve the development of strategic plans for institutions/ofces at all levels
of the sector and will likely involve restructuring and reorganization. (Ministry of Education,
2007: 41)
The education sector was chosen as one of the pilot sectors to implement this reform. The internal
structure of some regional and woreda ofces was already revised in this framework. Some ofcers
interviewed during the eld study indicated that they had been consulted in this regard. Training
programmes were undertaken on strategic planning and nancial management. As the reform was
still under implementation, it is too soon to evaluate its impact on the management of education
ofces or the capacity development of educational planners and managers.
42
2.2 Organizational arrangements
This section analyses the way in which the political and administrative linkages between the different
layers (federal government, regional states, the woredas, the kebele, and the education bureaux
and ofces) play a role in the process of planning and managing the education system in Ethiopia.
Political linkages
From the political decision-making point of view, the federal government, regional councils, woreda
councils and kebele councils are autonomous bodies that have distinct responsibilities regarding
the development of education within their own respective areas of competence. They approve
education sector development plans and programmes, and decide on the budgets of the education
bureaux and ofces for which they are responsible.
The federal MOE develops a framework for the national targets in consultation with the REBs for the
development of education, which are shared with the other autonomous bodies such as regional
governments, woredas and kebeles, which in turn set their own targets, based on local conditions.
The regions have full authorization to implement education policy in their respective areas.
Nevertheless, the policy decisions at this level of government must be made within the general
framework set by the federal government as per the proposals made by the federal Ministry of
Education with regard to the sector development strategy and targets, norms and standards.
Likewise, the other lower levels of government must take decisions that comply with the general
framework of the federal government policy. Since these various bodies have the responsibility of
setting budgets, recruiting the required personnel, as well as building and equipping educational
institutions, a strong leadership is required for each of them in order to ensure the success of
such a policy.
The REBs and WEOs are headed by senior civil servants (in general, a senior education ofcer)
appointed by the political branches of the regional or woreda governing board (council). Ideally,
these ofcers should have political and technical skills, so as to negotiate and communicate with
the government at each level, as well as develop, implement and monitor the education policy
in the region/woreda. However, as noticed during the eld studies, such combined requirements
are rare and heads of ofces seldom have this ideal prole. Indeed, several criteria are taken into
account in the appointment to this position: (a) minimum qualication requirements; (b) the person
should be from the nationality or ethnic group of the woreda; and (c) the woreda education head
should be loyal to the party governing the woreda. The criterion of minimum qualications is often
given less importance in the appointment process, in comparison with political considerations. This
has three implications: as far as possible, specic attention should be given to the technical skills
of heads of ofces; they should receive training in this regard, in particular in educational planning
and management; in such a context, the role of planners as technical advisors to the political heads
becomes even more crucial.
Administrative linkages
Vertical relations within the education administration
From the administrative and technical linkage angle, the REBs answer to the federal MOE, while
the woreda or zonal education ofces are in turn answerable to the regional bureaux. The WEOs
supervise the technical work of the kebele ofces.
43
The national Programme Implementation Manual (PIM) indicates that the steering committee for
the Education Sector Development Plans (ESDP), whose members are from the federal Ministry of
Education and regional bureaux, has overall responsibility and accountability for the implementation
of programmes in the regional states. This inter-linkage between the federal Ministry and the REB
ensures coherence between the sector development targets set at the national level and the
regional targets which embed regional characteristics in the regional plans.
In most REBs, meetings are organized with the heads of WEOs, with a regularity that differs from
one region to the other either yearly (for example, Addis), twice a year (for example, Afar and
Gambela), or quarterly (for example, Tigray). In SNNPR, it was indicated that one zone education
bureau organizes meetings with WEOs every three months. During these meetings, each WEO
or sub-city education administration presents its own report, and shows the strengths and
weaknesses, as indicated by a REB head. Issues and concerns in education are discussed during
these meetings; the objective is to seek consensus on the many issues discussed. These meetings
are highly appreciated by the WEO staff members who attend them; they consider this a useful tool
for sharing experiences. The skills of planners in negotiating, coordinating and consensus building
are critical to the success of these meetings.
At the national level, Annual Review Meetings (ARMs) and Joint Review Missions (JRMs) are organized
by the planning department of the federal MOE. ARMs gather the planners working at this level
with the REB heads. Financial partners join them during the JRMs, which are organized once a
year. These are two tools used to monitor the implementation of the Education Sector Development
Program (ESDP). JRMs focus on a specic theme, while ARMs monitor the achievement of national
targets. The outcomes of the JRMs are presented at the ARMs. These meetings are part of a
mechanism set up for monitoring progress and identifying implementation problems. However, a
number of woreda and REB educational ofcers who attended these meeting expressed the view
that they did not focus on their particular problems and did not help in their recurrent problems of
adjusting their own plans and aligning them with the national plan objectives.
It should be mentioned here that although these meetings are used to coordinate and monitor
the planning and implementation of the national education policy agenda, the upper level of the
administration has no direct authority over the lower levels of administration that is, the head of
the planning unit at the federal level cannot sanction a non-performing head of the planning unit
at the REB level. Similarly, the head of the planning unit at the REB cannot sanction the planners
at the woreda level. The upper level of the administration can make recommendations only to the
head of the governing bodies responsible for the non-performing planning ofcers, or any ofcers,
and it is up to these bodies to decide what to do in such cases of non-performance.
Horizontal relations within public administration
There are also inter-administrative relations at each level, between the education administration
and the nance and economic arms of the governments. The relations between the WEOs and
the Woreda Finance and Economic Department (WOFED) were particularly emphasized during the
case study. Thus, while for technical matters the WEOs are answerable to the REB, for resource
and budget management they rely entirely on the WOFED. At this level, a nancial pool system was
put in place by the woreda administration in all the regions, so as to manage more efciently the
nancial resources of the woreda for all sectors, including education, and in particular:
to help woredas benet from the economies of scale when buying supplies in bulk for the
technical services (putting together the purchasing requests from several departments) during
the procurement processes;
44
to better use the limited qualied nancial managers available at the woreda level (in many
woredas there is a real scarcity of people who have an accounting and nancial background).
The education ofce therefore has to harmonize its procurement plan with the activities of the pool.
Although the nancial and human resources may be in too short supply to satisfy all the needs, an
efcient use of the available resources will help improve educational services delivery. However,
the discussions held with the WEOs and with the WOFED during the eld visits for this work reveal
a deep miscomprehension between the two bodies involved in the nancial management at this
level of public administration.
The WEO claimed that the pool system is not friendly to the education sector as their requests are
not met by the pools in a timely fashion. They expressed the view that the pool managers being
placed under the responsibility of different ministries among them, education did not respond
promptly to their demands. In addition, it was emphasized several times that teachers had to attend
the woreda administration on school days to get their salaries paid.
On the other hand, ofcials from a nancial pool visited by the research team stated the view that the
problem with the education sector is that the WEOs do not usually prepare their procurement plans
sufciently ahead of time for the pool to treat their requests in a timely manner. They explained that
many WEOs sent purchase requests for a number of items to the pool one day and demanded that
the items be purchased the next day without going through the normal procurement procedures
imposed on them. The nancial pool also mentioned that the lack of immediately available nancial
resources constituted a constraint to responding to the requests of the various sectors at the same
time. In addition, the WEOs did not put a procurement plan in place well in advance.
The pool managers recognized the need to better collaborate with the education sector, and
emphasized the need to support this sector in better planning the procurement of necessary
items. The pool visited was currently testing an experience with a system of mobile teams visiting
cluster schools on schedule for the payment of teachers who lived in remote areas; they intended
to generalize the system once the test had been validated.
The issue of accountability to the public
The review of the political and administrative structures shows that the education administrations at
all levels of the system are answerable to the political bodies that have the authority to appoint and
evaluate the head of educational administrative units under their respective jurisdiction. However,
our analysis did not focus on the relationship between the political bodies and the general public.
It is true that in a democratic society, elections provide an opportunity for the people to judge the
work accomplished by politicians during their mandates. Nevertheless, in Ethiopia as elsewhere,
elections alone may not be sufcient to convey to politicians the opinions of the public on their
performance in a specic sector. Neither do elections allow easily for a process of communication
between those in charge of the school network and those who benet from this service, namely the
parents. As a result, the election process may not put much immediate pressure on the educational
decision-makers.
It may be worth considering regular meetings between the public and the decision-makers in the
eld of education, where the education systems plan and performance can be discussed with the
public and where comparisons can be made between woredas, kebeles and schools within a region
or woreda. Such meetings may help a broad audience of policy-makers, legislators, media and civil
society and parents groups to understand and interpret the role played by education planners and
managers. It is in such meetings that these constituents can engage the policy-makers, holding
45
them accountable for the education systems performance in improving access, quality and equity.
Public reporting of plans and information about progress may allow civil society organizations
and the public to assess the commitment of the decision-makers. This may lead, among other
things, to greater emphasis being placed on the importance of appointing qualied planners and
administrators to the woreda and regional education bureaux.
2.3 Technical environment
Computing facilities and IT skills
Despite the quickly evolving situation at the regional level due to multiple sources of funding, a
general assessment of the existence of computing facilities and IT skills can be considered as follows:
the level of equipment is very disparate and needs to be standardized. Some regions benet from
recent infrastructure (such as Amhara and Oromia), while others are using a nine- to ten-year-old
park (or system) (such as Tigray). Yet all encounter problems of organization and maintenance,
such as viruses, a lack of network administration, machines being used simultaneously for training
and data processing, different departments sharing the same network, and so on.
The research team noticed important differences in the computing facilities available at the federal,
regional and woreda levels, an observation that was conrmed by the planners who responded to
the questionnaire (Graph 2.6):
At the federal level, the MOE is well equipped with computers in nearly all the ofces. All the
planners who responded to the questionnaire have their own computer or share one with
a colleague. A training centre equipped with 12 computers (that were seven years old but
functioning well) at the MOE is used for basic training and has an Internet access point.
The REBs seem to be well equipped overall, and only 12 per cent of the planners who responded
to the questionnaire indicated that they do not have access to computers for performing their
work. The research team noticed during the eld visits that, generally, the head of the REBs
ofce is well equipped with computers, printers, fax and telephone, even in remote regions
such as Afar. Some of them are even equipped with a television.
Organizational arrangements: main strengths and challenges
Strengths:
Existence of a framework to harmonize and coordinate plans and strategies, as well as to monitor
the implementation at various levels.
Meetings are regularly organized between the different levels, which aim at facilitating the sharing
of experiences.
Challenges:
The higher level of administration cannot impose sanctions on failing woreda education ofces;
Lack of specic competencies of planners at the federal level to assist those at the regional and
woreda levels.
Limitations in the effective use of the woreda nancial management pool system arising from a
staff shortage and the absence of a harmonized procurement plan.
Meetings between the different levels of the education administration should include special
sessions focusing on the analysis of particular problems facing the planning and mangement of
the REB and woreda ofces. Such sessions will lead to better sharing of information.
46
The situation is more worrying at the woreda level, where 56 per cent of planners do not
have access to computers. The level of equipment at the WEO level is very different from
one ofce to the other. The following two examples are useful to illustrate this situation: in
one WEO of the Afar region, the planners indicated: we put in the plan document the data
collected from each school and analyse it (number of repeaters, drop-outs, enrolment ...). We
calculate manually, with a calculator, as we dont have a computer. In contrast, a WEO in the
Addis Ababa region was very well-equipped with a new computer, a printer, a photocopier and
a television. However, the rst example seems to be more frequent than the second. Several
planners emphasized this lack of IT tools as a key challenge, or even the main challenge, they
face in undertaking their day-to-day activities.
Graph 2.6 Educational planners and managers who have at their disposal a computer to
perform their work (in percentage)
Another key problem is related to the lack of IT skills: when ofces are provided with computers
and other tools, the ofcers frequently do not know how to use them. In the Oromia region, the
statisticians of some WEOs were trained to undertake the data collection. Yet overall, the level of
skills at this level is very low and data entry is still being organized at the regional level (with a
lot of basic equipment problems). This situation is worsened by the shortage, in most WEOs, of IT
professionals able to develop programmes and adapt the data base to the needs of the information
users.
Connectivity to the Internet
Overall, the access of planners to the Internet is low, with differences between the federal, regional
and woreda levels. Most of the planners working at the federal level mentioned having access to
the Internet (Graph 2.7). All Regional Education Bureaux (as well as some zones and woredas) are
supposed to have access to the Internet. However, half of the regional planners who responded to
the questionnaire mentioned that they do not have Internet access.

89
11
62
27
12
15
29
56
42
26
32
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
A computer
dedicated to me
A computer that I
share with my
colleagues
No computer
MOE
REB
WEO
Total
47
Graph 2.7 Planners with access to the Internet in their ofce (in percentage)
A key issue, then, is the one related to the use of the Internet for work. Quite logically, we notice
the same differences between each level in this regard (Graph 2.8). However, it appears that not
all of the planners at the federal level who have access to the Internet use it for their work.
Graph 2.8 Planners who use the Internet for work at the federal, regional and woreda levels
(in percentage)

78
22
48
52
5
95
29
71
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Acces to Internet No access to Internet
MOE
REB
WEO
Total

67
33
50 50
9
91
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
I use Internet for my work I don't use Internet for my work
MOE
REB
WEO
48
These problems are related to the level of connection to the Internet within the country, and in
particular at the woreda level, where it is very low (5 per cent). For the time being, the cost of
a permanent connection for setting up a reliable and efcient system that would allow remote
sites to access a centralized database is not affordable. The ongoing Woreda Net Project aims at
delivering video conferencing, web services, IP telephony and messaging at the federal, regional
and woreda level of government. There is also the School Net Project, which is specic to the
education sector. However, information on implementation progress has been rather difcult to
obtain. According to an Ethiopia Telecommunications Corporation declaration, the coming months
will see an increase in upgrading projects (through Sudan and Djibouti terrestrial connection) which
appear very promising in terms of decreasing connection costs.
In addition to the problem of Internet connectivity, a key challenge consists of getting people to use
the Internet in their work and getting organizations to promote the use of the tool for this purpose.
Logistics and other material resources
Logistics are a major concern for many educational planners and supervisors, in particular those
working at the woreda level.
An important step in the education management process is preparation for the beginning of
the school year. This implies the programming of the required inputs (school facilities, textbook
supplies, provision of teachers, and so on). This programming exercise has to be based on reliable
school enrolment projection data as well as other education data. Unfortunately, in Ethiopia, as in
many other developing countries, population projections are unreliable as they are based on an
outdated population census for which data are not disaggregated by WEO. Two other factors play
a role in this regard: rapid population growth and the creation of new woredas.
In the absence of reliable local population data, the estimates for the following school year intakes
are based on data collected by the heads of the schools in the school catchment area. Every
year, after the school year has begun, the school heads and the school management committee
presidents visit the families in their catchment areas in order to collect the names of all children
aged six. These children (whose parents claim them to be six years old) are expected to register in
school during the following school year and therefore they represent the new intake for the coming
school year. These data, as well as other data on student ow rates (repetition, promotion and drop
out) within the school system, are used by the schools for preparing their plan for the following year.
They are also transmitted to the WEO and REB for the same purpose. This process is essential for
the regional and woreda levels, which have to determine the number of new teachers required and
classrooms to be built, as well as the required equipment and textbooks.
Unfortunately, not all schools are able to provide the valuable intake data projections to their
respective woredas, because a good number of WEOs lack a reliable communication system and
good means of transportation for the school supervisors. Furthermore, when data are provided,
they are not checked by the supervisors at the school level before they are forwarded to the WEO.
The implication for the planning exercise is that plans and programmes are based on unreliable or
incomplete sets of data. It was reported on several occasions by school supervisors at the woreda
level that they are not able to visit in a year all the schools for which they are responsible because
of transportation problems. Two or three school supervisors very often share the same motorbike,
or have to use their own salaries to pay for transportation fees in order to visit schools. The lack
of transportation is considered by many education planners and supervisors as one of the most
discouraging factors in accomplishing their activities. For example, in Benishangul Gumuz, the
49
distance from the REB to one woreda is 840 km; there is no shortcut and some schools are more
than 100 km away from the WEO.
Another problem relating to material resources is the overall equipment of ofces. While the federal
MOE and most of the REBs are generally provided with sufcient and good resources, this is
not the case for WEOs. These ofces often lack even basic equipment or are provided with old
equipment .
2.4 Motivation and retention of educational planners and managers
Factors of motivation and lack of motivation
Several factors were emphasized by the planners interviewed during the eld study as playing a
key role in their motivation at work.
Factors of motivation
Many of the ofcers pointed out that their salaries and fringe benets are not enough to allow them
a decent living. They believe that salaries and benets are key incentives. However, recognizing that
the current economic situation in the country may not allow the government to raise signicantly
the salaries of civil servants, these planners and managers emphasized other determining factors
of motivation that are not of a nancial nature. One planner working at the woreda level said:
Non-salary incentives are very important for me in my job and are more important than the
salary. Several planners placed high emphasis on recognition of their work and performance.
Some ofcers emphasized the impact on their motivation of their supervisors oral recognition of
their good work. The positive evaluation of their ofces performance for instance, a certicate
of good performance to the education sector, given by the zone or the region can play a role in
this regard.
The staffs work and performance recognition has an even more important impact on their motivation
when it is taken into account and used for further promotion, as emphasized by a regional planner:
Before coming here I worked in a WEO. I did a good job and then was promoted at the region. My
work was recognized. This motivates me.
Technical environment: main strengths and challenges
Strengths:
Many ofces have some basic equipment, including some IT equipment.
The potential use of IT for professional improvement is being recognized.
Many planners have access to the Internet, though there are signifcant differences between the
federal, regional and woreda levels.
Challenges:
The level of IT equipment is very disparate within the country and needs to be standardized.
In most WEOs, there is a shortage of ICT professionals who are able to develop programmes and
adapt the database to the needs of the information users.
There is a lack of sustainability of provision and maintenance of hardware and software for the
planning departments.
For a good number of WEOs, there is a lack of a reliable communication system and of good means
of transportation for the school supervisors.
50
Other factors related to human resources management were emphasized as playing a key role
in the motivation of educational planners and managers. These include the existence of a clear
job description, training opportunities for planners to improve their skills, and the opportunity for
planners to participate in meetings within and outside their ofce. The planners who responded
to the questionnaire highly appreciated the meetings organized within their ofce: 55 per cent of
them consider these meetings useful and 39 per cent very useful (Graph 2.9). They consider these
meetings as helpful tools to share experiences with colleagues, and to be informed of their ofces
activities. According to most of the planners interviewed, such meetings are organized regularly
within ofces. For instance, planning department meetings take place on a monthly basis at the
federal MOE. In several WEOs, weekly meetings are organized with the department heads, as well
as monthly meetings with all the staff.
Graph 2.9 Educational planners and managers appreciation of the usefulness
of staff meetings organized in their department (in percentage)
More generally, the decentralized context seems to contribute to the motivation of ofcers working
at the regional, zonal and woreda levels. The ofcers working at these levels of the administration
see themselves as important contributors to positive changes taking place in their respective,
autonomous organization. They believe their work is more focused on achieving concrete development
objectives and they directly witness the results of their activities on the ground. In contrast, at the
federal level, the high degree of autonomy of the regional and district levels does not necessarily
meet the agreement of all the planners who feel a certain sense of powerlessness in relation
to their colleagues at these decentralized levels, especially the REB level. They sometimes feel
detached from the reality as they are not directly involved in the implementation of the education
development programmes, and also because they do not seem to be qualied enough to support,
train and guide those ofcers working in regional ofces. Indeed, as emphasized by some planners
working at this level: Our mandate is to build the capacities of the lower levels, but the capacities
that we have are not better than the ones that they have. The regions have more possibilities to
build capacities than the federal level.
The general interest of the population in education also seems to play a role in this regard. The
interest of the elected bodies for education was stressed in several cases. Educational planners and

Not
useful
6%
Useful
55%
Very
useful
39%
51
managers are encouraged by the general enthusiasm that policy-makers and the entire community
demonstrate for educational development.
Factors with a negative impact on planners and managers motivation
Several factors are considered as having an inhibiting effect on education professionals in Ethiopia.
Many planners complained in particular about the heavy workload stemming from the quarterly and
annual reports that they must prepare for internal and external consumption (for their own ofces,
for the line ministries such as Regional Finance Bureaux and for donors, especially those that do
not give direct budget support). This was above and beyond all the other tasks that they have to
deal with at the different levels (data collection and analysis, the development of partnerships with
different kinds of actors, monitoring and evaluation, and so on). Those most qualied in planning
are often too overloaded with work to counter other planners lack of skills.
The difcult working environment, expressed in terms of a lack of ofce equipment and
communication systems such as computers, telephones and the Internet, in particular for EMIS
experts and statisticians, was ranked highly during the discussions on factors contributing to the
lack of motivation. A lack of transport (vehicles to get to schools they supervise) constitutes another
obstacle for the planners to perform their work efciently and to full their mission. For example, a
planner working at the woreda level expressed the following: It is a hard working place compared
to the zone. We have no means of transport. Communities need help but we do not have the
resources to support them.
Another complaint from planners met during the eld study is related to the prole of the ofce
heads. As already emphasized, the criterion of minimum qualications is often given less importance
in the appointment process for heads of ofces compared to political considerations. This creates
problems when the politically motivated appointees have little knowledge of and experience in the
education sector. Some of the planners met during the study complained about this situation. They
viewed their heads of ofces as lacking in knowledge about their work and therefore not able to
appreciate and evaluate properly: If the head is less qualied than the person being evaluated,
he will not identify the problems. I receive no comments from my boss. My views are respected but
without sharp scrutiny because they lack capacity.
The lack of support was also presented by many planners as a real challenge. For instance, one
WEO ofcer said to the research team:
I was before a teacher in secondary school, got my diploma in educational planning and
management and was then promoted to this ofce. I received no assistance, no orientation
from the beginning. I requested training and only got one weeks training, as well as documents.
I will change position soon to be a TVET expert in this ofce. I am happy to leave this post
because it is difcult to plan if you have only received some basic training many years ago. If
you are assisted it is good; otherwise, it is too difcult.
Moreover, and as already emphasized, a common complaint among all the planners is that the
right person is not in the right position that, for example, the prole of ofcers (their qualications
and professional experience) is not taken into account enough in the recruitment process. This
contributes to the planners overall lack of motivation for two reasons: rstly, they know that their
qualications, good work and performance will not automatically be taken into account in the
recruitment process; and secondly, they work with people who do not have the adequate prole
for the post.
52
These factors contribute overall to the planners motivation, or lack thereof, in their day-to-day
activities and in fullling their mission. They also inuence retention in the profession.
Staff turnover
Identied in previous evaluation studies as a major problem (IIEP, 2005; Watson, 2005), staff
turnover remains a signicant threat to sustainable capacity development, according to different
actors interviewed during this study. The problem is not restricted to the education sector, as it
concerns the whole public sector. While it is not clear whether this phenomenon is stronger in the
education sector than in other public sectors, it is a major problem for the education sector. An
assessment undertaken by USAID for the BESO II project in 2005 showed that of the total number
of education ofcers trained by USAID in the sampled woredas, 28 per cent had left their ofce
within one year, or less than a year, after the training (USAID/BESO II, 2005). Another assessment
conducted in 2007 indicated that 50.9 per cent of the trained woreda education ofcers from the
sampled woredas had left the WEOs (USAID/BEP, 2007).
Several of the planners met during the eld study were new in their positions at the time of the
survey. This was conrmed by the planners responses in the questionnaire concerning the number
of years spent in their current position: as shown in Graph 2.10, nearly 60 per cent of the planners
in the sample had been in their post for less than three years. However, to be relevant, these results
should be analysed in the light of the current administrative structures duration (some woredas
had been created only recently).
Factors motivating and demotivating educational planners and managers
Factors for motivation:
increased salaries and benets;
recognition of their work and performance;
existence of a clear job description;
the possibility of attending regular training sessions, relevant to their day-to-day activities;
meetings within and outside ofces;
for planners working at the regional and woreda levels, the decentralization framework and
increased responsibilities at the local level;
the populations general motivation for education.
Factors for demotivation:
low salaries;
a heavy workload;
lack of resources, poor working environment;
lack of proper supervision and support;
lack of training;
qualications, professional experience, good work and performance are not always taken into
account for promotion.
53
Graph 2.10 Educational planners and managers number of years of experience
in their current post (in percentage)
How often education professionals change their jobs was also investigated in this study. There is
a high tendency for them to change jobs regularly and this is reected in Graph 2.11. The graph
shows that in total nearly 60 per cent of the planners had already tried to obtain another post since
occupying their present post (a post that 63 per cent had occupied for less than three years, as
shown in the graph above). The situation is quite different when the data are analysed separately,
however. At the regional level, 64 per cent of the planners had not yet tried to obtain another post.
Planners at the federal and woreda levels are the most inclined to change positions. Evidently, the
high proportion of planners who tried to change jobs can be taken as an indicator of their level of
dissatisfaction with their current positions.

67
33
68
12
8
59
24
8
63
21
7
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Less than 3 years 4 to 6 years 7 to 9 years
MOE
REB
WEO
Total
54
Graph 2.11 Educational planners and managers who had already tried to obtain another
post since their appointment to their current post (in percentage)
The level of staff turnover may have several possible explanations. At the different levels, ofcers
may be appointed according to political considerations, while less importance is given to their
qualications and professional experience, or the ofces institutional memory and needs. This
may lead to a situation where ofcers remain in their position for only a short period of time.
Another consequence is the dissatisfaction of some ofcers with such practices, which disregard
the professional prole. They may therefore prefer to leave the sector for another one where their
professional prole would be more recognized. The factors that contribute to staff motivation, or the
lack thereof, also play a role in staff turnover. The following factors were particularly emphasized
in this regard:
civil servants low salary levels;
the many vacant posts and the ensuing heavy workload for some planning staff;
the poor working environment (lack of nancial and material resources);
the lack of supervision and support from the hierarchy;
the lack of career perspectives.
Some remote regions and districts are also unattractive to highly qualied professionals who prefer
to seek employment in the regional centres or in the capital city.

11
44 44
9
5
23
64
11
32
30
27
9
21
29
41
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Tried to obtain a
post within the
same office
Tried to obtain a
post within the
education sector
Tried to obtain a
post outside of
the education
sector
Did not try to
obtain another
post
MOE
REB
WEO
Total
55
3 Strengths and challenges of educational planning and
3.1 Strengths
Several strong points characterize the educational planning and management system in Ethiopia;
they are developed below.
The study demonstrates that the educational planning and management system is well established,
with the responsibilities of each level clearly identied and well known by all planners and managers
in the country, whether they are working at the federal, regional, zonal or woreda levels. Most of
the ofcers met during the eld study, even those with little experience in planning, were able to
present the different steps of the planning process in a comprehensive manner, starting from the
schools down to the federal level, as well as the articulation between each level. Each WEO visited
was able to present to the research team its strategic plan and yearly operational plan. According
to some senior education ofcers encountered in REBs and WEOs, this was not the case ve years
ago in the majority of the woredas. At that time, almost all the planning activities were conducted
at the regional and federal levels. This appears to be conrmed by the fact that during the eld
survey the research team could not consult the plans prepared by WEOs ve years ago, as these
were not available.
Overall, it appears therefore that the decentralized context contributes to the strengths of the
system. This framework seems to facilitate the decision-making process at the local level, especially
in such a big country. It is particularly well accepted by the ofcers working at the regional and local
levels, who feel more autonomous.
Regular meetings and workshops are organized at different levels in order to consolidate and
harmonize the planning activities within the education sector. This includes meetings:
within ofces;
at each level between the governing councils and the education administration;
at the regional level between the REB and WEO heads;
at the national level between the planners working at the federal level and REB heads in Annual
Review Meetings (ARMs) and during Joint Review Missions (JRMs), with the involvement of
development partners.
Such meetings allow coordination between each level, help provide coherence between the different
plans, and ensure regular monitoring to check the compliance of these plans with the national
standards, as well as their achievements.
At the federal level, strong leadership from the MOEs planning department enables the coordination
of development agencies and funding partners in the framework of the Capacity Building Task
Force for Education (chaired by the MOEs head of the planning department). This department
also helps to foster links between the national planning and programming activities, with the same
activities at the regional and woreda levels. Important in this regard are the ARMs and JRMs, which
are attended by the major stakeholders in education development in Ethiopia.
56
The strong support of external partners for educational planning and management activities
contributed to strengthening the role of planning and the importance of capacity development in
this area. Such support is manifested through the participation of external partners in the Task
Force on Capacity Building, as well as in the funding and implementation of training activities in
collaboration with the Ministry of Education.
The human resources management of civil servants, and therefore of educational planners
and managers, is characterized by recent positive improvements. As emphasized above, more
transparency was introduced in the recruitment of education ofcers, as vacant posts are now
being announced on notice boards or through local or administrative newspapers. Regular
evaluations of ofcers are also supposed to be conducted by heads of departments on the basis
of each individuals plan, which allows for a more objective evaluation. The educational planners
and managers whom we met within the framework of this case study appreciate these changes.
The commitment of the federal and regional governments to the development of education in the
country, as well as the general enthusiasm of the population, is also a strength of the Ethiopian
education sector, which contributes to the motivation of educational planners and managers in
undertaking their mission.
3.2 Challenges
The eld study conrmed some challenges in educational planning and management that had
already been agged by previous studies, and also identied some others. The challenges for
Ethiopias educational planning and management are as follows:
Challenge 1: The high turnover of educational planners and managers
Staff turnover is a key challenge for educational planning and management in Ethiopia, as it
contributes to the lack of institutional memory in planning positions. Another consequence is a
sense that the training programmes undertaken so far are wasted, as the planners who are trained
often leave for other positions, frequently outside the education sector.
Challenge 2: The lack of skills among educational planners and managers
Overall, it appears from the case study that many educational planners and managers have limited
technical skills in planning skills that are needed to undertake their mission and tasks efciently.
The ofcers themselves emphasized that the tasks they nd the most difcult to complete are
strategic planning, data collection and analysis, projections, simulations and EMIS. The high staff
turnover, together with the inadequate prole of the educational planners and managers recruited
to ll these positions, as well as the lack of consultation on their training needs, help to explain
this situation. One consequence is that the most qualied planners are given a large workload to
counter the problem of other planners lack of skills.
Adequate planning capacity at all levels is required for the interpretation of policies and for the
collection, analysis and usage of education data for monitoring the implementation of plans and
programmes. The following paragraphs examine in detail the skills needed at each level.
Federal level
Analytical and interpretative skills are required the most by planning ofcers at the federal level
as they are in charge of setting the national norms and standards, ensuring there is coherence
between regional education development objectives and the national goals, and harmonizing
Strengths and challenges of educational planning and management in Ethiopia
57
government and development partners procedures with regard to planning, implementing and
reporting. Ofcers at the federal level are also responsible for assisting the REBs in designing
and monitoring regional plans and programmes through the annual review meetings and other
regular contacts, and therefore they need competencies in this regard especially pedagogical
and interpersonal skills. Skills in communication, negotiation and the development of partnerships
are also needed at this level as planners are increasingly being invited to work with a wide range
of actors, in particular external partners and local-level actors.
Regional level
At this level, the planning ofcers at the REBs need to possess the technical competencies necessary
for planning the medium-term plans of the bureau in coordination with the national sector strategic
development plan, and monitoring implementation and reporting on the progress. They also need
analytical skills to identify the problems raised by the education information management system
in their regions and to suggest corrective measures to policy-makers or decision-makers on time.
This implies that the planning departments have a well-performing EMIS unit and also that planners
have pedagogical and interpersonal skills to train and advise staff at the woredas.
Expertise in curriculum development and textbook production and distribution is also required at
the REBs, given their responsibilities in providing teaching guides and textbooks for the students
at primary and secondary schools in the region.
Woreda level
At the woreda level, planners lack competencies in data collection and analysis, projection and
simulation. The Pool System for the management of nancial resources at the woreda level also
requires competencies in preparing a budget and planning ahead of time to ensure the necessary
supplies and equipment for schools are delivered before the beginning of the school year. As they
are the actors who are closest to the kebeles and schools being responsible for training kebele
education ofcers; recruiting, training and deploying teachers and head teachers; and supporting
the kebele ofces they need skills in planning, data collection, reporting and supervision.
Challenge 3: Educational planning and management is given less importance in some
locations
The post of planners, in particular those related to statistics or EMIS, does not seem to be
recognized systematically as a permanent position in specic locations. This is based on the
mistaken impression that EMIS does not take a lot of time and does not demand attention the
whole year through. In several cases, people without the required qualications in this area are
recruited to this position.
In some woredas, planning activities are carried out by any ofcer appointed by the ofce head to
collect data, whether or not this person has been trained and is competent to do so.
Challenge 4: Educational planners and managers do not always have an adequate
prole for the post
As emphasized in the report, educational planners and managers do not always have an adequate
prole for the post. There are several potential reasons for this, such as the lack of qualied
professionals in some locations and the appointment of ofcers without due attention to their
technical prole. This contributes to a lack of efciency among the recruited planners who do not
58
have an adequate prole, as well as to a feeling of discouragement among those who do have the
qualications and experience for the post. In addition, the former seldom receive training when
they are recruited and are usually not consulted on their training needs. Another consequence, as
already mentioned, is the impact this has on the workload of those ofcers who have an adequate
prole for the post plus the required skills.
Challenge 5: The appointment of ofce heads does not always take into consideration
their professional qualications and experience in education
Another problem is related to the fact that the appointment of heads of ofces does not always
take into consideration their professional qualications and experience in education. People
without knowledge of the education sector are appointed to head the REBs or WEOs. This creates
several problems, in particular, a lack of motivation among education ofcers who may feel more
experienced than their bosses and who cannot receive the relevant support and guidance from
their head in their day-to-day activities.
Challenge 6: The difcult management of the pool system of nance
Almost all the planners at the woreda level complained about delays in the procurement of
educational materials and supplies due to non-adaptation of the pool systems rules to that needed
for many education operational activities, while the education sector represents the most important
component of the budget managed by the pool at the woreda level.
Challenge 7: The poor working environment
As emphasized in the report, many planners do not have enough resources to implement their
tasks (transport, IT equipment or other material resources). This problem is particularly evident at
the woreda level.
Challenge 8: Demand by the beneciaries and users of education services for quality
plans and their implementation in the regions and woredas
The study investigated the extent to which the work of educational planners and managers is
assessed and appreciated. Most of the international development partners are supportive in
requesting good plans and plan implementation at all levels of the system so that their contribution
to education development leads to sustainable achievement in the sector. Discussion with several
of their representatives indicated their strong commitment to the development of capacity in
planning and management in the education sector.
The MOE is the main user of education plans and has strongly demonstrated its support for good
planning and management in the education sector. The funding provided to the planning department
and the support given to other entities involved in educational planning and management reects
the degree of importance attached to this. This should also be accompanied by pressure on those
who are involved in the related activities to provide quality products and services. The challenge
here is how to make quality control an integral part of plan evaluation and implementation.
At the woreda and regional levels, although in principle rst priority is given to education, the
budget allocation to the sectors seldom has a specic line for capacity development in planning
and management. From the many discussions held with the heads of WEOs that there was little
serious concern about the quality and reliability of the data contained in their strategic plans. Some
of the plans used hypotheses and assumptions that were completely unrealistic, and some heads
of ofce were not particularly concerned about improving these plans.
Strengths and challenges of educational planning and management in Ethiopia
59
The political bodies at the woreda level, as well the population at large, must be the ones to require
quality plans and quality management from the ofcers in charge of the education of their children.
Thus, there is a major challenge to inform these actors of their role as forces for pressure to ensure
that capacity is developed in their areas.
Main strengths and challenges of educational planning and management in Ethiopia
Strengths:
The Ethiopian Governments clear commitment to the development of capacity at the federal,
regional and woreda levels.
The strong commitment of the development partners to support capacity development in the
education sector.
The commitment of the federal and regional governments to educational development in the
country.
The recent improvements in human resources management, in particular concerning the recruitment
and evaluation of professionals.
The decentralized framework is well known and accepted throughout the country, and contributes
to the motivation of education professionals working at the local levels.
The populations enthusiasm for education.
Challenges:
The high turnover of educational planners and managers.
The shortage of skills among educational planners and managers.
The planning function is given little importance in some locations.
Educational planners and managers do not always have an adequate prole for the post.
The appointment of heads of ofces does not always take into consideration their professional
qualications and experience in education.
The lack of appreciation of the pool system of nances by many WOEs.
The poor working environment.
The lack of demand by the beneciaries of education services for quality plans and their
implementation.
60
4 Strategies to develop the capacities of educational planners
and managers in Ethiopia
This nal chapter attempts to outline the possible elements of a strategy to address the main
challenges identied in the previous chapters and which will build upon the strengths observed in
the system of planning and managing education in Ethiopia. These strategies will comprise short-,
medium- and long-term components. It must be noted, however, that some of the challenges
or constraints need only a short-term strategy, while others may need medium- and long-term
strategies.
The high turnover of professional staff is a major, and perhaps the most important, challenge for
the sector. This has several consequences, in particular inhibiting progress towards strengthening
and maintaining capacities in educational planning and management. The following paragraphs
identify several strategies to be implemented in the short, medium and long term and which could
contribute to solving the problem.
Short-term strategy
Training activities have been the backbone of most of the initiatives taken in the country to
develop capacities and these should be maintained. However, they should be more systematic,
based on the training needs identied by the participants, and guided by a comprehensive
strategy that focuses on educational planning and management. The planners at the central
level must improve their competencies in the very short term to enable them to assist planners
in the regions and woredas. The heads of ofces at each level should be able to assess the
training needs of their staff and elaborate appropriate strategies for each training activity,
for example through close collaboration with the upper level of administration, national and
regional universities, or external partners. These training activities should be part of an overall
package of interventions aimed at developing capacities. Indeed, several studies have shown
that while training is certainly a key strategy for developing capacities, it cannot do so in
isolation. It should be implemented in parallel with interventions in other areas, such as human
resources management, improvement in the organizational set-up and management of the
institution or ofce; such combined efforts would have a higher impact on the development
of capacities.
Another key strategy to be implemented in the short term is the development of an information
system on staff turnover, by region and woreda. While high staff turnover is a problem
throughout the country, it is quite difcult to obtain accurate information on its level of
importance in general, by sector, as well as per level (for example, the federal, regional or
woreda level). Such information is crucial in order for the adoption of measures well suited to
the problem.
Challenges 1 and 2:
The high turnover of educational planners and managers
The lack of skilled ofcers
Strategies to develop the capacities of educational planners and managers in Ethiopia
61
Concerning human resources management, the ongoing work of the BPR regarding
staff evaluation procedures should be strengthened and systematized at all levels of the
administration. Evaluation should be transparent, participatory and objective so as to help
staff recognize their strengths and build on these to overcome their weaknesses; the results of
staff evaluations should be used for staff development as well as for promotional purposes. As
part of a strategy to motivate professional staff, supervisors should make a habit of recognizing
the good work done by those working under them, even if this is done orally in the form of
expressing appreciation. Any measure that could help boost the morale of the professional
staff in the short term without high cost implications should be used by the leadership of the
education bureaux and ofces. Heads of ofces and departments should therefore be trained
in leadership and management, and be informed about and made aware of the work of their
different ofcers when recruited to their positions. The ofces at each level of the Ministry
of Capacity Building, the regional Management Institutes in collaboration with the Ethiopian
Management Institution and the upper levels of the education administration, all have a role
to play in this regard.
Medium- and long-term strategies
Training: Permanent in-service training programmes should be designed and organized in
the regional universities and training institutions, in collaboration with the REBs. There is a
serious need for fostering relationships between the REBs and those institutions of higher
education that can contribute, at reduced cost, to the training of the professional staff. Some
short courses in different subjects related to planning and management can be organized in
a face-to-face set-up during certain periods of the year, while others can be provided through
a distance mode. However, this requires the provision of IT tools in ofces and an extension of
the Internet connectivity network throughout the country. It is understood that the universities
charge the ministry and REBs the full fees when they provide training for civil servants, and
that these costs are not easy for the education administration to bear. A special arrangement
could be put in place between the public education administration and the universities that
ties in part the universities receiving of grants to their willingness to train civil servants at a
reduced cost.
More programmes of pre-service training at the regional universities should be designed,
in addition to programmes being carried out at Addis Ababa University. The federal Ministry
of Capacity Building, together with the regional governments, could elaborate a programme
involving the recruitment of three high school graduates with mathematics, science or
economics subjects, from each woreda where there is a shortage of qualied planners. The
programme could provide two- or three-year scholarships for these high school graduates (about
2100 students considering that, on average, each of the 700 woredas has three professional
positions in planning and management) to attend courses in statistics, computer sciences and
educational planning. The students could be committed to working as educational planners
in their own woreda for at least ve years before changing jobs; otherwise they would have to
reimburse the scholarships they received. They should be hired by their respective woredas
after they graduate from this special programme to serve in education. This programme can
be run by local regional universities with education faculties, in order to ensure the availability
of a sufcient number of young professionals in educational planning and management. Addis
Ababa University could also support the regional universities in the design and development
of such programmes. A pilot project could be launched very quickly to experiment with this
option.
62
Increasing the opportunity for planners to exchange their experiences: The planners working
at each level should have the opportunity to meet regularly to exchange their experiences
and discuss the problems they face, as well as to learn from successful strategies that were
carried out in other locations. Regular meetings of planners at least once a year should
be organized at each level. For instance, meetings could be organized at the federal level
to gather the planners working at the federal and regional levels; the same idea could be
applied at the regional level, where meetings could regularly be organized to gather regional
and woreda planners. An association of educational planners and managers was created in
2007 by the planning department at Addis Ababa University in order to strengthen the links
between graduates of the department: this is an interesting strategy and appears to be a
good opportunity, one that could contribute to increasing the motivation of planners and their
feeling of belonging to a specic profession. However, these meetings should be based on
documented research results focusing on planning and management issues in the regions so
that they can generate improved knowledge among those who participate.
Addressing the problem of low salaries: An important element in the motivation of professional
staff is their salaries and fringe benets. Civil servant salaries are very low in Ethiopia, and
this negatively affects the functioning of public services. Though there may not be a quick
solution for the education sector, the structure of the sub-cities and woreda educational
administrations must be adjusted in order to reduce the number of non-professional staff and
use the savings on salaries to pay professionals, who are in shortage because the salaries are
not attractive. The BPR could to some extent address this issue. It would be naive to believe
that the problem of a high turnover of professionals in education and other public sectors will
be solved in the long term if the salary issue is not resolved. In the meantime, the Ethiopian
Government should nd a way of providing salary incentives to take into account hardship
conditions and also to encourage better performing staff.
This is a problem that is present in a limited number of WEOs in the country, but which needs
particular attention in order to avoid increasing the gap between those WEOs and the ones that are
able to prepare and manage the implementation of sound, realistic education plans for their areas.
The strategy to address this challenge is a short-term one which would consist of raising awareness
among the policy decision-makers from the woredas that are lagging behind in recognizing the
importance of educational planners and managers. These decision-makers should be assisted in
putting proper planning units in place in their WEOs and stafng them with qualied planners and
a full-time EMIS professional. Some REBs, such as Benishangul Gumuz, are already implementing
such a strategy by holding regular meetings with members of woreda councils to discuss education
matters, compare performances in different woredas within the region, and invite those WEOs with
low performance to increase their efforts to catch up with others. This strategy should be expanded
throughout the country in order to ensure that each WEO has a standard planning unit. This should
be part of the normal consultation process between the two levels of administration, and it would
not involve any signicant additional costs.
Challenge 3:
Educational planning and management is given less importance in some locations
Strategies to develop the capacities of educational planners and managers in Ethiopia
63
The recruitment of planners and educational managers is another area where short-term strategies
can be applied. The recruitment procedures and guidelines elaborated by the BPR are good tools
which should be used systematically for the appointment of all professionals. The required academic
and professional qualications for each position, as set out in these guidelines, must be the main
criteria for the recruitment of all professionals. The civil service commission may play a role in
monitoring the recruitment process of planners at each level and support ofces in this regard.
If ofcers without an adequate prole are recruited to this position, they should receive relevant
training as soon as possible, as well as support in undertaking their day-to-day activities. The head
of the education ofce for the upper level of education administration should specically note the
training needs of the ofcers. Where there is a real shortage of qualied candidates, appropriate
incentives should be identied and provided to ensure that qualied candidates are attracted to
and retained in the area.
As far as possible, specic attention should be given to the qualications and professional
background of the heads of ofces before appointing them to this position. If they do not have
such a prole, once appointed they should receive awareness-raising and training about education
policies, in particular in educational planning and management, so they can properly support and
guide the staff working in their ofce. This can be done in the short term.
This organizational challenge can be overcome in many woredas with a short-term strategy based
on regular meetings to be attended by the heads of nancial pools and the technical sector heads.
These meetings should provide the opportunity for senior ofcers in charge of the different sectors
and the nancial pool to reduce any misunderstandings. The pool staff could then regularly brief
the technical sectors on the rules and the calendar for nancial management, and could help
these sectors prepare their procurement plans in line with the approved calendar. Through regular
consultations, a way could be found for the sector to manage directly limited amounts of its budget
for small items and emergencies. This challenge can be resolved without any additional costs.
Challenge 4:
Educational planners and managers do not always have an adequate prole for the post
Challenge 5:
The appointment of the heads of ofces does not always take into consideration their
professional qualications and experience in education
Challenge 6:
Lack of appreciation of the pool system of nance by many WEOs
64
Short-term strategy
WEOs differ in many respects in terms of their available resources, human resources, level of
educational development, geographic position and area. The regional governments should consider
the possibility of revising the block grant formula for woredas to include incentive factors for the
disadvantaged but motivated woredas.
Development partners have been providing computers and other technological equipment to the
REBs and woredas. They have provided training courses to enable staff to use the equipment. The
Ministry of Capacity Building has also been providing similar courses. These activities should be
continued and undertaken on a regular basis. Efforts must be made at the woreda level to ensure
that education ofces have the minimum required resources and professional staff to carry out
the activities entrusted to them.
Medium and long-term strategy
The government, through the Ministry of Capacity Building, should plan either to provide this
equipment, or the regions and woredas should have some provision in their budget in order to
replace obsolete equipment or to equip those ofces that are not adequately equipped. Training
should be delivered regularly in order for the staff to upgrade their skills. Efforts should also be
made to harmonize the computer software that is used at different levels of the administration
in order to facilitate the analysis, compilation and consolidation of education statistics. Where
connectivity exists, Internet service should be extended to WEOs so that the ofcers can use this
as an educational resource as well as in their work on a regular basis.
The study shows the interest that the federal Ministry of Education and its development partners
attach to the good planning and management of education. This is indicated through the many
efforts they are making to support the various activities of capacity development in this area.
However, it remains to be known whether the politicians at all levels are aware of the importance
of good education plans and statistics. If these decision-makers and users of education services
require transparency in the management of the education system, then the planners will feel
motivated to develop good and realistic plans and to produce reliable education data. The decision-
makers should be sensitized so that they can make it mandatory for the planners and managers
to produce well-prepared plans and reports on educational development. Other users, such as
parents and the communities at large, should be informed through awareness-raising campaigns
about education statistics and about the need to compare the performance of their schools with
that of other schools, or the performance of their woreda with that of other woredas. The parent-
teacher associations and education and training board members at various levels could serve as
a springboard to achieve this. Pressure from them can contribute to reinforcing capacity in the
planning and managing of education.
Challenge 7:
The poor working environment
Challenge 8:
Lack of control by the beneciaries of education services concerning quality plans and
their implementation
65
Conclusion
The objective of this study was to assess capacity in education planning and management in
Ethiopia in order to draw lessons on what is working and what is not at the federal, regional and
woreda levels. The main conclusions of the study are presented below.
Important changes have characterized the education sector in Ethiopia during the past ten years:
under the decentralization framework, more and more responsibilities were transferred to the
local levels; in addition, the scores on most of the education indicators rapidly improved during
this period.
Yet this reform, which creates a need for the establishment of planning units in all REBs and
WEOs, did not lead to the expansion of pre-service training in planning and management in the
country. The Department of Education Management at the University of Addis Ababa remains the
only training institution that provides pre-service training in the eld, more than ten years after the
formal decentralized administration work plan was put in place. For more than 2,400 positions
(three professionals per woreda), former teachers or other administrative staff were recruited and
were converted into planners after only very short in-service training in educational planning and
management. The shortage of university graduates with education planning and management
skills is a serious problem that hinders efforts to build capacity in the sector.
Because of the lack of nancial and non-nancial incentives in their jobs and working conditions
that are perceived as not providing the best environment (a shortage of computing equipment for
planners, poor ofce conditions and the lack of transportation), many planners and managers
are quick to take up other opportunities outside the education sector. The ensuing high turnover
among education professionals operating at the woreda level has a negative impact on capacities
in planning and management.
A multi-dimensional strategy should be designed and implemented to strengthen the capacities of
educational planners and managers in Ethiopia. This should rely on training: a specic budget line
should be foreseen in the budget at the central, regional and woreda levels. This strategy should
also include a set of nancial and non-nancial incentives for educational planners and managers.
More precisely, the study provides a three-stage strategy for overcoming the above challenges:
The rst stage concerns the short-term measures to be taken to improve the motivation of
planners and managers in education. These include continuing to improve human resources
management through in-service training, which has already started. Another short-term solution
is to pursue regular meetings between those in charge of planning and management at the
different levels of the education sector. The nal solution in this stage is public information
meetings, which are necessary to sensitize the public and provide the information required
to help engage the policy-makers in order for them to learn more about their responsibilities
concerning the performance of the education system. This could start with sensitizing the
parent-teacher associations (PTAs) and Education and Training Boards ( ETBs) at the woreda
and zonal levels.
66
Conclusion
In the medium term, pre-service training in educational planning and management could
be expanded in the existing regional universities possessing faculties of education, while
collaboration between REBs and the local and regional training centres and universities could
be strengthened. There should also be provision in the REBs and WEOs budgets for capacity
building and the purchasing and maintenance of hardware and software for the planning
units.
In the third stage, the long-term solution will focus on general improvements in the salaries and
working conditions of civil servants in Ethiopia, including educational planners and managers.
67
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Annexes
Capacity Development in educational planning and
management for achieving the EFA goals
Preparation of a UNESCO strategy and Policy Paper
July 2007
Paris, IIEP
70
Annex 1. Terms of reference for the implementation of the study
on capacity development in educational planning and
Background
This programme has its origins in a well-known nding: many efforts have been made by a wide
variety of actors to develop and strengthen the capacities of Member States to plan and manage their
education systems. These efforts (training courses, workshops, technical assistance missions and so
on) have regularly strengthened the skills of individuals, but have seldom succeeded in transforming
the organizations to which these individuals belong, in particular the ministries of education. There is a
need therefore to examine what the reasons are for this relative failure and to propose innovative and
relevant capacity development policies and strategies.
In this regard, IIEP has been given the responsibility of preparing a UNESCO Policy Paper, entitled
Capacity development for achieving the EFA goals. After discussions within UNESCO and with the
agencies offering nancial support (the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research and the
Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs), it was decided that IIEP will undertake two main activities to
help UNESCO draft this paper:
1) an analysis of approaches and good practices in capacity development and
2) detailed case studies of capacity development modes in three focus countries.
IIEP will collaborate with national governments, with the UNESCO Education Sector at Headquarters,
with the relevant regional, cluster and national ofces and with UIS, each of which will undertake specic
tasks which are complementary to the activities performed by IIEP.
A crucial stage in the preparation of this Policy Paper consists in the preparation of three country studies.
This note makes a number of proposals on how the country study in Ethiopia could be undertaken. It
therefore addresses several issues:
What are the objectives of the case studies?
On what basis were the three countries selected?
What will be the focus of the analysis?
How will the case study in Ethiopia be undertaken?
General objectives of the case studies
The case studies will help UNESCO, and especially IIEP, to prepare the Policy Paper. This paper will
guide UNESCOs programmes in capacity development and could contribute to helping Member States
to dene and reform their own policies. In addition, it could become a source of inspiration for other
national and international partners.
Each case study is also conceived to be a learning experience for the international and national experts
who will participate in it, and in particular for the staff from the Ministry of Education, from regional
bureaux and from woreda (district) ofces. The full involvement of Ministry experts is important, on the
one hand, to allow such personnel to strengthen their own policy analysis skills and, on the other hand,
to own the studys ndings.
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71
The case study will therefore have the following specic objectives:
to assess the present organizational and individual capacities in educational planning and
management;
to analyse how government policies, strategies and practices enhance or constrain the development
of such capacities;
to identify particularly successful capacity development policies, modalities and strategies;
to make suggestions and recommendations that strengthen integrated capacity development
policies and strategies;
to develop and strengthen the capacities of the ministries of education through their involvement
and direct participation in the analysis.
The selection of the three case study countries
In consultation with several partners and, foremost, the relevant UNESCO partners and concerned eld
ofces, it was agreed that case studies would be undertaken in three countries, namely Benin, Ethiopia
and Vietnam. The choice was based on a combination of criteria and several considerations, including
the desire to examine a diversity of situations. Without going into a detailed description, the following
elements depict this diversity:
the three countries differ in size and in administrative organization;
their present educational status is equally different: for 2004, the NER at the primary level in Benin
was estimated at 83, in Ethiopia at 68-70, and in Vietnam at 95;
GNI per capita was estimated in 2005 at US$160 in Ethiopia, US$510 in Benin and US$620 in
Vietnam;
recent economic development (expressed as annual GDP growth over the past three years) has
been strong in Vietnam (7.6 per cent), even stronger in Ethiopia (nearly 9 per cent, though from a
lower basis) and weaker in Benin (4.3 per cent);
the population size of Ethiopia and Vietnam is similar, at about 77 million people; Benins population
is much smaller, at about 6 million people. Population growth rates are signicantly different: they
are estimated over the past three years at 3.1 per cent in Benin, 2.1 per cent in Ethiopia and
1.1 per cent in Vietnam;
all three countries receive EFA FTI funding;
Vietnam is one of the eight pilot countries where the UN reform, labelled One UN, will be tested,
and Ethiopia is one of the seven MDG pilot countries;
Vietnam is one of the UNESCO National Education Support Strategy (UNESS) pilot countries;
Ethiopia has the largest UNCT presence in Africa and an effective Development Assistance Group,
characterized by collaboration between bilateral and multilateral international agencies. The DAG
has a strong TWG on education, and a mixed government-development partners Task Force on
Capacity Development, of which UNESCO is a member;
the UNESCO Institute for Statistics had until recently a regional advisor based in the Cluster Ofce
in Addis Ababa, and since 1998 the seat of the UNESCO Institute for Capacity Building; Vietnam
is being supported by UIS through its staff based in Bangkok, and Benin through the staff based
in Dakar;
UNESCO has a national ofce in Vietnam; it has a Cluster Ofce based in Addis Ababa, which is
responsible for several countries including Ethiopia; UNESCO does not have an ofce in Benin,
which is under the responsibility of the Cluster Ofce in Accra (Ghana);
in all three countries, IIEP has several graduates from its Advanced Training Programme.
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Annex
The country study in Benin was launched in April 2007 and was expected to be completed by September
2007. The work in Vietnam was expected to start in October 2007. Depending on the approval of the
study by the Ethiopian Government, the case study in Ethiopia was launched during the second half
of 2007.
The following are details of suggested coverage, depth of analysis and implementation modalities of
the case study.
The content of the analysis
The case study has two main objectives to assess capacity development in educational planning and
management and to propose strategies for its improvement. The two key terms capacity development
and planning and management need clear denitions as they can be interpreted in a variety of ways.
We need to avoid, on the one hand, an analysis that becomes too vast and therefore supercial, and, on
the other hand, focusing on only a few issues, which may be only marginally related to our key concerns.
The study proposes a conceptual clarication of these terms by including operational denitions and
analytical frameworks.
Capacity development
The term capacity development can be and has at times been interpreted in a very wide manner,
nearly as the equivalent of development. One well known denition, used for instance by the OECD
Development Assistance Committee, interprets capacity development as the process whereby people,
organizations and society as a whole unleash, strengthen, create, adapt and maintain capacity over
time (OECD, 2006, p. 12)A second, very different option starts from the realization that in several
countries, and especially in those most in need of capacity development, almost all actual capacity
development activities are related to skills training and are organized by international agencies. If
the rst interpretation is accepted, an analysis of capacity development would cover a very wide and
potentially confusing set of issues, while adopting the second much more restrictive denition would
lead to neglecting key issues with an impact on the performance of individuals and organizations,
for example, staff management or organizational structures. To succeed in undertaking the case
studies, we need a well-developed analytical framework that, on the one hand, recognizes that capacity
development is much more than skills training and that, on the other hand, is sufciently precise that
it allows for a detailed investigation within the constraints of this programme.
We interpret capacity development in this context as a process with four complementary dimensions:
improving the skills and performance of individuals;
improving organizational performance, through rethinking the mandate, the structure and the
internal management of the organizational units within which individual ofcers work;
improving the public administration to which these units belong through a reection on public
service management;
improving the social, economic and political context within which ofcers work and within which
education systems develop, by limiting the constraints and strengthening the incentives within the
external environment.
The graph at the end of this note presents in a somewhat simplied manner the various dimensions
of capacity development. It shows the four above-mentioned dimensions: the individuals work within
organizational units, which form part of public administration, which functions within a specic context.
The individual ofcers (the educational planners and managers) have mandates, as reected in
their job descriptions, and perform certain tasks, which may be different from their mandate. Their
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73
effectiveness depends on a combination of qualications, experience and training, on the relevance of
this combination to their mandate and tasks, and on the presence and strength of incentives and the
absence of inhibitors.
The individual ofcers work within an organizational unit: this can be the planning department within
the ministry of education; but planners and managers also work at the regional or district levels, and
the unit can then be a regional or a district education ofce. This unit has a mandate to full and
tasks to perform. Its effectiveness depends on the performance of the individual ofcers but it is
also the result of three organizational elements: rstly, the ways in which internal management is
helpful to the effectiveness and motivation of individual ofcers, through developing an efcient internal
communication ow, through clear lines of accountability and through supportive supervision; secondly,
the relevance of the organizational structure: whether it reects the units mandate and is sufciently
clear and simple; and thirdly, the availability of the necessary human, material and nancial resources
and the availability of the relevant information.
In our analysis, the organizational units all form part of public administration. Three issues are of specic
importance in this area: the distribution of tasks among units and their level of autonomy; the existence
of an education policy and a capacity development strategy; and most importantly, the management of
the public service, including for instance recruitment and evaluation criteria and procedures, and their
impact on staff performance.
Finally, several factors related to the political, economic and social context may have a positive or
detrimental impact on the performance of the public administration and its ofcers. Among these
factors can be mentioned the ease with which employment can be found outside the public sector, the
weight of donor agencies and the willingness of political decision makers to listen to technical advice.
In the Annex, we present a detailed analytical framework which contains core questions for each of the
themes identied above. The presentation of these questions follows the graph on the last page of this
note. We did not develop such detailed questions for the contextual level, as this will not form part of
our detailed analysis.
Educational planning and management
The UNESCO Policy Paper and the case study in Ethiopia will focus on capacities in educational planning
and management. This choice was made for a fundamental reason: experience has shown that the
lack of capacities to design, plan, manage and implement policies and reforms remains today one of
the most serious obstacles to the implementation of EFA in developing countries, more so than the lack
of nancing. This focus evidently ts well within IIEPs mandate and within the wider role of UNESCO.
In order to undertake with success our analysis of capacities in these areas, we identify with more
precision the different tasks to be examined. The risk exists that the analysis, if it intends to cover a wide
range of tasks and therefore a wide range of ministry divisions and units, will be either very expensive
in time and resources or insufciently profound. We have therefore tried to identify the main planning
and management tasks by organizing them in ve groups, following the logic of the planning process:
collection and analysis of information, leading to the denition of policies, which are translated into
plans, programmes and projects. Their implementation is monitored and evaluated.
Group 1: Creation and management of information systems, including:
Collection of statistical data
Entering statistical data into database
Analysis of data
Publication and use of data and indicators
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Annex
Group 2: Policy preparation, including:
Preparation of a sector diagnosis
Support, through technical advice and statistical information, the choice of policy orientations
Proposing strategies to improve the education system
Coordinating research undertaken by the ministry
Group 3: Preparation of plans, programmes and projects, including:
Building projections on the basis of simulation models
Preparing medium-term or long-term sector plans
Preparing proposals for programmes and projects
Group 4: Plan implementation, including:
Preparing annual operational plans
Managing programmes and projects
Creation of the school map
Planning teacher supply and demand
Construction and maintenance of infrastructure
Budget preparation
Group 5: Plan and policy monitoring and evaluation, including:
Development and use of indicators for monitoring and evaluation
Monitoring plan and project implementation
Evaluation of system quality
Three comments may be useful here. Firstly, this grouping probably does not reect the structure of
the planning department within the ministry or the regional bureaux. Some tasks may be undertaken
by actors outside of this department. Secondly, the planning cycle is interpreted here very much as
a technical cycle. The more political aspects, such as negotiation around political proposals or the
participation of civil society in the policy denition, are not included in this technical interpretation. These
questions will nevertheless be addressed during the case study, if they appear important. Thirdly, this
analysis will be undertaken at different levels: the federal Ministry of Education, the regional bureaux
and the woreda ofces, but the coverage and depth will be adapted to the role of each level.
A exible analysis
While the analysis will be guided and inspired by the conceptual elements explained above, it will be
characterized by a exible approach. It will carefully take into account work done previously in this area,
and will build on the ndings of existing studies and insights gained. The suggested analysis will bear
in mind the following points:
It will start from a series of open discussions and interviews with key actors, to identify what
these actors consider to be the key constraints to capacity development and which have received
insufcient attention. These early interviews will guide the remainder of the work.
One key question will be how planning departments have responded to recent changes in planning
practices, such as their participation in the preparation of poverty reduction strategy papers, the
existence of sector-wide support programmes and the need to prepare medium-term expenditure
frameworks.
It will include an investigation of the availability of qualied personnel and their deployment,
use and management (including their recruitment, in-service training and evaluation). This will
inevitably imply that we examine public management policies and practices.
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75
The analysis may involve the evaluation of some specic capacity development projects, which rely
on different modalities. If need be, specic studies may be undertaken on innovative or successful
experiences in capacity development in educational planning and management.
Practical implementation
We suggest setting up two teams: a research team and a reference group. They will have different roles
and be constituted differently. The research team will do the actual eld work. It will be coordinated by
one or two IIEP members of staff, with support from the education expert from the relevant UNESCO
ofce and the relevant regional advisor from UIS. It will include national and/or regional consultants,
some of whom should be coming from the Ministry of Education. If this is felt to be relevant, the
graduates of the IIEP training programmes, and especially its Advanced Training Programme, may be
involved in the eld research. The reference group will include representatives from the Ministry of
Education and from key international agencies. Its role is to guide the eld work, to comment on draft
reports and thus to show the point of view of important actors in the area of capacity development in
educational planning and management.
The analysis will start with an examination of the situation in the central Ministry of Education. Because
of the increased demand that regional and woreda education ofces prepare their own plans, the
analysis will pay attention to the functioning of the organizational units at those levels and to the
individual ofcers. The selection of regional bureaux and district ofces will be discussed with the
Ministry.
The actual implementation process will evidently depend on the discussions between IIEP and the
Ministry of Education. We make hereunder a brief suggestion on how the analysis may proceed, based
on the experiences in other countries:
setting up a research team and a reference team;
a rst mission, of some two weeks, by the research team to do the analysis at the level of the
ministry, and in one or two regional bureaux and a few woredas. This analysis will focus in particular
on the identication of organizational constraints to capacity development;
preparation of a rst report;
distribution of the report to some key informants and to the reference team, for comments and for
the identication of issues to be examined or reconsidered in more detail during a second mission;
second mission, of one or two weeks. This mission will focus on the identication of innovative or
successful capacity development experiences and programmes;
preparation of a draft nal report;
distribution of the draft nal report to key informants and to the reference team for comments and
amendments;
organization of a national seminar to discuss the draft nal report;
preparation and publication of the nal report.
Detailed analytical framework
We suggest hereunder key questions to be addressed for each of the issues identied within the overall
framework. As stressed above, this is still very much a draft analytical framework, and most probably
some questions will need to be deleted and others added. We hope that at the end of the discussion
session we can arrive at a detailed analytical framework with which the different UNESCO partners
involved feel comfortable. It is quite probable that the framework will change somewhat during the
programmes implementation, because of the lessons learned from the literature review and from the
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Annex
country case studies. What we need at this stage is a framework that can guide the analysis to be
started soon in the rst country.
The listing of questions follows systematically the overall framework, as represented in the graph on
the last page. We did not develop detailed questions for the issues related to the system context, as
this level will not be the focus of the analysis.
At the level of the individual
Mandate
What is the mandate of individual ofcers, according to their job descriptions?
If such a job description does not exist, are there any documents which provide similar information?
Do the individual ofcers know the job description? Is their formulation of the mandate similar to
what appears in the job description?
Tasks
What are the activities on which the ofcers spend most of their time?
What are the activities that they consider to be the most important and the least important?
Qualications
What qualications do the ofcers have? How do they compare to the qualications requested for
the post they occupy? Do they consider these qualications to be sufcient and pertinent for the
tasks they are asked to do?
Experience
How much experience do they have? In which areas? Are these areas relevant to and useful for the
post they occupy at the moment? Does it reect what is demanded for the post?
Training
(There will probably be a need to do a specic survey of staff who have beneted from training
in educational planning and management over the past ve to ten years and of their present
whereabouts.)
What training did the ofcers receive during their careers?
Have they received any specic training before occupying their present posts? If so, what duration,
what form did it take, and who were the organizers and the resource persons?
Have they received any training since they occupied the posts? If so, what duration, what form did it
take, and who were the organizers and the resource persons?
What are their present training needs?
What are their overall opinions about the various training courses in which they participated? What
training models do they prefer?
What do they feel is the impact of training on their personal performance, on their position in the
units, and on the performance of the units?
Incentives
For which reasons did the ofcers apply for the present posts? Do they feel that their expectations
in this regard have been fullled?
Would they apply again for such a post, if given the chance? Why? Why not?
What is their level of satisfaction with the working environment?
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77
Satisfaction with nancial incentives, allowances? How do they compare to other jobs, with similar
qualications, elsewhere (for example, in the public, private, NGO sector)?
Satisfaction with support and guidance received?
Satisfaction with responses by their direct chief and by other superiors to their requests?
At the level of the organizational unit
(Different units may need to be examined. If the analysis is done at the level of the Ministry of Education,
the rst unit can be the Department of Planning and, for some questions, a second unit can be the
Ministry as a whole. If the analysis is done at the level of a district ofce, there may not be a Department
of Planning and the unit may only be the District Education Ofce. We have used the term service to
describe the component parts of a unit.)
Mandate
Are there ofcial documents which specify the units mandate, its responsibilities and its authority?
What are those documents? Are they available within the unit?
Do staff know of their existence? Are they able to consult them? When did they last do so?
Does the unit have a vision and a mission statement?
Are staff aware of their existence, do staff know what the vision and mission are?
Who was involved in dening them?
What is, according to the staff, the mandate of the unit?
How does this denition compare to the ofcial documents and to the vision and mission statements?
Tasks
What are the activities on which the unit spends most of its time?
What are the activities of the unit that the individual ofcers consider to be the most important and
the least important?
How much time is spent, within the unit, on working for other units, or for the head of the ofce?
Internal management
Communication and coordination
How is the ow of communication within the unit (vertically and horizontally) organized? Are formal
structures in place that have the responsibility of transmitting information? What informal processes
exist?
How developed and how effective is internal communication? Are there regular meetings of all
staff? Are there any other means by which information is exchanged between services (for example,
reports, memos)?
Do members of one service know what members of other services are in charge of and undertake?
Are there any specic mechanisms (for example, committees, meetings) to ensure coordination
between the different services? Who is in charge of coordination?
Transparency and accountability
How are major decisions arrived at? Who is involved in consultation, negotiation and the decision-
making itself, within the unit?
How well are staff informed about key decisions taken within the unit?
How well are staff informed about the budget, its sources, its amount and the way it is being used?
Who is involved in decision-making in this area?
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Annex
How well are staff informed about personnel decisions (deployment, promotion)? Who is involved in
decision-making in this area?
What type of accountability is being promoted within the unit: towards the hierarchical superior,
towards the professional colleagues, towards the clients?
Supervision and support
Is a system in place to assess whether the unit or its services have achieved targets? Are such
targets dened? To what extent is good achievement of such units encouraged and rewarded?
Who is in charge of evaluating the work and the performance of the different services? What form
does such evaluation take? What is its impact on staff motivation and morale?
How are ofcers in the different services supported? Do they receive guidelines, training, or manuals
on how to perform their tasks?
Do ofcers receive feedback from their superiors on their requests or on their reports?
Are training needs assessments carried out from time to time? What impact do they have on the
actual training provided?
Structure
Reection of mandate
Organizational chart of the unit? Are there ofcial organizational charts and, if so, are they applied?
How far does the present structure reect the units mandate?
Has there recently been a reorganization of the unit? If so, for which purposes?
As far as the distribution of tasks within the unit or between its services is concerned, are there
overlaps or areas insufciently covered?
Complexity, clarity
To what extent is the units structure transparent to its staff and its clients?
Is there clarity about who is in charge of specic planning and management tasks? Are the
responsibilities in this regard dispersed over different services within the unit or taken care of by
one service?
To what extent is the unit characterized by internal coherence: is the distribution of responsibilities
among different staff and services coherent?
To what extent are staff conscious of their own roles and of those of other personnel, and those of
other units?
Do staff view themselves as appointees bound together by common objectives and collegial
relationships?
Resources
Does the distribution of resources reect the units priorities?
What share of resources goes to planning and management tasks and to the staff in charge of these
tasks?
Material and nancial resources
What material resources/equipment exists within the unit? What is their quality?
What communication tools exist (fax, telephone, internet, and so on)?
Who has access to them and who can use them?
What nancial resources are available to the unit? Where do they come from? How are they
distributed among the different parts?
Are the material and nancial resources available to the unit and to its services considered sufcient
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79
to operate effectively?
What has been the evolution in recent years?
Human resources
How many staff work within the unit?
How are the staff distributed among the different categories (professionals support staff) and
among different services?
Are there any vacant posts? Are they concentrated in specic areas? What are the causes of such
vacancies?
Does a programme exist to bring personnel up to the required strength (in numbers and in skills)
in order to implement effectively the Ministrys plans and projects? If so, who was involved in its
development?
Information
Does the unit have the information that it needs to carry out its tasks effectively?
Is this information sufciently recent, regularly updated, complete and trustworthy?
How is this information organized: within a computerized database, on paper les, and so on?
How easy is it to retrieve the relevant information?
At the level of the public administration
Structure: levels of autonomy, distribution of roles
What is the structure of the administration of the education system: different levels?
What are the responsibilities of the main levels with regard to planning and management?
Does the present distribution of responsibilities among the different levels allow each level to
concentrate on its main functions? In other words, does each level receive autonomy, where such
autonomy is warranted, and support, where such support is needed?
Are there other actors, outside of the public administration, with a role in educational planning and
management?
Policy and plan: existence, clarity and knowledge
Is there a specic education policy document? Are there educational plans in existence?
Is there coherence between the policy documents and the plans?
Who was involved in the preparation of the policy and plan documents? What sort of consultation
and/or participation took place?
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Annex
Are the policy and plan objectives clear? Are they precise? Have indicators been dened to monitor
their achievement?
Is the staff well informed of their existence? Do they agree with these objectives? Do they feel
committed to them?
Staff management: recruitment, evaluation and career prospects
Does a specic cadre of educational planners and managers exist? Are they all public servants? To
which category, level of the public service do they belong?
How are educational planners and managers in the public service recruited? On the basis of which
criteria, through which procedures?
Are these procedures and criteria well known by all? What opinion do different actors have about
them?
What is the typical career pattern of an educational planner?
Does a system exist to assess staff performance? How are work goals and targets for staff members
identied? Who is involved in the process of performance evaluation?
What is the impact of the existing performance evaluation system on staff motivation and
effectiveness?
What career prospects exist for educational planners and managers within the public service? When
educational planners and managers leave the service, what are their destinations?

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81
Figure A1. A selection of issues to be considered in an analysis of capacity development
policies and strategies

System context

Political, e.g.:
Status quo or moment of change?
Stability or instability?
Commitment
Economic, e.g.:
Employment in public/private sector
Budget support to education
Weight of donor agencies
Social, e.g.:
Existence of urban/rural disparities
Ease of internal migration, emigration
Openness of society

Public administration

Structure: levels of autonomy, distribution of roles
Policy: existence, clarity & knowledge
Staff management: recruitment, evaluation, career prospects
Organizational unit

Internal management
Communication & coordination
Transparency & accountability
Supervision & support
Mandate Structure
Reflection of mandate
Complexity, clarity
Tasks Resources
Material & financial
Human
Information
Individual

Mandate Qualifications
Experience
Tasks Training
Incentives
82
Annex 2. Individual questionnaire administered to educational
planners and managers at the federal, regional and
woreda levels
This questionnaire is developed within the framework of a research study on the capacity development
strategies implemented in Ethiopia in the area of educational planning and management.
The questionnaire is anonymous and will be analysed by a research team from UNESCO. The information
herein will remain condential.
Your responses to the questionnaire will be very useful for UNESCO and will help in preparing a national
report on capacity development in educational planning and management for achieving EFA.
Completing the questionnaire will take you less than half an hour.
Thank you in advance for your assistance.
Mandate
1. Do you work at the MOE, REB or WEO level?
a. MOE
b. REB
c. WEO
2. What is the exact title of your post?
_______________________________________________________________________________
3. Through which process did you obtain this post?
a. Promotion
b. Internal competitive recruitment
c. External competitive recruitment
d. Nomination
e. Secondment
f. Transfer
g. Other process:.
4. Is there any ofcial document (e.g. job description) which identies the tasks you are expected
to perform?
a. Yes
b. No
c. I dont know
(If b or c go to question 7)
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83
5. If so, what type of document is it?
_______________________________________________________________________________
6. Do you nd that this document clearly describes the tasks you have to perform?
a. Very clearly
b. Clearly
c. Not clearly
7. Have the responsibilities of your ofce/department changed within the last four years?
a. Yes
b. No
8. If yes, give two main changes:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
9. Have your own responsibilities changed within the last four years?
a. Yes
b. No
10. If yes, give two main changes:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Tasks
11. Can you identify three activities on which you spend most of your time, listing them starting
with the one taking the most time? Rank them in order of importance.
Task in order of time devoted to it Task in order of importance
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
12. Are these three tasks listed in the ofcial document mentioned under question 5?
Yes No
Task 1
Task 2
Task 3
13. According to you, what are the three main functions of your department/unit?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
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Annex
14. MOE/REB/WEO have developed strategic education plans. With regard to each plan, can you
respond to the following statements:
MOE REB WEO
Yes No Yes No Yes No
I know of its existence
I was involved in its preparation
I participated in meetings where the plan was validated
I have a copy of the plan in my ofce
I regularly use the plan in my work
Qualications
15. What is your highest academic qualication?
a. End of secondary school certicate
b. Teacher training certicate
c. Bachelors degree
d. Masters degree
e. PhD
16. In which eld/academic discipline did you obtain this degree?
_______________________________________________________________________________
Experience
17. How many years of work experience do you have in the education sector?
a. Less than 5
b. 515
c. 1625
d. More than 25
18. How many years of professional experience do you have in the area of educational planning
and management?
a. Less than 5
b. 510
c. 1125
d. More than 15
19. For how long (in years) have you been occupying your present post?
a. Less than 3 years
b. 46
c. 79
d. 10 and above
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85
20. Have you ever been a school teacher (at least for a full academic year)?
a. Yes
b. No
21. What are the positions you have held within the last ve years, and how long did you stay in
each position?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Training
22. Have you had any professional training in educational planning and/or management since the
beginning of your career? If yes, please specify.
Theme Yes
Year and
duration
Venue of
training
Who conducted the training
(National professionals or non-national
professionals or mixed)?
Planning
Policy analysis
Leadership/management
Projections and simulations
Budget
Monitoring and evaluation
EMIS
Statistics
Others (please specify):
..............................................
23. Has the training you received since you occupied your present post related to the tasks you
are expected to perform?
a. Yes, very much
b. Yes, but only somewhat
c. No, not related
d. No training received
24. Has the training contributed to your:
Yes No
Better performance
Receiving additional responsibilities or rewards
Promotion within your ofce/department
25. Among the tasks for which you are responsible, which ones do you nd the most difcult to
complete?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
86
Annex
26. Why?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Availability of material resources
27. In your ofce, are the following resources available and functional?
Available Functional
Telephone
Fax
Computer
Printer
Server
Local area network
28. In your ofce, do you have a computer to perform your work?
a. Yes, a computer dedicated for me
b. Yes, I share it with my colleague(s)
c. No
29. If so, which computer programmes do you use the most?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
30. Do you have access to the Internet?
a. Yes
b. No
31. Do you use it often for your professional work?
a. Yes
b. No
Motivation
32. Do you enjoy your work?
a. Yes
b. No
Annex
87
33. When you encounter a technical or professional problem, how useful is the help you receive
from the following sources?
Not useful Useful Very useful
My superior
My colleagues, within my ofce
Other colleagues (please specify)
Manuals/guidelines
Ofcial documents
Documentation centre
Internet
Others (specify):
................................................................................
34. During the past three months, how many times have you participated in staff meetings in your
department?
_______________________________________________________________________________
35. How do you rate the usefulness of these meetings for the performance of your job?
a. Not useful
b. Useful
c. Very useful
36. How do you rate the adequacy of these meetings for the performance of your job?
a. Adequate
b. Inadequate
37. Have you been evaluated during the past two years?
a. Yes
b. No
38. If yes, was it useful?
a. Not useful
b. Useful
c. Very useful
39. If yes, was it adequate?
a. Adequate
b. Inadequate
88
Annex
40. Please indicate to what extent you agree with the following statements:
I dont agree I agree partially I agree fully
I am satised with the nancial benets of my
work
I am satised with the support and guidance I
receive from my supervisor
I have enough autonomy to perform my work
I participate in important decision-making within
my department or division
I have all the skills I need to do my work well
41. According to you:
MOE REB WEO
Yes No Yes No Yes No
The MOE/REB/WEO needs to improve its planning skills
The MOE/REB/WEO does not engage in strategic planning
The MOE/REB/WEO needs to change its way of working to be
successful
42. Since you have occupied your present post, have you tried to obtain another post?
a. Yes, a post within the same ofce
b. Yes, a post within the education sector
c. Yes, a post outside of the education sector
d. No
43. Please indicate the most difcult challenges you face to perform your work effectively and
efciently (more than one answer is possible):
a. Lack of coordination
b. Lack of guidelines
c. Lack of reliable data
d. Lack of knowledge and skills in ICT
e. Lack of familiarity of tasks
f. Lack of adequate resources (computers, paper, etc.)
g. Lack of support
h. Lack of job security
i. Lack of time (work overload)
j. Others: __________________________________
Annex
89
44. Do you have any ideas to improve your personal skills in educational planning and management?
If so, please explain.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
45. Do you have any ideas to improve capacity within the education sector in Ethiopia? If so, please
comment
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Thank you for your participation!
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The book
Many initiatives in Ethiopia in recent years have aimed to strengthen the capacities
of educational planners and managers including on-the-job training programmes
for ministry staff, regional and district planners, and school principals. Although
progress has been made, several challenges will need to be overcome if planners
are to fulfll their missions successfully.
This study examines these challenges, which include the profle of planners, their
recruitment and evaluation, and the resources at their disposal. Several short-,
medium- and long-term strategies are proposed to overcome obstacles and
sustainably improve the capacity of educational planners and managers. These include: well-
designed professional development programmes, linking initial and on-the-job training; reform of
human resource management (in particular, of recruitment and evaluation); and open and regular
communication fows between offces and administrative levels.
The authors
This study was prepared by Dramane Oulai and Candy Lugaz (Programme Specialists,
IIEP), Alemayehu Minas (former Secretary-General for the UNESCO National Commission in
Ethiopia), and Haileselassie Teklehaimanot (former Ethiopian Vice-Minister for Technical and
Vocational Education and Training), in collaboration with Marc Bernal (Programme Specialist,
UNESCO Institute for Statistics) and Marcus Edward (Director of Planning in Saint Lucia).
in educational planning and
Dramane Oulai, Candy Lugaz,
Alemayehu Minas, Haileselassie Teklehaimanot
Rethinking capacity development

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