Lecture No: 3

Composition of solid and liquid wastes

3.1.Composition of solid wastes
It is not possible to give generally valid values for the composition of overall solid
wastes both because data in many cases are not available and because waste composition as
mentioned in the previous section varies strongly with level of industrialization, type of
society and region of the world. For some of the individual types of waste such as residential
wastes some data and available and here it is possible to give some indication of the
composition of the materials.

3. 2. Composition of residential solid wastes.

The solid wastes generated in residential homes are very often a mixture of several
different materials especially if source separation is not implemented. And the waste is
therefore often very complex array of materials. Figure 3.1 gives an example of general
municipal (mainly residential areas) solid waste components in Denmark. The biodegradable
fractions are food waste, garden waste, paper, diapers, cardboard, and newsprint, accounting
for almost two third of the combined residential waste stream ( as wet weight). The main
reason why especially the food waste account for such a large fraction (34%) of the total
amount of wastes generated is its relatively high density and water content. Often
biodegradable wastes have higher water contents and bulk densities than the inorganic
fractions. This is discussed further in the following chapters. The fractions of the wastes that
are considered suitable for treatment and recycling vary with region, tradition, legislation,
material types, etc. For instance many of the industrialized countries have already or are
currently in the process of developing advanced formal programs for recycling of metal,
glass, plastic, paper and cardboard. Food and garden waste are often treated biologically. In
Denmark for instance only the organic materials in the food and garden waste fractions are
considered for biological treatment whereas only little paper and cardboard enters the
biological treatment facilities as these materials are recycled directly. It is estimated that a
grand total of 40% (wet weight) of the total mass of residential solid waste generated in
Denmark is suitable for biological treatment such as composting or biogas production. This
quantity accounts for about 50% of the total amount of residential biodegradable wastes
generated.
 Fig. 3.1. Composition of residential municipal solid waste in Denmark
The composition of solid wastes generated in residential areas and industries is
strongly affected by the level of development of the society. The general trend in municipal
waste composition across countries with different levels of development is that the
percentage of food waste is much higher in developing countries whereas the percentages of
paper and yard wastes are highest in countries with a high level of development. Table 3.1
gives the average composition of general municipal residential solid waste for different levels
of development and personal income. Some of the reasons for these differences are that in
developing countries larger amounts of virgin foodstuffs are used at home in food preparation
generating larger amounts of waste whereas in developed countries more preprocessed food
is used reducing the amount of food waste generated in the residential areas but at the same
time increasing the amount of wrapping materials that needs to be disposed of. In developing
countries larger amounts of organic materials from gardens and parks etc. are disposed of on
site by for instance incineration or composting, and therefore the contents of these wastes in
the general waste stream are lower than in developed countries where they are often handled
by the public waste management system.
Table 3.1. Percentage composition (wet weight) of municipal residential solid waste as
related to regional income( source: Tchobanoglous et al. 1993).
Component Low- income Middle- income High-income
countries countries countries
Food waste 40-85 20-65 6-30
Paper/cardboard 1-10 8-30 25-60
Plastics 1-5 2-6 2-8
Yard waste 1-5 1-10 10-20
Other organic 2-10 2-15 4-15
Inorganic 1-55 1-45 7-35
Sum biodegr 45-25 30-95 45-90
 The sum of the fractions of biodegradable materials (on a wet weight basis of food,
paper and yard wastes) or the inorganic materials in the general waste stream, however, does
not show any significant trends with level of income and development of the society. The last
row of Table 3.1 gives the sum of biodegradable wastes as a fractional value for the three
levels of income. On average approximately tow thirds of the general waste stream consists
of biodegradable materials (compare the data in the last row of Table 3.2 with the Danish data
in Fig 3.1).
Table 3.2. Factors affecting solid waste generation rates
--------------------------------------------
Factor
--------------------------------------------
Long terms trends
Seasonal changes
Weekly and daily variations
Source type
Family size
Collection practice
Infrastructure
Population density
Economy
Statistical properties
------------------------------------------
That the fraction of biodegradable wastes is independent on income and development
does not necessarily mean that the total quantities of biodegradable wastes generated (for
instance measured in terms of tons of biodegradable wastes generated per capita) are the
same across different countries of regions of the world since the waste generation rates can be
highly different and strongly dependent upon several factors related to culture, tradition,
society, etc. Some of the most important of these factors influencing waste generation rates
and waste types generated will be discussed in more detail in subsequent sections of this
chapter.
3.3. Solid wastes from industry, wastewater and drinking water treatment.
Solid wastes from the industry and from water and wastewater treatment plants are, unlike
solid wastes produced at residential homes, often very homogeneous. For a given industry
 or treatment plant the waste consists of one or at most a few different components. Often
the materials from especially industrial production processes are of very high purity and
are therefore highly suitable for recycling and therefore usually relatively easy to market
with economical gain. An example is food production wastes where significant amounts of
the wastes are recycled directly for instance as pet food. Large amounts of solid wastes
generated as byproducts in industrial production therefore do not enter the general waste
stream but are sold directly to manufacturers that use them for further processing and
production. The fraction of industrial waste entering the general waste stream may
therefore be as little as 0-10% of the total amount of industrial solid wastes generated.
Sludge from water and wastewater treatment sometimes poses more of a problem because
they are often contaminated with heavy metals or toxic organic compounds making them
more difficult to recycle. Their homogeneity, however, still make them very suitable for
biological treatment such as for instance biogas production by anaerobic digestion.
3.4. Quantities of solid wastes
The quantity of solid wastes materials (in terms of kg materials per capita per year)
entering the general waste stream (that is excluding directly recycled materials) is strongly
dependent upon the level of development of the society in question throughout the world. In
general developing countries have much lower waste generation rates per capita than have
developed countries. Figure 3.2 shows total residential waste generation rates per capita in
1992 and 2000 for a range of urban areas in different countries across the world representing
a wide range in the level of development and industrialization. It can be seen from Fig.3.2
that the total waste generation rates per capita in high-income countries such as France,
Australia, and South Korea are three to four times higher than solid waste generation rates
observed in developing countries such as India and the Philippines. It is also seen that the
waste generation rates are in general increasing all over the globe.

Fig. 3.2. Bulk generation of solid waste materials in 1992 (white columns) and 2000 (gray columns) for a range of countries with
different levels of industrial development and standard of living

Some of the primary reasons for the large differences in the observed rates of waste
generation are that in low-income areas less recyclable materials are let go to waste and
 greater amounts materials are recycled directly. In poor areas for instance residential food
waste are often used for feeding pigs and chicken kept on the premises. Another reason is
that in low-income areas the waste collection system is often not fully developed or
nonexistent due to poor infra structure such as lack of roads, poor technology and lack of
economic funds. Therefore less waste materials are collected and accounted for, these
materials are instead disposed of by other means for instance by recycling, burning, home
composting, or illegal dumping. This also means that the potential amount of solid waste
materials generated in developing countries can be significantly higher than what is shown
in Fig.3.2. The implementation of a better waste collection system will therefore result in
increased waste generation rates. In developed countries with a well-structured waste
collection system the observed waste generation rates more closely resembles the true
amounts of materials generated.
3.5. Wastewater Constituents
The physical, chemical and biological constituents found in wastewater and the
constituents of concern in wastewater are introduced briefly in the following discussion.
3.5.1. Constituents Found in Wastewater
Wastewater is characterized in terms of its physical, chemical, and biological
composition. The principal physical properties and the chemical and biological constituents
of wastewater, and their sources, are reported in Table 3.3. It should be noted that many of
the physical properties and chemical and biological characteristics listed in Table 3.1 are
interrelated. For example, temperature, a physical property, affects both the amounts of gases
dissolved in the wastewater and the biological activity in the wastewater.
3.5.2.Constituents of Concern in Wastewater Treatment
The important constituents of concern in wastewater treatment are listed in Table 3.4.
Secondary treatment standards for wastewater are concerned with the removal of
biodegradable organics, total suspended solids, and pathogens. Many of the more stringent
standards that have been developed recently deal with the removal of nutrients, heavy metals,
and priority pollutants. When wastewater is to be reused, standards normally include
additional requirements for the removal of refractory organics, heavy metals and in some
cases, dissolved inorganic solids.
3.6. Sampling And Analytical Procedures
Proper sampling and analytical techniques are of fundamental importance in the
characterization of wastewater. Sampling techniques, the methods of analysis, the units of
measurement for chemical constituents, and some useful concepts from chemistry are
considered below.7
3.6.1. Sampling
 Sampling programs are undertaken for a variety if reasons such as to obtain (1) routine
operating data on overall plant performance, (2) data that can be used to document the
performance of a given treatment operation or process, (3) data that can be used to implement
proposed new programs, and (4) data needed for reporting regulatory compliance. To meet
the goals of the sampling program, the data collected must be:
1. Representative. The data must represent the wastewater or environment being
sampled.
2. Reproducible. The data obtained must be reproducible by others following the same
sampling and analytical protocols.
3. Defensible. Documentation must be available to validate the sampling procedures.
The data must have a known degree of accuracy and precision
4. Useful. The data can be used to meet the objectives of the monitoring plan (Pepper et
al., 1996.)

Because the data from the analysis of the samples will ultimately serve as a basis for

implementing wastewater management facilities and programs, the techniques used in a

wastewater sampling program must be such that representative samples are obtained.

Table 3.3. Common analyses used to assess the constituents found in wastewatera
Testb Abbreviation/ Use or significance of test results
definition
Physical characteristics
Total solids TS
Total volatile solids TVS
Total fixed solids TFS
Total suspended solids TSS
Volatile suspended solids VSS
Fixed suspended solids FSS To assess the reuse potential of a waste
Total dissolved solids TDS (TS – TSS)
water and to determine the most suitable
Volatile dissolved solids VDS
Total fixed dissolved solids FDS type of operations and Processes for its
treatment
Settleable solids To determine those solids that will settle by
gravity in a specified time period
Particle size distribution PSD To assess the performance of treatment
processes
c
Turbidity NTU Used to assess the quality of treated
wastewater
Color Light brown, To assess the condition of wastewater (fresh
gray, black or septic)
Transmittance %T Used to assess the suitability of treated
effluent for UV disinfection
Odor TONd To determine if odors will be a problem
0
Temperature C or 0F Important in the design and operation of
biological processes in treatment facilities
Density ρ
Conductivity EC Used to assess the suitability effluent for
agricultural applications
Inorganic chemical characteristics
Free ammonia NH+4
Organic nitrogen Org N
Total kjeldahl nitrogen TKN(OrgN+ NH+4)
Nitrites NO-2
Nitrates NO-3
Total nitrogen TN Used as a measure of nutrients present and
Inorganic phosphorus Inorg P
the degree of decomposition in the
Total phosphorus TP
Organic phosphorus Org P wastewater; the oxidized forms can be taken
as a measure of the degree of oxidation

Inorganic chemical characteristics

pH pH= -log[H+] A measure of the acidity or basicity of an
aqueous solution
Alkalinity HCO3- + CO3-2 + A measure of the buffering capacity of the
OH- - H+ wastewater
Chloride Cl To assess the suitability of wastewater for
agricultural reuse
Sulfate SO-24 To assess the potential for the formation of
odors and may impact the treatability of the
waste sludge
Metals As, Cd, Ca, Cr, Co, To assess the suitability of the wastewater
Cu, Pb, Mg, Hg, for reuse and for toxicity effects in
Mo, Ni, Se, Na, Zn treatment. Trace amounts of metals are
important in biological treatment.
Specific inorganic To assess presence or absence of a specific
elements and constituent
compounds
Various gases O2, CO2, NH3, H2S, To assess presence or absence of a specific
CH4 gases
 Organic chemical characteristics
Five-day carbonaceous CBOD5 A measure of the amount of oxygen
Biochemical oxygen
required to stabilize a waste biologically
Demand
Ultimate carbonaceous UBOD (also A measure of the amount of oxygen
Biochemical oxygen BODu,BODL) required to stabilize a waste biologically
Demand
Nitrogenous oxygen NOD A measure of the amount of oxygen
Demand required to oxidize biologically the nitrogen
in the wastewater to nitrate
Chemical oxygen COD Often used as a substitute for the BOD test
demand
Total organic carbon TOC Often used as a substitute for the BOD test
Specific organic MBASe, CTASf To determine presence of specific organic
compounds and classes compounds and to assess whether special
of compounds design measures will be needed for removal
Biological characteristics
Coliform organisms MPN(most To assess presence of pathogenic bacteria
probable number) and effectiveness of disinfection process
Specific microorganisms Bacteria, protozoa, To assess presence of specific organisms in
helminthes, Viruses connection with plant operation and for
reuse
Toxicity TUa and TUc Toxic unit acute, toxic unit chronic

a
Adapted, in part, from Crites and Tchobanoglous (1998).
b
Details on the various test may be found in the Standard Methods (1998)
c
NTU = nephelometric turbidity unit
d
TON = threshold odor number
e
MBAS= methylene blue active substances
i
CTAS = cobalt thiocyanate active substances

Table 3.4 Principal constituents of concern in wastewater treatment

Constituent Reason for importance
Suspended solids Suspended solids can lead to the development of sludge
deposits and anaerobic conditions when untreated
wastewater is discharged in the aquatic environment
Biodegradable Organics Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats,
biodegradable organics are measured most commonly in
 terms of BOD (biochemical oxygen demand). If discharged
untreated to the environment, their biological stabilization
can lead to the depletion of natural oxygen resources and to
the development of septic conditions
Pathogens Communicable diseases can be transmitted by the
pathogenic organisms that may be present in wastewater.
Nutrients Both nitrogen and phosphorus, along with Carbon, are
essential nutrients for growth when discharged to the
aquatic environment; these nutrients can lead to the growth
of undesirable aquatic life. When discharged in excessive
amounts on land, they can also lead to the pollution of
groundwater
Priority pollutants Organic and inorganic compounds selected on the basis of
their known or suspected carcinogenicity, mutagenicity
teratogenicity, or high acute toxicity. Many of these
compounds are found in waste water
Refractory organics These organics tend to resist conventional methods of
wastewater treatment. Typical examples include
surfactants, phenols, and agricultural pesticides
Heavy metals Heavy metals are usually added to wastewater from
commercial and industrial industrial activities and may
have to be removed if the wastewater is to be reused
Dissolved inorganics Inorganic constituents such as calcium, Sodium, and
sulfate are added to the original domestic water supply as a
result of water use and may have to be removed if the
wastewater is to be reused.

There are no universal procedures for sampling; sampling programs must be tailored
individually to fit each situation (see Fig. 3.3). Special procedures are necessary to handle
sampling problems that arise when wastes vary considerably in composition.
Fig 3.3. Collection of samples for analysis: (a) collection of an effluent sample from a
pilot plant treatment unit and (b) view of an uncapped monitoring well equipped with
sampling outlets for four different well depths
Before a sampling program is undertaken, a detailed sampling protocol must be
developed along with a quality assurance project plan (QAPP) (known previously as quality
assurance/quality control, QA/AC). As a minimum, the following items must be specified in
the QAPP (Pepper et al., 1996). Additional details on the subject of sampling may be found in
Standard Methods (1998).
1. Sampling plan. Number of sampling locations, number (see homework problem 2-5 ) and
type of samples, time intervals (e.g., real-time and/or time- delayed samples).
2. Sample types and size. Catch or grab samples, composite samples, or integrated samples,
separate samples for different analyses (e.g.., for metals). Sample size (i.e..,volume) required.
3. Sample labeling and chain of custody. Sample labels, sample seals, field log book, chain of
custody record, sample analysis request sheets, sample delivery to the laboratory, receipt and
logging of sample, and assignment of sample for analysis.
4. Sampling methods.specific techniques and equipments to be used eg manual, automatic,
or sorbent sampling}.
5. Sampling storage and preservation.Type of containers (e,g, glass or plastic}preservation
methods, maximum allowable holding times.
6. Sample constituents. A list of the parameters to be measured.
7. Analytical methods.A list of the field and laboratory test methods and procedures to be
used, and the detection limits for the individual methods.
If the physical, chemical and / or biological integrity of the samples is not maintained
during interim periods sample collection and sample analysis, a carefully performed
sampling program will become worthless. Considerable research on the problem of sample
preservation has failed to perfect a universal treatment method, or to formulate a set of fixed
rules applicable to samples of all types. Prompt analysis is undoubtedly the most positive
assurance against error due to sample deterioration. When analytical and testing conditions
dictate a lag between collection and analysis, such as when a 24- h composite sample is
collected, provisions must be made for preserving samples. Current methods of sample
preservation for the analysis of properties subject to deterioration must be used.( Standard
methods, 1998) Probable errors due to deterioration of the sample should be noted in
reporting analytical data.
 Lecture No: 4
Properties- factors affecting - quantity and composition of solid wastes

4.1. Factors affecting the quantity and composition of solid wastes

The quantity and composition of the stream of solid waste material at a certain
location depends upon several factors and both quantity and composition of the solid wastes
often varies considerably over time. Understanding the variations in quantity and composition
of the materials is important when designing waste management systems and deciding on the
optimal type of treatment and final disposition of the materials. Some of the factors that
control the quantity and composition of wastes are listed in Table 3.2
The rate of generation of solid wastes materials often shows a general trend towards
increasing quantities with time regardless of the level of development of the area. As
discussed earlier this trend coincides with increases in development level and standard of
living in the region as also mentioned earlier the relative fraction of food waste decreases and
the relative fraction of yard waste increases with development whereas their fractional sum is
roughly constant (Table 3.1). As most areas in the world tend toward higher levels of
development and standard of living, increased rates of wastes generation should be excepted
in the future. Locally, however, there may be activities such as new industries or closing of
existing factories to changes in the overall population composition that can mask out these
general trends. The composition and quantity of wastes often follows a seasonal cycle. An
example is food and garden waste in non-tropical areas that are generated in larger quantities
during the summer and early fall seasons. In the summer cooking usually involves the use of
larger amounts of fresh vegetables, as these are readily available during this season. Cooking
with fresh vegetables usually means production of larger quantities of food waste and,
depending on the type of society, infra structure, etc. more or less of these food waste will
end up in the general waste stream. Spring summer and fall season are also the seasons where
many people are active in gardens and parks and therefore, larger quantities of yard and park
waste are produced during these seasons. Figure 4.1 shows example variation in total waste
quantities and composition over a one-year period at two sites in the United States.

Fig 4.1. Left: Annual variation in total waste quantities and composition over a one-year period at two sites in the United States, Right:
Composition of solid wastes received at a New York Landfill in the 1940’s
 The figure shows that total waste quantities can be more than 40% higher in the
summer and that the fraction of food waste may vary from less than 5% to more than 45% of
the total amount of wastes generated (wet weight). Again these variations depend upon the
type of society, level of development and standard of living. The actual seasonal variation in
waste materials composition and quantity generated at a specific location depends strongly on
the human activities taking place in that location, the climate, the infrastructure, the culture
etc. It is therefore very difficult to generalize the trends in the rates of generation of solid
wastes from one location to another unless the locations are very similar with respect to these
influencing factors. In most cases it is usually necessary to conduct separate investigations at
the location in order to adequately determine the seasonal effects on the composition and
quantity of waste materials generated. The generation of solid wastes especially those
generated in residential areas in residential areas in many cases also follows weekly and
daily cycles. These cycles are usually caused by recurring patterns in the behavior of people
living in the area such as cooking and cleaning. Often the largest amounts of wastes are
generated during preparations of the main meals and during the periods where people are off
work. An example is illustrated in Fig. 4.2 that shows the daily and weekly variations in total
waste generation in a US high-rise apartment complex. It is seen that the largest amounts of
wastes are generated during the evening hours and on weekends (in terms of mass) when
most people are at home and have time for cooking and cleaning.

Daily and weekly variations likely have the greatest importance for internal (within
the apartment complex or building) waste collection and management, but may or may not
have importance on general waste collection and management depending on when and how
often waste are collected (usually 0.5-2 times a week depending on climate). Variations in
especially quantity and also in composition of waste materials with population density and
family size can also in many cases be quite pronounced. Low waste production rates per
capita are often seen in densely populated areas whereas waste generation is often
significantly higher in rural areas. Waste generation rates per capita are also typically higher
in household with few persons compared to households with many persons.
 Fig. 4.2 Typical waste discharge rates in apartment complexes with waste chutes. Top: daily variation as a function of the time of the
day, Bottom: weekly variations as a function of the day of the week.

Table 4.1 shows weekly waste generation rates per capita for urban, semi-urban, and
rural areas in Denmark as a function of the number of persons living in each household.
Table 4.1. Total solid waste generation rates per capita in urban, semi-urban and rural
areas in Denmark as a function of the number of persons living together in one
household. Adopted from Christensen et al. (1998).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Household size (persons) Kg/(person week)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Urban Semi-urban Rural
1 6.6 7.1 7.8
2 4.5 5.0 5.3
3 3.4 3.8 4.5
4 2.6 3.3 3.6
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Waste generation rates per capita are significantly lower in household with more
persons per household. Households with 4 persons generate approximately 50-60% less waste
per person than does households with only one person. Also households in urban areas
generate 15-30% less waste per inhabitant than does households in rural areas. The reason for
the lower waste generation rates in urban areas is likely that recycling systems are better
developed here and therefore less recyclable materials will enter the general waste stream.
This is especially true for general solid waste but may be less so for biodegradable wastes, as
these require further treatment and therefore in general have to enter the waste management
system in order to be treated and recycled properly. Also if more persons are living in the
same household less waste will be generated per person because the amount of materials
consumed as a whole in the household usually is not directly proportional to the number of
persons living there. Again here the biodegradable wastes may show a less pronounced trend
as a person’s food consumption likely is independent of how many others he or she is living
together with. There may, however be some effects of being able to buy foods in larger
quantities or that households with many persons often include small children that eat less thus
reducing the amount of food waste
generated. However as no data is available for directly relating the amount of biodegradable
wastes generated with the size of the household there is a need for investigating this issue
further.
The quantities of solid waste that enters the waste management system are as
mentioned earlier also strongly dependent upon how user-friendly the waste collection system
is, i.e., the ease of bringing the materials to the collection points. The easier and simpler it is
to use the collection system the larger the fraction of materials will enter the system and can
be treated centrally. This means that infra structure and collection practice both have a major
influence upon both composition and especially quantity of the solid wastes that will be
collected in areas with poor infra structure and infrequent or nonexistent collection service is
especially important if source separation programs are to be introduced, it is important that
the system is easy to use otherwise only a small fraction of the materials potentially available
will be collected and recycled. So if the objective is to promote central treatment and
recycling of the materials it is very important to make the collection system as transparent
and simple to use as possible. The impact of collection system structure upon the quantity of
materials collected is illustrated for source-separated fractions of recyclable glass and paper
in Fig. 4.3 the figure shows the quantities of glass and paper collected per capita in the
northern part of Copenhagen as a function of the numbers of collection containers per capita.
Of course the collected quantities cannot increase indefinitely as more collection containers
are made available. The collected quantities of recyclable materials will asymptotically reach
the maximum potential generation rate. At that point the collection rates will become
independent on the number of collection containers per capita in case the population density
and collection container distribution if uniform within the collection area the collection rate
will increase linearly with the number of collection containers for small numbers of
containers, and be almost constant with a value approximately equal to the potential material
generation rate for a large number of containers. The actual slope of the collection rate curve
as it approaches the potential generation rate depends among other factors upon the behavior
of the population living in the area. At present the knowledge in the relation between
collection system configuration and collected quantity is rather limited.

Fig 4.3. Quantities of glass and paper collected per capita in the northern part of Copenhagen as a function of the numbers of collection
containers

4.2. Legislative control of solid waste management and reuse.

In addition to the factors discussed above the generation and reuse of solid waste is
often regulated by legislation. This is done to promote recycling or to ensure that the wastes
are disposed of in an environmentally sound manner. In many European countries for
instance there are extensive legislation requiring that recyclable materials are recycled for
instance by requiring source separation of these materials. In Denmark for instance
legislation requires that recyclable paper, glass, and metal is separated from the general waste
stream and recycled. Also onsite disposal is in many countries heavily regulated. In densely
populated areas of Europe for instance the incineration of garden and park waste is prohibited
due to nuisance generated by the smoke and toxic substances such as dioxin released by the
incineration process. Such legislation is often backed up by economic incentives such as fees
and fines and can have a major positive influence upon the management of the wastes. As a
result of such legislation and economic incentives many central and northern European
countries have developed or are in the process of developing plans and systems for treating
and recycling the wastes. Too strict legislation, however, can also result in unwanted effects.
For instance if excessive fees for waste disposal and treatment are imposed increased illegal
dumping of the waste in vacant lots, parking lots, or other public areas may occur with
environmental degradation as a result. Control of waste management by legislation is
therefore a matter of finding the right balance between the desired goals and what is
practically possible to achieve.

4.3. Characterization of solid wastes.

Information about the characteristics that is the quantity; composition, density, etc. of
the solid wastes is important when planning the treatment and management of the residuals
from international to community level. It is therefore necessary to collect representative data
characterizing the materials that enters the waste management system. Often new problems
occur within existing waste management systems or the composition of the waste stream
changes due to change in the activities in the region. Collection of new and location specific
data are therefore in many cases required. The following sections gives a brief overview of
some of the general parameters used for characterizing solid waste materials with respect to
quantity, composition and physical and chemical properties.
Solid waste materials can be generally characterized at four different levels of detail.
These levels are defined with respect to type, components(composition), chemical
composition, and physical properties. The material type usually relates to the source of the
material, examples of types are industrial waste and household waste materials. Components
are the specific materials contained in the general waste stream such as paper, food waste,
yard waste, etc. These somewhat general components may be broken further down into more
specific components. The chemical composition is the content of different chemical elements
such as carbon(C), hydrogen(H), oxygen(O), nitrogen(N), heavy metals, etc. Physical
properties are characteristics of the waste materials that are important for the handling of the
materials. These characteristics include water content, bulk density, energy content, hydraulic
conductivity, compressibility, etc.

4.3.1. Data collection

Collection of the data necessary for the characterization of the materials in the waste
stream is very often a tedious task due to the highly variable and complex nature of the
materials. Several different strategies for data collection may need to be employed to gather
all the necessary data. Some of the more important strategies that have been used widely in
the past are (1) data collection at the source of the waste material, (2) data collection at the
central collection, processing and treatment plant input side, (3) data collection at the central
treatment and processing plant output side, and (4) the use of existing databases, e.g., existing
literature, the internet, reports, etc.
Data collection at the source where the waste materials are generated is usually one of
the most time and effort-consuming strategies because a large number of material samples are
necessary in order to get a good representative data set. Usually there are a large number of
sources within the region of interest and it is therefore necessary to select a representative of
sub-set of these sources. It is also necessary to conduct the sampling over a longer period of
time to capture temporal variations in quantity and composition of the materials that are
generated. The advantages of sampling at the source are that all characteristic parameters can
be determined on all components of the material in as much detail as desired because source
separation of the materials can easily be conducted. Some of the disadvantages are that in
addition to the large over a long enough period of time to mask out seasonal variations in
composition of the biodegradable wastes. This means that this type of data collection strategy
can become and usually is very costly and such investigations are therefore not often used in
larger areas.
Data collection at the input side o the central treatment plant(s) is significantly much
less time consuming and costly and it is usually possible to provide adequate data concerning
the quantity of the total stream of wastes entering the facility. Data collection is, usually
conducted by random selection of incoming car or truckloads of the waste or at least parts of
these loads followed by subsequent analysis of the specific contents. Again to mask out the
influence of seasonal variations in material composition, the sampling must be conducted
several times over a long enough period of time to improve data quality and reliability. The
advantage of this method is that a relatively high level of characterization of the materials can
be achieved with a minimum of cost and effort. The disadvantage is that the different
materials usually are mixed together making it difficult to fully assess the purity and physical
properties of single individual components of the materials, which is possible when sampling
is conducted at the source.
Often certain materials or chemical compounds of interest are only found in very low
quantities or concentrations in the incoming material stream such as for instance certain
heavy metals or toxic or hazardous organic compounds. In such cases it is often easier
To conduct sampling and data collection on the output side of the treatment facility.
Here the material stream containing the compound of interest is usually smaller and more
homogeneous than on the input side such as for instance after incineration. This means that
smaller sample volumes taken at the output can be used to represent larger volumes of input
materials. The sampling method is most applicable at for instance incineration plants where
the gases(smoke) or the solid residuals (slag) produced by combustion can more easily be
sampled and analyzed because of their homogeneity. This type of data collection method is
less than that of incineration plants. The disadvantage of sampling on the output side of the
treatment facility is that the range of compounds that can be analyzed for often is restricted to
the basic elements or relatively simple chemical compounds whereas material fractions of the
incoming wastes such as paper, plastics, etc. cannot be measured as they are often destroyed
by the treatment process.
The easiest and also the most inexpensive approach is to use existing databases, for
instance books, articles, reports, the internet, etc. it is important when using this approach that
the data are screened in a very critical manner with respect to the quality of the data. This is
necessary as the data can be biased because they were collected in a different region or
country and at a different time and, thus, may not be representative for the region under
consideration. The data can also be erroneous due to poor sampling and data interpretation
and it is therefore important to regard data that are borrowed from other sources as
approximate values that should be used with caution. The best approach is always to conduct
measurements in the region of interest.

4.3.2. Types of solid wastes.

The bulk stream of solid waste can as discussed earlier be divided into a number of types
depending on the source of generation. Some of the types usually considered are
residential wastes, materials from small business such as restaurants public kitchens,
markets and stores, industrial wastes, and materials from parks and garden etc.
Depending on the number and diversity of waste material sources and the selected
definition of the different material types the material stream can consist of few or many types.
Figure 4.4 shows the composition of the total potential amounts of biodegradable wastes
generated in Denmark as distributed between four different very general material types. For
comparison the biodegradable wastes generated by the agriculture (primarily animal wastes)
are also included. Each of the five types shown in Fig.4.4 may easily be broken further down
into more sub-types. For instance the industrial biodegradable waste can be distributed
between the dairy industry, the sugar industry, the margarine and oil industry, the potato
industry, slaughterhouses, etc. the number of types in which to divide the main stream of
wastes depends on several factors. Some of the main reasons for dividing into material types
are that the characteristics of the materials, i.e., the composition and physical properties very
often depend upon their source of origin. Because the optimal method of treatment of the
wastes and the intended subsequent use of the treated materials in turn depends on the
physical and chemical properties of the materials themselves the optimal selection of
treatment method and use of the treated wastes are therefore source dependent.

Fig 4.4. Types of biodegradable waste produced in Denmark. Percentages indicate relative quantity based on the wet weight of the
materials

4.3.3. Material components in the waste stream.

The general stream of solid wastes generated within an urban region normally
contains many different types of materials as indicated in the previous section. Each of these
types of wastes consists of one or more specific component materials also called material
fractions. These components are materials with different distinctive physical and chemical
properties and possible subsequent uses. Examples of such fractions in biodegradable
residential waste are paper, vegetable food waste, food waste of animal origin, etc. the
fractions or components are usually considered based upon their physical and chemical
material properties and especially their recyclability, and the optimal method of further
treatment.
Knowledge of the material components of a stream of solid wastes is therefore
important for instance if source separation programs with the intension of increasing reuse
and recycling are to be implemented. For instance if there is a proposal for implementing a
program in which paper is to be recycled it will be necessary to determine the quantities of
the paper component in the main stream of materials to evaluate the feasibility of
implementing the recycling program.
In Fig.4.5 the biodegradable wastes produced in residential areas in Denmark
presented in Fig 1.8(3%) are broken further down into a series of different material
components depending on their physical properties and recyclability. It is stressed that the
material components shown in Fig 4.5 do not at all constitute all possible components that
may be considered given the material types in Fig. 1.8 but it is merely an example of an
approach that is used in practice. The number of fractions to be considered in an actual case
will of course depend upon the actual material types present and the available methods or
recycling or treatment in the region of interest.

Fig. 4.5. Fractions of residential biodegradable wastes produced in Denmark

4.3.4. Chemical composition of solid wastes.
The highest level of detail with respect to the composition of solid wastes is the
chemical composition. To characterize the materials at this level of detail involves the
determination of the composition in terms of the quantities of the different elements that
make up the materials. The elements usually considered in such characterization are carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl) and in certain cases
also a range of heavy metals especially in the case of hazardous materials or materials under
suspicion of being contaminated with heavy metals. These elements are also the most
important with respect to thermal or biological treatment processes (these will be discussed in
later chapters of this compendium). Table 1.5 shows some typical chemical compositions for
a range of wastes often contained in the waste stream or encountered at central waste
treatment facilities.
Table 4.2. Chemical composition of different materials. Percentages indicate relative
quantity as related to the dry weight. Source US EPA (1997).
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Component %
C H O N S Cl
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Food waste 44.8 6.5 32.3 2.8 0.3 1.0
Garden waste 42.4 5.3 31.8 1.6 0.4 0.2
Newsprint 48.8 6.3 42.4 0.1 0.5 0.1
Magazines 39.2 5.5 39.2 0.1 0.2 0.1
Wood 49.0 6.0 41.2 0.2 0.1 0.1
Paper 42.1 5.8 38.8 0.4 0.3 0.8
Rubber 47.9 6.0 12.9 1.4 1.3 5.6
Textiles 49.6 6.7 36.1 4.1 0.4 0.4
Plastics 66.4 9.2 9.5 1.1 2.5 0.4
Cardboard 46.0 6.4 44.3 0.1 0.3 0.1
Mixed waste 35.7 4.8 26.8 0.6 1.0 0.6
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.3.5. Physical properties of solid wastes.
In addition to their types, components and chemical composition, the solid wastes are
also characterized by their physical properties. Knowledge of these properties is important as
they determine the possible method of the handling (transport and storage) and treatment of
the wastes. In the following sections some of the most important physical properties of solid
waste materials are discussed.
Some of the most important properties are listed in Table 4.3. Because the physical
properties determine how the materials are handled and treated it is therefore often necessary
to measure the physical properties before making decisions with respect to the selection of
specific treatment methods.
Table 1.6 Important physical properties of solid waste
--------------------------------------------------------
Parameter Unit
--------------------------------------------------------
Water content cm3/cm3
Air content cm3/cm3
Porosity cm3/cm3
Bulk density g/cm3
Solid content % weight
Ash content % weight
Compaction ratio %
Particle size distribution Cm
Hydraulic conductivity m/d
Field capacity cm3/cm3
Energy content MJ/ton
-------------------------------------------------------
The physical properties are normally determined on a sample of wastes (mixture or
separated material) of known volume (Vtotal). The total volume of waste (Vtotal) in the sample
is the sum of the volume of solids (Vsolids ) and volume of pores or voids (Vvoids) as illustrated
in Fig.4.6.

Fig 4.6. Schematic of the components of organic matter with respect to water, air and
solids
 When dealing with solid waste materials under normal circumstances the voids will
normally be filled with either water or air and, thus, the volume of voids is the sum of the
volume of (Vair) and the volume of water (Vwater ) contained in the sample. This three-phase
concept that is similar to that found in other porous media such as for instance soils is shown
in Fig.4.6.
The volumetric water content (0, cm3 water/cm3 wastes) is the relative volumetric volume
of water, i.e., volume of water per volume of total waste that is contained in the sample of
wastes. The volumetric water content is calculated as

θ= V water = Mwater = Mtotal - Msolids ----------- (4.1)

Vtotal Vtotal Vtotal

where Vwater = total volume of water (cm3), Vtotal = total volume of wet waste in the sample
(cm3), Mwater = total mass of water in waste(g), Mtotal = total wet weight (g), and Msolids = total
dry weight of residual. The dry weight (Msolids ) is normally measured by drying the sample at
105°C until no more weight loss is found (usually 24 -28 hours). It is noted here that drying a
105°C does not remove all of the water as a small fraction of the water is very strongly
bound to the solids and cannot be removed unless the temperature is raised to 600°C at which
temperature organic wastes will have been combusted. Normally this fraction of strongly
bound water is very small and may for practical purposes be neglected.
The water content can also be expressed on a gravimetric (often expressed as mass of water
per mass of total) rather than a volumetric basis.
The gravimetric water content (w,g, water/g wet waste )is found as
w = M water = Mtotal -Msolids ----------- (4.2)
Mtotal Mtotal
where Mtotal = total mass of the wet sample.
The volumetric air content or air-filled porosity (ε, cm3 air/cm wastes) is the relative
volumetric amount of air contained in the sample of wastes. The volumetric air content can
be found as
ε =Vair = 1 – Vwater - Vsolids ----------- (4.3)
Vtotal Vtotal
The porosity (Ф, cm3void space/cm3 wastes) is the relative volumetric amount of total void
space (space not occupied by solids) in the sample of wastes. The porosity is determined as
follows
Ф = Vsolids = Vwater + Vair = ε+ θ ----------- (4.4)
Vtotal Vtotal

The porosity can be estimated by measuring the weight loss by drying of a sample of
waste with all void spaces completely filled with water(this situation is not as easy to obtain
as it sounds). Water content, air content and porosity are especially important when aerobic
composting is considered as a treatment method because these parameters often control the
rate of the biological processes occurring during composting (more about this later). The
parameters are also important during general handling, transport, deposition and compaction
in landfills. The water content is important when determining the energy content of organic
materials as water consume a significant amount of energy for evaporation during
combustion of the organic materials.
An alternative method for determining total or air-filled porosity is the pychnometer
method. This method uses two air-filled containers(containers 1 and 2) with known volumes
(V1 and V2) at different known air pressures (P1 and P2). Container 2 contains the waste
sample with volume Vtotal . The two containers are then brought in contact allowing air to flow
freely between them equilibrating the pressure difference and yielding and overall final
pressure (Pfinal). The air-filled porosity of the sample can then be determined from the initial
and final pressures and the known volumes of the two containers using the ideal gas equation.
ε= Vtotal –( Pfinal – P1 V1 +V2
(Pfinal) – P2 ----------- (4.5)
______________________
Vtotal
The total porosity can then be determined if the water content is known.
The bulk density (ρb , g of waste/cm3 waste) of the wastes is normally calculated both on a
wet and a dry weight basis. The wet bulk density(ρb wet, g of wet waste/cm3 waste) is given as
ρb wet = Mtotal = Mwater + Msolids ----------- (4.6)
Vtotal Vtotal
Typical wet bulk densities for municipal mixed waste is approximately 200 kg/m3 for loose
waste dumped in to waste bins, 500 kg/m3 in compactor trucks and about 700 kg/m3
when compacted into landfills.

The dry bulk density (ρb dry, g of dry waste/cm3 wastes ) is determined as
ρb dry = Msolids = Mtotal - Mwater= ρb wet – θ
Vtotal Vtotal ----------- (4.7)
Bulk density especially wet bulk density is important when designing storage, collection
source/central separation and transport equipment as the equipment often is designed to hold
certain volumes of waste and therefore also must be able to withstand the weight of the
materials. The dry solids density (ρs) (that is the density of the dry matter particles
themselves) of most organic materials equals approximately 0.8g/cm3.
The solids content or dry matter content (g of dry waste/g wet wastes) is calculated as
Dry matter content = Mdry = ρb dry = 1- Mwater = 1 – w----------- (4.8)
Mtotal ρb wet Mtotal

Solids content of biodegradable wastes is often important when designing anaerobic

biological treatment (digestion) facilities as the course of the biological process and the
design of the equipment often depend upon the solids content of the organic material. Certain
biological digestion processes require the solids content to be within very specific limits.
The ash content (g o ash/g wastes) is the quantity of inorganic solid matter remaining after
combustion of the waste material at 550°C. The ash consists mainly of mineral matter
contains in the wastes. Ash contents for most types organic wastes are usually very low
compared to the wet weight of the materials because most of the material mass is lost during
combustion. The ash content is normally determined based on both wet and dry weight basis.
Table 4.4 lists ash content values for a range of wastes. The ash content is important to
consider when planning thermal treatment (incineration) facilities, as the ash is the main solid
component in terms of both weight and volume that is produced at incineration facilities. If
incineration is considered as a means of reducing the volume of the wastes, for instance with
the aim of subsequent deposition of the materials at a landfill the ash content is the most
important parameter to consider. The ash content can also be used to get a first rough estimate
of the carbon content of the wastes (Diaz et al. 1996) as
% Carbon = 100 - % Ash ----------- (4.9)
 Laboratory investigations indicate that Eq.(4.9) gives values of carbon content that are
within 2-10% of the exact values and it can therefore provide a useful tools in cases where
more exact determination methods are not available.
Table 4.4. Physical properties of residential biodegradable wastes. Source: Elmlund et
al. (1980)
Component Wet bulky density Solids content Ash content Energy content
(kg/m3) % % of solids MJ/kg solids
Veg.food 250 25 12 18
Anim. Food 250 50 25 18
Newsprint 150 85 1-25 18
Magzines 150 88 25 16
Diapers etc. 180 50 1 18
Napkins etc. 150 45 1 18
Clean paper 30-70 90 10 17
Dirty paper 75-190 60-90 5 18
Garden 100 55 3 8

The compressibility ratio (P,%) of the wastes for a given applied pressure is determined by
applying the desired pressure to a column of uncompressed waste of know height (h1) as
illustrated in Fig 4.7. The height (h2) after compaction is measured and the compressibility or
compaction ratio can be calculated as

P = h2 = V2 ----------- (4.10)
h1 = V1
Compressibility ratio may be measured as a function of pressure over a range of
different pressures as illustrated in Fig 4.8 for two different types of waste (paper and mixed
refuse). The compressibility of refuse materials is important in many instances for instance
when determining the transport capacity of compactor trucks or when designing landfills
where the deposited materials are typically compacted when deposited in the landfill.
 Fig 4.7 and Fig 4.8
Fig 4.7 Illustration of the determination of the compressibility ratio (P) fro the solid
wastes
Fig 4.8. Compressibility ratio (P) as function of pressure for paper (white symbols) and
mixed residential refuse (black symbols)
The particle size distribution is determined by sieving the wastes through sieves with
different decreasing known mesh sizes and subsequently measuring the mass of materials
retained in each sieve. The effective particle diameter (Sp, cm) is normally determined as the
smallest mesh size through which the material can pass. In special cases for instance
when dealing with very large or bulky items such as for instance furniture or tree branches
that cannot easily be analyzed by sieving the effective particle diameter can alternatively be
calculated using one of the expressions in Eq. (4.11) below.
Sp= L, Sp = L +W Sp = (L W )0.5
2 --------- (4.11)
where L = length and W= width of the particles. Typical ranges of Sp values for different
components in organic waste are shown in Table 4.5. The particle size distribution is
important with respect to for instance mechanical separation of the materials based on sieving
that separates the materials based on their size. Size is also important with respect to
biological treatment methods where smaller particle sizes usually are required. In these cases
it is often necessary to reduce the particle size by means of shredding or other mechanical
action in order to increase the rate of biological transformation and degradation of the
materials. Knowing the particle size therefore determines if a material is directly suitable for
biological treatment or if some size reduction is necessary.
Table 4.5. Typical ranges and average values of Sp for different organic material. Source
: Tchovanglous et al. (1993)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Component Range(cm) Average(cm)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Food 2-18 8
Paper 15-45 30
Cardboard 20-60 45
Yard 2-30 8
Wood 2-25 12
---------------------------------------------------------------------
The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the waste (Kw, cm/d) is the capacity of the wastes
to conduct water under a given pressure gradient or hydraulic head at fully water saturated
conditions, i.e., with the air-filled porosity ε=0. Fully saturated conditions can often be
difficult to achieve due to entrapment of air and measured values of saturated hydraulic
conductivity will therefore generally be somewhat lower than the true value. Hydraulic
conductivity is usually measured by placing the ends of a water saturated sample of waste
with cross sectional area A (cm2) length Δx (cm) in contact with two water reservoirs with a
height difference of Δh (cm) and then measuring the volumetric water flow Q (cm 3/d) through
the sample. The saturated hydraulic conductivity can then be calculated using Darcy’s law as
Kw = Q Δh
A Δx (4.12)
Other methods of determination of saturated hydraulic conductivity based on infiltration rate
are available, but they are in general more applicable to soils and similar more fine-textured
porous media than to the coarser textured refuse materials. The saturated hydraulic
conductivity is especially important in connection with outdoor storage of waste or in
connection.