Caroline Min Bionic Eye Website Material THE BIONIC EYE -- SIGHT FOR THE BLIND Blindness currently

affects over 39 million people worldwide. In recent years, enormous potential has been promised as progress is being made towards sensory substitution devices for those who are visually impaired. Since bionic vision technology aims to restore sight to people living with legal blindness and low vision, the revolutionary development of the artificial retina is intended to appeal to people with this issue. The making of several epiretinal devices are currently in progress, and three main devices stand out as being the most developed and beneficial implants, due to their abilities to help blind people regain parts of their vision. HOW IT WORKS A brain implant is inserted in the form of an artificial retina, and it provides visual input from a video camera directly to the brain. The camera is connected to the brain using electrodes, which connect to the visual cortex at the back of the head. These electrodes reproduce the signal by stimulating the remaining healthy retinal cells, and then pass on the information to the brain through the optic nerve. Since the system is a brain-computer interface, a computer is used in order to process the sensory streams. ARGUS II EPIRETINAL IMPLANT At present, the most advanced bionic eye is the Argus II epiretinal implant because of its ability to provide patients with low-resolution images by electrically stimulating retinal cells. Development of the Argus II has provided a novel stepping stone for the reality of the bionic eye because it is the first to be approved by the FDA. This artificial retina essentially has the ability to replace the function of the photoreceptors in the eye. As a result, patients can recover partial sight by learning how to interpret these signals, thus significantly improving in performing visual tasks. LEARNING RETINAL IMPLANT The Learning Retinal Implant is most beneficial for its ability to adjust its stimulation parameters for individual patients. The use of this high-speed digital signal processor is advantageous because the process enables patients to optimize their visual perception during the learning phase. Essentially, the unique, patent-protected feature of the system composes the implants learning ability, thus providing patients with a system that continuously provides opportunity for growth and caters to their individual needs. EPI-RET-3 RETINA IMPLANT The EPI-RET-3 is a wireless retina implant that is advantageous due to the technical mechanisms of the system. In contrast to other partially wire-driven systems, the EPIRET-3 system is unique in that it is completely implanted into the interior of the eye. Since the wall of the eye is not cable crossed, two of the greatest advantages are that intraocular infections and long-term mechanical stress are more easily preventable. This system reduces the surgery time of the implantation, thereby reducing the exposure for the patient.

WHY GO BIONIC? The bionic eye provides a sense of basic images, which is revolutionary to a person with complete loss of sight. Implantation of these visual prosthesis devices has demonstrated a dramatic improvement in mobility, object recognition, and motion detection, which translate directly to an improvement in activities of everyday life. With time, training, and patience, people will be better able to use the visual information that the bionic eye provides, thus allowing them to become more independent and mobile when going about their daily activities and hobbies.

References Cho, A., Sampath, A., Weiland, J. (2012). Psychiological response of normal and RD mouse retinal ganglion cells to electrical stimulation. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE, 2985-2988. doi:10.1109/EMBC.2012.6346591 Hallum, L., Tsafnat, G., Lovell, N., & Suaning, G. (2010). Artificial vision for the blind. Australasian Science, 24, 21-23. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/pqrl/docview Ong, J. M., & Cruz, L. (2012). The bionic eye: A review. Clinical & Experimental Ophthalmology, 40, 6-17. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2011.02590.x

Alexander Ma What is optogenetics? Optogenetics is an emerging field of science that combines both optics and genetics (gene therapy) in order to manipulate the activation of light-sensitive genes within the brain. Scientists are able to clone light-sensitive ion channels crucial in regulating gene expression within mammalian cells. Neurons within the human brain may be injected with viral vectors containing many light-sensitive microbial molecules, including ChR2, a light-induced cation channel, and NpHR, a light-induced chloride pump. This allows scientists to control neural functions in maintaining human health, responding to protein deficiency, and study the neurological effects of psychiatric diseases. This therapy specifically targets patients suffering from retinitis pigmentosa, other neurological disorders such as depression or anxiety, as well as advocates for human advancement. Optogenetic Therapy in Human Technological AdvancemenT The promotion of optogenetics has been ongoing through the introduction of more optical fiber implants and the publication of experimental results on brain stimulation in mice and monkeys. The depolarizing and hyperpolarizing functions of these microbial molecules across neuron membranes allow scientists to propose several approaches to treating mice with retinitis pigmentosa. Existing currently in pre-clinical stages, optogenetic therapy has been tested on both mice and monkeys, successfully restoring vision in mice who suffer from retinitis pigmentosa, and stimulating the function of biological pacemaker cells. Treating Retinitis Pigmentosa Patients USING Optogenetic Therapy Retinitis pigmentosa, an incurable hereditary disease described by the gradual loss of sight, affects two million people worldwide. Retinitis pigmentosa is characterized by early symptoms of night blindness, eventually causing the degradation of highly sensitive rod photoreceptors. Optogenetics is currently studied as a human advancement method of restoring photosensitivity while not impeding the progression of the disease. Busskamp (2012), a researcher from the Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research,attempts to restore photosensitivity within affected mice through creating photosensors and incorporating them into existing retinal circuitry (p. 169). These light sensors are able to make retinal cells light-responsive, thus converting them into artificial photoreceptors. Through control of retinal activity, it would be possible then to mimic the activity of retinal circuits. The target population for optogenetic studies was legally blind patients to eliminate the risk of having detrimental effects on the central retinal system still functional in patients who have the disease. Upon treatment of mice suffering from retinitis pigmentos using optogenetic methods, the mice exhibited ON responses in retinal ganglion cells and slight potentials within the cortex corresponding to visual images, thereby changing the mice behavior and activity due to location. The retinas of these transgenic animals regained light sensitivity and the rats showed visually guided behavior. (Busskamp, 2012) Upon treatment of mice using viral vectors containing NpHR, the mice have also demonstrated behaviors corresponding to OFF cells at a decrease of light

intensity. Successful therapy for retinitis pigmentosa optogenetically currently exists in the pre-clinical trial stage. Concerns: Scientists claim that this new technology will allow them to study random behaviors from randomly generated light patterns. However, this research field raises concerns about human brain alterations, which some believe are possible and can happen undetected. Although tests are currently being performed on mice, humans have a much greater complexity in gene functions. Light sensitive genes may be left permanently on by these triggers and will leave an unprecedented change in human behavior as a result. As optogenetic technology improves, the need for better fiber-optic tools must increase. There must be newly developed hardware that supports the ability to reflect and transmit light across neurons. The overuse of optogenetics may lead to genetically modified cells that are sensitive to both sunlight and laser light. Existing biophysical and genetic engineering may also hinder any progress in its commercial use. References Busskamp, V., Picaud, S., Sahel, J. A., &Roska, B. (2012).Optogenetic therapy for retinitis pigmentosa. Gene Therapy, 19(2), 169-75. doi: 10.1038/gt.2011.155 Coghlan, A. (2012), Light-activated brain cells boost monkey skills.New Scientist. Retrieved from: http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22114-lightactivated-brain-cells-boost-monkeyskills.html Jia, Z., Valiunus, V., Lu, Z., et al. (2011). Stimulating Cardiac Muscle by Light: Cardiac Optogenetics by Cell Delivery.CircArrhythmElectrophysiol, 4(5) 753760. doi:10.1161/CIRCEP.111.964247 Vanduffel, W., et al. (2012)Optogenetically Induced Behavioral and Functional Network Changes in Primates. Current Biology, 22 (18) 1722-1726.doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2012.07.023

Transhumanism in Sports Arig El-Sayed To Blood Dope or Not To Blood Dope What is Blood Doping?
A few months ago the world was shocked to hear about world known cyclist Lance Armstrong admitting to Oprah and many others that he has been using the method of blood doping to win his athletic competitions. Others like him have also used blood doping to help enhance their performance in competitions. As defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), blood doping is the increase in a persons red blood cell mass. This in turn increases the amount of oxygen transported to the muscles in the body; thus increasing the individuals endurance and aerobic capacity. There are many forms of blood doping; the two most common are erythropoietin (EPO) and blood transfusions. Today, many arguments are made regarding the prohibit and benefit of blood doping in sports. As research shows, blood doping is beneficial to the athlete's brain, attitude, and endurance level.

What Are the Benefits of Blood Doping?

1) Blood doping affects the brain of the athlete. It can cause an increase in motivation level. The way that this is done is by the brain sends signals to the nerves, which in turn sends signals to the body, to secrete the hormones and enzymes that play a role in how the person is feeling. With blood doping, EPO increases the motivation and encouragement levels of the athlete, thus having positive outcomes on the brain. Max Gassmann, a veterinary physiologist from the University of Zurich, proved that EPO also drastically increases motivation in the brain as soon as it has been injected without the number of red blood cells increasing (Gassmann, 2012). 2) Dr. Norman Frost, professor and director of the Medical Ethics Program at the University of Wisconsin, voices his argument on this topic by comparing athletes blood doping to sick patients in the hospital getting blood transfusions. Pediatricians enhance the immune system of children by administering vaccines. But if an athlete auto transfuses his own natural blood before an event, or uses the approved version of EPO he is accused of blood doping and may be banned for life (Sports & Drugs, 2008). Others like Dr. Frost argue that increasing the amount of red blood cells helps increase the athletes exercise endurance level. This in turn helps enhance performance while allowing the athlete to exercise for a longer period of time. Additionally, Dr. Bennett Foddy of Harold T. Shapiro Postdoctoral Fellowship in Bioethics at the Center for Human Values at Princeton University, and Dr. Julian Savulescu, professor at the University of Oxford, argue that EPO can help improve the health of athletes that have low haematocrit for genetic or dietary reasons (Sports & Drugs, 2008).

3) Aside from the fact that the blood doping benefits the athlete's brain and endurance level, blood doping also benefits the athlete's long exercise and helps the athlete avoid oxygen depletion. According to Benjamin Koh, Lynne Freeman, and Christopher Zaslawski of the US National Library of Medicine, "The main logic behind blood doping is essentially improving the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. With additional oxygen being provided to muscles, a person's susceptibility to exhaustion is reduced, ensuring that long exercises are completed without fail." ( Koh, B., Freeman, L., Zaslawski, C.; 2012). By increasing the amount of red blood cells and oxygen in the blood, the athlete won't get as dehydrated quickly. When an individual is exercising, the oxygen in the body is reduced. After the body becomes depleted of the oxygen in the muscles, it truns to the formation of lactic acid. It is argued that if an athlete undergoes blood doping, the body will be less prone to oxygen depletion and the formation of lactic acid, thus enhancing the athlete's endurance capacity. (Koh, B., Freeman, L., Zaslawski, C.; 2012). As can be seen, the benefits of blood doping vary greatly from benefiting the athlete's brain, to helping increase the athlete's endurance levels. Blood doping is known as the method of increasing the amount of red blood cells in the blood. This increases the athlete's endurance and oxygen level that thus helps the athlete escape the quick feeling of being tired and oxygen depleted. Moreover, blood doping also helps improve the motivation in the brain of the athlete.

References:
Gassmann, M. (2012, June 11). Uzh mediadesk-the doping-drug epo has an impact in the brain. Retrieved from http://www.mediadesk.uzh.ch Sports & Drugs. (2008, December 31). Should "blood doping" and erythropoietin (epo) use be accepted in sports?. Retrieved from http://sportsanddrugs.procon.org Koh, B. (2012). Alternative medicine and doping in sports. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3413927/

Change for the future...Katie Dickson Technology, now in the year 2013, has certainly come a long way. Our world is vastly concentrated on finding ways to turn science fiction into science fact. Already the world has taken huge steps in developing a better environment for society. Concern remains, however, what will happen to this technology-biology merge and how much power is too much power? In Will Smiths IRobot movie, by the end of the movie, Robots are comfortably running the world.Technological advancements can be wonderful, but they are also a main concern for some people. It is crucial to face all the facts before diving into a transhumanism world; how much technology is too much technology? Prosthetics are defined as an artificial replacement of a body part and can either be internal, such as an artificial joint or external, such as an artificial limb. In focusing on external artificial limbs, these limbs present the opportunity for the injured to relive the life they had always imagined; however problems with these limb advancements still remain.

A brief look into the life of an i.e.d. explosion survivor... Meet Cpl. Sebastian Gallegos, who lost his arm in an I.E.D. explosion in Afghanistan. The corporal now finds himself two years later with a different kind of limb, a onehundred and ten thousand dollar robotic device with an electronic motor and sensors able to read signals from his brain. He is constantly in the office of his occupational therapist, lifting and lowering a sponge while monitoring a computer screen as it tracks nerve signals in his shoulder. Just as a baby is able to hold onto a finger the corporal has to relearn, which is no small task. Technology has adapted the world beyond belief and is benefitting many, such as corporal Sebastian Gallegos. The ability to rehabilitate to a higher level is due in part to the bionic prosthetics powered by microprocessors that have recently become available. The military is heavily involved in funding research for new technologies that will help amputees achieve the highest level of function possible. These military advancements will not only help wounded veterans, but also everyday people living without a limb due to many different factors like sclerosis or some form of vascular disease. WHY PROSTHETICS? Prosthetics give the injured the opportunity to move on and restart their life where it was abruptly put on hold. For example, after an amputation members of the armed forces are no long automatically given a disability discharge. Instead the military offers them more options. The military has changed its policy regarding rehabilitation because they have recognized that it has large investment in the soldiers and if possible it is best to bring soldiers back into active service. The advancements in technology are allowing people a

second life as long as they are willing to work for that new beginning. The importance of the ongoing, daily use of a human hand and arm cannot be underestimated. WHY NOT PROSTHETICS? Wolf Schweitzer, a current amputee due to metastasized metacarpal and two removed lumbrical muscles, claims that negatives outweigh the positives of prosthetics. Prosthetics, in his eyes, are far too expensive, painful to wear, and not nearly as useful as one would hope and so heavy they leave bruises. His experiences are what he refers to as awakeup call to researchers because he feels more comfortable without a prosthetic than with a prosthetic. As an amputee, Wolf Schweitzer has first-hand experience with prosthetics and he mentions that technology is way past reality and surely not obtainable; however today in 2013, society has indeed turned science fiction into science fact and has clearly obtained the impossible. SO LIKE, WHAT NOW? Through it all, society is constantly changing whether humans like it or not; those Robots in IRobot are slowly creeping towards the future and a life of artificial intelligence such as the Matrix series is approaching. With new advancements only good can come because even a mishap may lead to the next big thing, just as artificial muscle for prosthetics was discovered. Keeping an open mind for the future will allow scientists and researchers from around the globe to work together and create functional prosthetic arms that amputees will no longer feel ashamed to wear and prosthetic arms that will put Sebastian Gallegos back to active duty fast. The opportunity society has today is unlike any other to help, fix, and serve those who already do so much. Dao, J. (2012, November 27). Prosthetic Arms a Complex Test for Amputees. Breaking News,World News & Multimedia. Retrieved February 21, 2013, from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/27/us/prosthetic-arms-a-complex-test-for-amputees May, B., & Rostoker, W. (n.d.). Prosthesis. AccessScience . Retrieved February 21, 2013, from http://www.accessscience.com/content/Prosthesis Schweitzer, W. (2010, August 5). Why do people stop using their prosthetic arms? Technical Right below Elbow Amputee Issues. Retrieved February 21, 2013, from http://www.swisswuff.ch/tech/?p=344 Waldrop, S., & Wojciechowski, M. (2007). The "bionic" warrior: Advances in prosthetics, technology, and rehabilitation. PT, 15(4), 60-66. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/216825108?accountid=29001

Neural Implants: Nick Zsoldos

Neural implants are defined as machinery that can be implanted in or near the brain to assist in either the function of a prosthetic or assisting the brain in function. The first successful neural implant was the cochlear implant. It assists the hearing impaired or near deaf to comprehend sounds and speech with the use of electrodes and speech processing technology. However, the success of the neural implant does not stop at the cochlear implant. Currently, all different kinds of research is being developed on neural implants to treat all different kinds of neurological disorders. For instance, deep brain stimulation is a process in which a neural implant delivers electrical signals to the brain to assist Parkinson's disease patients. Another example of neural implant success and research includes the project BrainGate. The project originated at Brown University and was designed to create a neural implant that would give motor function to those affected with paralysis. The project has been very successful and the project team is very optimistic about the future of their invention. Yet the success of neural implants still continues and probably won't cease until every neural condition is treated. The future of neural implants is very optimistic and treatment for what seemed incurable (ie. Parkinson's disease, paralysis, a stroke, deafness, blindness, etc.) is now becoming a possibility.

The cochlear implant uses speech processing technology coupled with electrode arrays to assist those who are near deaf. The cochlear implant does not restore "normal" hearing function but rather helps provide a sense of sound. This assists with identifying sounds in one's environment and speech comprehension. The cochlear implant was designed and developed in the late 1970's and have seen multiple advances in design and functionality. The way that the cochlear implant works today is as a stimulator to the cochlea and auditory nerves. The cochlear implant consists

of five key components (seen in the figure on the right) that assist the patient in hearing and speech comprehension. Essentially, the microphone picks up sound and the speech processor converts into stimuli (electrical impulses) for the transmitter. The electrical impulses are then sent through a cable to an electrode array that surrounds the cochlea. Auditory nerves that surround the cochlea take the electrodes and send them to the brain to be processed.

Dr. Donoghue, researcher from Brown University, leads the BrainGate program which is dedicated to developing a neural implant and computer interface that assists the paralyzed. BrainGate has been featured in the media such as 60 minutes (the video on the left) for their successes and bright future for development. BrainGate includes a neural implant which uses electrical impulses to control a computer interface which then can control robotic prostheses. Currently, experimental trials proved successful in using BrianGate to control wheelchairs, computer interfaces, and robotic prostheses. One of these successful tests can be seen in the both videos below where Cathy Hutchinson, who had been paralyzed from a stroke, uses BrainGate to control a robotic arm. However, the BrainGate group looks into the future to be able to use BrainGate to use an electrical stimulation device to control paralyzed limbs directly.

The future of neural implants seems endless to researchers who believe in its progress. Many researchers are very hopeful about the advancement of neural implants as far as clinical use. It is estimated that within the next century, most if not all neurological disorders will be cured with neural implants. Conditions such as paralysis, blindness, deafness, Parkinson's disease, depression, anxiety, and many others could potentially be cured with the assistance of neural implants. However, there researchers have predicted that neural implants could be used beyond the realm of clinical practice. Researchers claim that with future technologies, neural implants could be used for human enhancement. Enhancement of cognitive abilities, intellect, physical coordination, memory and any other human ability that is directly affected by the brain.

Researchers compare future neural implants to Methylphenidate (Ritalin) a prescription drug for ADHD patients. Ritalin enhances the focus of ADHD patients and is abused by college students to maintain focus and achieve higher grades. Undoubtedly, the potential of neural implants are endless as far as the improvement of humanity and the medical community.

Chia-Lin Chang, Jin, Z., Hou-Cheng Chang, & Cheng, A. C. (2009). From neuromuscular activation to end-point locomotion: An artificial neural network-based technique for neural of Biomechanics, 42(8), 982-988.

prostheses. Journal

Clausen, J. (2009). Man, machine and in between. Nature, 457(7233), 1080-1.

Donoghue, J. P. (2005). Panel discussion: State-of-the-art and promise of neuroprosthetics. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 61-65.

Wilson, B. S., & Dorman, M. F. (2008). Cochlear implants: Current designs and future possibilities. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 45(5), 695-730.

Stephanie Fultano THE FUTURE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE In todays new and improved state of technology and machines, the majority of us believe we are on a high to developing life changing technologies that completely alter the human race. With advanced stages of technology, particularly in artificial intelligence, many critics believe we will be able to defeat certain problems the human race is facing from disease, poverty, and environmental disaster. But how can one specific science create life-changing solutions? The research of our years of transhumanism and AI have proven to us that we can exceed the human intelligence.

IN THE WORKS World Champion Garry Kasparov takes on IBM's Deep Blue Artificial intelligence is defined as the capacity of a computer to perform operations analogous to learning and decision making in humans. The evolution of science and technology has increased exponentially over the past few years, especially artificial intelligence. AI has made particular improvements in certain areas of technology over these years including nanotechnology, medical treatment and epesically the human brain. For example, in May of 1997, a chess match between the IBM supercomputer Deep Blue and world champion Garry Kasparov marked a place in history for AI researchers, having the computer defeat the champion. Development in the area of creating a human-like robot has been experimented with as well. Even though there is not one in exsistence today, AI researchers are still hopeful in the future. Like said before, AI is a apart of our society now, from a robotic vaccuum cleaner to the cruise control on our vehicles, it is there and will be in our future. The question stands how will an artificial intelligence exceed our human intelligence? Ray Kurzweil believes there is a way. RAY KURZWEIL: BELIEVER OF THE FUTURE

Called the restless genius by the Wall Street Journal and the ultimate thinking machine by Forbes, Ray Kurzweil knowledge of science and technology has left our futurists praising his knowledge. Ray Kurzweil is widely regarded as one of the leading inventors of our time. He himself, believes that artificial intelligence, in time, will exceed our human intelligence. To focus on one portion of AI, Kurzweil believes by the years of 2030s, our knowledge of the brain will be met, enabling the inventions of robots and nano-bots capable of doing anything a human can do. The nanotechnology revolution is upon us, Kurzweil believes, that this field of science promises the tools to rebuild the physical world, with the brain included. Since Kurzweil is a strong believer in the future, he believes that our research and knowledge of the brain will be met, and we will be able to understand the interneuronal connections of the human brain. The understanding of the brain will ultimately enable us to create an intelligence that will out perform our human one today, from our cognitive abilities to our neural firings, the new intelligence of the future will surpress any knowledge of the human.

THINKING BIG Provided here is a brief informative video on a Stanford University Robot, STARE. Quest is a television, radio, digital media and educational service that has researched more on this robot displayed in the video that could take care of tasks around the house in ten years time. Even though computers have gotten faster and more versatile,

it's still a big challenge to get them to demonstrate intelligent behaviors like a human. The video gives an understanding how artificial intelligence is advancing and the capabilities of such creations like robots. References: Artificial Intelligence. (2010). In Current Issues. Detroit: Gale. Retrieved from http://ic.galegroup.com http://www.singularity.com. (n.d.). Ray kurzweil: full biography. Retrieved from http://www.singularity.com/fullbiography.html Kurzweil, R. (2007). Future technology will benignly alter human existence. In D. Haugen & S. Musser (Eds.), Opposing Viewpoints. Techology and Society. Detroit: Greenhaven Press. (Reprinted from Futurist, 2006, March-April) KQED ondemand. (Producer) (2008). Artificial intelligence: Thinking big - kqed quest [Web]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eq-AHmD8xz0

Mary Nghe Violent Video Games

CONTROVERSY In 2008, the $11.7 billion dollar video game industry was put under tight scrutiny as violent video games were blamed for the increasing aggression among children and teenagers. In fact, with 97% of twelve to seventeen year olds engaging in video games daily, the rates of bullying has risen when the popular game, Grand Theft Auto, was released. Many who are against violent video games say that these games advocate the violence as a problem-solving skill while also desensitizing youth against real life violence. However, players will argue that these games are actually helping them relax and release anger. A study in 2007 reported that 45% of boys play violent video games to

redirect anger while 62% play to unwind. The video game industry reached a high of$67 billion dollars in 2012 and is expected to be $82 billion by 2017. With the increase in sales though, the rate of violence is also expected to increase since violent video games require players to identity with the violent character. Because of this, California tried to pass a law in 2005 that would ban the sales of violent video games to anyone under 18 years old. In 2007, though, the US Supreme Court refused to allow this law in the ruling of Brown vs Entertainment Merchants Association since it violates the right of free speech. Yet, since violent video games are getting more and more sophisticated as well as realistic, psychologists wonder if that ruling was wrong, and whether children should be exposed to violent video games.

PROS Violent video games help improve cognitive abilities through overlearning as gamers tend to learn faster because like anything, practice makes perfect. In order to progress to the next level, gamers must actively learn so they can demonstrate, perfect, and master their skills. When they do that for prolonged period of time, they then transition into "overlearning," which requires the gamer to constantly use the skills they've mastered this allows the players to apply the skills in different scenarios. Through this and a variety of other factors that are needed to progress through the video game, players can develop increased cognitive abilities as well as reaction time from having to think quickly. Not only that, but as players increase their ranks, they also increase their self-esteem and selfefficacy as dopamine is released into the brain as a form of positive reinforcement.

Violent video games can also improve accuracy and hand-eye coordination among other motor skills. Surgeon James Rosser, who conducted a study on gameplay, believes that surgeons who played video games for longer periods of time as children do not make as much mistakes compared to those who played less video games. In fact, he uses the same hand-eye coordination to play video games that he uses for surgery. This could explain why surgeons who engage in gameplay make thirty-seven percent less mistakes while working twenty-seven percent fasterthan those who play fewer games.

CONS According to a study conducted by Dr. Vincent Matthews of the radiology department at the Indiana University School of Medicine, which was presented at the annual Radiological Society of North America, violent video games have a lasting effects on those who play it. The researchers first took a baseline of a randomly selected group of males who haven't played violent video games for a long period of time. The control group was told to not engage in gameplay for two weeks, which resulted in relatively the same results in their cognitive function and emotional control as shown in the fMR for the duration of the experiment. After the first week of playing violent video games, the second group had an fMRI taken while engaging in an emotional stroop test. This was to test the emotional control of the subjects by seeing the changes in neural activities while listing violent words versus non-violent words. Since this part of the brain controls both cognitive function as well as emotional control, it shows that after the first week of playing video games, the subjects who played violent video games everyday have less emotional control and are more impulsive than those who were not allowed to play

video games. Luckily though, after not playing violent video games for a week, those same subjects were able to improve their cognitive functions as well as gain more control over their emotions. Although it has not improved back to its original state, the fact that it improved in a week shows that it has the potential to recover given a longer period of time.

AMERICA'S ARMY Despite the controversy around violence in video games, the United States' Marine was the first to capitalize on the effects of violent video games. The Marine Corps bought Doom III in 1996, and soon created the game Marine Doom in order to train Marines. Soon afterwards, the United States' Army created a first-person shooting game called America's Army to train recruits and desensitize them against the dangers that they would eventually see on the field. America's Army is free to download, and free to pick up at any recruiting station, so that the Army can assess and track the progress of its players. The game has authentic and real stories based on the history of the United States, and even has actual scenes from Iraq and Afghanistan. Yet, because of the controversy against these violent games, and because of parents' disapproval, America's Army is actually far from what happens in the real world. In this game, soldiers aren't killed in bloody pit fires, and it takes four bullets to kill another soldier. In fact, with the parental control turned on, soldiers won't even bleed when they get hurt, and they simply sit down when they die. Because of this, America's Army is really just a game to lure in the youth and show them how "cool" being a solider is. Still,

the fact that the Army made a game just to prepare soldiers for the battlefield shows how popular and effective violent video games are.

NONVIOLENT VIDEO GAMES Nonviolent video games, such as Smashing (a derivation of Brick Breaker), have been shown to have nearly the same effects of violent video games without the increased aggression and violence. Studies show that interactive, high-paced video games can increase hand-eye coordination, accuracy, and reaction time among other things. However, just like violent video games, players can develop addiction to nonviolent video games as well as physical complications like obesity.

References Gentile, D. A. (2005). The effects of video games on children: What parents need to know. Pediatrics for Parents, 21(6), 10-11. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/200488383?accountid=29001 Gentile, D. A., & Gentile, J. R. (2008). Violent video games as exemplary teachers: A conceptual analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(2), 127-141. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.db.usip.edu/pqrl/docview/204628703/abstract/13BF97 550F672C881F1/1?accountid=29001 Gaudiosi, John. (2012, July 18). New reports forecast global video game industry will reach $82 billion by 2017. Forbes. Retrieved from: http://www.forbes.com/sites/johngaudiosi/2012/07/18/new-reports-forecastsglobal-video-game-industry-will-reach-82-billion-by-2017/ Lachlan, K. A., Smith, S. L., & Tamborini, R. (2005). Models for aggressive behavior: The attributes of violent characters in popular video games. Communication Studies, 56(4), 313-329. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/233193822?accountid=29001 Moore, Elizabeth. (2011, Dec. 2). One week playing violent video games alters brain activity. Cnet. Retrieved from: http://news.cnet.com/8301-27083_3-57335738247/one-week-playing-violent-video-games-alters-brain-activity/ ProCon.org. (2013). Do violent video games contribute to youth violence. Retrieved from: http://videogames.procon.org/#Background

Raising vidiots. (2005, Jun 21). Investor's Business Daily. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1033214944?accountid=29001 Sohn, E. (2007, Jan 24). Video game violence ; playing violent video games may have harmful effects on the brain. Science News for Kids. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/198770019?accountid=29001 Study: Video games help surgeons sharpen skills. (2004). Modern Healthcare, 34(16), 29-29. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212043242?accountid=29001

ROBOTIC LEGS Natalie Stella

Researchers are making great strides towards the next step in transhumanism, but is the pace too fast for the rest of the world?

How do they work?

The way in which the robotic legs operate is very unique. The central pattern generator (CPG) is what allows the robotic legs to move the patients legs without the patient having to think about it. The simplest form of a CPG is a half-centre, or two neurons located in the lumbar area of the spinal cord that produce rhythmic muscle signals. Sensors then control the signals by collecting information from the responding parts of the body and detecting the force of stepping on a surface. Many researchers have found evidence that suggests that

a simple half-centre is what babies start out with and learn a more complex walking pattern over time.

Benefits
Some doctors have found the robotic legs have medical benefits. Testing has shown that the legs may offer some remedies to the discomfort that patients with disabilities experience. According to Kristin Gustafson, director of spinal-cord injury services at Good Shepherd Penn Partners, some patients have experienced less muscle spasms and reduced swelling of their joints. Other doctors have found that the quality of the patients life has also improved. Dr. Esquenazi from MossRehab reports patients have less difficulty using the bathroom, due to gravity helping empty the bladder when they stand. Doctors and researchers alike hope that further into the future, these legs will help patients maintain bone strength and good circulation. Although these improvements might seem small, they are in no way considered small by the patient. The everyday activities we, as people without disabilities, take for granted can make a huge difference in a paralyzed or handicapped persons life. Not being able to perform simple task such as going to the bathroom properly can actually be detrimental to the patients health. Being sedentary can end up causing several different infections to occur, not the least of which can be urinary tract infections. Even if a patient does not contract an infection, being able to normally use the bathroom on a daily basis relieves stress and embarrassment and is certainly of great significance to the patients quality of life.

War Veterans
With the United States having handicapped veterans from previous wars as well as soldiers of the present who have come back from battle without being able use their legs, the robotic legs could open many doors for them. These legs could provide countless disabled veterans with the chance to stand, walk, run, jump, and to do things they have not been able to do since before the war. Some soldiers have advanced prosthetics, usually costing as much as one hundred thousand dollars, but they do not allow the freedom that robotic legs could offer and frequently cause discomfort and pain. Sometimes, these soldiers still end up needing forty-dollar crutches along with the advanced prosthetics. Robotic legs, although expensive, would solve the problems that veterans have with other prosthetics.

Physical Therapy

Robotic legs have even been used for physical therapy and rehabilitation purposes as well. This has been going on for years now, but with new and more advanced technology the results are better than ever. Physical therapists at the Sister Kenny Rehabilitation Institute at Abbott Northwestern Hospital are using the Lokomat System to deliver locomotion therapy to patients that have had strokes, partial spinal cord injuries, brain injuries, or are fighting illnesses like Parkinsons disease or multiple sclerosis. The Lokomat System uses robotic legs to help the patient learn how to walk again, while measuring the patients leg strength, hip and knee joint movements, and overall progress. Tim Bowman, research administrator for the Sister Kenny Rehabilitation Institute, reports that the technology in the Lokomat allows therapists to focus on helping patients reduce stiffness, improve force and regain a range of motion that will help them re-learn to walk.

Negatives
However, there have been arguments about the negative effects of these robotic legs. Researchers have found a downside to the robotic legs that could adversely affect the patients health. They are worried about patients who still have partial function of their legs. Instead of helping them get stronger, the robotic legs could make the patient lose what function they have left. Arun Jayaraman, assistant professor in the department of physical medicine rehabilitation at Northwestern University, says, people who have some capability, you dont want to make them passive. Still, many patients have said they would rather have the robotic legs for independence, even if they lose the progress they have made in the past.

The Future
Despite possible issues in the future, the potential positive outcomes can have a far greater affect on society. The technological advances in the scientific and medical fields have allowed these robotic legs to perform miracles. The legs are not limited to how they can be used in the future. They can not only be used for personal use by the patient, but also used by physical therapists to help patients re-learn how to walk and move by themselves. They have allowed scientists to turn the idea of eliminating wheelchairs, walkers, and simple prosthetics into a tangible goal. Even if the robotic legs make the patient more dependent and lose the progress they have made using their own legs, the patient can still have the option to turn down the legs. Everything is ultimately up to the patients choice. This new transhumanistic technology is sure to bring countless people the joy of being able to do normal everyday tasks that we take for granted. They have the ability to bring improvements to the patients quality of life as well as to the patients health. The robotic legs could help an enormous amount of disabled people, including those affected by diseases, by accidents, by wars, by strokes, and by a number of other factors. As of now, these legs are far too expensive for

the general public. However, if the medical benefits are proven to outweigh the disadvantages and doubt of certain groups, they may end up being covered by insurance or made more affordable in the future. Only time can reveal whether these robotic legs will become a regular part of society or not. References: Avril, T. (2012, May 12). Philadelphia is a hotbed of robotic frames that help paralysis victims walk. Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved from http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/ovic/NewsDetailsPage/NewsDetailsWindow? Most accurate robotic legs mimic human walking gait. (2012, July 30). UPI Space Daily. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1030259616?accountid=29001 Sister kenny rehabilitation institute at abbott northwestern helps patients re-learn to walk via robotic legs. (2007). Wireless News, , 1. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/209965119?accountid=29001