Canadian Journal of Counselling/Revue canadienne de counseling/1999,

V o l . 33:1

13

Foster Parent Stress Graham Jones

University of Alberta

Patrick J. Morrissette
Montana State University-Billings
Abstract C o u n s e l l o r s i n p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e , c o m m u n i t y a g e n c i e s , o r s c h o o l systems f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r a c t w i t h foster c h i l d r e n a n d foster parents. W i t h o u t an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the systemic repercussions a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f o s t e r p a r e n t stress, c o u n s e l l o r s m a y b e at a c l i n i c a l d i s a d v a n t a g e . T h i s p a p e r d i s c u s s e s r e s e a r c h findings p e r t a i n i n g to f o s t e r p a r e n t stress a n d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s t h e s e findings have f o r c o u n s e l l o r s a n d c o u n s e l l o r educators. E l e v e n significant themes were g e n e r a t e d f r o m t h e d a t a a n d i n d i c a t e that f o s t e r p a r e n t s e x p e r i e n c e a w i d e r a n g e o f s t r e s s f u l e v e n t s a f f e c t i n g t h e i r p e r s o n a l w e l l - b e i n g , t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p with foster c h i l d r e n , a n d the professionals with w h o m they interact. Rsum L e s c o n s e i l l e r s p r a t i c i e n s , les o r g a n i s m e s c o m m u n a u t a i r e s et les c o l e s o n t d e f r q u e n t s r a p p o r t s avec les e n f a n t s e n f a m i l l e d ' a c c u e i l et l e u r s p a r e n t s d e f a m i l l e d ' a c c u e i l . L a t c h e c l i n i q u e des c o n s e i l l e r s p e u t t r e c o m p l i q u e l o r s q u ' i l s n e c o n n a i s s e n t pas les c o n s q u e n c e s g n r a l i s e s a s s o c i e s a u stress d e s p a r e n t s d e f a m i l l e d ' a c c u e i l . C e t a r t i c l e d i s c u t e d e s rsultats d e r e c h e r c h e s s u r ce stress et d e s i n c i d e n c e s s u r le t r a v a i l d e s c o n s e i l l e r s p r a t i c i e n s et c o n s e i l l e r s d u c a t e u r s . L e s s t a t i s t i q u e s o n t fait a p p a r a t r e o n z e t h m e s i m p o r t a n t s d e s q u e l s i l ressort q u e les p a r e n t s d e f a m i l l e d ' a c c u e i l s o n t s o u m i s d i v e r s et n o m b r e u x v n e m e n t s stressants a y a n t des r p e r c u s s i o n s s u r l e u r s a n t , l e u r s r e l a t i o n s avec les e n f a n t s d o n t ils o n t l a g a r d e et les p r o f e s s i o n n e l s avec l e s q u e l s ils s o n t e n r e l a t i o n .

A l t h o u g h foster care remains very popular and is widely used throughoul Canada, a comprehensive review of the literature indicates that foster parenting within the Canadian scene has received virtually no attention. Available literature is dated, narrow i n scope, a n d is restricted to basic administrative issues such as provincial f u n d i n g and standards (e.g., Alberta Department of Social Services and C o m m u n i t y Health, 1981; O n t a r i o Ministry of C o m m u n i t y a n d Social Services, 1981; British C o l u m b i a Federation of Foster Parent Associations, 1987) a n d program implementation (e.g., Morrissette, 1992; Orenstein, 1989). Based o n the available literature, little is known about the experiences and ongoing needs of foster parents, a n d how counsellors and counsellor educators can be of help to this group. The purpose of this article is to discuss foster parent stress and the implications for counsellors a n d counsellor educators. A n increasec awareness of the stresses experienced by foster parents, and the systemic repercussions of these stresses, can enable counsellors and counselloi educators to better understand foster parents. F r o m the outset, it should be understood that the intent of this paper is not to imply an exhaustive list of foster parent stressful events.

14

G r a h a m Jones a n d P a t r i c k J . Morrissette

SUBSTITUTE

CARE

PROVISION A N D STRESS

T h e systemic effect of stress o n biological care-giving families has been extensively investigated i n a n u m b e r of areas i n c l u d i n g physically handicapped infants a n d c h i l d r e n (e.g., Beckman, 1983; Frey, Greenberg, 8c Fewell, 1989; G o l d b e r g , Morris, Simmons, Fowler, 8c Levison, 1990; Morrissette, Morrissette, 8c N a d e n , 1998; Patterson, 1985), mentally retarded c h i l d r e n (e.g., M i n n e s , 1988; Crnic, Friedrich, & Greenberg, 1983; Baxter, 1989), pediatric terminal illness (e.g., K o c h , 1985), a n d c h i l d h o o d death (e.g., Levac, Maison, Wright, & Bell, 1998; Weber 8c Fournier, 1985). In contrast, research pertaining to the stress experienced by non-biological care-giving families is scant. It can be speculated that the absence of research specific to foster parents is due to a lack of understanding regarding the daily challenges inherent i n their work. It is also possible that foster parent issues are overshadowed by the o n g o i n g needs a n d circumstances of foster c h i l d r e n . O n e study concerned the effect of the primary caretaker's distress on sexually abused foster c h i l d r e n ( L i p t o n , 1997). Data f r o m this study indicated strong differences between foster mother and biological mother distress a n d support as well as a strong relationship between distress of the caretaker a n d symptomology of the child. A second study investigated the stress a m o n g non-related home care providers a n d was limited to mentally retarded adults (Stoneman 8c Crapps, 1988). Findings f r o m this study demonstrated that cultivation of social support resources for care providers proved more important than training or client characteristics for managing stress. A l t h o u g h some of the research findings regarding biological family stress may be generalized to substitute care-giver stress, salient differences merit careful consideration and include (a) non-guardianship status of foster parents, (b) designated time lines for care giving responsibilities, (c) available relief and respite care for foster parents, (d) foster parent financial remuneration, and (e) foster parent accessibility to clinical services. The absence of research specific to foster parent stress, and the consequences associated with this stress, is perplexing considering that foster care has been described as a system i n crisis (Gustavsson & Kopels, 1992) with foster parents generally stressed beyond limits by the demands of caring for disturbed foster c h i l d r e n (Dore & Eisner, 1993; Eleanor, RaeGrant, A c k l a n d , 8c Avison, 1994). Part of the crisis may be attributed to the changing expectations placed o n foster parents. Woolf (1990) asserts that the system is currently at a turning point i n the history of foster care and that foster care is changing f r o m a custodial system to one that is treatment oriented. What can be inferred is that foster parents are now perceived as performing an instrumental function within the treatment team a n d are responsible for i m p l e m e n t i n g important aspects of the treatment plan. For many foster parents, this role is a departure f r o m past

F o s t e r P a r e n t Stress

15

responsibilities where they were required to provide shelter, supervision, and the transportation of y o u n g people.
FOSTER PARENT STRESS: IMPLICATIONS A N D CONSEQUENCES

Aside f r o m the staggering financial costs associated with a foster placement breakdown (e.g., temporary institutionalization of the young person, additional psychological support, foster parent recruitment and training), the emotional a n d physical costs can be devastating to the care givers, the young person, a n d his or her biological family (Charles & Matheson, 1990; Burgess, 1994; Goldstein, F r e u d , & Solnit, 1979). W h e n foster parent stress is disregarded, there can be major social implications such as the maltreatment of c h i l d r e n i n care (e.g., Benedict, Zuravin, Somerfield, & Brandt, 1996; Benedict, Zuravin, Brandt, & Abbey, 1994; Bolton, Laner, 8c G a i , 1981; Rosenthal, Motz, E d m o n s o n , Groze, 1991; Spencer & K n u d s e n , 1992; Zuravin, Benedict, & Somerfield, 1993), high rates of attrition a m o n g foster families (e.g., Block, 1981; Pardeck, 1983; Stone & Stone, 1983), a n d additional psychological impairment of foster children resulting f r o m c o n t i n u e d social a n d academic disruption. The fallout f r o m foster parent stress is frequently observed by counsellors who provide clinical services to foster families a n d foster c h i l d r e n . For example, school counsellors are well acquainted with the emotional distress of foster c h i l d r e n who experience multiple foster family and academic placements. Similarly, counsellors who work i n treatment centres or group homes are accustomed to the unfortunate a n d self-defeating behaviours exhibited by youngsters who have been removed f r o m a foster family or who are awaiting foster care placement. A c c o r d i n g to the literature, there are systemic implications associated with foster family stress. In a study of emotional problems of foster c h i l d r e n i n relation to multiple placements i n care, Pardeck (1983) f o u n d a positive relationship between multiple placements and behavioural problems. P r o c h a n d Taber (1987) examined adolescent placement disruptions a n d determined that i n order to prevent placement disruptions, focus must be placed o n the ability of care givers to better understand the developmental needs of the young person. In an empirical study, Stone a n d Stone (1983) investigated the incidence a n d causes of foster placement deterioration. Findings f r o m this research indicated that foster parents' rapport with program administrators was highly correlated with successful placement. Consequently, foster parent research is critical for counsellors i n their efforts to remain proactive i n preventing or r e d u c i n g care giver stress a n d enhancing clinical services to foster c h i l d r e n . T o contribute to the counselling literature i n the area of foster care, this paper investigated stressful events identified by foster parents a n d discusses implications for counsellors and counsellor educators. A de-

Iti

G r a h a m Jones a n d Patrick J . Morrissette

scription of the research methodology that was utilized to determine stressful events follows.
METHOD

Participants Foster parents who participated in this study were members of the Alberta Foster Patent Association. T h e names of participants were provided by the Alberta Foster Parent Association. A total of 156 foster parents participated i n this study. Demographic Information T h e length of fostering experience a m o n g participants who volunteered for this study ranged from 0.5 years to 30 years. T h e greatest percentage (nine) of foster parents had three years of experience. Thirty-three % had experience ranging from two to seven years. In terms of provincial foster home classification levels, 62% of participants met the advanced classification (designed to meet the needs of c h i l d r e n who present with serious emotional or behavioural problems, medical conditions, physical or mental handicaps and are at risk for requiring institutional care), followed by 22% at the qualified level (designed to serve children who require both developmental care and professional resources to resolve or meet the needs of moderate disabilities), 12% at the approved level (designed to assist c h i l d r e n who have m i n o r disabilities or whose problems can be resolved with quality care a n d specific supports), and 3 % at the specialized level (designed to accommodate children presenting with a multiplicity of problems that are frequent, intense, and e n d u r i n g and would otherwise require placement i n residential treatment or a medical facility). Information pertaining to marital status of foster parents indicated that 87% were married a n d 61 % of the participants reported that the wife or a single female was the primary care provider. T h e average n u m b e r of foster c h i l d r e n residing in a foster home was 2 (35%) a n d the number of biological c h i l d r e n simultaneously residing i n the foster home was 1 (34%). T h e majority of participants (60%) resided in a rural area.
PROCEDURE

Rather than relying solely on one research orientation, this study employed both a quantitative a n d qualitative aspect i n order to provide a more detailed and thorough overview. T o obtain data, this dual orientation was selected in order to (a) avoid having the participants feel pressured or threatened, (b) gain a comprehensive list of stressful events, and (c) give statistical order to descriptive data.

F o s t e r P a r e n t Stress

17

In order to collect the data, a two-stage information gathering process was utilized. T h e first stage entailed eliciting statements of stressful events f r o m a r a n d o m sample o f 200 members of the Alberta Foster Care Association. Sixty responses were received, with a return rate of 30%. A n initial introductory letter accompanied the first stage information gathering process and i n c l u d e d : a statement pertaining to the purpose a n d voluntary nature of the study, a request to identify stressful events, a n d a statement regarding the anonymity of the participants. T h e first group of research participants was provided with a focus statement which read: Please list the events offoster care that you find stressful. Try to be as clear as possible [italics added]. Participants were instructed to generate as many statements as possible that represented stressful events i n their work. These events were then recorded by the authors to create a r u n n i n g list. Duplicate stressful events were removed f r o m the list a n d some statements were also re-worded for clarification purposes a n d to create a list whose length would encourage participation. This list was carefully edited by two experienced foster parents prior to the second stage. D u r i n g this latter process m i n o r changes were suggested to the wording of several statements. F o r example, three statements initially read: (a) Social workers quitting their j o b a n d moving, a n d (b) Workers always being replaced with new ones. These statements were c o m b i n e d to read: R a p i d changeover of c h i l d welfare workers. The second stage of the information-gathering process involved the development of a questionnaire, based o n the specific stressful events that were identified by the first group. It should be underscored that the second group of participants p r o d u c e d the data that was analyzed i n this study. Approximately two months following receipt o f the initial responses the actual questionnaire was mailed to another 200 members. Ninety-two completed questionnaires were returned, with a return rate of 46%. A letter explaining the study, its voluntary nature, a n d participant anonymity was again i n c l u d e d . In actuality, the only instrument [italics added] that was used was the questionnaire that was developed to collect the data. T h e second group o f participants provided demographic information a n d d i d not identify any additional stressful events aside f r o m those that had already been listed. Participants i n the second group were informed that the stressful events that were listed had been generated by foster parents within their association. They were then asked to rate their stress level a n d frequency of involvement i n the events described by the first group. Priority assigned to the stress level of the event, as well as the frequency of the event, were each done o n a five-point Likert scale. Categories o n the Likert scale for stress level ranking i n c l u d e d ( 1 ) not stressful , (2) very little stress, (3) moderate level o f stress, (4) very stressful, a n d (5) extremely stressful. Categories o n the L i k e r t scale f o r frequency rating included: (1) never occurs, (2) rarely occurs, (3) occa-

18

G r a h a m Jones a n d Patrick J . Morrissette

sionally occurs, (4) occurs quite often, a n d (5) occurs frequently. T h e focus statement for the second questionnaire read: As a foster parent you are asked to rate the following stressful events and the frequency with which these stressful events occur by circling the appropriate response [italics added]. Stressful events that were ranked o n the L i k e r t scale by the second group o f participants were c o m p i l e d into a list according to the priority of the stressful event and its corresponding frequency. Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations a n d frequency distributions) were calculated for participants' reports of the priority o f the stressful event a n d o f the frequency. T h e mean scores for both the frequency a n d priority ratings were rank ordered to present relative patterns. Extraction of Themes T h e process o f extracting themes was conducted by both authors. T h e first author has over ten years o f experience as a foster parent a n d is a graduate student i n the field o f educational psychology. T h e second author is a professor i n the field of counselling with twenty years of experience i n working with foster c h i l d r e n a n d their families. Following a careful review of the participants' r a n k i n g of stressful events, the authors determined that a n u m b e r of emergent themes were reflected i n the data. T h e extraction process i n c l u d e d each author independently reviewing all of the stressful events a n d identifying themes which they perceived as emerging f r o m the data. Following this process, both authors met to compare their findings, discuss their independent decisions, a n d agree o n the various themes that they considered to be reflected i n the data. These themes were based o n the interrelationship of the identified stressful events. F o r example, events that related to academic matters were classified u n d e r A c a d e m i c Issues. T o enhance credibility for the qualitative aspect of this study, a triangulation process was conducted. This process involved two experienced foster parents who had a c o m b i n e d experience o f over 20 years a n d an outside h e l p i n g professional who h a d extensive experience i n the area o f foster care administration. Each individual reviewed the list o f stressful events a n d themes, suggested m i n o r revisions, a n d validated the list. T h e order of the following themes is not an indication of their importance. Rather, the thematic analysis is presented as a way o f aggregating a n d presenting the data i n an orderly m a n n e r for closer consideration. F r o m the outset, it should be noted that attempting to designate events u n d e r specific themes was a subjective a n d challenging task a n d is not definitive by any means. D u e to the nature a n d similarity o f some responses, it is conceded that the current analysis may be disputed a n d therefore, result i n a thematic re-configuration. A l t h o u g h the current analysis s h o u l d be perceived sagaciously, it serves to provide a starting point to investigate foster parent stress.

F o s t e r P a r e n t Stress

19

RESULTS

Stressful events within each theme are organized i n order f r o m highest to lowest degree of stress a n d only those events demonstrating a mean score of three or higher o n the five-point L i k e r t scale will be addressed. This is not an indication that the other events are less important (a complete statistical analysis of the stressful events can be obtained f r o m the second author). Theme #1: Foster Parents-Foster Child Relationship T h e most stressful events within this theme i n c l u d e d (a) returning children to a perceived dysfunctional home, (b) witnessing c h i l d r e n leave foster care prematurely, (c) grieving the departure of foster children, (d) having to tell c h i l d r e n that they cannot see their siblings, (e) continuously teaching basic values a n d personal hygiene to c h i l d r e n , and (f) ineligibility o f c h i l d r e n for adoption after being i n long-term foster care. Theme #2: Foster Child-Biological Family Relationship As indicated i n the data, several factors related to the conflict between foster c h i l d r e n a n d their biological parents contribute to foster parent stress. T h e two most stressful events i n c l u d e d dealing with foster c h i l d r e n when they are disappointed by their biological parents a n d biological parents not appearing for scheduled visits with foster c h i l d r e n . Theme #3: Foster Parents-Biological Family Relationships T h e most stressful event within this theme related to the p o o r emotional and physical condition o f c h i l d r e n returning f r o m a home visit. T h e perception that biological parents were not remaining responsible, o r being h e l d accountable, for the p r o p e r care of their c h i l d r e n was identified as the second most stressful. T h e third most stressful event pertained to foster parents feeling caught between c h i l d welfare representatives and biological families. Finally, the p o o r quality a n d quantity of clothing returned with c h i l d r e n following a home visit was identified as the fourth most stressful event. Theme #4: Foster Parents-Child Welfare Worker Relationship In contrast to the other stated themes, a substantial n u m b e r o f events appeared to fall into the foster parents-child welfare worker relationship theme; 12 events were classified i n this theme. T h e most stressful events within this theme i n c l u d e d (a) c h i l d welfare worker decisions that d i d not appear to be i n the best interest of c h i l d r e n , (b) c h i l d welfare workers believing foster c h i l d r e n without c o n f i r m i n g with foster parents,

20

G r a h a m Jones a n d Patrick J . Morrissette

(c) decisions made by inexperienced c h i l d welfare workers, (d) lack of c h i l d welfare workers' understanding and cooperation, (e) c h i l d welfare workers overruling foster parents authority, (f) p o o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n between c h i l d welfare worker a n d foster parents, (g) c h i l d welfare worker not following u p o n requests, (h) unreasonable decisions made by c h i l d welfare workers, (i) foster parent's decisions u n d e r m i n e d by c h i l d welfare workers, (j) c h i l d welfare workers treating foster parents like clients, (k) unreasonable demands made by c h i l d welfare workers. Theme #5: Foster Child Aggression Toward Others and Property Foster children's manipulative, impulsive, a n d aggressive behaviour contributed to foster parent stress i n several ways. T h e most stressful events i n c l u d e d (a) aggressive behaviour of c h i l d r e n , (b) destruction of foster parent property, (c) manipulative behaviour of c h i l d r e n , (d) i n a p p r o p r i ate sexual behaviour of c h i l d r e n , (e) temper tantrums o f adolescent c h i l d r e n , (f) c h i l d r e n wanting freedom b u t not wanting to assume responsibility, (g) allegations a n d investigations o f abuse against foster family members, (h) having to remove c h i l d r e n f r o m public situations due to inappropriate behaviour, (i) c h i l d r e n stealing, and (j) c h i l d r e n physically abusing members o f the foster family. Theme #6: Academic Issues Stressful, academically related events concerned school problems a n d / or suspensions. Theme #7: Emotional Instability of the Foster Child Foster children's overall p o o r emotional disposition and self-defeating behaviours, that influenced n o r m a l behavioural patterns contributed to foster parent stress. M o r e specifically, these events i n c l u d e d (a) disrupted sleeping habits of c h i l d r e n , (b) c h i l d r e n r u n n i n g away, a n d (c) substance abuse. Theme #8: Foster Parent Well-being Stressful events that influenced the well-being of foster parents pertained to three distinct issues i n c l u d i n g (a) the lack o f respite a n d relief care, (b) foster family maintaining some personal life (e.g., vacation time), and (c) isolation a n d alienation within their own communities due to children's inappropriate behaviour. Theme #9: Administrative Issues W h e n compared to the most stressful events, a larger n u m b e r of events appeared to fit within the administrative issues theme than was true for

F o s t e r P a r e n t Stress

21

the other themes; 17 events were classified within this theme while the largest n u m b e r associated with other themes was 12. These i n c l u d e d (a) rapid changeover of c h i l d welfare workers, (b) changing foster care policies with n o input f r o m foster parents, (c) removal of c h i l d r e n f r o m one foster home and p l a c i n g them with another foster family, (d) c h i l d welfare workers assuming too m u c h power, (e) dealing with financial issues involving c h i l d r e n , (f) inconsistencies of c h i l d welfare workers regarding fostering policies, (g) dealing with legal issues, and (h) accurate recording for daily foster family journals. What appeared to emerge f r o m the statements regarding stressful events i n this area pertained to an apparent lack of consistency and unity a m o n g c h i l d welfare administrators, c h i l d welfare workers, and foster parents. As reflected i n the identified events, foster parents described a we-they [italics added] scenario that resulted i n foster parents feeling unimportant and ignored. Theme #10: Communication Issues Foster parents reported stress associated with the inadequate or excessive contact between foster c h i l d r e n and delegated c h i l d welfare workers. For example, stressful events i n c l u d e d (a) p o o r follow-up between children and foster parents following placement breakdown, (b) c h i l d welfare workers asking c h i l d r e n leading questions, and (c) foster parent telephone calls not being returned by c h i l d welfare workers. A c c o r d i n g to the data, inadequate contact was a stressful event that was more frequently experienced. It c o u l d be hypothesized that when inadequate contact occurred, the foster parents have to contend with a child's displeasure and continual requests to meet with his or her c h i l d welfare worker. Theme #11: Clinical Issues A general sense of feeling excluded f r o m children's treatment plan was apparent f r o m the list of stressful events. Examples i n c l u d e d (a) not being provided with background information regarding c h i l d r e n , (b) c h i l d r e n being removed f r o m foster homes without their underlying needs being adequately addressed, (c) biological family visits that are not arranged i n the best interest of c h i l d r e n , (d) individual needs of c h i l d r e n not being met, (e) c h i l d welfare workers not following through o n case plans, and (f) not being given details about children-child welfare worker meetings. A d d i t i o n a l themes i n c l u d e d P l a n n i n g / S c h e d u l i n g Issues and Training Issues. However, these events scored below three o n the five-point Likert scale and therefore, will not be discussed.

22

G r a h a m Jones a n d Patrick J . Morrissette

DISCUSSION

T h e purpose of this study was to identify stressful events reported by foster parents a n d to discuss the implications this data has for counsellors and counsellor educators. As demonstrated i n this study, foster parents encounter a myriad of stressful events that vary i n degree a n d frequency and are not restricted to any one facet of care provision. A review of the top ten most stressful events revealed interesting findings. F o r example, it appears that stress is most prevalent regarding administrative issues. In other words, it is not the direct daily care of c h i l d r e n that foster parents find most stressful but rather, it is the impact of c h i l d welfare policy a n d problematic c o m m u n i c a t i o n between themselves a n d c h i l d welfare representatives. It should be mentioned, however, that events pertaining to c h i l d r e n and their biological families were also identified as highly stressful. Furthermore, a high degree of stress was related to children's aggression a n d the unavailability of respite and relief care. In terms of the frequency of stressful events identified by foster parents, there is some overlap with those events identified as most stressful. F o r example, administration related issues are not only identified as highly stressful but are also identified as occurring with a high degree of frequency. In addition, stress pertaining to c h i l d r e n and their biological families a n d the unavailability of respite a n d relief care were also events that occurred frequently. A perceived lack of support f r o m c h i l d welfare workers (e.g., having their authority overruled by child welfare workers, their decisions being u n d e r m i n e d by c h i l d welfare workers) may amplify foster parents' experience of disrespect. What needs to be appreciated is the vital role foster parents play i n the lives of foster c h i l d r e n a n d their biological families. As demonstrated i n the findings, the emotional needs of foster parents require constant attention. Stoneman a n d Crapps (1988) underscore the importance of cultivating social support resources for caregiving families. These authors state that negative attitudes of neighbors, for example, were associated with added stress a n d d i m i n i s h e d confidence of caregiving families. As indicated i n this current study, foster parents experience stress when they find themselves socially isolated due to the inappropriate behaviour of c h i l d r e n . What remains unclear, however, is whether foster parents intentionally withdraw f r o m social supports or if it is friends a n d relatives who distance themselves f r o m the caregiving family. A notable divergence between the most stressful events and those listed as occurring frequently, pertained to children's behaviour. M o r e specifically, although events relating to children's behaviours were reported with a high degree of frequency, i n general they were reported as being less stressful.

F o s t e r P a r e n t Stress

23

T h e findings of this study have direct implications for counsellors and counsellor educators that involve direct service a n d training. For example, foster parents i n this sample indicate that intense intervention with foster c h i l d r e n (e.g., teaching personal hygiene, processing loss and grief issues, diffusing violent behaviour) is stressful. K n o w i n g that foster parents are intervening with emotionally and behaviourally disturbed children a r o u n d a variety of issues, as well as with the larger system (e.g., school), indicates that additional training a n d support is required to give them the necessary skills. Stoneman a n d Crapps (1988) f o u n d that caregiving families who received training reported less client-related stress than d i d those without training. The relationship between foster parents a n d biological families is also an issue that is identified as highly stressful and occurring frequently. T o better assist foster c h i l d r e n , it is r e c o m m e n d e d that foster parents expand their realm of care to include biological families (e.g., Kufeldt & A l l i s o n , 1990; Kufeldt, 1982). Consequently, the client system will i n clude not only foster c h i l d r e n but their biological families as well. This shift i n focus, however, is not easily made and clarity regarding role expectations is essential. In their research, Stoneman and Crapps (1988) report that the lack of clarity regarding role expectations was cited as the most important stress experienced by caregiving families. Foster parents may be reluctant to extend services to biological families for a variety of reasons (e.g., b e c o m i n g overwhelmed with additional responsibility, over-reaching their expertise, their discomfort with biological families). Traditionally, their focus has been foster child-centred a n d expanding these parameters will involve time, commitment, and additional training. Counsellors trained i n family systems theory may prove to be invaluable i n their efforts to bridge the gap between these two groups. A l t h o u g h it may be a very d e m a n d i n g task, counsellors can work toward educating foster parents i n salient issues such as attachment, loss, a n d family loyalties. Results f r o m this study suggest that there is concern about the competency of biological parents to resume responsibility for their c h i l d r e n . F o r example, learning that c h i l d r e n will be returned to what is perceived as a dysfunctional home has been identified as very stressful and occurring frequently. This particular finding relates to Lipton's (1997) study i n d i cating that foster caretakers were significantly more supportive to children than biological caretakers following the disclosure of sexual abuse. T o avoid animosity between foster parents and biological parents, foster parents may need to gain a better understanding regarding the circumstances a n d emotional disposition of families with special needs. L i k e wise, biological families may require more information about the role of foster parents. Counsellor efforts to nurture relationships between bio-

24

G r a h a m Jones a n d Patrick J . Morrissette

logical a n d foster families are necessary to protect foster c h i l d r e n f r o m being caught between these two groups. In the authors' o p i n i o n , detailed background information regarding foster c h i l d r e n must be provided to foster parents and treatment plans need to be understood when working toward a positive outcome with foster c h i l d r e n . A g a i n , counsellors can be instrumental i n h e l p i n g foster parents articulate a n d administer treatment plans. It is imperative that counsellors consider how they can effectively collaborate with foster parents a n d accommodate their needs while fulfilling treatment plans. Increased cooperation a m o n g h e l p i n g professionals may reduce the probability of foster c h i l d r e n playing one professional system against another. W h e n cooperation is lacking, misunderstanding can develop a n d foster placements can deteriorate. T h e implications associated with the deterioration a n d dissolution of foster placements can include heightened foster c h i l d a n d foster family distress and interruptions i n the young person's education a n d social activities. Consequently, foster child r e n may experience further emotional instability as a result of multiple placements and u n d e r l y i n g issues that remain unresolved. Based o n findings f r o m this study, it appears that focus needs to be placed o n training counsellors to help foster parents a n d c h i l d welfare representatives communicate a n d collaborate i n the best interests of c h i l d r e n . A l o n g these lines, i n t r o d u c i n g concepts of consultation that counsellors might employ c o u l d be beneficial. Morrissette (1996) for instance, describes how counsellors can expand their practice parameters a n d serve as consultants to foster families a n d child welfare representatives to mediate disagreements a n d conflicts. Counsellors and counsellor educators may be u n d e r the impression that the focus of counselling i n foster care will center o n the behaviour of c h i l d r e n and m e n d i n g relationships with their biological families. A l t h o u g h this may be true, according to this study's findings, their intervention may be more needed at a different level. K n o w i n g how to collaborate with other professionals i n the larger system, counsellors can mediate and interpret information for foster parents. Counsellors can also advocate for foster parents a n d support their efforts d u r i n g case conferences and clinical meetings. Educational programs designed to assist counsellors appreciate the responsibilities a n d routines of foster parents appear to be essential to the well-being of foster c h i l d r e n . Findings f r o m this study may be useful to counsellor educators as they prepare aspiring counsellors i n better understanding the complex a n d evolving nature of foster care. M o r e specifically, h e l p i n g counselling students become aware of foster parent stress, a n d the far-reaching consequences associated with this stress, is considered useful. In addition, this study might be instrumental

F o s t e r P a r e n t Stress

25

in the development of training/instructional units for foster parents/ counsellors. These findings, coupled with similar research that can be conducted i n other geographical areas, may provide an enriched understanding of the lives of foster parents a n d the role of counsellors who serve foster families. It is h o p e d that this study will p r o m p t additional counsellor research within the area of foster care (e.g., stress which is unique to single-parent foster families, stress which is unique to each level of foster care, stress which is unique to Native foster families, the stress experienced by the biological c h i l d r e n of foster parents). Ferreting out specific stressful events may also allow for a greater understanding of the care giving family and clinical efforts of counsellors.
CONCLUSION

As demonstrated i n this study, foster parents experience a myriad of stressful events that can affect their personal well-being as well as their relationships with foster c h i l d r e n and the professionals with w h o m they interact. W h i l e elaborating o n identified stressful events of foster parents, this paper discussed the need for counsellors and counsellor educators to become aware of these stresses. A better understanding of foster parent stress can assist counsellor educators in preparing students to appreciate the systemic impact of this stress o n foster c h i l d r e n a n d the overall h e l p i n g professional network. Similarly, greater insight into foster parent stress can have substantial theoretical a n d practical implications for counsellors actively involved i n direct service, program implementation, and evaluation.

References
A l b e r t a D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i a l S e r v i c e s a n d C o m m u n i t y H e a l t h . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . An investigation by the Alberta Ombudsman into joster rare programs. E d m o n t o n : A u t h o r . B a x t e r , C . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . I n v e s t i g a t i n g s t i g m a as stress i n s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s o f p a r e n t s . Journal ofMental Deficiency Research, 33, 4 5 5 - 4 6 6 . B e c k m a n , P. ( 1 9 8 3 ) . I n f l u e n c e o f s e l e c t e d c h i l d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o n stress i n f a m i l i e s o f h a n d i c a p p e d i n f a n t s . American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 88, 150-156. B e n e d i c t , M . , Z u r a v i n , S., S o m e r f i e l d , M . , & B r a n d t , D . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e r e p o r t e d h e a l t h a n d f u n c t i o n i n g o f c h i l d r e n m a l t r e a t e d w h i l e i n f a m i l v f o s t e r c a r e . Child Abuse and Neglect, 20, 561-571. B e n e d i c t , M . , Z u r a v i n , S., B r a n d t , D . , & A b b e y , H . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . T y p e s a n d f r e q u e n c y o f c h i l d m a l t r e a t m e n t by f a m i l v f o s t e r c a r e p r o v i d e r s i n a n u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n . Child Abuse and Neglect, 18, 5 7 7 - 5 8 5 . B l o c k , N . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . T o w a r d r e d u c i n g r e c i d i v i s m i n f o s t e r c a r e . Child Welfare, l.X, 5 7 9 - 6 0 9 . B o l t o n , F., L a n e r , R., & G a i , D . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . F o r b e t t e r o r w o r s e ? F o s t e r p a r e n t s a n d f o s t e r c h i l d r e n i n a n o f f i c i a l l y r e p o r t e d c h i l d m a l t r e a t m e n t p o p u l a t i o n . Children and Youth Services Review, 3, 37-53. B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a F e d e r a t i o n o f F o s t e r P a r e n t s A s s o c i a t i o n s . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . Foster care training: comprehensive approach. V a n c o u v e r : A u t h o r . A

26

G r a h a m Jones a n d Patrick J . Morrissette

B u r g e s s , A . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . Compassion fatigue: The stress of caring too much. ( A v a i l a b l e f r o m V i s i o n a r y P r o d u c t i o n s , Inc., 2809 West 15th Street, Suite 202, P a n a m a City, F L ) . C h a r l e s , G , & M a t h e s o n . J . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . C h i l d r e n i n f o s t e r c a r e : Issues o f s e p a r a t i o n a n d a t t a c h m e n t . Community Alternatives: International Journal of Family Care, 2, 3 7 - 4 9 . C m i c , K . , F r i e d r i c h , W., & G r e e n b e r g , M . ( 1983). A d a p t a t i o n o f families with mentally retarded c h i l d r e n : A m o d e l o f stress, c o p i n g , a n d f a m i l y e c o l o g y . American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 88, 1 2 5 - 1 3 8 . D o r e , M . , & Eisner, E . (1993). C h i l d related d i m e n s i o n s o f p l a c e m e n t stability i n foster care. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 10, 3 0 1 - 3 1 7 . E l e a n o r , S., R a e - G r a n t , N . , A c k l a n d , S., & A v i s o n , W . ( 1 9 9 4 ) . P s y c h i a t r i c d i s o r d e r s o f c h i l d r e n " i n c a r e " : M e t h o d o l o g y a n d d e m o g r a p h i c c o r r e l a t e s . Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 39, 341-347. Frey, K . , G r e e n b e r g , M . , & F e w e l l , R . ( 1 9 8 9 ) . Stress a n d c o p i n g a m o n g p a r e n t s o f h a n d i c a p p e d c h i l d r e n : A m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l a p p r o a c h . American Journal of Mental Retardation, 94, 2 4 0 - 2 4 9 . G o l d b e r g , S., M o r r i s , P., S i m m o n s , R . , F o w l e r , R . , & L e v i s o n , H . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . C h r o n i c i l l n e s s i n i n f a n c y a n d p a r e n t i n g stress: A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h r e e g r o u p s o f p a r e n t s . Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 15, 3 4 7 - 3 5 8 . G o l d s t e i n , J . , F r e u d , A . , & S o l n i t , A . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . Before the best interest of the child. N e w Y o r k : F r e e P r e s s . G u s t a v s s o n , N . , & K o p e l s , S. ( 1 9 9 2 ) . L i a b i l i t y i n c h i l d w e l f a r e . Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 9, 4 5 7 - 4 6 7 . K o c h , A . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . " I f it c o u l d o n l y b e m e . " T h e f a m i l i e s o f p e d i a t r i c c a n c e r p a t i e n t s . Family Relations, 34, 63-70. K u f e l d t , K . , & A l l i s o n , J . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . F o s t e r i n g c h i l d r e n - f o s t e r i n g f a m i l i e s , ommunity Alternatives: International Journal of Family Care, 2, 1-17. K u f e l d t , K . (1982). I n c l u d i n g n a t u r a l parents i n t e m p o r a r y foster care: A n e x p l o r a t o r y study. Children Today, September-October, 14-16. L e v a c , A . , M c L e a n , S., W r i g h t , & B e l l , J . ( 1 9 9 8 ) . A " R e a d e r ' s T h e a t r e " i n t e r v e n t i o n t o m a n a g e g r i e f : P o s t t h e r a p y r e f l e c t i o n s by a f a m i l y a n d c l i n i c a l t e a m . Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 24, 8 1 - 9 3 . L i p t o n , M . ( 1997). T h e effect o f the p r i m a r y c a r e t a k e r ' s distress o n the s e x u a l l y a b u s e d c h i l d : A c o m p a r i s o n o f b i o l o g i c a l a n d f o s t e r p a r e n t s . Child and Adolescent Social Work journal, 14, 115-127. M i n n e s , P. ( 1 9 8 8 ) . F a m i l y r e s o u r c e s a n d stress a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h a v i n g a m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d c h i l d . American Journal of Mental Retardation, 93, 1 8 4 - 1 9 2 . M o r r i s s e t t e , P. ( 1 9 9 6 ) . F a m i l y t h e r a p i s t as c o n s u l t a n t i n f o s t e r c a r e : E x p a n d i n g t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f p r a c t i c e . American Journal of Family Therapy, 24, 5 5 - 6 4 . M o r r i s s e t t e , P. ( 1 9 9 2 ) . T r e a t m e n t f o s t e r c a r e : B r i d g i n g t r o u b l e d waters. Journal of Family Psychotherapy, 3, 5 5 - 7 3 . M o r r i s s e t t e , P., M o r r i s s e t t e , D . , & N a d e n , M . ( 1 9 9 8 ) . E l e c t i v e p e d i a t r i c a m p u t a t i o n : C o u p l e s at t h e c r o s s r o a d s . Journal of Couples Therapy, 7,47-62. O n t a r i o M i n i s t r y o f C o m m u n i t y a n d S o c i a l S e r v i c e s . ( 1981 ). Foster care: Proposed standards and guidelines for agencies placing children. T o r o n t o : A u t h o r . O r e n s t e i n , R. (1989). T h e N e w Brunswick therapeutic h o m e p r o g r a m . I n j . H u d s o n , a n d B. G a l a w a y ( E d s . ) . Specialist foster family care ( p p . 2 3 5 - 2 4 3 ) . N e w Y o r k : H a w o r t h P r e s s . P a r d e c k , J . ( 1 9 8 3 ) . A n e m p i r i c a l analysis o f b e h a v i o r a l a n d e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s o f foster c h i l d r e n as r e l a t e d t o r e - p l a c e m e n t c h i l d r e n w i t h cystic fibrosis. i n c a r e . Child Abuse and Neglect, 7, 75-78. Patterson, J . (1985). C r i t i c a l factors affecting f a m i l y c o m p l i a n c e with h o m e treatment f o r Family Relations, 34, 79-89. P r o c h , K . , & T a b e r , M . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . A l i e n a t e d a d o l e s c e n t s i n f o s t e r c a r e . Social Work Research and Abstracts, Summer, 9-13. R o s e n t h a l , J . , M o t z , J . , E d m o n s o n , D . , & G r o z e , V . (1991). A descriptive study o f abuse a n d neglect i n out-of-home placement. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15, 2 4 9 - 2 6 0 . S p e n c e r , W . , & K n u d s e n , D . ( 1 9 9 2 ) . O u t - o f - h o m e m a l t r e a t m e n t : A n a n a l y s i s o f risk i n v a r i o u s s e t t i n g s f o r c h i l d r e n . Children and Youth Services Review, 14, 4 8 5 - 4 9 2 .

F o s t e r P a r e n t Stress

27

S t o n e , N . , & S t o n e , S. ( 1 9 8 3 ) . T h e p r e d i c t i o n o f s u c c e s s f u l f o s t e r p l a c e m e n t . / o u r n a / o / Contemporary Social Work, January, 11-17. S t o n e m a n , Z . , & C r a p p s , J . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . C o r r e l a t e s o f stress, p e r c e i v e d c o m p e t e n c e , a n d d e p r e s s i o n a m o n g f a m i l y c a r e p r o v i d e r s . American Journal of Mental Retardation, 93, Weber, J., & F o u m i e r , D . (1985). Family support a n d a child's adjustment Relations, 34, 43-49. 166-173. to d e a t h . Family

W o o l f , G . ( 1 9 9 0 ) . A n o u t l o o k f o r f o s t e r c a r e i n t h e U n i t e d States. Child Welfare, LXIX, 7 5 - 8 1 . Z u r a v i n , S., B e n e d i c t , M . , & S o m e r f i e l d , M . ( 1 9 9 3 ) . C h i l d m a l t r e a t m e n t i n f a m i l y f o s t e r c a r e . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63, 5 8 9 - 5 9 6 .

About the Authors

G r a h a m J o n e s , B . E d . , is a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y of Alberta. P a t r i c k J . M o r r i s s e t t e , P h . D . , N C C , L C P C , is A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r , D e p a r t m e n t o f C o u n s e l i n g a n d H u m a n S e r v i c e s , M o n t a n a State U n i v e r s i t y - B i l l i n g s . Address correspondence Services, to: D r . P a t r i c k J . M o r r i s s e t t e , D e p a r t m e n t o f C o u n s e l i n g a n d H u m a n N o r t h 30"' S t r e e t , B i l l i n g s , M o n t a n a 5 9 1 0 1 - 0 2 9 8 .

M o n t a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1500