Cover

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500TIPSforTESOL

Pageii 500TipsfromKoganPage 500ComputingTipsforTeachersandLecturers,PhilRaceandSteveMcDowell 500ComputingTipsforTrainers,SteveMcDowellandPhilRace 500ICTTipsforPrimaryTeachers,SteveHiggins,NickPackardandPhilRace 500TipsforFurtherandContinuingEducationLecturers,DavidAnderson,SallyBrownandPhilRace 500TipsforGettingPublished:aguideforeducators,researchersandprofessionals,DoloresBlack,SallyBrown,AbbyDayandPhilRace 500TipsforOpenandFlexibleLearning,PhilRace 500TipsforPrimaryTeachers,EmmaPackard,NickPackardandSallyBrown 500TipsforQualityEnhancementinUniversitiesandColleges,SallyBrown,PhilRaceandBrendaSmith 500TipsforResearchStudents,SallyBrown,LizMcDowellandPhilRace 500TipsforSchoolImprovement,HelenHorneandSallyBrown 500TipsforTeachers,SallyBrown,CarolynEarlamandPhilRace 500TipsforTESOL,SueWhartonandPhilRace 500TipsforTrainers,PhilRaceandBrendaSmith 500TipsforTutors,PhilRaceandSallyBrown 500TipsforWorkingwithChildrenwithSpecialNeeds,BettyVahid,SallyHarwoodandSallyBrown 500TipsonAssessment,SallyBrown,PhilRaceandBrendaSmith

Pageiii 500TIPSforTESOL (TEACHINGENGLISHTOSPEAKERSOFOTHERLANGUAGES) SUEWHARTON &PHILRACE

Pageiv Firstpublishedin1999 Reprintedin2000 Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposeofresearchorprivatestudy,orcriticismorreview,aspermittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct,1988,this publicationmayonlybereproduced,storedortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withthepriorpermissioninwritingofthepublishers,orinthecaseof reprographicreproductioninaccordancewiththetermsoflicencesissuedbytheCopyrightLicensingAgency.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethoseterms shouldbesenttothepublishersattheundermentionedaddress: KoganPageLimited 120PentonvilleRoad LondonN19JN,UK and StylusPublishingInc. 22883QuicksilverDrive Sterling,VA20166USA SueWhartonandPhilRace,1999

BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData ACIPrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. ISBN0749424095

TypesetbyJoBrereton,PrimaryFocus,Haslington,Cheshire PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyBiddlesLtd,www.biddles.co.uk

Pagev

Contents
Acknowledgements Introduction Chapter1PlanningforTeachingandLearning 1Exploringlearningprocesses 2Assessinglearners'languageneeds 3Planningacourse 4Choosingtherightcoursebook 5Designingyourownmaterials Chapter2MeetingLearners'Needs 6Respondingtolearningneedsintheclassroom 7Usingpairandgroupwork 8Workingwithlargeclasses 9Keepingyourclassingoodorder 10Maturelearners 11Supportinglearnersawayfromhome 12Designingfeedbackquestionnaires Chapter3LanguageWorkintheClassroom 13Teachingvocabulary 14Teachingpronunciation 15Teachinglistening 16Teachingreading 17Teachingspeaking 18Teachingwriting 19Teachinggrammar 20Makinggooduseofyourcoursebook 21Collectingnaturallanguagedata 22Exploitingauthenticwrittentexts 23Exploitingauthenticspokentexts 24Usingliterature 25Gamesforlanguagelearning 26Roleplay 27Usingthenews vii 1 3 4 6 9 11 14 17 19 21 23 25 28 30 33 37 38 40 42 45 47 50 52 55 58 61 64 67 69 72 74

Pagevi Chapter4ImplementingSelfaccess 28Settingupaselfaccessfacility 29Choosingselfaccessmaterials 30Designingselfaccessmaterials 31Supportingselfaccessfromtheclassroom 32Traininglearnerstouseselfaccessmaterials Chapter5UsingInformationandCommunicationsTechnologies 33Helpinglearnerstogetstartedwithemail 34Settingupcomputerconferencing 35Choosingcomputeraidedlearningpackages 36Designingcomputerdeliveredassessmentelements 37Givinglearnersfeedbackusingemail Chapter6Assessment 38Designingclassroomtests 39Givingfeedbackonclassroomtests 40Gettinglearnerselfassessmentgoing 41Gettinglearnerpeerassessmentgoing 42Preparinglearnersforpublicexaminations Chapter7PersonalandProfessionalDevelopment 43Usingprofessionaljournals 44Doingactionresearch 45Startingateachingportfolio 46Buildingyourteachingportfolio 47Managingyourtime 48Dealingwithstress 49Workingasaparttimeteacher 50Copingwithyourpaperwork Conclusions Furtherreading Index 77 78 80 83 85 87 89 91 94 97 100 103 107 108 110 112 115 118 121 123 125 128 131 134 136 139 141 143 144 147

Pagevii

Acknowledgements
WewouldliketothankFionaCopland,JulianEdge,NurHooton,SteveMann,KateMarriage,PeterRoe,AnnWharton,ShanaHeslingtonandJaneWillisfortheir extremelyvaluablecommentsonearlierdraftsofallorpartofthisbook.WealsothankparticipantsonAstonUniversity'sCELTcoursewhousedandcommentedon draftextractsfromthebook.Theresponsibilityforanyerrorswhichremainisentirelyourown.

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Page1

Introduction
WehavewrittenthisbookforpeoplewhoteachEnglishtospeakersofotherlanguages,forpeoplewhoaretrainingtodoso,andforpeoplewhoworkwithtrainee teachers.Althoughitisprimarilyintendedforthosenearerthebeginningoftheircareers,itwillalsobeofusetomoreexperiencedteacherswhoaremovingintonew areas,suchascoursedesign,selfaccessprovisionorteachertraining.So,whetheryouarejuststartingyourcareerorwhetheryouhavebeenteachingforalongtime now,wehopeyouwillfindusefulsuggestionsinourbook. Chapter1,'Planningforteachingandlearning',startsbyexploringthebasisofsuccessfullearningprocesses.Welookattheassessmentoflearners'needs,frombotha languagelearningandamorebroadlyhumanperspective,andthengoontolookatplanningacourseandlocatinganddesigningsuitablematerialstosupportit. Chapter2,'Meetinglearners'needs',looksinmoredepthatlanguagelearnersassocialhumanbeings.Weconsiderhowtofostervaluablelearningprocessesinthe classroom,andofferpracticaltipsonhowtohandlelargegroupsandsmallergroups.Wealsomakesuggestionsonhowbesttosupportmaturelearners,andlearners awayfromhome.Weendwithadiscussionofwaysofcollectingusefulfeedbackfromthelearnersthemselves. Chapter3isthemostsubstantialpartofthisbookanddealswitharangeoflanguageteachingactivities.Welookfirstattechniquesforteachingthevariousaspectsof language,andendwithsomeideasaboutcreativethings,suchasgamesandroleplays,thatcancontributetothelearningofawiderangeofcontentandskills. Chapter4isaboutusingflexibleorselfaccesslearninginyourwork,oreventoreplacewellchosenaspectsofyournormalfacetofaceprovision.Welookatthe establishmentofselfaccessfacilities,theiruse,andthechoiceanddesignofmaterialstogointhem. Chapter5offerssuggestionsonwaysofmakinguseofinformationandcommunicationstechnologiestosupportESOLlearning.Theuseofemailandcomputer conferencingcanbeparticularlyusefultopeoplelearningalanguage,givingthempracticeinanonthreateningenvironment,bothatreadingandwritingintheirtarget language. Chapter6isaboutassessment,includinghelpinglearnerstobenefitfromselfassessmentandpeerassessment.Thechapterincludessuggestionsforhelpinglearnersto preparesuccessfullyforpublicexaminations.

Page2 Chapter7iswrittenforyou!Weincludevarioussuggestionsfromwhichtochooseyourownpersonalprofessionaldevelopmentactivities,andalsosome'survival' suggestions,whichwehopewillproveusefultoyouifandwhentheyareneeded. Thisisnotabooktobereadstraightthroughfromstarttofinish.Wesuggestthatyouscanthebooktofindoutwhatismostdirectlyrelevanttoyouatanygiventime, andstartfromthere.Ifyouareanexperiencedteacher,weknowthatyoumayalreadybeimplementing,orexceeding,manyofthesuggestionsweofferbutwehope thatyouwillstillfindideasthatyouhadnotconsideredbefore,andwhichyoucanadapttoyourownteaching.Ifyouareanewteacher,werealizethatnotallofour suggestionsmaybeimmediatelyrelevanttoyouwehopethatyouwilltakethosethatyouneednow(Chapter3mightbeagoodplacetostart),andcomebacklater tosomeoftheothers.Thenifyouaretrainingteachers,wehopethatthesesetsoftipswillbeusefulspringboardstodiscussionintrainingsessionsorreminders afterwards. Attheendofthebookweincludesuggestionsforfurtherreadingforallofthechapters.Thesebooksandarticleswillhelpyoutolookinmuchmoredetailatallofthe areaswhichwehavetouchedoninthisbook.We'vechosentitlesthatwefeelwillbeaccessibletolessexperiencedteachers,butwhichwillalsoprovidemore experiencedcolleagueswithfoodforthought.

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Chapter1PlanningforTeachingandLearning
1 2 3 4 5 Exploringlearningprocesses Assessinglearners'languageneeds Planningacourse Choosingtherightcoursebook Designingyourownmaterials

Webeginthebookbylookingatthekeyprocessesthatunderpinanddrivesuccessfullearning.Wehopethatoursuggestionswillhelpyoutoplanyourprogrammesso thatthelearningexperiencesyourlearnersderiveareasproductiveaspossible,aswellasbeingenjoyableandstimulating. Next,welookatyourmarketresearch.ThemoreyoucanfindoutaboutwhyyourlearnersarelearningEnglish,andwhattheyintendtodowiththeirnewlanguage, thebetteryoucanplanyourprogrammeforthem. Thereisalotmoretoplanningacoursethancanrealisticallybecoveredinafewsuggestions.Wehope,however,thatourideasonthiswillpointyouinproductive directions,willincludeatleastoneortwoideaswhichyoumaynototherwisehaveconsidered,andwillhelpyoutomaketheprocessofcoursedesignmore worthwhile,andtheresultingproductmoreuseful. Ifyouintendyourstudents'learningtobesupportedbyaparticularcoursebook,itisobviousthatyouneedtoselectthemostappropriatebook,sothatyourlearners' needswillbemetwell,andalsothatyouwillfinditaresourcewithwhichiscomfortabletowork. Weendthisshortchapterwithsomegeneralsuggestionsaboutdesigningyourownmaterials.Everyteacherweknow,evenwhenmakingextensiveuseofpublished materials,findsitnecessarytomakematerialsoftheirowntocoverparticularissues.Laterinthisbook,werevisitmaterialsissuesinthecontextofchoosingor designingresourcematerialsforindependentlearning.

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1 Exploringlearningprocesses
Oneofthemostimportantfactorsthatpredeterminessuccessinlearningofanykindisconfidence.Languagelearningisparticularlydependentuponconfidence.We needtogiveourlearnerseverychancetodevelopthisconfidence,andoneofthebestwaysofusassistingthemtodothisistohelpthemtogaingreatercontrolover theprocessestheyapplyduringtheirlearning.Thefollowingideasshouldhelpyoutoshowyourlearnershowtheycanadjusttheirapproachestolearningtooptimize theirsuccess. 1Learnersneedmotivation.Theyneedtowanttolearnthings.Iftheyalreadywanttolearn,itisdescribedasintrinsicmotivation.Whereintrinsicmotivationis lacking,youcanencouragelearnersbyshowingthemwhatbenefitswillflowfromtheachievementoftheirintendedlearningoutcomes.Thisgeneratesextrinsic motivation.Whenpossible,makelearningfun,interestingandrewarding,sothatextrinsicandintrinsicmotivationcanworktogether.Don'tmistakelackofconfidence forlackofmotivation. 2Learningbydoingisimportant.Mostlearninghappenswhenlearnersuselanguage,haveago,andlearnbymakingmistakesandfindingoutwhy.Weneedto ensurethatlearnersaregivenearlyopportunitiestotryoutandworkwithnewlanguagethattheyhaveencountered.Careneedstobetakentoensurethatlearningby doingisfocusedonusefullanguagework,andnotjustonanythingtokeeplearnersbusy! 3Feedbacktolearnersisessential.Theyneedtofindouthowtheirlearningisactuallygoing.Theymayfeelthattheyhaveunderstoodaparticularaspectof language,butcannotbecertainuntiltheygetfeedbackonwhethertheyarehandlingitsuccessfully.Feedbackfromtheteacherisveryuseful,butteacherscanalso facilitatelearnersgettingfeedbackfromeachother,andfromvariouskindsoflearningresourcematerials.Itfollows,too,thatfeedbackmustbetimelyforittobeof usetothelearner.Anysignificantdelayinthereturnofanassessedpieceofwrittenworkusuallycausesgloomanddistress!

Page5 4Needingtolearnsomethingcanbealmostasproductiveaswantingtolearnit.Whenlearnersknowwhysomethingwillbeusefultothem,eveniftheyfindit difficult,theyaremorelikelytomaintaintheireffortsuntiltheyhavesucceeded. 5Learnersneedtomakesenseofwhattheyarelearning.Itisoflimitedvaluetolearnonlybyrote,ortobeabletodothingswithoutknowingwhyorhow. Gettinglearnerstothinkabouthowtheirlearningishappeningisonesteptowardshelpingthemtodevelopasenseofownershipoftheirprogress. 6Learningisnotjustamatterofstoringupfurtherknowledge.Successfullearning,especiallylanguagelearning,isaboutbeingabletomakecreativeuseofwhat hasbeenlearnt,notonlyinfamiliarsituations,butalsoinnewcontexts.Itisessentialtokeepinmindtheneedtohelpstudentstolearninbothsequentialandholistic ways,andtolookforwaystohelpthemtoemployalloftheirsensestooptimizetheirlearning. 7Learnerstakecuesabouthowtheyareexpectedtolearnfromthewaysinwhichweteachthem.Ifweconcentrateonlyonsupplyingthemwithinformation, theyarelikelytosimplytrytostorethis.Ifwestructureourteachingsothattheyarepractising,applying,extending,comparing,contrasting,evaluatingandengagingin otherhigherlevelprocesses,theyarelikelytoseetheseprocessesascentraltotheirlearning. 8Learningisdrivenstronglybyassessment.Learnersareoftenquitestrategicinstructuringtheirlearningtobeabletodothebesttheycaninthecontextsin whichtheirlearningistobeassessed.Assessmentformatsandinstrumentscanbeusedtohelplearnerstostructuretheirlearningeffectively,aswellastogivethem appropriatetimescaleswithinwhichtoorganizetheirlearning. 9Learningisnotjustanindependentactivity.Whilemuchcanbelearntbylearnersworkingontheirown,withhandouts,booksandlearningresourcematerials, theycanalsolearnagreatdealbytalkingtoeachotherandattemptingtasksandactivitiesjointly. 10Becomingbetteratlearningisimportant.Formanypeople,themostimportantlearningoutcomesofaneducationalexperiencearenotthesyllabusbased, coursespecificones,butaretheoutcomesrelatingtobeingabletolearnnewskillsandcompetenciesbetter.Learningskillsareamongthemostimportantof transferablelifeskills.Thecoursecontentcanberegardedasavehiclethroughwhichtheseimportantskillsaredeveloped.

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2 Assessinglearners'languageneeds
ItseemsonlycommonsensetotrytofindoutwhatourlearnersarelearningEnglishforandwhatkindofEnglishtheywillneed.Manywillhavenospecificpurposein mind,butothersusuallyadultsarelearningforclearlyidentifiedreasons:tostudyatanEnglishmediumuniversitytoreadtheliteratureoftheirprofessionalfieldto workwithEnglishspeakers.Ifyouhaveaclasswithlearningpurposesincommon,youcantrytotailoryourcoursetotheirparticularlanguageneeds.Thefollowing suggestionsshouldhelpyoutofindout,indetail,whatthoselanguageneedsare. 1Asklearnersabouttheirreasonsforlearningandtheirtargetsituation.Ifyouaskaverygeneral,openendedquestionthenlearnerscantellyouabouttheir needsintheirownwords.Youwillgaininsightintothelevelofsophisticationatwhichtheycanexpresstheirlanguageneeds,andtheextenttowhichtheyareawareof atargetlanguagevariety. 2Askpeoplewhoarealreadyinthetargetsituation.Thesemaybepeoplewhoalreadyoccupytherolesyourlearnersaspireto,orpeoplelikemanagersand trainerswhomaybeevaluatingtheperformanceofyourlearnersintheirtargetroles.Peoplealreadyinthesituationwillhaveavaluableperspectiveonitsdemands but,justlikethelearners,theymayhavelimitedawarenessofactuallanguageneeds. 3Observethetargetsituationfirsthand.Whentryingtounderstandyourlearners'aspirationsthereisnosubstituteforactuallyobservingthekindofactivitiesthey wanttocarryoutinEnglishandtheenvironmentthattheywillbein.Sometimes,itisonlyseeingforyourselfthatenablesthecommentsofthelearnersandother informantstomakesense.

Page7 4Talktolearnersagain,indetail.Onceyouhaveabroadpictureofthetargetsituation,youcantalktolearnersaboutthoseaspectsofitwhichmightparticularly influencethewaystheywanttouselanguage.Thefollowingtipssuggestareasthatyoumightconcentrateon. 5Clarifyreceptiveandproductiveneeds.Languageneedsaredefinedbywhatusersdowithlanguageinsituations,asmuchasbythelanguagewhichthey encounter.Forexample,yourlearnersmayneedtounderstandthefinancialpress,butneverhavetoproducesuchlanguagethemselves.Gettingthisclearwillhelpyou todeveloprelevantandeconomicalteachingapproaches. 6Findoutaboutthecognitivedemandsofsituations.Forexample,ifyourlearnerssaytheyneedto'understandlectures',findoutwhythisis:willtheywrite summaries,undertaketasks,sitexamsonthebasisofwhattheyhavelearntfromlectures?Thisinformationcangiveyouideasbothonskillstopractise(eg,taking notes),andonlanguagetohighlight(eg,discoursemarkers). 7Askaboutsocialroles.Ifyourlearnersneedto'givepresentations',isthistopeers,juniorsorpotentialclients?Socialconsiderationsareparticularlyimportantfor classroomactivities,suchasroleplays:youneedtothinkabouthowsocialdimensionscanberecreatedorsimulatedintheclassroom,sothatlearnersmightattemptto incorporateadegreeofsocialpositioningintotheirclassroomlanguageuse. 8Researchthetargetlanguageyourself.Trytogetagoodrangeofsampleswrittenandspoken,asappropriateandlookatthemindetail.Youwillperhaps beabletoidentifycertainlanguagefeaturesthatyoufeelareparticularlyimportant,andwhichyouwanttoincorporateintoyourcourse.Formoreideasoncollecting andanalyzinglanguagedata,see21onnaturallanguagedata,and2223onexploitingwrittenandspokentexts. 9Lookathowyourlearnerswillbetested.Sometimes,learnersneedtotakealanguagetesttogainaccesstotheirtargetrole:eg,TOEFLorIELTSforuniversity study.Inthiscase,thenatureofthetestisoneofthefactorsdeterminingtheirlanguageneeds.See42,Preparinglearnersforpublicexaminations.

Page8 10Rememberthatlanguageneedsaren'teverything.Thereisadangerofgettingsocaughtupinattemptingtounderstand,expressanditemizethelanguage needsofstudentsthatwestarttolosesightoftheirneedsaslearnersandhumanbeings.Learningneeds,asdistinctfromlanguageneeds,arediscussedfromavariety ofperspectivesinChapter2ofthisbook.

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3 Planningacourse.
Teachersareoftenaskedtoworkwithacourseplanthatalreadyexists.Thismaybeanexplicitdocumentgeneratedwithintheinstitution,oramoreimplicitstatement suchasaprescribedcoursebook.But,sometimes,individualteachersorgroupsofcolleaguesneedtoplanacoursethemselves.Thesesuggestionsshouldhelpyouto planacoherentlearningexperienceforyourstudents. 1Knowyourlearners.Aprerequisiteforcourseplanningisananalysisoflearners'needs,intermsofbothlanguagecontentandskillsandlearningprocesses.Good needsanalysisinvolvesaprocessofresearchweprovideideasonhowtocarryitoutin2,Assessinglearners'languageneeds,and6,Respondingtolearningneeds intheclassroom. 2Formulateaimsandobjectives.Onthebasisofyourresearch,whatdoyouwantthelearnerstobeabletodobytheendofthecourse?Whatdoyouwantthem tohavereadandlistenedto?Howcantheseobjectivesbebrokendownintomanageablesteps? 3Namethestrandsofthelearningexperience.Thesearethemeanswherebytheobjectivesmightbereached.Youshouldconsiderprocesses(eg,thetasks learnersmightdo),topicsandtexttypesaswellaslanguagecontent.Havingnamedthestrands,youcanthenconsidereachoneindetailexamplesarebelow. 4Considerthelanguagecontent.Youmaywellberequiredtospecifythemainstructures,lexisandlanguagefunctionsthatlearnerswillexperienceandworkwith duringthecourse.Youshouldlinkthesefeaturestotheoverallaimsandobjectivesofyourcourse.Inadditiontotheirexperienceoftheseexplicitlystatedlanguage features,learnersneedageneralvarietyofexposuretogivethemopportunitiestoacquirefeatureswhicharenotbeingexplicitlytaught.Sodon'toverlookthe importanceoflanguageandtextsthatdonotrelatedirectlytocourseobjectives.

Page10 5Thinkabouttopicsandtexttypes.Dothecourseobjectivesimplyaconcentrationonparticulartopicsandwrittenorspokentexttypes?Aresometopics particularlyrelevantandinterestingforthelearners?Whichtexttypesmightmosteasilysupportthelanguagecontentobjectives,aswellascontributingtoawide exposure? 6Thinkaboutprocesses.Isfamiliaritywithcertainprocessesforexample,negotiatinginagroup,orwritingasummaryfromvarioussourcetextspartofthe courseobjectives?PerhapsyourlearnerscanalreadyidentifysomeoftheactivitiestheyneedtoperforminEnglish.Whichprocessesdoyouthinkwillbestsupport yourlanguagecontentobjectives?Whichwillbestsupportthestudents'generallanguagelearning? 7Decideonasequenceforthecourseelements.Youneedarationalethatwillhelpyoutodeterminewhichaspectswillcomefirst,whichlater,andhowaspects willberecycled.Youmightthinkofimmediateneed,relevance,ordifficulty.Theconceptofdifficultyhereis,ofcourse,acomplexone,andbegsquestionsaboutwhat canbemeantby'mastery'ofacourseelement. 8Getfeedbackonyourdraftcourse.Especiallywhereonepersonorasmallgroupisplanningacoursethatwillalsobeusedbyothers,itisessentialtoget feedbackfromthoseothersbeforethecourseplanisfinalized.Colleaguescanspotproblems,fromgapsincoursecoveragetoambiguousordifficultformulations.And theprocessofconsultationmakesitmorelikelythatalltheteamwillunderstandthephilosophyofthecourseandengagewithit. 9Developaformal,publicdocument.The'finished'coursedocumentorcoursedescriptioncanbemadeavailablenotonlytoteachersusingit,butalsotoother colleagues,learners,sponsorsandparents.Writingforsomanydifferentaudiencesisachallenge,butadocumentthatsuccessfullyaddressesallstakeholderscanbea powerfulunifyingforce. 10Remainopentochange.Asthecourseistaught,experiencesofteachersandlearnerswillnodoubtstarttorevealwaysinwhichitcouldbeimproved.Youneed tosetupasystemtochannelthesedevelopinginsightsbacktoyou.Itcouldwellbeimpractical,aswellasinappropriate,toradicallychangethecourseplanevery yearbutdoremainopentofeedbackandmodifications.

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4 Choosingtherightcoursebook
Agoodcoursebookmakesatremendousdifferencetoaprogramme.Forlearners,itcangiveconfidenceandreassurance,aswellastheopportunitytolookahead andseewhat'scomingnext.Forteachers,itoffersaframeworkforcourseplanningaswellaslessonbylessonsupport.Sometimeswearetoldwhichbooktouse butoften,individualteachersorgroupsofcolleaguesareaskedtochooseamainbookfortheirprogramme.Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyoutoevaluate potentialcoursebooksandchoosethebestoneforyourlearners. 1Getaclearpictureofyourstudents'languagelearningneeds.Thenseehowwellthecoursebookmatchesthem.Istheemphasisongrammar,vocabulary, pronunciationetcappropriate?Whataboutthebalanceofskillswork?Also,considerthelanguageusedfordialoguesandlistening/readingpassages:isitthekindof languageyourlearnersareaimingtounderstandanduse? 2Examinethesyllabusorganization.Contentspagesusuallymakeitclearwhetherthebookisprimarilyorganizedaccordingtoastructural,functional,lexicalor indeedamultisyllabus.Theyalsoshowhowmuchnewcontentthereisineachunit,andtheextenttowhichnewlanguageisrecycledthroughoutthebook.Howdoes thebook'sapproachfitwithyourownobjectivesforyourcourse? 3Thinkabouthowyourstudentswanttolearn.Askyourselfwhetherthemethodologysuggestedbythecoursebookisinfactappropriateforthem.Aretheroles suggestedforteachersandlearnersonesthatyourownlearnerswillbeusedto?Willtheactivitiesbereasonablyfamiliar?Youwillneedtothinkaboutsociocultural habitsandpreferenceshere,aswellasaboutsuccessfullanguagelearning.

Page12 4Examinethesubjectcontentofthebook.Languagelearningispartofawidereducationalexperience,andthethematiccontentofacoursebookshouldbe consideredfromthisperspective.Abookshouldprovidestimulationandcognitivechallenge,withoutcausingbewildermentoroffence.Thiscanbeadifficultbalanceto strikewhenbooksarewritteninoneculturalcontextandusedinanother. 5Thinkaboutthekindofclassroominteractionsyouwanttohave.Findoutwhetherthebookislikelytoprovidethem.Forexample,howmuchtimemightyour learnersliketospendworkingindividually?Inpairsorgroups?Asawholeclass?Andwhatsortoftaskswouldtheygetmostbenefitfrom?Bylookingattheactivities suggestedinthecoursebook,youwillseehowyourlearnersmightberelatingtoeachotherastheyuseit. 6Consideryourownneedsasateacher.Coursebooksareusuallyaccompaniedbyteachers'guides,whichvaryagreatdealinthelevelofsupporttheyprovide. Askyourselfwhetheryoucanempathizewiththeadvicegivenintheteachers'guide,andwhatyoucanlearnfromit.Willyoufeelcomfortableadoptingtherolesthe teachers'guidesuggestsforyou? 7Considertheneedsofyourinstitution.Coursebooksusuallycomeaspartofapackagethatincludesteachers'guide,workbooks,cassettes,video...ifnot more.Isyourinstitutionableandwillingtopurchaseallofthese?Ifnot,youwillneedtoassesswhetherthecoursebookisinfactusablewithoutalltheotherelements ofthepackage.Youshouldalsoconsiderhowlongyournewpurchaseswillbeexpectedtolast! 8Workwithcolleaguestochooseyourcoursebook.Whereabookisbeingchosenforawholeteachingteam,itisimportantforallcolleaguestobeinvolved.That wayeveryone'sneedscanbeconsidered,andthewholeteamhasownershipofthefinaldecision.Butevenifyouarechoosingabookjustforyourownclass, discussionwithcolleaguesisbeneficial:itforcesyoutobeexplicitaboutyourowncriteria,andmayprovideperspectivesyouhaven'tyetconsidered. 9Askyourlearnersabouttheircriteriaforagoodcoursebook.Thiswillgiveyouausefulpictureoftheirpriorities.Theprocesswillalsobeofbenefittothem, becausetheywillreflectaboutwhathelpsthemwiththeirlearning.Youmayfindyougetmoreusefulfeedbackbyaskingareasonablystructuredseriesofquestions.

Page13 10Whateverevaluationtechniquesyouuse,keepyourownsituationfirmlyinmind.Therearenoinherentlygoodorinherentlybadcoursebooks,only coursebookswhicharebetterorworseinparticularsituations.Makesureanyevaluationyouundertakereflectsyourownpriorities.

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5 Designingyourownmaterials
Despitetheexcellentrangeofpublishedmaterialsavailable,andalltheoptionsthatwehaveforflexibleuseofthese,therearestilloccasionswhenteachersneedor prefertomaketheirownmaterials.Thefollowingsuggestionswillhelpyoumakethemostofwhateverresourcesyouhaveavailabletocreatematerialsthatwill enhanceyourstudents'learningexperience. 1Takecareovertheappearanceofyourmaterials.Noteveryonehasaccesstodesktoppublishingsoftwareandlaserprinters,butwecanallmakegooduseof layout,whitespaceandprintsizestomakeourmaterialslookattractive.Bytakingcareoveryourmaterials,youshowlearnersthatyouhaveaseriousattitudeto preparingfortheclass. 2Giveyourmaterialsahouseidentity.Headingallyourmaterialswiththenameorlogoofyourinstitution,courseorclassgivesthemamore'official'stampandis anotherencouragementforlearnerstotakethemseriously.Learnersaremorelikelytofilenumbered,titledhandoutsthanoddsheetsofpaper! 3Haveclearobjectivesforthematerials.Ifyoupushyourselftosayexplicitlywhatyourobjectivesare,itismorelikelythatyouwillbeabletodevelopmaterials thatarerelevanttoyourlearners'needsandtotheobjectivesofyourcourse.Asyouwritethematerials,theobjectivesareareferencepointtomakesureyour materialsstayontask. 4Choosesourcematerialcarefully.Yourmaterialswillprobablybedesignedaroundsomesortofwrittenorspokensourcetext.Makesurethisisappropriatefor thelearnersintermsoftopicandlevelandthatitlendsitselftoanexploitationthatisrelevanttoyourlearners'needsandtheobjectivesofthecourse.

Page15 5Designappropriatetasks.Thetasksinyourmaterialsneedtobeappropriatetoyourcourseobjectivesandyourlearners'interests.Theyshouldalsobe manageablewithinthetimeframeyouhaveavailable.Learnersshouldenjoythemintheirownrightand/orbeabletoseewhytheyareimportantforafuturegoal. 6Includeclearrubrics.Almostallmaterialsincludeinstructionstothelearners,andthoseyoumakeforyourownclassshouldnotbeanexception.Especiallyfora complexseriesoftasks,learnerscanfinditreassuringtoseeallthestepswrittendowninthematerials. 7Makethematerialspersonallyrelevanttothelearners.Designingyourownmaterialsisanidealopportunitytobuildonwhatyouknowaboutyourlearners' livesandinterests.Forexample,ifyouarechoosingareadingtextaboutafamousperson,mightitbesomeoneyourlearnersareparticularlyinterestedin? 8Askacolleaguetohelpyou.Ifyougetintothehabitofaskingacolleaguetolookoverdraftsofyourmaterials,youwillgetvaluableideasandsuggestions. Mistakesarealsofarlesslikelytoslipbytwopeople!Andifyouoffertodothesameforyourcolleague,youwillgetexposuretoevenmorematerialsdesignideas. 9Considersharingyourmaterialswithcolleagues.Thetimeinvolvedindesigningyourownmaterialscanreallypayoffwhenagroupofcolleaguesaresharing materialsaround.Betweenyou,youcanbuildupabankofmaterialsforusewithparticulartypesofclasses.Thesecanbestoredinacentralareainthestaffroom. Knowingthatotherswilluseyourmaterialsisalsoanexcellentincentivetomakethemascompleteandclearasyoucan. 10Asklearnerstocontributesourcetexts.Learnerscouldbeaskedtosearchouttextswhichinterestthemonparticulartopics,andyoucouldincorporatesome oftheseintofuturematerials.ESP(EnglishforSpecialPurposes)learnersespeciallymayappreciatethechanceforthissortofinputthey,afterall,knowexactlywhat sortoftextstheyneedtodealwith. 11Asklearnersforfeedbackonyourmaterials.Theymaybeparticularlywillingtogivethisiftheyseeitasanopportunitytoinfluencethematerialsyouandyour colleagueswillbedesigningfortheminthenearfuture.Itcanbeverysatisfyingtolearnerstoseetheirsuggestionsandviewsincorporatedintomaterials.

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Chapter2MeetingLearners'Needs
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Respondingtolearningneedsintheclassroom Usingpairandgroupwork Workingwithlargeclasses Keepingyourclassingoodorder Maturelearners Supportinglearnersawayfromhome Designingfeedbackquestionnaires

Thischapterisessentiallyaboutpeopleandprocesses.Inthelastchapterwetalkedalotaboutthecontentofalanguagecourseinthischapterwetalkmoreabout thepeoplewhoaredoingthelearning.Ourfirstsetofsuggestionslooksathowclassroompracticecanbestbeadapted,sothatthelearningexperienceisinherently beneficialaswellassimplyefficientinlanguageacquisitionterms. Studentslearnagreatdealfromeachother.Insmallgroupsituations,wecancapitalizeonthis,andhelpthemtoderivethemaximumbenefitfromeachother.Our suggestionsalsopointtowardswaysofavoidingsomeofthemanythingsthatcangowrongwithinterlearnercommunicationinsmallgroups. Teachinglargegroupsoflearnersbringsitsownchallenges.Inthesuggestionsinthisbook,weconcentrateonhelpinglearnersthemselvestoderiveagoodexperience fromthosepartsoftheirlearningthattheyundertakeinlargegroups. Someclassesaremoredemandingthanothersintermsofdiscipline.Weoffersomesuggestionsforkeepinggoodorderinyourclass,andencouraginglearnersto workwithyoutoensureaproductivelearningatmosphereforall. Wethenlookattheneedsofsomeparticularlearnergroups.Westartbyofferingsuggestionsonhowtomeettheneedsofmaturelearners.Itisparticularlyimportant toadjustourapproachestomaturelearnersinsituationswheretheagerangeinagroupmaybequitebroad,andwherematurelearnersarelearningalongsidemuch youngerlearners.Itisalltooeasyforthematurelearnerstofeeluncomfortableordisadvantaged.Wehopeoursuggestionswillalertyoutosomewaysaroundthis.

Page18 Wecontinuebyofferingsometipstohelpinternationalstudentsinparticular.Whenlearnersstudyawayfromhome,theyoftenfindthemselvesinaverydifferent educationalcultureandclimate,andmayneedsomehelptotuneintotheirnewenvironment. Weendthischapterbyofferingsomesuggestionsonwaysthatyoucanfindoutaboutthequalityofyourstudents'learningexperiences.Feedbackfromlearnerscanbe reallyvaluable,butitcanalsodegenerateintoroutinetickedboxesonquestionnairesandsurfaceleveldecisionmaking.Wehopethatoursuggestionswillhelpyouto probemoredeeplyintoyourlearners'experiences,andtherebywillhelpyoutocontinuetoadjustanddevelopyourownapproaches.

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6 Respondingtolearningneedsintheclassroom
Alanguageclassroomisn'tjustabouthelpinglearnerstoimprovetheirlanguage.It'salsoabouttryingtocreatearich,supportive,memorableandlifeenhancing learningexperience.Thefollowingsuggestionswillhelpyoutothinkabout,andrespondto,theneedsofyourstudentsassocialandlearninghumanbeings. 1Promoteselfesteem.Everyoneismotivatedbypraiseandencouragement:Themorespecificthiscanbe,thebetter.Forexample,youcouldmentionparticular areasofimprovementwhengivingfeedbacktoindividuallearners.Personalized,detailedpraiseislikelytobemostmeaningful,sinceitisclearlytheproductofsome thought.Thereisthusmoreofachancethatitwillimpactonlearners'selfesteem. 2Providecognitivechallenge.Wellchosentopicscanhelplearnerstolearnfarmorethanjustlanguage.Likewise,thetasksweaskthemtodocanengagemore cognitiveabilitiesthanstrictlylanguagelearningones.Forexample,learnersengagedintryingtoworkoutagrammar'rule'onthebasisofexamplesaredeveloping inferentialskillsaswellasimprovingtheirlanguageawareness. 3Provideafeelingofsecurity.Challengesareimportant,buttheyinvolvetheriskofbeingwrongandsometimesit'shardforlearnerstotakethisriskinpublic. Learners'requestsforreliablerulesmaybeonemanifestationofthisanxiety.Certainactivitiescontrolledpractice,'rehearsals'inpairsorsmallgroupsmayhelp learnerstofeelsafer.Theuseofinterimrules,intendedtoevolveaslearners'languagedevelops,mayalsobereassuring. 4Allowpersonalexpression.Talkingaboutourselvesseemstobeauniversalhumanneed,andthelanguageclassroomisaverygoodplace

Page20 todoit.Thesatisfactionoffindingacodewhichexpressesthelearners'ownmeaningscanmakeapieceoflearningparticularlymemorable. 5Useyourlearners'areasofinterest.Interestisagoodcriterionforselectingtopicsandtextstostudyinclass.Ifstudentsarelearningforaspecificpurpose,thisis avitalpartofmakingtheclassfeelrelevantforthemiftheydonothaveidentifiedfuturepurposesinmind,theninvolvingtheirdifferentinterestsisstillanopportunity forpersonalizingtheclass. 6HelpthemtodeveloplinkswithnativeEnglishspeakers.Thiscouldbeviamail,email,etc,aswellasinperson.Manylearnerswouldliketodevelopsuch links,butareunsurehowtodoitontheirown.Thereisnobettervindicationofdevelopmentasalanguagelearnerthantocommunicatesuccessfullywithnative speakers! 7Bearinmindyourlearners'othereducationalexperiences.Adultsmaywellhavetriedmanyapproachestolanguagelearningduringtheirlives.Schoolchildren willbelearningmanysubjects,nodoubtalsousingvariedapproaches.Alltheseexperiencesinfluencehowtheywillfeelabouttheapproachesthatyouyourselfwantto taketolanguagelearning.Particularlyifyouareteachingoutsideyourowncountry,youwillneedtothinkabouthowyourideasonlanguagelearningmethodologyfit withthelocaleducationalculture.Youmayhavetostrikeadelicatebalance,betweenrespectingyourlearners'expectationsandpreferences,andintroducingideasthat youthinkwillworkwell. 8Sharetherationaleforwhatyouaredoing.Forexample,ifyouusealotofdictionaryexercisesbecauseyouthinkdictionaryskillsareanimportantpartof becomingagoodreader,sayso.Revealingyourownmotivationisawayofaskingyourlearnerstocooperatewithyouandshowingthemthatyoutrustthem. 9Discusslearningstrategiesexplicitly.Explanationsliketheonereferredtoabovearealsoimportantbecausetheyencouragelearnerstothinkaboutwhatsortof activitiesbesthelpthemtolearn.Suchawarenesswillhelptheminmanysituations,insideandoutsidetheclassroom. 10Involvelearnersindecisionmakingwhereyoucan.Iflearnerscanhaveinputintothedirectionofacourseoralesson,theyarelikelytoengageinitmore deeply.Perhapstheultimategoalhereistocreateanatmospherewherelearners'suggestionscanbeheard,butwheretheystillknowthatyou,theirteacher,aretaking thelongtermviewandholdingthecoursetogether.

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7 Usingpairandgroupwork
Pairandgroupworkhavebecomealmostsynonymouswiththemodern,'communicative'languageclassroom,andmanyteachershavefoundthatthesetechniques havealottooffer.Becausetheyprovideanopportunityforagenuineinformationand/oropinionexchange,theyencourageveryusefullanguagepractice.Theyalso helplearnerstogetusedtoworkingcooperativelyandhelpingeachother.Thefollowingtipsshouldhelpyoutousepairandgroupworkthoughtfullyand appropriately,andthereforeeffectively. 1Introducetheideacarefully.Yourlearnersmaynotbefamiliarwithpairandgroupwork.Inthiscaseit'simportanttodiscussyourreasonsforusingit(perhapsin L1),andtostartusingitlittlebylittle.Afterapairorgroupactivityaskyourlearnershowtheyfelt,andalsogiveyourownthoughtsonhowtheactivitycontributedto theclass'saims. 2Structuretheworkappropriately.Aclasswhoareusedtogroupandpairwork,willbecomfortablewithasimplerequestto'dothisinpairs'.Foraless experiencedclass,youyourselfmayneedtoorganizethepairs,indicatewhoistotakewhichrole,andgiveseparateinstructionsforeachstageoftheactivity.Ifyou aredoingpairworkinaclasswithanoddnumberoflearners,youwillneedtomakeagroupofthreeconsidermodifyingthetaskslightlyforthisgroupsothattheycan allparticipate. 3Makesuregroupmemberscanhaveeyecontact.Thiswillprobablymeanchangingtheseatingarrangementssothatmembersofthegrouparefacingeachother ratherthanfacingtheteacher.Evenwithfixedfurniture,youcanachieveeyecontactbyaskingalternaterowsoflearnerstoturnroundtofacethosesittingbehind. 4Thinkaboutthetask.Whatdoyouthinklearnerswillgainbydoingaparticulartaskinpairsorgroups?Don'tassumethatjustbecauseacoursebooksuggeststhis wayofworking,thatitisnecessarilythebestone.Some'group'taskscanbemademoreeffectiveintermsofinformationexchangeandlanguageusebyaddingan individualstagefirst,orbyslightlydifferentiatingwhateachgroupmemberisaskedtodo.

Page22 5Considergroupsize.Differentsizesmaybebestfordifferenttasks.Largergroupsgivescopeformorevarietyofrolesandinteractionpatterns.Yetifallmembers aretohavethechancetocontributeproductively,itcanalsobeimportanttodefinerolesclearlyinadvance. 6Makesurelearnersknowwhattodo.Statethegoaloftheactivityclearlyandgivestagedinstructions,whereappropriate.Ifthesearecomplicated,youcould alsowritethemontheboard.Thenaskalearnertoexplaintheinstructionsintheirownwords,orforashortactivityaskapairtodemonstratefortheclass. 7Monitorgroupworkdiscreetly.Certainlydon'tinterruptgroups:thewholeideaisforthelearnerstooperateaswellastheycanwithoutyou.Movearoundthe class,quietlylisteningincontributetoparticulargroupsiftheyaskyouto,orifyoucanseethattheyarestuck.Saveyourmainfeedbacktogivetothewholeclass afterthegroupactivityisfinished. 8Stoptheactivityattherightmoment.Thisshouldbewhenmostofthegroupshavecompletedoralmostcompletedthetaskset,andbeforetheystarttoget bored.Forsometasks,itmaybeappropriatetosetatimelimitforothers,youneedtogowiththefeeloftheclass.Ifanygroupshavebeenworkingslowly,warn themacoupleofminutesinadvancethatyouwillhavetostopshortly. 9Havesomethingplannedforearlyfinishers.Thiscouldbeacontinuationoftheoriginaltask,orsomethingquitedifferentthatemerges,suchasstudyofa particularlanguagepoint.Ifyourlearnersaremoreindependent,youcouldinvitethemtochoosetheirownactivity. 10Getpairsandgroupstoreporttotheclass.Manylearnersgainreassuranceandemotionalsatisfactionfromtellingthewholeclasswhatworktheydid.It'salso veryvaluablelanguagepractice:theygeta'secondchance'tousethelanguageofthetask,inasituationwheretheywillwanttobeasaccurateaspossible.Youdon't havetoaskeverygrouptoreporteverytime,aslongaseveryonegetsachanceoveraseriesoflessons. 11BeawareofL1use.Ifyourclassismonolingual,youmayfindthattheysometimesuseL1duringgroupworktime.Youneedtobesensitiveaboutthis,because sometimesL1servesausefulpurposeforexample,learnersmaybeconferringwitheachotheronactuallyhowtodothetask.Tryandmakesurethattheyatleast dothetaskitselfinEnglish.

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8 Workingwithlargeclasses
Inmanypartsoftheworld,ESOLteachersfindthemselvesworkingwithgroupsof60ormorelearners.Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyoutocopewiththe practicaldemandsoflargeclasses.Theyalsoexplorewaysofadaptingtechniquestypicallyassociatedwithsmallergroups. 1Addresslearnersbynamewheneveryoucan.Thishelpslearnerstofeelthatyouareawareofthemasindividualsandthattheirpresenceandcontributionin classareimportant.Wedonotunderestimatethedifficultyoflearningsomanynamesbuttechniquessuchasnamecards,seatingplans,orgamesatthestartofthe coursecanmakethetaskmoremanageable. 2Don'tcompeteforthefloor.Ifthelevelofbackgroundnoisemeansthatyoucannotspeakcomfortably,stopspeaking.Learnerswillalmostalwaysquietendown. Thisisagoodwayofdemonstratingtothemthattheysharetheresponsibilityforcreatingaproductivelearningatmosphere. 3Elicitlearners'practicalhelp.Managementtaskslikerecordingattendance,distributingandcollectingmaterialsandsharingaroundresourcescanbetime consuminginalargeclass.Youngerlearnersespeciallycanenjoytakingonsomeoftheseresponsibilities. 4Callonlearnersrandomly,butequally.Duringwholeclasswork,itisyouwhomustinvitelearnerstospeakandnoteveryonewillgetachanceinonelesson. Keepasimplerecordofwhoyouhaveasked,sothatotherscanbeinvitedonfutureoccasions.Nolearnershouldhavetofeelinvisible! 5Usepairandgroupwork.Sometimesthisfeelschaoticinlargeclasses,butitistheonlywaytogivelearnerstimetousethelanguageforthemselves.Itisalsoan excellentopportunityforhelpinglearnerstostarttodevelopindependentlearningskills,whichwillbeparticularlyusefultotheminalargeclassenvironment.

Page24 6Agreesomealternativegroupconfigurationsatthestartofthecourse.Youmaynotwantlearnersalwaystoworkwiththesamepeople,butalotoftimeis savedwhenyouaskthemtoformgroupsiftheyknowwhotheyaretogowith.Sohavingtwoorthreepreestablishedgroupsetsaccordingtotheconstraintsofthe particularclassroomisagoodcompromise. 7Monitorgroupworkselectively.Duringbriefperiodsofgroupworkyouwillnotbeabletomonitoreverygroupindetail.Sogivethebulkofyourattentiontojust asmallnumberofgroupsand,again,makesureyourotatethisfairlyoveraseriesoflessons. 8Agreeasignalforquiet.Noiselevelsduringgroupworkcanseemhigh,anditmaynotbeeasytogettheclass'sattentionagain.Aprearrangedsignal,suchas clappinghandsorringingabell,canbringthegroupbacktogether.Ifyoudon'twanttointerruptquitesobrusquely,youcouldalsotryraisingyourarmasarequestto 'finishoff'groupswhofinishthenalsoraisetheirarms,untileveryonehasstopped. 9Takeselectivefeedbackongroupactivities.Someofthegroupswhoyouwerenotabletomonitorcouldbeinvitedtoreporttotheclassonwhattheydid.Try tomakesuredifferentgroupmembersgetthechancetoactasreporters. 10Invitethelearnerstowritetoyou.Thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanatlength,norallthetime,butatappropriateintervals,togiveyoufeedbackontheir experienceofthecourse.Youcanrespondtothefeedbackorally,withthewholeclassorwithanindividual,ifitseemsnecessary.Theexistenceofawritten communicationchannelcanbereassuringforlearnerswhohaveto'share'theteacherwithsomanyothersduringclasstime. 11Findouthowcolleaguescopewithlargeclasses.Theremaybesomeinstitutionalgroundrulesinoperationthatyoucaneasilytapinto.Forexample,ifthe learnersarealreadyusedtoacertainsignalforquietoracertainapproachtogettingfeedbackongroupactivities,itwillprobablybeeasiestforyoutodothesame thing.

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9 Keepingyourclassingoodorder.
Ifyouareworkingwithsmallgroupsofmotivatedadults,whohavepowerfulmotivesforlearningEnglishandwhomaybefinancingtheirowntuition,thenyouare unlikelytohavetotakeanyspecificstepsto'keeporder'inyourclassroom.Butifyouareworking,forexample,withchildrenorteenagerswhohavenotchosento studyEnglishandareunsureofwhatbenefitsitmightbringthem,and/orifyouareworkingwithlargergroups,thenissuesofclassroomdisciplinearelikelytobemore salientforyou.Iflearningistotakeplaceinclass,youneedtomaintainanorderedandproductiveatmosphere.Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyou. 1Establishacodeofconduct.Youneedtomakeclearwhatyourgroundrulesareaboutallaspectsofclassroombehaviourthatareimportanttoyou.Thesemight rangefromhandinginhomeworkontimetolisteningquietlywhenotherlearnersarespeaking.Dependingonthenatureofyourclass,youmaydiscuss'rules'explicitly ornotbutmoreimportantthananydiscussionwillbethewayyouputyourcodeintopracticeoverthefirstfewlessons. 2Besensitivetolocalandinstitutionalculture.Particularlyifyouareteachinginaforeigncountry,youneedtofindoutwhatkindsofbehaviouraregenerally consideredappropriateineducationalsettingsbeforetryingtoestablishyourownrules.Learnerswillexpectyoutohavethisunderstandingandtodemonstrateitin yourclasses. 3Leadbyexample.Itisnousetellinglearnerstoarriveontimeandthenbeinglateyourself,ordemandingthattheyhandhomeworkinonsetdaysandthennot returningitforweeks.Makesurethatyourownbehaviourisguidedbythesamevaluesthatunderpinthecodeofconductthatyouareattemptingtoestablishwithyour class.

Page26 4Beconsistentinyourreactionstoinappropriatebehaviour.Inmanycontexts,learnerswillcontinuallytrytotestorstretchthecodeofconductyouhave established,andyouneedtoreactconsistentlytothis.Forexample,ifyoustartoffbyexpressingdisapprovaloflatearrival,thencontinuetodosoforaslongasthe behaviourpersistsotherwiselearnerswillthinkyouhavechangedyourmind. 5Carryoutanythreatsyoumake.Ifyousaythatyouwillnotmarklatehomework,thendon'tmarkit.Thatsaid,issuessuchastheseinfactalwaysinvolvealotof judgementthereisboundtobealearnerwhohasanexcellentreasonforhandingintheirworklate.Iftheclassortheparticularlearneraregenerallyrespectfulofthe codeofconduct,thensomeflexibilitymaybeappropriatebutiftheyareconstantlypushingagainsttheboundaries,youmayneedtobetoughandruntheriskof occasionallybeingunsympathetictoagenuineproblem. 6Befair.Itisessentialtotreatalllearnersequally,andnottohaveoneruleforsomeandadifferentruleforothers.Learnersverysoonpickuponthiskindof favouritismandtheirrespectfortheteacherdiminishes.It'snaturaltolikesomelearnersmorethanothers,butit'simportantnottoletthisshow. 7Talkto'difficult'learners.Ifaparticularlearneroftencausesproblemsintheclass,thenit'simportanttofindoutwhy.Makeanarrangementtospeaktothemand ask,inanonthreateningway,whattheproblemis.Listengenuinely,butalwaysmoveontoaskthemwhattheycandoabouttheirbehaviour.Sometimes,eventhe leastcooperativelearnercanrespondwelltoanapproachthattreatsthemlikeanadultandacknowledgesthattheymaybehavingdifficulties. 8Getthemajorityoftheclassonyourside.Evenvery'difficult'classesusuallycontainjustafewparticularlydisruptiveindividuals.Ifyoucangetthemajorityof theclasstoshareyourdisapprovalofthebehaviourofsuchpeople,thenthetroublemakerswillhavelittlemotivationtocontinue.Onegoodtechniqueissimplytostop theclassuntilthedisruptionceases.Mostlearnerssoongetboredwiththisandstarttoexertpressureontheirdisruptiveclassmatestobehave. 9Talktocolleagues.Comparenoteswithotherteacherswhoteachyourdifficultclasses,orwhohavedonesointhepast.Theymaybeabletothrowsomelighton whatisgoingon,orgiveyousomeusefultipstoimprovethings.Sometimesjusttoshareexperiencesisuseful,asitcanhelpyoutorememberthatyouarenot'to blame'foradifficultsituationthatdevelops.

Page27 10Workwiththeinstitution.Ifseriousproblemspersistwithaparticularclassorindividual,thenyoushouldlooktoyourinstitutionforsupport.Exactlywhatcanbe donewillvaryconsiderablyacrossinstitutionsandculturesbut,onewayoranother,institutionshaveafinalsayaboutwhetherlearnersareallowedtoattend,use facilitiesandgraduatefromoneclasstoanother.Institutionalsanctionsare,ofcourse,alastresort,butyoushouldrememberthattheyarethereifyouneedthem.

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10 Maturelearners
Itisimportantthatwetreatmaturelearnersappropriately,andthattheyfeelcomfortableevenwheningroupsorclasseswheretheyareworkingalongsidemuch youngerlearners.Thefollowingsuggestionsmayalertyoutosomeoftheprincipalissueswhicharisewhenworkingwithmaturelearners,particularlywhendoingsoin thecontextofcoursesthatalsoincludeyoungerlearners. 1Beawareoftheanxietiesthatmaturelearnersoftenhavewhenfirstreturningtostudying.Theymayhavenegativememoriesoftheirlastexperiencesin education,andthingsmayhavechangedagreatdealsincetheywerelaststudents.Trynottoallowthemtofeelvulnerableorexposeduntiltheyhavehadsufficienttime togainconfidence. 2Rememberthatmaturelearnersmayknowalot!TheyhaveprobablystudiedEnglishinavarietyofsituationsandtheymaybeparticularlyawareofwhatthey arestudyingfornow.It'sworthgivingthemthechancetosharetheirexperiencewiththeclass.Thiscandoalottoincreasetheirconfidenceinthegroup,especiallyin contextswheretheiryoungercounterpartsareaheadoftheminotherways,suchasafamiliaritywithcomputersandelectroniccommunication. 3Somematurelearnerstendtobedemanding.Suchlearnersoftentaketheirstudyingalotmoreseriouslythansomeoftheiryoungercounterparts:onereason beingthattheyarelikelytohavespecific,oftenjobrelated,reasonsforlearning.Theyalsotendtoreturntoeducationwiththemoreseriousattitudesthatmayhave beenprevalentwhentheywerelastinaneducationsystem.Givingthemanopportunitytodiscussanyworriesaboutlearningcanbeamajorsteptodevelopingtheir confidenceintheirabilitytosucceedwhich,inturn,isprobablyoneofthemostsignificantfactorspredeterminingtheirsuccess.

Page29 4Rememberthatmaturelearnersmaybeunfamiliarwithcontemporaryapproachestolanguagelearning.Similarly,maturelearnersmaybeoutofpractice insomeacademicskills,suchasessaywritingornotemaking.Itisimportanttointroducethemgentlyto'new'approachesandhelpthemtounderstandtherationale behindthese.Insomecontexts,specificallydesignedstudysupport,orlearningskillsinductionprogrammesformaturelearnerscanbemostvaluabletothem,andmuch appreciatedbythem. 5Takecareaboutyourownassumptions.Somematurelearnerswillhavecoveredgroundyoumightneverhaveexpectedthemtohavedone,andotherswon't haveexperiencedthingsyouwouldhaveexpectedthemtohavecovered.It'swellworthspendingalittletimefindingoutabitmoreaboutmaturelearners'viewsof theirownstrengthsandweaknesses. 6Checkouttheneedsandwantsofyourmaturelearners.AskthemwhytheyhavechosentostudyEnglish,andhowtheybelieveitwillfitintotheirfuture careers,orhowitmayfeedintotheirplansforfurtherstudying. 7Treatmaturelearnersappropriately!Theydonotlikebeingtreatedlikechildrenbutofcourseneitherdoyoungerlearners,orchildrenthemselves!Itisworth remindingyourselfthatatleastsomematurelearners,whoarejustlearnersinyourclassroom,arelikelytobeexperiencedprofessionalslikeyourselfinotherplaces. 8Helpmaturelearnerstosaveface.Maturepeopleoftendon'tliketobeseentogetthingswrong,especiallywhenyoungerpeoplearepresent.Watchoutfor occasionswhenfeedbackfromassessmentsmayraisethisissue.Besensitivetomaturelearners'feelingswhentheymakecontributionsinclassiftheircommentsor questionsareshowntobe'silly'orinappropriate,suchlearnerscantakethisasaseriousblowtotheirconfidence. 9Givematurelearnersthechancetointeractwellwiththerestofthegroup.Whenchoosinggroupsfortasksorprojects,itisoftenworthtryingtogetagood mixregardingageandbackground,toallowexchangeofknowledgeandexperienceinasmanydirectionsaspossible. 10Berealisticaboutotherdemandsonmaturelearners'timeandenergy.Theynormallyhaveabundantmotivationanddrive,butsometimesotherpressuresin theirlivescanaffectthepossibilityofthemmeetingdeadlinesortargets.

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11 Supportinglearnersawayfromhome
IfyouareteachinginanEnglishspeakingcountrythenmanyofyourlearnerscouldbevisitorsfromabroad,andmaybejoiningyourinstitutionforashortperiodonly. Ifyouworkinadedicatedlanguageschool,thentheadministrativeandpastoralsupportsystemsoftheinstitutionshouldbegeareduptothis:ifyouworkinanother typeofeducationalinstitution,yourinternationalstudentscouldbeaminoritygroup.Ineithercase,thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyoutoassistyourlearnersto makethemostoftheirstay. 1Encourageyourinstitutiontoarrangespecialistinductionprovisionforinternationalstudents.Presessionalmeetingsaddressingaspectsofcultural acclimatization,andlookingatgoodstudyskills,canbeofenormousbenefitinhelpinginternationalstudentsgetthemostfromtheircourse. 2Produceclearinformationforyourinternationalstudents.Trytoensurethattheyreceivegooddocumentationabouttheircoursesandabouttheinstitutionand itsenvirons,ideallybeforetheyarrive.Internationalstudentsaremorelikelytoneedtorevisitsuchinformationagainandagainuntiltheyhavetunedintotheirnew situation,andtheycanoftendothismoresuccessfullywhentheinformationisinprintratherthanineasytoforgetfacetofaceformats. 3Helplearnersfromothercountriesorculturestounderstandwhatyouwillexpectoftheminassessments.Assessmentculturesvarywidelyaroundthe world,andwhatisregardedasnormalpracticeinsomeplacesisseenascheatingorplagiarisminothers.Itisimportantthatalllearnersareawareofthewaystheyare expectedtobehaveinpreparingforandundertakinganykindofassessment.Itcanbeparticularlyimportanttohelplearnersadjusttothosepartsoftheircourses involvingindependentstudy,andabouthowtoprepareforanyassessmentassociatedwithsuchstudies.

Page31 4Searchforwaysoflesseningtheisolationofinternationalstudents.Encouragethemoutoftheinstitution,sotheycanabsorbmoreofthelocalcultureand makenewcontactsandfriends.Ontheotherhand,avoidputtingthemunderanypressuretobreaktheirnormallinkswithfellowlearnersfromthesamebackground. 5Besensitiveonissuesofreligion.Somereligionsrequirefollowerstoprayatspecifictimesandinparticularsettings.Thiscanbeaproblemforlearnersrequired tofitinwithtighttimetabling,andsensitiveflexibilityneedstobeshownregardingtheirneedsandrights. 6Helplearnerswithspecialfoodrequirements.Learnersvisitingaforeigncountrymaywellbeinterestedintryingoutitsfood,butequallytherecouldbelimitson whattheyfindacceptable.Gatherfeedbackonappropriatealternativesthatcouldbebuiltintomenusandcateringprovision.Advisethosearrangingcateringat inductioneventstobeespeciallysensitiveaboutlabellingfood,sothatinternationalstudentsdon'tbecomeanxiousaboutwhattheycanandcannoteat. 7Considergettingpaststudentsfromdifferentcountriestowriteanintroductoryguidetotheidiosyncrasiesofyourcountryandinstitution!Thiscanbe usefulfornewlearnersfromabroad,andit'salsogoodforstaffandlearnersfromthehomecountrytoseethemselvesthroughtheeyesofpeoplefromothercultures. Anytextsyourlearnersproducecanbeastartingpointforcrossculturalactivitiesinlessons,andcanhelplearnerstofindoutabouteachothers'backgroundsandfeel thattheirowncultureisvalued. 8Recognizeculturaldifferencesregardingattitudestoalcohol.Evenifmainstreamattitudesarealcoholtolerant,significantgroupsoflearnerscomefromcultures wherealcoholmaybeforbiddenonreligiousgrounds.Youshouldnotexpectgroupsoflearners,whatevertheirbackground,togoontripsorvisitswhichincludea stoponthewaybackatasuitablepub!Classdiscussionsofalcoholmarketingstrategiesorpubsocialbehaviourscanbeoffensiveoralientolearnerswhoseculture forbidsalcohol. 9Considerthespecialfacilitiesneededbylearnersfromothercountries.Forexample,toiletandwashingfacilitiesneedtoaccommodatethedifferentpractices thatareinvolvedinsomeculturesorreligions.Whensuchlearnersattempttomakeuseof'normal'facilities,theiractionsareindangerofbeingmisunderstood.

Page32 10Considertheaccommodationneedsoflearnersfromothercultures.Learnersfromsomecountries,whenbookingtheirplaceatyourinstitution,maynot knowwhatismeantby,forexample,'hallofresidence','singlestudybedroom'or'sharedstudentapartment'.Accommodationliteratureneedstobewritten,or supplemented,sothatalllearnersknowwhateachcategoryofaccommodationentails. 11Helplearnersfromabroadtocommunicatewithhome,especiallyinemergencies.Internationaltelephoneorfaxchargesarehigh,andlearnersmaynothave accesstolocationswheretheycanusesuchcommunicationsinrelativeprivacy.Thecosts,bothfinancialandacademic,oflearnershavingtomakeemergencyvisits homeareserious,andwaysneedtobefoundofhelpinglearnerstosortoutsomeoftheproblemsthatcouldleadthemintosuchcosts.

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12 Designingfeedbackquestionnaires
Questionnairesarewidelyusedtocollectfeedbackfromlearnersontheirexperienceinourinstitutions.Youmayberequiredtouseaninstitutionalquestionnaireinany case.Itisworthconsideringhowyoucangatherfeedbackofyourownbyquestionnaire,too.Thefollowingsuggestionsmaygiveyousomeideastoincorporateinto yourownfeedbackquestionnaires. 1Keepthelanguagelevelrelativelysimpleandclear.Thiswaylearnershaveabetterchanceofbeingsurewhatthequestionmeans.Ifyouhaveamonolingual classandyouspeaktheirL1,givelearnerstheoptionofusingitintheirresponses.Theywillappreciateyoureffortstohelpthemtosaywhattheyreallymean. 2Structuredquestionnairescanhavetheadvantageofanonymity.Evenifusingamixedquestionnairecontainingopenendedquestionsaswell,youmaydecide toissuethestructuredandopenendedpartsseparatelybecauseofthisfactor. 3Don'tmakequestionnairestoolong!Learnersandanyoneelseinvolvedgetborediftheyhavelongquestionnairestocomplete,andthedecisionsor commentstheymakebecome'surface'ratherthanconsideredones.Althoughlearnersmaybeabletorespondtoastructuredquestionnaireofseveralpagesin relativelyfewminutes,thefactthataquestionnairelookslongcaninducesurfaceresponsebehaviour. 4Considerthevisualappearanceofyourquestionnaires.Goforavariedlayout,withplentyofwhitespace,sothatitdoesnotlooklikeasolidlistofquestions. Useamixtureofresponseformats,suchasdeletionsorselectionsfromlistsofoptions,yes/nochoices,tickboxes,graduatedscales,andsoonmakeitlook interestingtocomplete.

Page34 5Foreverypartofthequestionnaire,havedefinitepurposes,includingpositiveones.Don'taskanythingthatcouldprovetobesuperfluousorofpassing interestonly.Askaboutpositiveexperiencesaswellassearchingforweaknesses. 6Planyourevaluationreportbeforeyoudesignyourfeedbackquestionnaire.Ithelpsagreatdealifyouknowexactlyhowyouplantocollateandusethe responsesyouwillgetfromyourquestionnaires.Workingoutthethingsyouhopetoincludeinyourreportoftenalertsyoutoadditionalquestionsyoumayneedto include,and(particularly)tosuperfluousquestionsthatwouldnotactuallygenerateanyinformationofpracticalusetoyou. 7Makeeachquestionsimpleandunambiguous.Iflearners'interpretationsofthequestionsvary,theresultsofasurveyarenotvalidenoughtowarrantstatistical analysisofanysort.Inparticular,it'sworthensuringthatinstructuredquestions,learnersareonlyrequiredtomakedecisionsinvolvingasinglefactor. 8Askyourself'whatdoesthisquestionreallymean?'Sometimes,yourreplytoyourselfwillcontainwordingwhichwillworkbetterinyourquestionnairethanthe originalideayoustartedwith.Whendesigningyourquestions,asksomeofyourlearners'whatdoyouthinkthisreallymeans?' 9Avoidsafemiddlegroundinscales.Forexample,thescale'stronglyagree,agree,undecided,disagree,stronglydisagree'maygivebetterresultsifthe'undecided' optionisomitted,forcingrespondentstomakeadecisiononewayortheother(ortowrite'can'ttell'onthequestionnaire,whichthenhasthevalidityofaconscious decision). 10Beawarethatsomerespondentswillmakethechoicestheybelievetheyareexpectedtomake.Respondentsfromsomeculturessetoutto'please'the persongatheringthefeedback,perhapsthinkingofpossiblerecriminationsifcriticalcommentsaretracedbacktotheirauthors. 11Keepprioritizingquestionsshortandsimple.Forexample,iflearnersareaskedtoranksevenfactorsinorderofvalue(orimportance),itmaybeeasyenough toanalyzethebestandworstchoices,butdifficulttomakeameaningfulanalysisof'middleground'. 12Pilotyourdraftquestionnaire.Thereisnobetterwaytoimproveastructuredquestionnairethantofindoutwhatlearnersactuallydowithit!

Page35 13Feedbacktheresultstoyourrespondents.Tellthemaboutthechangesthatareproposedonthebasisoftheresultsfromthequestionnaire.Otherwisepeople arelikelytobecomedisillusionedaboutthewholeprocessofgivingfeedback. 14Rememberthatlearners'responsescanbeinfluencedbytheirmoodatthemomentofansweringthequestion.Ideally,youmaywishtobalancethis sourceofvariationoutinonewayoranotherforexample,byissuingasimilarquestionnaireatanothertime,andcomparingresponses,orbyincludingsomealternative questionsinotherpartsofyourquestionnairewhich'test'thesameagendasoyoucanbealertedtoinconsistencyinresponsesduetoswingsofmood. 15Don'tleavebigspacesforlearnerstofillintheirrepliestoopenendedquestions.Youcancompensateforthisrestrictionlaterwith'anyothercomments?' space.Iflearnersresponsesarenecessarilyshort,youaremorelikelytogeteasilyinterpretedanswerstoyourquestions,whichhelpsmakeanalysismorefruitful. 16Trytoachieveagoodresponserate.Whenquestionnairesarefilledinduringcontacttime,youaremorelikelytogeteveryone'sviews.Ifquestionnairesare takenawaybylearnerstobesentbacklater,thereisatendencytogetlowerresponserates,andthelearnerswhoactuallygotothetroubleofrespondingmaynotbe representativeofthewholegroup. 17Givelearnerssomefreerangingquestions.Forexample,it'sworthaskingthem'Whatotherquestionsshouldbeincludedinfutureeditionsofthis questionnaire?',andinvitingthemtosupplytheirownanswerstothequestionstheythinkof.Suchdataisunsuitableforanystatisticalpurposes,butisvaluablein qualitativeanalysisoffeedbackfromlearners,andcanoftentouchonaspectsthatrelatetopotentialqualityenhancementdevelopments. 18Don'taccumulatepilesofuninterpretedquestionnairedata!It'sbesttomakeadeliberateefforttoproduceasummaryreport(evenifonlyforyourown privateuse)foreachsetofdata.Apileoffeedbackresponsesquicklybecomesoutofdateasnewdevelopmentsareimplementedincourses.Also,itisworthhelping learnerstoseethatitisworththeirwhiletoprovidefeedbackdata,andshowingthemthatyoutakethedataseriouslyenoughtoanalyseitstraightaway.

Page36 Thispageintentionallyleftblank.

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Chapter3LanguageWorkintheClassroom
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Teachingvocabulary Teachingpronunciation Teachinglistening Teachingreading Teachingspeaking Teachingwriting Teachinggrammar Makinggooduseofyourcoursebook Collectingnaturallanguagedata Exploitingauthenticwrittentexts Exploitingauthenticspokentexts Usingliterature Gamesforlanguagelearning Roleplay Usingthenews

Thisisthemostsubstantialchapterofourbook,andalsothechapterthatlooksmostcloselyatspecifictechniquesforteachingvariousaspectsoflanguage.Weoffera rangeofsuggestionsonhowyoucanchoosetogoaboutteachingvocabulary,pronunciation,listening,reading,speaking,writingandgrammar.Inpractice,ofcourse, youwilloftenbedoingmanyoftheseatthesametime,soperhapsthischaptershouldbeviewedasawholeratherthanasseparateagendas. Wealsolookatvariousresourcesyoucanusetosupportyourteaching:yourcoursebook,andalsovarioussourcesnotoriginallyproducedforlanguagelearning.We endthechapterwithsomesuggestionsabouthowyoucanusegames,roleplaysandthatmostcommonlyavailableresourceinthedevelopedworld,'thenews',tohelp yourlearnerstodeveloptheircommandofEnglish,andtheirconfidenceinusingEnglish.

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13 Teachingvocabulary
Agreatdealofthemeaningoflanguageresidesinthemeaningsassociatedwithindividualwordsandphrases.Bylearningafewbasicwordsandsetphrases,a beginnercangetsomemeaningsacross.Languagelearningsyllabusesalmostalwaysspecifyvocabularyitemsorareasforlearnerstoconcentrateon.Thefollowing suggestionsshouldenableyoutohelpyourlearnerstoworkeffectivelywiththevocabularyoftheirtargetlanguage. 1Distinguishreceptiveandproductivevocabularyneeds.Somelearners,whointendtoreadextensivelyinEnglish,mayneedtorecognizealotofwordsthat theymayneverhavetousethemselves.Others,forexample,generalEnglishbeginners,areprobablyhopingthatthewordstheylearnwillbeavailableforboth recognitionanduse.Tryandtailoryourteachingtothesedifferentneeds. 2Considerteachingnewvocabularyinrelatedsets.Youcouldchoosesetsofhyponyms(eg,namesoffamilyrelations),orsetsthatarelinkedtothesamecontext (eg,subjectsstudiedatschool).Mostpeoplefinditeasiertolearnlotsofnewwordsiftheyarepresentedinarelatedset.Ifyouareteachingasetofnouns,youcan includesomeverbswhicharetypicallyusedwiththem(eg,studyEnglish/maths/geographyatschool,takeanexam). 3Varyyourexplanationtechniques.Therearemanypossibilitiesforclarifyingthemeaningofwordsthatyourlearnersdon'tknow:definitions,examples,visuals, mimestonamebutafew.Ifyouusevariedtechniques,youshowyourlearnersthattherearemanywaysofunderstandingandrememberingaword. 4Teachthegrammarofvocabularyitems.Thisideareferstotheworditself,ortothewordinaphrase.Forexample,inthecaseofaverb,doesithavean irregularpast?Inthecaseofanadjective,isitusuallyfollowedbyacertainpreposition?Someofthisinformationmaybeavailableinthetextwhereyourlearnersmeet theword,andyoucangiveextra

Page39 informationyourself.Understandinghowaword'works'isanimportantpartofknowingthatword. 5Encourageawarenessofcollocations.Evenwhenteachingbasicvocabulary,youcanshowhowwordsoftencombineincertainways.Forexample,Spanish learnersstudyingcolourswouldbeinterestedtonotethatEnglishsays'blackandwhite',whereasSpanishsays'blancoynegro'.Setphrases,suchas'hardwork',can alsobeparticularlyusefultopointout. 6Spendsometimeonconnotativemeaning.Youcanturnconnotationintoawindowonthetargetculture.Takeasimpleitemlike'train'.FormanyBritish speakers,thisitemhastheconnotationofafastandfrequent,thoughalsoexpensiveandunreliable,modeoftransport.Theitemprobablywouldnothavethese connotationsforsomeonefromacountrywithoutadevelopedrailwaysystem. 7Helplearnerstobeawareofregister.Isthetargetvocabularyitemusuallyassociatedwitheitherwrittenorspokenlanguage?Isitformal,informal,literary, technical,slang?Whatcluesdoesthecontextofthewordgiveaboutitsregister? 8Lookatwordformation.Anunderstandingofcommonprefixesandsuffixes,forexample,canopenupthemeaningofmanywords.Howmuchconsciousemphasis youplaceonthiswillprobablydependonthelearners'firstlanguage.SpeakersofLatinlanguageswillunderstandmanyEnglishmorphemesimmediatelyspeakersof languageslessclosetoEnglishwillneedtospendmoretimeontheseaspects. 9Usedirecttranslationcarefully.Learnersoftenrequesttranslations,andifyoucangivethemthisitisanefficientwayofexplainingaword.Butit'salsoworth drawingattentiontothewaysinwhichwordsarenotequivalent.Perhapsthe'translations'differintermsofconnotation,register,grammar,collocation?Youcanuse dictionarystudyactivitiestoemphasizethispoint. 10Teachconsciousvocabularylearningstrategies.Thisisoneoftheareasofstudywhereitisparticularlybeneficialforlearnerstoapplytheirown'techniques' torememberitemsorworkoutthemeaningofnewones.It'sespeciallyusefulforyoutoshowthemstrategiesthattheycanuseoutsideclass.Forexample,theymight: keepavocabularynotebookclassifynewwordstheyhaveseenrevisenewvocabularyatintervals.Yourrolecanbetoexplorevarioustechniqueswiththeclass,and helpeachlearnertofindoutwhichonessuitthembest.

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14 Teachingpronunciation
Pronunciationisanareaoflanguageusewhereitisparticularlydifficulttoexertconsciouscontrol.Andyet,it'simportant.Forbeginners,orforthosewhohavelearnt mainlyfromwrittentexts,poorpronunciationcanbeaobstacletobeingunderstood.Formoreadvancedlearners,pronunciationcanstillbeanissueinappropriate intonationmaymeanthatthey'givethewrongmessage'whentheyspeak.Theimportanceofpronunciationworkisbeingincreasinglyrecognizedincoursebooks,and youmaywellfindyourselfusingabookthatcontainsspecificpronunciationactivities.Thefollowingsuggestions,then,shouldhelpyoutomakethemostofexplicit pronunciationworkwithyourlearners. 1Learnhowtodescribepronunciation.FamiliarizeyourselfwiththephonemicsymbolsforEnglish,andwithasystemfordescribingsomebasicintonationpatterns. Thesearechallengingtasks,buttheycanbringrichdividends.Theknowledgewillhelpyoutounderstandmoreclearlywhatyourlearnersareaimingforintermsof pronunciation,andwhattheirproblemsare. 2Recordyourlearners'speech.Itisbesttochoosemomentswhereonelearneratatimeisspeaking.Listentotherecordingsandseewheretheirmaindifficulties lieespeciallyifyouhaveamonolingualclass,theywillprobablyhavedifficultiesincommon.Youcanthenthinkaboutwhichoftheirdifficultiesaremostsignificant: whicharelikelytoformabarriertoeffectivecommunication? 3Beawareofyourownpronunciation.WhetherornotyouareanativespeakerofEnglish,youraccentisprobablydifferentfromtheReceivedPronunciationwhich yourlearnersmayregardas'correct'.Learnerscanhavestrongviewsaboutsomeaccentsbeingsuperiortoothers!Talktothemaboutdifferentaccents,emphasizing thatthereismorethanoneacceptablemodel.

Page41 4Teachpronunciationalittleatatime.Pronunciationwillimprovenaturallyifyouensurethatyourlearnersdolotsoflisteningandspeaking.Intensive pronunciationworkcanhelp,butshort,fairlyfrequentsessionsarethemostuseful. 5Teachsomephonemicsymbols.Thiscanbedonegradually,soasnottooverloadlearners.Oncetheyknowthesymbols,youhaveaveryusefulmetalanguage availablefortalkingaboutpronunciation. 6Workonlearners'perceptionoftargetsounds.Awarenessofasoundisthefirststeptobeingabletoproduceit.Butifasounddoesnotexistinyourlearners' firstlanguage,orisnotsignificantformeaning,thentheymayfinditverydifficulttoheartheessentialcharacteristicsoftheEnglishsound.'Minimalpair'exercisescanbe usefulhere. 7Telllearnershowtargetsoundsarephysicallyarticulated.Especiallyiflearnersarehavingtroublewithasound,anexplicitdescriptionofthevoice,placeand mannerofarticulationcanbeuseful.Youcanuseadiagramofthemouth,suchasappearsinmanypronunciationbooks,tohelpyouhere. 8Workonlearners'perceptionofintonation.Englishintonationis,ofcourse,verysignificantformeaning.Itespeciallyhastodowiththe'sharedknowledge'of speakersinvolvedinaconversation:whetherspeakersperceivewhattheyaresayingasnewinformation,orasalreadyunderstood.Todemonstratethisidea,youwill probablyneedtouserecordingsinvolvingseveralturnsofdialogue,wherethereisacontexttohelplearnerstoseehow'sharedknowledge'isbuiltupandassumed. 9Getlearnerstoproducewholeutterances,andcombinationsofutterances,duringpronunciationpractice.Thatwaytheyworkintandemonintonationand onthecorrectpronunciationofindividualsoundsincontext.Thesoundswhichmakeupwordscanchangeand,insomecases,evendisappear,accordingtothe contextofpronunciation,andthesechangesareintimatelylinkedtotherhythmoftheutterance. 10Letlearnerslistentorecordingsofthemselves.Thiscanbeavaluableawarenessraisingstrategytheymaywellhearfeaturesoftheirpronunciationthatthey simplydonothavetimetonoticewhenactuallyspeaking.Asaresult,theymaybeabletoworkonweakareasconsciously.

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15 Teachinglistening
Processinglanguageinrealtimebringsspecialdemandsforlanguagelearners.Unabletolookatthelanguageagain,ortouseaidssuchasdictionaries,theycan becomecompletelylostinatextthattheywouldprobablyfollowifitwaspresentedinwrittenform.Listeningworkintheclassroomisintendedtogivelearners practiceatunderstandingspokenlanguage,andalsotohelptodevelopstrategiestomakeupforwhattheydonotmanagetounderstand.Thefollowingsuggestions shouldhelpyoutomakethemostoflisteningactivities. 1Giveasmuchexposureasyoucan.Particularlyexposuretospontaneousspokenspeech,becausethisiswhatyourlearnerswillhearmostofinanEnglish speakingenvironment.Youcanprovidealotofthisexposureyourselfbythewayyoutalkinclass.Findamomenttotellastoryorananecdote,ortodescribe somethingwithoutchoosingyourwordstoocarefully.Thisslightlymore'social'talk,perhapsoutsidethemainstructureofthelesson,canapproximatemorecloselyto thenonclassroomspeechlearnersareaimingtounderstand. 2DoyourclassroommanagementinEnglish.Thisprovidesanotheropportunityforyourlearnerstohearsemiplannedorsometimesspontaneousspeech.They willbewellmotivatedtolistentowhatyousay,andthecontextoftheclassroomwillmakeunderstandingeasier.Learnersoftengetalotofsatisfactionfromtheidea thattheclassconductsitsbusinessinEnglish,andthattheycanunderstandandparticipateinthis. 3Useaudioandvideorecordings.Thesebringessentialvarietytotheclass,andconsiderablyenrichtheexposurethatispossible.Giveyourlearnerspracticeat gettingthebasicmeaningofatextwithjustonehearingthis,afterall,isthesituationtheywillfaceoutside.Hearingarecordingthroughalsogivesthemachanceto listenwithoutdoinganythingelse,whichcanmakeapleasantchange.

Page43 4Provideacontextforanyrecordingyouuse.Acontextmakeslisteningandunderstandingmucheasierlearnerswillknowwhatsortofthingtoexpect.Italso approximatesbettertolisteningoutsideineverydaylife,werarelylistentoanything'cold',withoutanyideaofwhatitwillbeabout. 5Givelearnersareasonforlistening.Beforeyouplaytherecordingyoucangivelearnersataskbasedonwhattheywillhear,orevensomequestionstoanswer. Thiscanhelplearnerstofocusonkeyinformationandfilterout'noise'.Especiallyforlowerlevellearnerswhofindunderstandingspeechdifficult,itisverymotivatingto successfullycompleteataskfromspokeninput. 6Uselisteningforpleasure,too.Youcanalsouseradiostories,films,etc,wherethemotivationforlisteningliesintheinterestofthetextitself.Thisissomethingthat learnerscandooutsideclass,tooandtheyaremorelikelytodosoiftheybuildupconfidencebydoingitinclassfirst. 7Showlearnerstheydon'thavetounderstandeveryword.Activitieslikelisteningforgist,listeningforspecificinformationorlisteningtoconfirmpredictionscan weanlearnersawayfromtryingtofolloweveryword.Thistypeofactivityiseasiestwithtextsthatarenottoodense,andwhichincludefeatureslikehesitation, repetitionandredundancy,whichweassociatewithrealtimecommunicationintheworldoutsidetheclassroom. 8Letlearnersexperienceavarietyofaccentsanddialects.Youwillprobablywanttodomostofyourlisteningworkwiththeaccent(s)yourlearnersaremost likelytoexperience.Butitishelpfultosensitizethemtotheexistenceofawiderrangeofaccents,andtothefactthatanunfamiliaraccentismoredifficultto understand. 9Findoutwhatyourlearnersneedtolistento.Iftheyareaimingtolistentorelativelyformalizedspeecheventssuchaslecturesorsalespresentationsthenyou couldshowthemsomeofthetypicalcharacteristicsoftheirtargetgenre.Forexample,doesitusuallyfollowacertainorder?Canyouisolatekeylanguagethatthe speakermightusetoshowtheyaremovingfromonephasetothenext? 10Teachlearnersthestrategiesneededtocontroltheinputtheyget.Inafacetofacesituation,the'listener'isveryactive,indicatinghowwelltheyare followingthespeaker.Perhapsusingsometranscriptsofspontaneousspeech,showyourlearnershowtheycanindicatethattheyareunderstanding,orhowtheycan askforrepetitionorclarification.Having

Page44 suchstrategiesattheirdisposalcangivelearnersconfidencetointeractwithmorecompetentspeakersoutsidetheclassroom.Bydoingthis,theygetthemselvesmore exposureandsohavemorelearningandpracticeopportunities. 11Considersettinglisteningtasksforhomework.Ifyouareworkinginawellresourcedcontext,whereyourinstitutionhasplentyoftapestolendandyour learnershavetapeplayersathome,youcansetthemlisteningtaskstodooutsidetheclass.Thisgivesthemexposuretofarmorespokeninputthantheycouldgetifall yourlisteningtaskswereconfinedtotheclassroom.

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16 Teachingreading
Readingisbothamatterofqualityandofquantity.Studentsneedtolearntheskillsoftargetlanguagereading,andtheyalsoneedexposuretoarichvarietyofwritten texts.Suchexposurewillcontributetogenerallanguageimprovementaswellasfosteringreadingcompetenceitself.Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyouto effectivelyselectandexploittexts,andencouragegoodreadinghabitsinyourlearners. 1Supplementthereadingsinyourtextbook.Extrareadingsareusuallyeasytogetholdof,andareanopportunityforyoutobothrespondtoyourlearners' particularinterestsandtobringnewideasintotheclass.Youcanalsoasklearnerstobringintextsforuseinclass.Intheseways,youcangiveyourlearnersexposure toawidervarietyoftextsthantheymightotherwiseget. 2Useagoodproportionof'authentic'texts.Successfulreadingoftextsfromtheworldoutsidetheclassroomisverymotivating,andexposuretosuchsourcescan providelanguagedevelopmentopportunitiesonconsciousandunconsciouslevels.Adjustthetaskassociatedwiththereadingtomakethetextaccessible.See22, Exploitingauthenticwrittentexts. 3Buildupacontext.Youmayworkwithtextswhereunderstandingisparticularlydependentonaknowledgeofthecontextinandforwhichtheywereproduced. (Newspaperarticlesareanobviousexample.)Helplearnerstoaccessthebackgroundthatthetextdoesnotsupply.Ifyouchoosetoworkwithshortextractsoftexts, youwillalsoneedtogiveyourlearnersthebackgroundinformationthatthe'full'textsupplies. 4Givelearnersareasonforreading.Ataskappropriatetothetextcanencouragesuitablereadingstrategiesandmaygivepracticeinsomelongertermreading goals.TaskswhichlearnersrecognizeasrelevanttotheirreasonsforstudyingEnglishare,ofcourse,particularlymotivating.

Page46 5Usequestionscarefully.Thetechniqueofhavinglearnersansweraseriesofcomprehensionquestionsonareadingiswellknown.Ifyouuseit,trytogobeyond surfacecomprehensiontoinvolvelearnersintheideasbehindthetext:forexample,youcouldaskabouttheauthor'smainmessage,positionorattitude. 6Usereadingasaninputtoothertasks.Readingasameanstospecificendsisverycommonintheworldoutsidetheclassroom,andmanylearnersmayneedto exploitEnglishlanguagetextsinthisway.Forexample,thetaskofwritingasummaryoftwoorthreetextbookpassageswouldmirroroneofthewaysthatEAP learnersneedtoread. 7Talkaboutgoodreadinghabits.Especiallyintheearlierstages,youwillneedtodesignactivitiesthatexplicitlytargetusefulreadingbehaviourlikeusingtitlesand illustrations,skimmingoverunknownwordsorworkingoutmeaningfromcontext.YoucanalsogetlearnerstothinkaboutwaysinwhichtheyreadeffectivelyinL1. Bytalkingaboutgoodreadingstrategies,yougivelearnerstheoptionofattemptingtousethemconsciously. 8Talkabouttextstructure.Ifyouareworkingwithmanyexamplesofaparticulartypeoftext,youmayfindthattheirorganizationhasthingsincommon.For example,isthesamesectionofthetexttheonewhichcarriesthemostimportantinformation?Dothetextsopenandcloseinroutineways?(Forexample,letters.) Insightsintotextstructurecanmakereadingmucheasier. 9Teachdictionaryskills.Thismeansnotonlywhentouseadictionary,buthow:practiceinlookingupwords,andinunderstandingtheinformationandexamples, willgivelearnersconfidencetoreadoutsideclass.Manylearnersstartoffbyusingabilingualdictionarythiscanindeedbeuseful,butagoodmonolingualoneiseven moreso.Bystudyingitsexplanationsandexamples,learnerscangainaricherpictureofthemeaningsofwordstheydonotknow. 10Encouragereadingforpleasure.Includethisasaclassactivityoccasionally,withshorttexts.Thenhelplearnerstochoosesuitablebooks,magazines,etc,from theschoollibraryorselfaccesscentreandaskthemsometimesabouttheirreading.Findoutwhattheyliketoreadintheirfirstlanguage,andseeifyoucanguidethem toaccessibleL2equivalents.

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17 Teachingspeaking
Inmanywaysyoucan'tteachspeaking.Inrealtime,spontaneousoralproduction,thereislittlechanceforconsciousreflectionlearnersmustrelyonwhathasalready becomeautomaticforthem.Inclass,yourmostimportantroleistoprovidepracticeopportunitiesforspeaking.Thefollowingtipsshouldhelpyoutoseehow. 1RuntheclassinEnglish.ThemoreEnglishyourlearnerscanuseinclass,thebetter.IfEnglishisthelanguageofclassroommanagement,theywillneedtospeakit togetthingsdone.Thatsaid,amonolingualgroupwillinevitablyprefertouseL1attimesandyouneedtobesensitiveaboutthis.L1usecanalsohaveanimportant socialfunctionforyourgroup:togainaninsightintothis,trytonoticethecircumstancesinwhichtheytendtouseit. 2Useplentyofgroupandpairwork.Forobviousreasons,thismaximizestheclasstimeavailableforlearnerstospeak.Eachformathasitsownadvantages:apair putspressureonbothpartiestocontribute,whereasagroupgivespracticeinnegotiatingmorecomplexinteractionpatterns.See7,Usingpairandgroupwork. 3Makeactivitiesasspontaneousaspossible.Mosttalkintheworldoutsidetheclassroomisunplanned,andlearnersneedtopractisethiskindofspeaking.Be acceptingoftheideathattheirtalkinsuchsituationswillinevitablybelessaccuratethaninamorestructuredtask. 4Useguidedactivitieswherenecessary.Thatsoundslikeacontradictionwithtip3,butreallyit'saquestionofsensitivitytostartingpoints.Learnerswithlittle experienceoforalworkmayclamupcompletelyifgivenataskinvolvingspontaneousspeech.Forsuchlearners,thescaffoldingofalearntorheavilyguideddialogue cangivemuchneededconfidence.

Page48 5Considerroleplays.Theyhavebeencriticizedonthegroundsthattheyasklearnerstomakebelievebuttheyalsoprovideanopportunityforlearnerstoimagine awidevarietyofsituations,relationshipsandattitudesandattempttoconveytheseinlanguage.Ifyouuseroleplaysregularly,learnerscan'catchon'andwillingly suspendtheirdisbelief.Formoreideasonroleplays,see26. 6Usetaskbasedactivities.Agoodwaytogeneratelanguagewithoutputtinglearnersintorolesistoaskthemtocollaboratetowardsanobjective,forexample,to listthequalitiesofagoodteacher.Languageisthenameanstoanendaswellasasubjectofpractice.Taskslikethiscanfeelveryrealistictolearners. 7Tryoutnewtaskswithfriendsorcolleagues.Sometimesit'shardtotellwhatkindoflanguageaparticularspeakingtaskislikelytogenerate.Ifyoudothetask yourself,orasksomeothercompetentspeakerstodoit,youwillgetabetterideaofitslinguisticdemands. 8Makelearnersawareofvariedspeakingneeds.Manylearnersassociatespeakingwithfreediscussion,wherefluencyismoreimportantthanaccuracythey maynotexpectotherkindsofspeakingactivity.Intheworldoutside,though,theymayneedtouseplanned,orsemiplanned,aswellasspontaneousspeech. 9Givesomepracticeatlongturns.Theskilloftellingastory,orgivingashortpresentation,isverydifferentfromtheskillofparticipatinginaconversationororal transaction.Practisethis,especiallyifyouknowyourlearnersneedtoperformaparticulartypeoflongturn.It'softenusefultopayspecialattentiontolinkingwords andphrases,whichcanmakealongturnsoundsmooth. 10Linkspeakingtoothertasks.Inthiswaydifferentkindsofspeechcanbepractised.Forexample,ifgroupsoflearnersarepreparingaguidetotheirtown,they willneedtospeaktobrainstormideas,tomanagetheproductionofthewrittenversionandtoassessitsacceptability:threeverydifferenttypesofspeech. 11Correctspokenlanguageselectively.Thepointofspeakingactivitiesisforlearnerstoproducelanguageinrealtimedonotinhibitthembypickinguponevery mistake.Onetechniqueistogoaroundlisteningtogroups,andkeepsometimeinthelessontodiscuss'common'mistakes.Notalllearners'languageusewillchangeas aresult,butsomemaybereadytomakethechangeyouareaskingfor.

Page49 12Createanatmosphereofacceptance.Manylearnersfinditratherthreateningtospeakinthetargetlanguage.Youcanhelpthemgetovertheirfearbyalways respondingwithrespecttowhattheysay,andencouragingotherclassmemberstodothesame.Respondtothecontentofwhattheysay,beforedecidingwhetherto correctanyinaccuracies.

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18 Teachingwriting.
Extendedwritingisaskillinitself,onewhichmanylearnerswillneedintargetsituations.Italsoprovidesopportunitiesforcreativityandselfexpression,whichmany learnersappreciate.Anditis,ofcourse,animportantpartofoveralllanguagelearningitprovidesopportunitiesforconsciousreflectionthatcanplayanimportantrole inconsolidatingrecentlearning. 1Asklearnerstoproduceavarietyoftexttypes.Basicstylesofwritingsuchasnarrative,staticdescription,processdescription,argument,etc,demanddifferent languageskills:thestylesarebroughttolifeindifferenttasksandtexttypes.Involvelearnersinasmanyoftheseasareappropriatetotheirlevelandreasonsfor learning. 2Analyseparticularlyimportanttexttypesyourself.Ifyouknowthatyourlearnersneedtoproduce,forexample,reportsoflaboratoryexperiments,thenget holdofsomeexamplesofsuchreportsandseeifyoucandiscoveranytypicalpatternsoflanguageuseandstructure.Sharetheseinsightswithyourlearners. 3Combinewritingwithothertasks.Askinglearnerstorespondinwritingtosomethingtheyhavereadorheardgivesareasonforwritingandclearlyspecifiesan audience.Thesearetwoimportantcharacteristicsofwritingintheworldoutsidetheclassroom. 4Don'talwaysleavewritingforhomework.Writingingroups,orcheckingandeditingeachother'sdrafts,arevaluablelearningactivitiesandagooduseofclass time.Thistypeofactivitymayalsobeanopportunityforlearnerstowritetoarealaudience:topeers,toschoolauthorities,toalocalnewspaper,etc. 5Encouragemultipledraftsandrevisions.It'ssimplynotrealistictoasklearnerstogofromablankpagetoafinalproductinonego!Draftsareanopportunityto writewithoutinhibitions,andlearnersthemselves,theirpeersandteachers,allhaveapotentialroleinprovidingfeedbacktobeincorporatedintorevisions.

Page51 6Giveexamplesofmultipledrafts.Learnerscansometimesthinkthatrewritingisjustamatterofincorporatingcorrectionsandproducingacleancopy.Helpthem toseethatdraftsareausefulwayofdevelopingcontent,too. 7Acceptthattherewillbemanymistakesinearlydrafts.Thisisparticularlythecaseforlessproficientlearners,ofcourse.Helplearnerstoseetextswithlotsof mistakesasanaturalstage.Trytobuildupanatmospherewherepeeraswellasteacherfeedbackisseenasusefulonthewaytoafinalproduct. 8Emphasizequalityinthefinalproduct.Intheworldoutsidetheclassroom,demandsonwrittenproductsarehigh:weexpectanappropriaterangeofvocabulary andsentencepatterns,aswellasaccuracy.Learnersneedexperienceofgettingtothisfinal,polishedstagewhereworkisconsideredreadyforformalpublicscrutiny. 9Givefeedbackoncontentaswellasonform.Whenlearnersengagewithatask,theirmainmotivationforwritingistoconveyamessagetheymayhaveputa lotofthoughtintothecontentoftheirwriting.Respondtotheirwritingascommunicationfirst,andlanguagepracticesecond. 10Beselectivewhencorrectingmistakes.Learnersliketobecorrected,butwillbedemotivatedbyseeingapageoftheirworkcoveredinred.Neitherwillthey beabletolearnfromsuchextensivefeedback.Concentrateonthemostbasicerrors,thosethatimpedecommunicationandthosethatyouthinklearnersaremost readytolearnabout. 11Agreeakeyforcorrection.Especiallywithmoreadvancedlearners,youcanusecodesliket(tense),w.o.(wordorder),orv(vocabulary)toindicatetheplace andnatureofanerror,whilestillgivinglearnersthechancetocorrectthewordthemselves.Whenlearnersgettheworkbacktheycanattempttomaketheirown corrections.Sometimestheywilldothiseasily,atothertimestheymayneedtoaskyouand/oraclassmatewhattheproblemactuallyis.Ineithercase,theprocessof selfcorrectiondrawsattentiontotheerrorandhelpstomakethecorrectionmemorable.Allofthishelpslearning. 12Lookbackduringthecourse.Atappropriatemoments,encouragelearnerstolookcriticallyatearlierwritingtasks,andperhapsworkonsomethingsimilaragain. Theywillbemotivatedbyseeinghowmuchtheyhaveimproved,andmayberemindedofimportantbitsoflearning.

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19 Teachinggrammar
Therehasbeenmuchdebateaboutexplicitgrammarteachingargumentsaboutwhetheritdoesanygood,oraboutwhatapproachmightbemosteffective.Yetit remainsavaluablemainstayofmanylanguagecourses,andinstitutionalcontextisamajorinfluenceonthepoliciesadoptedbyindividualteachers.Learnersalsousually expecttoconcentrateongrammaratsomepointduringacourse.Thefollowingtipsareoptionsforyoutoconsiderandadaptwherenecessary. 1Expectgrammaticalerrors.Theyareanormalpartoflanguagedevelopmentandyoucan'tgetridofthembypointingthemout.Learnersmightproduceanew formcorrectlyinacontrolledpracticeactivity,butgetitwrongagainthenextdaythisisnormal,too.Withlotsofopportunitiestouselanguageformeaning,andfocus onaccuracyatappropriatepoints,theywillimproveovertime. 2Providelearnerswithopportunitiestousetheirfullgrammaticalrange.Thismeansprovidingmeaningfocusedproductionactivities,wherelearnerscan choosewhatlanguagetheyproducewithintheroleplay,task,etc.Youmaychooseanactivitywhichcreatesanopportunitytouserecentlystudiedgrammaticalforms, forthebenefitoflearnerswhoarereadytoconsolidateinthisway. 3Considerexplicitpracticeactivities.Theseareactivitieswherelanguageismorecontrolledtheprimepurposeoftheactivityistopractisearecentlystudied form.Suchactivitiesusuallyhaveameaningfocuseddimension,butlearnersaretoldwhatlanguagetheyshouldusetoexpressthemeaning.Forexample,learners mightbeinvitedtodiscussweekendplansusingthe'goingto'future.Thesekindsofactivitiescanbeespeciallybeneficialforlessconfidentlearners,andforthose whosepreviouslearninghasbeenhighlyformfocused.

Page53 4Correcterrorscarefully.Inbothmeaningfocusedandformfocusedactivities,errorswillpersist.Asalways,yourattitudetocorrectionandfeedbackshould dependonthepurposeoftheactivityandonwhatyouthinkyourlearnersarereadytolearn. 5Makegrammarpresentationsmeaningful.Youmaychoosetopresentexplicitlyanewgrammaticalformcertainly,thisisawidelyusedtechnique.Ifyoudo, makesureyourpresentationhighlightsthemeaningdimensionelementsofthesemanticsignificanceofthetargetform.Youcancheckwhetherlearnershave understoodthisbyusing'concept'questions,whichhighlightanaspectofthesituationwhichmakesthemeaningofthetargetformclear. 6Usediscoverytechniques.Analternativetogrammaticalpresentationistoshowlearnersexamplesofagrammaticalforminvariouscontextsandtoencourage themtoworkoutitssignificance.Thecontextscanbedrawnfromboth'authentic'and'nonauthentic'sources.Manymoderntextbooksuseacombinationofdiscovery andpresentationtechniquesexperiencewillhelpyoufindtherightbalanceforyourlearners. 7Giveclearandsimpleexplanations.Attimesyouwillbecalledupontosummarizethecorrectuseofagrammaticalform.Researchyourexplanation,ideallyin morethanonegrammarbookandthengiveanexplanationthatyoufeelbestmeetsthecurrentstageofyourlearners'languageawareness.Showthemthat explanationsarereallyjustworkablesimplificationsexceptionsto'rules'willinevitablybefound.Theyareanopportunitytorefineone'sunderstandingoftherulein question. 8Capitalizeonlearners'existingknowledge.Especiallyiftheyhavepreviouslylearntinaformalway,yourlearnerswillnodoubtpossessagrammatical metalanguagewhichyoucantapinto.Findouthowtheyexpressthe'rules'thattheyalreadyknow,andworkfromthere.Eveniftherulestheyknowareincomplete, theyareprobablystillusefulforthelearnerssoifyoufindyouneedtocontradictthem,dososensitively. 9Balancetheconditionsforgrammarimprovement.Meaningfocusedwork,restrictedpractice,explanationandanalysisallhaveaparttoplayinbuildingupthe grammaticalknowledgethatlearnershavespontaneouslyavailable.Differentconditionswillhelpdifferentlearnersatdifferenttimes.Sotheimportantthingistoensure thatlessonsorseriesoflessonscontainagoodbalance.

Page54 10Keeponprovidingrichexposure.Eveninagrammaticallyfocusedcourseit'simportantforlearnerstoreadandlistentotextswherecomplexitygoesbeyondthe structurestheyhavelearntabout.Modifytaskstomaketextslikethisaccessible.Subconsciouslylearnerswillstarttogetusedtotheunfamiliarstructures,andwillbe morereceptiveifthestructuresarefocusedonagainatalaterpoint.

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20 Makinggooduseofyourcoursebook
VerymanyoftheEnglishlanguagecoursesbeingtaughtaroundtheworldarebasedoncoursebooks.Thecoursebookmayhavebeenchosenbytheteacher(s),or imposedfromabovehoweveritwaschosen,itoftenbecomesthelinchpinofthecourse.Thesuggestionsthatfollowshouldhelpyoutouseyourcoursebook creatively:tomakethemostofwhatitoffers,withoutallowingittorestrictyouandyourlearners. 1Usethecoursebookasamanagementaid.Thepredictableshapeofitsunitsoffersastructureforyourlessonsandreassureslearners,especiallyintheearly stagesofthecourse.Oncethestructureisestablished,itcanbecomeaplatformforexperimentation.Innovationiseasierwheneveryoneisstartingfromthesame place. 2Beselective.Nomatterhowappropriateacoursebookforyourprogramme,itisunlikelythatalltheactivities,inthepreciseorderpresented,willberightforyour learners.Withinthebroadstructureofthebook,decidewhattouseandwhattoleaveout,replace,orcomebacktoanothertime. 3Usecoursebooksasresourcebooks.Manymoderncoursebooksincludefreestandingactivities,orcoherentseriesofactivitiessuchasastoryinepisodes.Often theyalsoincludeagrammarsection,verbtablesandachartofphonemicsymbols.Ifyouneedsupplementarymaterialforyourmaincoursebook,thenanother coursebookcouldbeaverygoodplacetolook! 4Adaptactivities,whereappropriate.Youmightseeanactivityasbeingbroadlybeneficial,andyetunsuitablefromaparticularperspective:perhapsthecultural contentisinappropriate,ortheskillsemphasisnot

Page56 whatyouwantatthatmoment.Byadaptingtheactivitytoyourparticularlearners,youofferthemmoreopportunitiestoengagewithitandgainbenefitfromit. 5Buildinlearners'realexperiencewheneveryoucan.Usetheactivitiesinthecoursebookasanopportunityforlearnerstotalkabouttheirownlives, experiencesandopinions.Themorechancestheyhaveinclasstosaywhattheywanttointhewaytheywanttosayit,themorelikelyitisthattheywillbeabletouse theirclassroomlearningintheworldoutside. 6Helplearnerstounderstandtherationaleofthecoursebook.Ifyoutalktoyourlearnersaboutthereasoningbehindtheactivitiestheyaredoingandtheway thecoursebookisstructured,youofferthemmoreresourcesforlearning.Theycanusetheirawarenessofcoursebook'sintentionstodevelopmoreconscious strategiesforlearning,bothinclassandoutside.Theycanalsotalktoyouabouttheirownpreferredwaysoflearning. 7Showlearnerssomedifferencesbetweencoursebooklanguageandthelanguageoftheoutsideworld.Spokenlanguageincoursebooksisrarely'authentic', andtherecanbegoodreasonsforthis.Butmoreadvancedlearnersespeciallymaybenefitfromlookinganalyticallyatthedifferencebetweenamadeuporedited dialogueinacoursebookandanunscripteddialogueproducedbynativespeakers.Ifyoucan,recordsomeunscriptedspokenlanguageasanoccasionalsupplement toyourcoursebook.See21,Collectingnaturallanguagedata. 8Useproblemareasasaspringboardfordiscussion.Theremaybeelementsofyourcoursebookthatyouareunhappywith.Thesemayberatherinsidious:for example,doesthecoursebookseemtoimplyanegativeattitudetoparticularsocialgroups?Ifyoufinddifficultieslikethis,thenyoucandiscussthemwithyour learners.Oncenegativestereotypesorotherinappropriateattitudesareoutintheopen,theirpowerisconsiderablydiminished. 9Usethecoursebookasabasisfornegotiationwithlearners.Asignificantadvantageofacoursebookisthatitallowslearners,aswellastheteacher,tosee whatisplannedforthecourse.Aslearnersbecomemoreawareofthepurposeofvariouselementsofthebook,andofhowtheythemselvesprefertolearn,thenthey maybepreparedtosharewithyousomeoftheresponsibilityfordecidingwhathappensinlessons.Inthiscase,groupsoflearnersorindividualscanselectfromthe bookthoseactivitiesthattheyfeelaremostappropriatetothem.

Page57 10Usethecoursebookforyourowndevelopment.AgoodcoursebookwillnotonlyenhanceyourknowledgeofhowEnglishworks,itwillalsoofferyouspacein whichtogrowasateacher.Asyouusethebook,youcanreflectconsciouslyonhowwellitsdifferentaspectsareworkingforyou,andwhy.Youcanaskother teachershowtheyhandlethebook,andmaybeobservethem.Youcanaskacolleaguetoobserveyou,andthentalktogetheraboutwhathappens.Themost importantthingisattitude:seethebookasalearningopportunity.

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21 Collectingnaturallanguagedata
Coursebooksandotherteachingresourcesgiveteachersplentyoflanguagedatatoworkwith,butattimesyoumayprefertoworkwithwrittenorspokentextsyou havecollectedyourself.Ifyouhaveaspecificpurposesclass,youmightwanttocollectdatathatisdirectlyrelevanttotheirlanguageneeds.Ifyouhaveamoregeneral class,youmightwanttovarytheirlanguageexposure.Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyoutocollectusablenaturallanguagedata.Mostofthemconcentrateon spokendata,sincethatisthemostdifficulttocollect! 1Obtainpermission.Ifyouarerecordingpeople'sspeech,ortakingdocumentsrelatingtoanorganization,youneedtoaskforpermission.Evenforpublishedor broadcastmaterial,whichisinthepublicdomain,youshouldmakesureyouarenotbreakingcopyrightbyusingitforteaching. 2Berealisticaboutwhatyoucanrecord.Unlessyouhaveexcellentequipmentandmuchskill,itwillbedifficulttoobtainacoherentrecordingofmorethantwoor threespeakersatonce.Backgroundnoisemayalsobeaproblem,dependingonwhereyouarerecording.Sodon'tbetooambitious,andplanforplentyoftrialruns. 3Choosethebestmediumforrecording.Adecisionwhethertouseaudioorvideomaybedictatedentirelybypracticalconsiderations.Ifyouhaveaccesstoboth, thinkabouttheirrespectiveadvantagesanddisadvantages.Videocapturesparalinguisticfeaturessuchasgestures,butitismoreobtrusiveandthesoundqualitymay notbeasgoodasthatofanaudiorecording.Unlessyouareparticularlyexperienced,itisalsofarmorecomplicatedanddifficulttosetupandactuallyuse.

Page59 4Choosethesituationscarefully.Ifyouhaveaspecificpurposesclass,canyougetdirectaccesstoanyofyourlearners'targetsituations?Orcanyouinterview specialistsintheareastheyareinterestedin?Forageneralclass,aretheresituationsyouwouldliketocoverbutwhichareabsentfromyourlearners'usualmaterials? 5Recordshorttextswherepossible.Twominutesofspeechwillgiveyouabout400wordsoftext,andcontainplentyofinterestingfeaturesyoucanlookatwith yourlearners.Itisofteneasierforlearnerstodealwithnaturallanguagedatainrelativelyshortchunks.Forexample,youcanrecordinterviewsintwoorthreeparts,or recordasituationandthenanobserver'ssummaryofit. 6Observethesituationyourecordandmakenotesaboutitassoonasyoucan.Manyimportantaspectsofasituationarelostinarecording.Evenifyour learnerswillworkfromtherecordingalone,youstillneednotestomaximizeyourownunderstandingofwhatwenton.Yourobservationnotescanalsobethebasisfor awrittenintroductiontothespokentextyourlearnersaretoworkwith. 7Observeothersimilarsituations.Thiscangiveyouanideaofthetypicalityofyourdataandalsohelpyoutounderstanditbetter.Forexample,ifyourecorda tutorialinaparticularinstitution,observingothertutorialswillgiveyouamoreinformedperspectiveonthelanguageyouhaverecorded. 8Talktoinsidersaboutyourdata.Thistipparticularlyappliesifyouareworkingwithlanguagewithwhichyouyourselfareunfamiliar:forexample,aspecialized technicalpresentationorwrittenreport.Subjectspecialistscanhelpyoutounderstandthecommunicativepurposeswhichunderliethelanguage,andperhapssuggest otherrelatedsituationsthatyoucouldrecord. 9Considersettingupasituation.Ifyouwantmoregeneralexamplesofspontaneousspokeninteraction,youcanobtainthesebyputtingspeakerstogetherand askingthemtocarryoutataskforexample,askabouteachother'sfamilies,rememberandthenreportback.Somewellknownmoderncoursebooksuseexactlythis technique.It'sagoodwayofgettingspontaneousdataunderfairlycontrolledconditions.Youcouldalsoaskspeakerstocarryoutsomeofthetasksinyourlearners' coursebooklearnersmaybeveryinterestedtocomparetheirperformancewiththatofthespeakersyourecord.

Page60 10Considerusingbroadcastsources.Therearesomesituationsthatyouwillneverbeabletorecord,forreasonsofpracticalityandconfidentiality:doctorpatient interviewsforexample.TVorfilmdramatizationsoftheseeventsdohaveatleastsomelanguagefeaturesincommonwiththe'realthing',andcouldbeexploitedin teaching.Youwill,ofcourse,needtocheckcopyrightregulationsbeforeusingbroadcastmaterialinteaching. 11Transcribeyourrecording.Youwillprobablyfindthisquitedifficultthefirsttimeyoudoit,andyouwillneedtolistentotherecordingseveraltimes.Butit'san essentialstepifyouaregoingtoexploitthedatayouhavecollected.Tryandgetdownallthewordsofeachspeaker,includinghesitations,falsestarts,umsandahs, etc.

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22 Exploitingauthenticwrittentexts
Theterm'authentic'can,ofcourse,becontroversial.Hereweuseitinitssimplestsense,torefertotextsoriginallyproducedforapurposeotherthanlanguagelearning. Manyteacherschoosetoworkwithsuchtextstheycanhelptogivelearnersageneralwideexposure,ortheymaybeneededasaresponsetospecificallyidentified languageneeds.Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyoutogainmaximumpedagogicbenefitfromtheauthenticwrittentextsyouuse. 1Workwithmeaningfirst.Beforelookingatthelanguageofatextindetail,it'sbesttoasklearnerstoworkwithitasapieceofcommunication.Thereareawide varietyoftasksyoucanusetocreateanenjoyablelearningactivityand/orasimulationoflikelytexttouseoutsidetheclassroom.Youcangoontolookatdetailed languageinthesamelesson,andyoucanalsosaveuptextslearnershaveworkedwithforlaterlanguagestudy. 2Gradethetasktosuityourlearners'level.Themostaccessibletasksarethosethatrelymoreonexistingknowledgeandexpectationsthanonthespecificsof thetext.Tasksthatdemandquitecomplexlanguageprocessinginlimitedtimearemorechallenging,andsoparticularlysuitableforadvancedlearners. 3Usethetexttoimprovereadingstrategies.Authentictextsarelikelytobeparticularlydemandingintermsofunfamiliarwordsandpatterns.Sotheyprovidea goodopportunityforyoutoteachcopingstrategies,forexample,byhelpingyourlearnerstoinferthemeaningsofunknownwordsandtouseadictionarywhere appropriate,forexampletolookupkeywords.

Page62 4Thinkaboutbackgroundknowledge.Anyreaderneedsappropriatebackgroundknowledgetointeracteffectivelywithatext.Thinkaboutwhatyourlearners mightneedtoknowabouttoappreciatethetextyouareofferingthem.Howcanyoubestactivatetheawarenesstheyalreadyhave?And,ifyouthinktheirawareness doesnotmatchtheassumptionsofthetext'sauthor,howcanyoubridgethegap? 5Lookattheoverallstructureofthetext.Sometexttypeshaveorganizingpatternsassociatedwiththem.Advertisements,forexample,oftenpointoutaproblem andthenoffertheirproductasasolution.Newspaperreportsoftenbeginwithaverybriefsummaryofthestorythatleavesoutkeydetails.Theythengooverthe pointsagainaddingthesedetails.Ifyouareworkingwithaparticulartexttypeandyoucanidentifyatypicalpattern,sharethiswithyourlearners.Knowledgeofa text'spatterncanmakeiteasiertounderstanditslanguage. 6Thinkaboutwriterpurpose.Yourtextwasproducedtoimpartinformation,andalsoaspartofaspecificsocialrelationshipbetweenwriterandintendedreaders. Bydiscussingprobablewriterpurposes,youcanincreaselearners'understandingofwhyatextisasitis,andthiscanhelpthemtounderstanditbetter.Forexample, wemightspeculatethatthenewspaperwriterreferredtoabovehasthepurposeofattractingareadertoreadthestory(hencethebriefsummary),andtheninducing thereadertoreadtotheendhencethewithholdingofkeydetails! 7Lookathowthetexthangstogether.Ifyoustudyitclosely,youwillfindthatcertainkeywordsandphrasesarerepeatedagaininsentencesandparagraphs.This repetitioncontributestothecohesionofthetext.Writersalsocreatecohesionbyreferringbacktothingstheyhavementionedbefore.Byaskinglearnerstolookat theseaspectsofthetext,youcanraisetheirawarenessofstrategiesthattheymaybeabletouseintheirownwriting. 8Lookatvocabulary.Ifyouhaveselectedatextfromaspecialistarea,itmaywellcontainvocabularyitemsthatyourlearnersparticularlyneedtoknow.Andeither aspecialistorageneraltextwillcontainexamplesofcollocationsthatis,wordswhichtypicallygotogether.Someoftheseexampleswillbefixedlexicalphrases,like alongtimeagoorwhatit'sallabout.Byconcentratingonthese,youcangivelearnersanewangleonhowthelanguageworks.

Page63 9Lookattenseuse.Especiallyinnonnarrativetext,writerchoiceasopposedtolanguagerulesdeterminesalotoftenseuse.Thismaycomeasasurpriseto manylearnerswhohavelearntrigidwaysofdistinguishingtheuseoftensesfromeachother.Lookingattenseuse,anddiscussingpossiblealternatives,canhelp learnersbecomemoreopenmindedandreceptivetotheexamplestheyseeandhear. 10Considercreatingacomputerizedminicorpus.Thewrittentextsyouusecanbestoredoncomputerandthenyouandthelearnerscanuseaconcordancing programmeaprogrammewhichshowssomepatternswhichtypicallyclusteraroundparticularwordstostudythem.Youcanalsoaddanytranscribedspokentexts toyourminicorpus.Bystudyingtextsusingaconcordancer,learnerscangetinformationaboutsomecommonlanguagepatternsandtheycanbegintolearntodo someoftheresearchforthemselves.

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23 Exploitingauthenticspokentexts
Ourdefinitionoftheterm'authentic'needstoshiftalittlehere.Itcanincludetextsfrombroadcastsources,producedforpurposesotherthanlanguagelearning.But we'dalsoliketoincludeas'authentic'unscriptedspokentextsthatteachersthemselvesrecordevenifthesituationwasdeliberatelysetup.Thefollowingsuggestions shouldhelpyougetthemostoutofusingallkindsofspokentext. 1Decidewhatsortoftextyouwant.Areyoulookingforplannedorsemiplanneddata(aTVspeech,aradiointerview),orspontaneousdataachatbetween friendsorcolleagues?Andareyoulookingformonologueordialogue?Spontaneousdialoguecanbeparticularlyvaluablebecauseitisoftenunderrepresentedin teachingmaterials,eventhoughlearnersobviouslyneedtocopewithitintheworldoutside.Butthen,itisalsothemostdifficulttorecord. 2Workwithmeaningfirst.Letyourlearnershearthetextinrealtime,anddosomethingwithit,beforetheylookatitslanguageindetail.Oneofthebestwaysof gettinglearnerstoworkwithmeaningistogivethemagoodprelisteningtask,whichsetsupareasonforlisteningandactivatesappropriatebackgroundknowledge. 3Addressthedifficultiesofrealtimeprocessing.Listeningismoredifficultthanreadingbecause,unlesslearnersareactualparticipantsintheconversation,they cannotcontroltheinputtheycannotgobackandhearbitsagain,orpausetoworksomethingout.Sohelpthemwithstrategiessuchaslisteningforkeywords, noticingtoneofvoicewhichwillenablethemtomakethebestofincompleteunderstanding.

Page65 4Makeatranscript.Aswellasmeaningfocusedactivities,youwillprobablywanttodosomelanguagefocusedwork.Atranscript,ofthewholeofthetextorpart ofit,isanessentialaidforthisitwillhelpbothyouandthelearnersreallytonoticetheinterestingfeaturesofthetextandtocompareandcontrastdifferentpartsofit. 5Pointoutdifferencesbetweenspokenandwrittenlanguage.Ifyourlearnershaveneverseenspontaneousspeechtranscribedbeforetheymaybesurprisedat alltheshortlanguagechunks,hesitations,fillersand'ungrammatical'language.Itisimportantforthemtorealizethatthesearenormalandacceptablecharacteristicsof unplannedspeech.Ashortexercisewherelearnersrecordandtranscribethemselvesspeakingtheirownlanguagecanmakethispointwell. 6Thinkaboutphonologicalfeatures.Anauthenticspokentextcanbeagoodopportunityforlearnerstoconcentrateononeortwophonologicalfeatures.Youcan usethetexttoraisetheirawarenessofthewaycertainsoundsarepronouncedincontext,oroftheintonationpatternsthatspeakersareusingforagivenpurpose.This willbeeasierforlearnerswhentheyhavealreadyworkedwiththemeaningofatext. 7Lookatopeningsandclosings.Thebeginningsandendsofexchangescanbeespeciallydifficultforlearnerstomanage,becausetheytendtobequiteritualized andformulaicindifferentlanguages.YoumaybeabletosensitizethemtosomestandardwaysofmanagingthesetransitionsinEnglish.Again,theycanthinkabouthow openingsandclosingshappenintheirownlanguageasapointofcomparison. 8Lookatthenegotiationof(mis)understanding.Themeaningofaconversationisdevelopedbythespeakersastheygoalong.Sometimestheconversationmay notgosmoothlyandthespeakershavetorenegotiate.Itcanbevaluableforlearnerstolookathowthisisdone,becausetheyarelikelytofindthemselvesinsimilar situations. 9Lookathowspeakerscollaborate.Sometimesonespeakerdominatesastretchofconversation,buttheotherisrarelypassive.Attheveryleast,the'hearer'will besignallingtheircontinuingunderstanding,andcheckinguponimportantpoints.Iflearnerscanbecomemoreawareofthis,theywillstarttonoticeitinother conversationsthattheyheartheirunderstandingandquiteprobablytheirownproductionwillbeimproved.

Page66 10Spendsometimeonspecificlanguagefeatures.Spontaneousspeechparticularlyisoftenfullofprefabricatedchunks:phrasessuchas,'andtheotherthingwas' or,'that'sfunny,actually...'Iflearnersbecomeawareofthesechunkstheymaystarttoincorporatethemintotheirownspeech,whichcanhelpthemsoundvery fluent.Manyofthespecificlanguagefeaturesmentionedinthesectiononwrittentextscanbeexploitedwithspokentexts,too.Vocabularyandtenseusecanbothbe profitablystudieditcanbeinterestingtocontrastusageincertainwrittenandspokentexts.

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24 Usingliterature
Literaturecanbeavaluableadditiontomanycoursesevenifitdoesnot,strictlyspeaking,formpartoflearners'languagestudygoals.Itispartofthetargetculture,it cancontributetoworldknowledge,itengagesreadersemotionallyandisenjoyable.Thefollowingtipsshouldhelpyoutouseliterarytextseffectivelywithyour learners. 1Selecttextscarefully.Foruseinclass,atextneedstobeshort:somethingyoucouldreadaloudinfiveminutesorless.Goodcandidatesarepoems,veryshort stories,orextractsfromstoriesthoughinthislattercase,makesuretheextractcanactuallystandalone.Alsoensurethatthecomplexityofthetextisnottoofar outsideyourlearners'range. 2Dopreparatorywork,ifnecessary.Teachingoneortwoessentialvocabularyitems,oractivatinglearners'knowledgeofacontext,canensurethatthetextis globallyunderstoodonthefirstencounter.Suchimmediateunderstandingishighlymotivating. 3Presentthewholetextbeforeworkingondetails.Youmightreaditaloudyourselfmanyliterarytextsareintendedtobeperformed.Youcouldalsoinvite learnerstoreadsilently,iftheyhavetheexperiencetodosowithoutworryingtoomuchaboutdetails.Theimportantthingisforthemtofeeltheimpactofthetextasa whole. 4Buildupunderstanding.Asklearnersforfirstreactionstothetext.Youcanuseawholeclassformat,invitingindividuallearnerstocontributewithanythingthey haveunderstoodoranyreflectionstheyhave.Thisthenformsabasisforrereadingsandfurtherwork.Thelevelatwhichtheycanengageafteronereading/hearing givesyouagoodideaofhowdemandingthetextwillbeforthem.

Page68 5Asklearnerstoengagewiththestory.Notalltextshavestories,ofcourse,butifyoursdoes,youcanasklearnerstocontinueit,toexpressitfromone character'spointofview,ortothinkofatitlewhichencapsulatesit.Alltheseactivitiesraiseawarenessofthebasicnarrativeandencourageinvolvementwiththe emotionsofthetext. 6Asklearnerstointerpretthetextmoredeeply.Youcouldaskthemtothinkaboutreasonsforactions,viewpointsofcharacters,attitudesofcharactersorofthe author,ortheunderlyingmessageofthetext.Thegoalhereisamorecriticalengagementwiththetext. 7Usepairworkforinterpretativetasks.Someofthesuggestionsabovearedifficult,evenforintermediateoradvancedlevellearners.Youcansetthemthetaskin pairs,askingthemtosupportanypointtheymakewithanexamplefromthetext.Thisgivesthemextrathinkingtimeandtheopportunitytopractisewhattheywantto say. 8Encouragelearnerstoexploretheirpersonalresponsetothetext.Literarytextsareafterallintendedtoprovokeapersonalresponse,andsomelearnerswill beverykeentoexpressit.Thisisanopportunityforashortwritingactivitywithlowerlevellearners,suchanactivitycouldevenbeinL1. 9Considerlanguagework.Literarytextsarealsorichresourcesforgrammarandvocabularywork.Afterlearnershaveworkedwiththetextasliterature,theymay liketoexploreelementsofitslanguageinafocusedway.See22,Exploitingauthenticwrittentexts. 10Encouragewiderreadingofliterature.Alwaystelllearnerswhereyougotatextfrom,becausesomeofthemmaywanttocarryonreadingfromthesamebook, magazine,etc.Beawareoflocalresourcesideallytheschoollibraryorselfaccesscentrewhichtheycanuse.See31,Supportingselfaccessfromtheclassroom.

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25 Gamesforlanguagelearning
Languagegamesareusefulinmanyways.Theycanhelplearnerstopractisepronunciation,developvocabulary,extendtheirrepertoireofcommunicationstrategiesand trytoproducehumourinthetargetlanguage.Forteachersandlearnersalike,gamescanbringlightreliefandachangeofpacetoclasses.Thefollowingideasmay provideyouwithsomestartingpointstohelpyoutodesignyourowngamesforlearners. 1Explainwhyyouareusinggames.Learnerswillgetmoreoutoflanguagegamesiftheycanseethepointofusingthem.Avoidthepossibilityoflearnersthinking thatyouarejustwastingtheirtime. 2Bepreparedfordifferentattitudesfromlearners.Somelearnerswillfindtheideaofusinggamesweird,atleastuntiltheycanseeforthemselvesthebenefits theyarederivingfromthem.Somelearnersmaybeundulycompetitive,notwishingtolosefacebygettingthingswrong.Helpalllearnerstoseethatoneofthe intentionsistohavesomefun,andthattheyshouldnottakemistakesorerrorsseriously,butusethemaslearningexperiences.Therestofthetipsinthissectiongive ideasforparticulargames. 3WhoamI?Chooseafamousperson,someoneallofthelearnersarelikelytohaveheardabout.Itisbestifthepersonyouchooseiscontemporary.Asklearnersto trytofindoutwhoyou'are'byaskingyouquestions,withyes/noanswers,suchas,'areyoumaleorfemale?','areyouAmerican?','areyouapolitician?',andsoon. Thenputlearnersintosmallgroups,andaskthemtotaketurnsinchoosingthepersonality. 4What'smyline?Thisissimilarto'whoamI?'above,butfocusesonparticularjobdescriptions.Questionscouldinclude,'isyourworkoutdoorsorindoors?','do youworkwithcomputers?','doyouprovideaservicetopeople?','doyouworkwithgroupsofpeople?',andsoon.

Page70 5Animal,vegetableormineral.Everythingexceptfreespacecanberegardedasoneormoreofthese.Allowamaximumof20questions(say)withwhichlearners canprobetheidentityoftheanimal(includinghumans),orplantorobjectyouhavechosen.Then,whenlearnershavefoundouthowthegameworks,dividetheminto groups,andgetthemtotaketurnspickingtheobject. 6Knockoutquizzes.Prepareaseriesofcards,eachwithashortquestionwrittenononesideofit,andtheanswerwrittenontheotherside.Dividelearnersinto teams,anddealoutsomanycardstoeachteam.Askeachteaminturntoselectaquestiontoposetoanotherteam.Iftheotherteamanswerscorrectly,theyscorea pointanditisthentheirturntoposeaquestion.Iftheteamdoesnotanswercorrectly,theteamposingthequestionscoresapoint,andcanposeanotherquestion. Withmoreadvancedlearners,youcangetthemtopreparethequestionsinsteadofdoingityourself. 7Crosswordsorwordsearches.Youcangetlearnerstodevisethesethemselves.Itisbesttoselectatopic,suchasfood,ortravel,oraparticularbuildingthe learnersallknow.Thenaskeachgrouptoexchangetheircrosswordorwordsearchwithothergroups. 8Alphabeticalcircles.Chooseatopic,forexample,shopping.Thefirstlearnercouldsay,'Iwenttotheshopandboughtanapple'.Thenextcouldcontinue,'Iwent totheshopandboughtandappleandabanana'.Thencouldcome'carrots','dates','eggs',andsoon.Itisnormallybesttouseonly23letters,astherearenotmany thingsstartingwithX,YorZ. 9Firstandlastletters.Forexample,asklearnerstocalloutthenamesofanimals,wherethenextonestartswiththeletterthatthelastonefinishedwith.Sequences, suchas'elephant','tiger','rhinoceros','seal',couldresult.Thesameprocesscanbeusedforallsortsoftopicsthemes,includingcountries,capitals,cities,andsoon. 10Singlelettermindmaps.Thisisaquickgamethatyoucanplaywithawholeclassatatime.Pickatopicbeginningwithachosenletter,forexample'Danger'.Put thisinacircleatthecentreofawhiteboardoroverheadtransparency.Thenbuildarounditotherwordsbeginningwith'D'whichlinktothecentraltopic.Examplesfor thisonecouldbe'disaster','deepwater','drivingtoofast',andsoon. 11Homophones.Drawasketchof(say)awitch,andasklearnersforanotherword(which)soundingthesameasthewordrepresentedbythesketch.Thenget learnersingroupstotaketurnsdoingthesamething.Theywillneedplentyofthinkingtime!

Page71 12Scrabble.Thiscommerciallyavailablegamecanbeadaptedforlearnerswhosecommandoflanguageisrelativelyhigh.Allowlearnerstouseelectronic spellcheckers,orthespellcheckfacilitiesoncomputers(or,ofcourse,dictionaries).

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26 Roleplay.
Roleplay,insomeformoranother,isapartofmanycontemporarylanguagecourses.Wherelearnersarewillingtoenterintothespiritofroleplay,suchactivities provideavaluableopportunityforthemtousetheirlanguageresourcescreativelyinawidevarietyofimaginedsituations.Somepeoplemakeadistinctionbetween simulationwherelearnersarepretendingtobethemselves,butinasimulatedsituationandroleplay,wheretheyarepretendingtobesomeoneelse.Weusethe termroleplaytocoverbothpossibilitiesitisuptoyoutodecidewhichtechnique,orwhichcombinationofthetwo,ismostappropriateforyourlearners.The followingsuggestionsmaygiveyousomeideasuponwhichtobaseroleplayexercisesforyourlearners. 1Setouttomakeroleplayfun.Pointoutthebenefitstolearnersintermsofopportunitiesforlanguageuse.Helpthemtoseeroleplayasachallenge,butnotasa threatdon'tcomedownheavilyiftheyfindithardtobecreative,especiallyatfirst.Then,astheygetintotheswingofthings,discourageanytendenciesforthemto engageinroleplaytoocompetitively. 2Keeproleplayrelativelyprivate.Itisbesttocarryoutroleplayactivitiesintwosandthrees,andonlytoaskforpublicdisplayswhenyoufeelsurelearnersare ready.Letlearnersknowinadvanceifyouplantoasksomegroupstoshowtheirworktotherestoftheclass,andchoosegroupswhowillbehappytoperform. 3Letlearnersthemselveschoosewhichgroupstoworkin.Somelearnerswillprefertodoroleplayactivitiesinthecomfortofsinglegenderpairsorthrees,or withtheirfriendsintheclass.Themorerelaxedlearnersare,themoretheywillgetoutofroleplayactivities.

Page73 4Provideclearbriefingsforplannedroleplayactivities.Givedetailsofthecharactersandscenariosinwrittenformwhereappropriate.Youcandecidewhether youwantallthemembersofeachgrouptoknowallthesedetails,orwhetheryouintendtospringsomesurprises. 5Givelearnerssufficienttimetogetintorole.Allowthemtimetomakesenseofthebriefingsandtotuneintotherolethattheyaregoingtoplay.Givethemtime tothinkofideasoftheirownthattheywillbringtotheirroleplay. 6Legitimizeacting.Encouragelearnerstobringsomecolourtothecharactersthattheyaregoingtoplayout.Distancingthecharactersfromtheirrealselvesoften helpslearnerstobemoreconfidentandrelaxedinroleplaysituations. 7Thinkofrealsituationsthatlearnerscanroleplay.Thesecouldincludemakingacomplainttoashopmanager,askinganoisyneighbourtobemore considerate,andsoon.Trytotapintosituationswherelearnerswillhavefeelingsoftheirownthattheycanactout. 8Getlearnerstoextrapolatefromavideoextract.Forexample,showafewminutesofaplayorsoapopera,whichlearnersarefamiliarwith,wherelearners havealreadybeenassignedrolesofthecharactersinvolved.Stopthevideoatasuitablepoint,andaskgroupsoflearnerstofilloutthenextfewminutesofthestoryfor themselves.Youmaythenfinditusefultocontinuethevideo,sothatlearnerscancomparetheirversionswith'whatactuallyhappened'. 9Allowtimeforlearnerstogetoutofrole.Itisimportantforlearnerstohavetimetolookbackatwhathappenedintheroleplay,andtodiscusswhattheylearnt aboutcommunicationandlanguage.Getthemtoworkoutwhattheymighthavedonedifferently,inthelightofexperience,iftheyweretotacklethesameroleplay scenarioforasecondtime. 10Getlearnerstodevisetheirownroleplayscenarios.Theycouldthenexchangethesebetweengroups,oryoucouldusethebestofthemwithafuturegroupof learners.Composingthebriefingdetails,andmakingsurethattheyareclearandunambiguous,isinitselfachallengingandvaluableactivity.

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27 Usingthenews
Onewayoranother,thenewsisanimportantcomponentofmostpeople'slives.Englishlanguagenews,bothliveandprintbased,iseasilyavailableinmanycountries andprovidesawiderangingagendaforlanguagedevelopmentandcommunicationskillspractice.Thefollowingsuggestionsmayhelpyoutouse'thenews'asa productivearenaforyourlearners. 1Showtheclassavideoofafiveminutesnewsbulletin.Thenasklearnersindividuallyoringroupstowriteasetofheadlinesforanewspaper,basedonthemain pointstheyhavepickedupfromthebulletin.Don'tworryiftheycan'tfollowtypicalheadline'style'theimportantthingisforthemtotrytocapturetheessenceofa newsstoryinafewwords. 2Getlearnerstomakeacommentary.Givelearnersashortextractonanissuetheyknowabout,withthesoundoff.Getthemtoproduceandrehearsea commentarythatcouldaccompanythevideoinsteadoftheoriginalsoundtrack.Theycantryouttheircommentarylive,andinrealtime,againsttherunningvideo.It canalsobeworthwhilegettingthemtorecordtheircommentaryonaudiotape,andthentolistentoitwhilewatchingthevideoagain. 3Asklearnerstocomposesubtitlesforavideoednewsbulletin.Showthewholeclassashortextractfromanewsbulletin,thenaskgroupsoflearnerstodevise shortmessageswhichcouldcommunicatethemainpointsofthebulletintopeoplewhocouldnothear. 4Newsquizzes.Playtothewholeclassashortradionewsbulletin,thenquizgroupsoflearnersaboutthecontentofthebulletin.Itisbesttopreparethequizin advance,andpossiblyprintitout,soeachteamcanwritetheiranswersagainsteachquestionbeforescoringtheirwork.Youwillsoonfindoutaboutthebestlevelfor suchquizzesthelevelisappropriatewhennoteamgetslessthanabouthalfoftheavailablepoints,andthewinningteamgetsmostanswerscorrect.

Page75 5Cartoonsandphotos.Getlearnersingroupstodevisecaptionsforwellchosencartoonsorphotographsfromanewspaper.Youmaythenshowthemtheoriginal captions,orpointouthowmanydifferentvalidwaystherecanbetodescribeacartoonorphoto. 6HaveIgotnewsforyou!Givelearnerssomeheadlinesfromanewspaper,andaskthemingroupstotrytoworkoutthelikelystorybehindeachheadline.You couldallowthemtoreadthenewspapersinadvanceforafewminutes.Forlearnerswithwelldevelopedlanguageskills,thisactivitycanbeturnedintoafungameby askinglearnerstothinkofalternative,creativestorieswhichmayhavematchedthechosenheadlines. 7Home/nationalnews.Asklearnerstolookforanewsstorycurrentintheircountry,andtowriteanddeliveraloudatwominutesummaryofitdesignedfortheUK media. 8Teletextpages.Givelearnersanewspaper,andaskthemtocapturetheessenceof10orsomainnewsitemsbyturningeachintoasummarywhichcouldbe containedonasinglescreenofteletext.Encouragethemtokeepsentencesshortandtothepoint.Suggestthattheytrytogetthegistofeachstoryintoawellchosen, shortheadlineandthefirstsentenceoftheteletextpage. 9Broadsheetsandtabloids.Encouragelearnerstoreadaboutthesamestoryinbothbroadsheetandtabloidnewspapers,andtodiscussthedifferencesof approach.Theninvitethemtoselectadifferentstoryfromabroadsheetandturnitintotheregisterofapopularortabloidnewspaper.Oftentabloidsaremuchharder forlearnerstounderstandthanbroadsheets,soyouwillneedtochooseaparticularlyaccessiblestoryforthisactivity. 10Radiobulletins.Givelearnerscopiesofthefrontpageofanewspaper,andaskthemingroupstomakeasetofheadlinesforashortradionewsbulletin.Then combinethegroups,twoatatime,andaskthemtoreadouttoeachothertheirradiobulletins,anddecidewhichonecapturedthenewsbest,andwhy.

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Chapter4ImplementingSelfaccess
28 29 30 31 32 Settingupaselfaccessfacility Choosingselfaccessmaterials Designingselfaccessmaterials Supportingselfaccessfromtheclassroom Traininglearnerstouseselfaccessmaterials

Selfaccessisanumbrellatermthatcanbeusedtocovermanykindsofguidedindependentlearning.Incertainwellresourcedcontexts,especiallythosewhere learnersarebothhighlymotivatedandextremelybusy,thereisatendencytowardsthedesignoflanguageprogrammeswherelearnersareaskedtocoverasignificant amountofthesyllabusoutsidetheclassroom.Theplanmaybeforthemtoworkintheirhomes,orinaselfaccesscentre.Thischapterofferssomeimmediate suggestionsonhowtouseanddesignindependentlearningmaterials.Ifyourworkincludesindependentlearningasamajorcontributiontoyourcourses,youmaywish toexplorethetopicfurther,forexamplethrough500TipsonOpenandFlexibleLearning(PhilRace,1998)inthesameseriesasthepresentbook. Westartwithsomethoughtsonhowtosetupaselfaccessfacilityfromscratch.Muchofthischapterismostrelevanttothosewhohaveaccesstoareasonablylarge setofindependentlearningresourcesbutifyouareintheprocessofintroducingselfaccessintoyourcontextforthefirsttimethenthisparticularsetoftipswillhelp you. Wethenlookatthewiderangeoffactorsthatyoushouldconsiderinchoosinganddesigningselfaccessmaterialsforyourlearners.Thesesetsoftipslookatthe principlesunderlyingselfaccessmaterialuse,andareparticularlyrelevantincontextswhereindependentlearningiscentraltothecourse.Weemphasizethe importanceoflearningoutcomesthatmatchcourseaims,ofengagingtasks,andoffeedback. Weendwithsomeconsiderationsoftheroleoftheteachersinsupportinglearners'useofselfaccess.Welookfirstatthingsaclassteachercandotointegratethe selfaccessandclassroombasedstrandsofthelearningexperience.Wethengoontolookexplicitlyatthehelpthatlearnersmayneediftheyaretomakethemostof aselfaccessresourcecentreanditsmaterials.

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28 Settingupaselfaccessfacility
Manylarge,wellresourcedinstitutionshaveselfaccesscentres,whichyoucanencourageyourlearnerstouse,andthatyoucanrelyonifconvertingapartofyour coursetoindependentlearning.Butifyouareworkinginacontextwherenoselfaccesscentreisavailable,youandyourcolleaguesmaywishtobuildupasmaller facilitythatcanstillprovidesomeofthebenefitsofaformalcentreinhelpingyourstudentstobroadentheirrangeoflearningskills.Thefollowingsuggestionsshould helpyoutosetupsuchafacility. 1Investigatepossiblepremises.Mightaseparateroombeavailableforyourfacility?Ifso,youmaybeabletoconsideraudioaswellasprintbasedresources.If not,youwillneedtoconcentrateonamoreportablefacilitytobeusedinexistingclassrooms. 2Investigatetechnicalresources.WillyouhaveaccesstoTVs,taperecordersorcomputers?Theequipmentavailableisobviouslyakeyfactorwhendeciding whatsortofmaterialsbanktobuildup. 3Starttocollectsourcematerial.Asmallfacilitycouldstartwithaseriesofprintedtexts,andaudiotextsifyouhavetaperecorders.Thesetextswillformthecore ofyourselfaccessmaterials.Youcanstartwithjustafewmoretextsthantherearelearnersintheclass,togivepeopletheexperienceofchoosingwhattodoandthen swappingaround. 4Trytogetothercolleaguestojoinyou.Agroupofteachersworkingtogetherwillbuildupasizeablebankofmaterialsmuchmorequickly,andlearnerswill benefitfromthevarietyofapproachesandideas.Ajointinitiativebyteacherscouldalsoimpressschoolauthorities,andtheymightmakeextrafundsavailableto supportyourproject.

Page79 5Developahousestyleformaterialswriting.Itistherubrics,tasksandcommentsthatyoubuildaroundthesourcetextsthatgivethematerialstheir'feel'. Similaritiesofpresentation,whethertypographic(eg,alwaysusingthesametypeface),orcontentrelated(eg,alwaysstartingwithastatementofobjectives),canbe reassuringforlearners,andhelptopresenttheselfaccessfacilityasacoherentproject. 6Stateobjectivesclearlyandrelatefeedbacktothese.Statementsofobjectivesmakethepurposeofthematerialscleartothelearners,andsohelpthemto choosetherightonestoworkon.Feedbackonthelearners'tasksshouldalsorelatetothesestatedobjectives:thisisonegoodwayofmakingsurethatthetasksreally arerelevantandappropriate. 7Considertheideaofpathways.Asyourbankbuildsup,lookathowdifferentmaterialsrelatetoeachother.Couldyoupublicize'sets'ofmaterialsonparticular subjects,orsetswhichhelptodevelopparticularlanguageskills?Groupingmaterialsinthiswayhelpslearnerstodecidewhattodoandinwhatorder. 8Discusstheroleoftheselfaccessfacilitywithlearners.Iftheyhavenotexperiencedselfaccessbefore,theywillneedtothinkaboutwhatitcancontributeto theirlearningexperience,andtheywillneedtobesupportedintheirearlyattemptstochooseandusematerials.Ongoingfeedbackanddiscussionisthebestwayto helplearnerstomakethebestuseofthefacility.See31,Supportingselfaccessfromtheclassroom,forfurtherideashere. 9Showlearnerswhatisavailable.Opendisplaysystemssuchaswallchartsarethemosthelpful.Theyenablelearnerstoseemoreorlessataglancewhatis available.Chartsshouldincludeinformationaboutthetopicofthematerialsandthelanguagelearningobjectivestheyareintendedtoserve. 10Encouragelearnerstocontributetothefacility.IftheyhaveaccesstoprintedEnglishtextsoutsidetheclass,theymaycomeacrosspiecesthattheythinktheir classmatesmightlike.Encouragethemtobringsuchtextsin,andenjoythesatisfactionofseeingtheircontributions'writtenup'asproperselfaccessmaterials.

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29 Choosingselfaccessmaterials
Thenotionthatindependentstudymayformasignificantpartofalanguageprogrammebringsspecialchallengesfortheteachertochooseanddesignmaterialssuitable forsuchstudy.Thereisagrowingrangeoflanguagelearningresourcematerialscommerciallyavailablethatmaybeappropriate.Thefollowingsuggestionsmayalert youtosomeofthethingstolookoutfor,toensurethatyouselectmaterialsthatwillreallyhelpyourlearnerstostudyeffectively. 1Don'tgoforthefirstsuitablelookingmaterialsthatyoucomeacross.Ifyouareconsideringbuyinginmultiplecopiesofmaterials,taketimetomakesurethat youhavemadeaninformeddecisionaboutwhichpackagesuitsyourneedsbest.Ifyouaregoingtorecommendthatlearnerspurchasetheirowncopiesofmaterials,it isimportanttoensurethattheywillbegettinggoodvalueformoney. 2Gatherintelligenceabouttherangeofmaterialsavailable.Useyourcontactsinyourowninstitution,andmoreimportantly,inotherplaces.Thiscanbeafaster wayoftrackingdownsuitablepackagesthansimplysearchingthroughpublishers'catalogues.Don'tbetakeninbysomeofthethingsthatpublishersmayclaimfortheir productstrytofindsomeonewhosejudgementyoutrustandwhohasalreadyusedthematerialsbeforeyoudecidetospendtimeworkingoutwhetheritiswhatyou arereallylookingforyourself. 3Investigatetheintendedlearningoutcomesofthematerials.Mostgoodmaterialsexpresstheseclearlyatthebeginning.Theoutcomesshouldbestatedin languagethatlearnersthemselveswillrelateto,ratherthanlookinglikeaformalsyllabusorcoursevalidationdocument.Checkhowcloselythestatedlearning outcomesmatchtheassessmentcriteriathatyouuseonyourprogramme.Then,asyouexplorethematerialsfurther,lookcarefullyatwhetherthematerialsarereally leadinglearnerstowardsachievingthestatedoutcomes.

Page81 4Checkthatthematerialsareattherightlevelforyourlearners.Youmaywanttousethemforcentralpartsofyourlearners'work,oryoucouldsimply requirethemtousewithlearnerswhoneedsomeremedialdevelopmentorpractice.Theintendedlearningoutcomesshouldgivesomemeasureofthelevelofthe materials,butitisworthlookingattheactuallevelofthethingsthatlearnerswilldoastheyworkthroughthepackage. 5Considerwhetheryoumightwanttoreformulatethelearningoutcomes.Forexample,materialsmightbeaneffectivelearningtool,butmaynothaveclearly articulatedlearningoutcomes.Sometimes,materialscomewithlearningoutcomesthatarewritteninteachers'terminology,anditcanbeusefultotranslatetheseinto languagethatyourlearnerswillunderstandeasily. 6Lookathowwellthematerialsmakeuseoflearningbydoing.Justreadingthroughmaterialsisoflimitedvalue,andisunlikelytobringaboutverydeep learning.Materialsshouldbeleadinglearnersintopractice,andengagingtheirlanguageresourcesviatasks,sothattheycandevelopontheirowntheirgraspofthe variousaspectsoflanguagethattheyareintendedtoworkon. 7Lookcarefullyathowlearnersreceivefeedbackfromthematerials.Itisoflittlevaluegettinglearnerstodoexercises,iftheyarethenunabletofindout quicklyhowwell(orhowbadly)theyhavedonethem.Welldesigned,independentstudymaterialsarestrongatgivinglearnersfeedbackontheirefforts.Thisisusually achievedbysettingstructuredquestionsandtasksinthefirstplace,forexample,multiplechoicequestions,sothatseparatefeedbackcanbegivenasappropriateto learnerswhochoosecorrectoptionsfromthefeedbackneededbylearnerswhosechoicesarebasedonanticipatedmistakesormisunderstandings. 8Lookattheoverallappearanceofthematerials.Thisislessimportantthanwhetherornotthepackageiseducationallysound,butfirstimpressionscountwith learners.Ifthematerialslookgood(andaregood),learnerswilltrustthemmore,andvaluethemmore.Iftheylookroughandready,evenifthecontentisgood, learnersmaynotfeeltheyareasimportantandsoundasiftheylookedmoreprofessionalandpolished. 9Tryworkingthroughthematerialsyourself.Eventhoughyouarelikelytodoallofthetasksandexercisescorrectly,andquickly,itisthebestwaytoseefor yourselfhowthematerialsareintendedtowork.Youwillsometimesfindthatmaterialsthatlookgoodatfirstsightmayfallinyourestimationwhenyouhavefoundout moreaboutwhattheyactuallyentailforyourlearners.

Page82 10Pilotthematerialswithafewlearnersbeforeyoumakeafinaldecisiontoadoptthem.Howeverhardwetrytoworkoutwhethermaterialsaregoodor not,therealtestcomeswhenlearnersworkwiththem.Oneoftheproblemsisthatwetendtotakeforgrantedtheprocessskillsthatindependentlearningmaterials demand:learners,especiallythoseunusedtothiswayofworking,mayfinddifficultiesthatwehavenotanticipated.

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30 Designingselfaccessmaterials
Therearemanyexcellentmaterialsforindependentlanguagelearningavailableforpurchase,butlargeselfaccesscentresgenerallyincludeasignificantpercentageof teacherdesignedmaterials.Theadvantagesofthisintermsofrelevanceandsuitabilityforthelearnersconcernedareobvious.Smallorsemiformalfacilities,perhaps withoutthebenefitofaninstitutionalbudget,mayrelyentirelyonteacherdesignedmaterials.Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyoutodesignindependentlearning materialssuitableforyourowncourseandlearnerstheyalsopointoutsomeofthebenefits,foryou,ofdoingthis. 1Decidewhichelementsofthecourseyourlearnersmaybeabletostudyontheirown.Forexample,itisoftenhelpfultouseselfaccessmaterialstorevise ideaswithwhichyourlearnersarealreadypartiallyfamiliar.Thoselearnerswhoarealreadyuptospeedcanworkthroughthematerialsquickly,whilethosewhoneed todeveloptheirskillsorknowledgecanworkthroughthesamematerialsingreaterdepth,andattheirownpace,sothattheygainthelevelofcompetencethatyou wishtouseasastartingpoint. 2Lookatwhatyou'vealreadygotbeforestartingtowriteselfaccessmaterials.Youwillalreadyhavevaluableresourcesthatyouuseinfacetofacesettings, includingyourownlessonplans,tasksandassignmentsthatyousetlearners,handoutmaterials,extractsfromothersourcematerials,andsoon.Youmaybeableto usesuchexistingresourcesasagoodstartingpoint,buildingupselfaccessmaterialsaroundthem. 3Don'tforgetyourmostvaluableassets!Theseincludeyourownknowledgeofthetargetlanguage,yourknowledgeofyourlearners,andyourabilitytorespond tothemostcommonproblemsthatlearnerslikeyoursexperience.Allofthesearenecessarystartingpointstowardsdesigningeffectiveselfaccessmaterials.

Page84 4Startsmall.Itisbettertodesignanumberofsmall,selfcontainedactivities,ratherthantosetyourselfthetaskofadaptingalargesectionofyourcourseto independentlearningallatonce.Afteryou'vepilotedandpolishedyoursmallerelements,itisrelativelyeasytointegratethemtogethertomakealargerpackage. 5Workouttheintendedlearningoutcomesforyourmaterials.Workoutexactlywhatlearnersshouldbeabletodoaftertheyhavesuccessfullycompletedeach setofactivities.Expresstheselearningoutcomesinclear,learnerfriendlylanguage.Forexample,'whenyou'veworkedthroughthispackage,youshouldbeable to...'ismuchmoreintimateandinvolvingthan'theintendedlearningoutcomesofthispackagearethatstudentswillbeableto...' 6Focushardonlearningbydoing.Effectiveselfaccessmaterialsarenotjustsomethingforlearnerstoreadtheyaresomethingforthemtoworkthrough.Tryto structurethetasksandactivitiessothatwhenlearnershavetriedthem,theycanreceivefeedbackontheirattempts. 7Thinkfeedback.Whenstructuringquestionsandactivities,bearinmindthatyourmaterialsshouldgivelearnersthemostspecificfeedbackpossibleonthe appropriacyoftheiranswer.Youneedtobeabletorespondtowhateachlearnerhasactuallydone.Openendedquestionsarenotamenabletothis!Structuredtasks, suchasmultiplechoicequestions,allowyoutorespondseparatelytolearnerswhohavegotthetaskright,aswellastolearnerswhohavechosenoptionsrepresenting differentanticipatederrors. 8Includeopenendedtasks,too.Theirdisadvantagesintermsoffeedbackaremorethanoutweighedbytheiradvantagesintermsoftaskauthenticityandcreative languageuse.Trytoorganizesomeclasstimeforteacherand/orpeerfeedbackonopenendedselfaccesstasks. 9Tryoutyourtasksandfeedbackresponseswithlivelearners.Youcanfindoutalotabouthowwellorbadlyyourquestionswillworkbywatchinglearners tryingthemout.Iftheystruggleorgetstuck,findoutwhy,andadjustthewordingofquestionsandfeedbackuntilthereisnolongeraproblem. 10Writetheintroductiontoeachpieceofselfaccessmateriallast.Thebesttimetowriteyourleadintoeachsetofactivitiesiswhenyoualreadyknowexactly what'sinit,andhowwellitworks.Theintroductionsareparticularlyimportantwhenlearnersarestudyingontheirown.There'snosecondchancetomakeagoodfirst impression,anditisimportanttouseeachintroductorysectiontowhetlearners'appetitesforwhatistofollow.

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31 Supportingselfaccessfromtheclassroom
Manyinstitutionstodayhavethebenefitofalargeselfaccesscentrewhichmaycontainhighlysophisticatedresources.Learners,then,requiresupporttodevelopthe skillswhichwillenablethemtomakebestuseofaselfaccesscentre.Thefollowingtipsconcentrateonwhattheclassteachercandotosupportlearners'effectiveuse oftheselfaccesscentre. 1Talkabouttheroleofthecentrethroughoutthecourse.Learnerswhohavenothadaccesstosuchacentrebeforewillbeunsurehowtouseitandmayeven besuspicious,iftheythinkitisintendedtoreplace'proper'teaching.Youcanhelpthemtoseeitasavaluablecomplementtothetaughtcourse,andanexcellent opportunitytodevelopindependentlearningskills. 2Organizeaproperintroductorysession.Manyselfaccesscentreshaveorientationsheetswhichtakelearnersaroundthedifferentareasofthecentre,introducing themtovariousactivitiesonoffer.Ifyourcentredoesnothaveone,writeonewhichissuitableforyourparticularclass. 3Encouragefrequentuseoftheselfaccesscentre.Thebestwaytodothisistomakesureyouknowwhat'sinthere.Youcanthenguidelearnerstoappropriate oftenshortactivities,inresponsetoissuesarisinginlessons. 4Integrateselfaccessandclasswork.Atappropriateintervals,asklearnerstodoselfaccessworktosupportwhatishappeninginclass.Givethemachanceto feedbackonwhattheydidinthenextlesson.Inthisway,youcancontinuallydemonstratewhatisavailableintheselfaccesscentre,andgivethemessagethatyou finditofvalue.

Page86 5Holdoccasionalclassesinthecentre.Manycentreshaveagroupworkroom,andthiscanbeanidealbaseforaprojectorientedlessonwherelearnersneedto usetheresourcesofthecentretofindinformationfortheprojectandthenpresentitappropriately.Suchalessongivesyouthechancetoobserveyourlearnersusing thecentre,andtohelpthemiftheyaskyouto. 6Encourageindependentselfaccessuse.Whenyourlearnersarecomfortablewiththecentre,theywillbeinastrongpositiontouseittofollowindividuallearning agendas.Youcanhelpthemtostarttoplanbymeansofinformalquestionnairesaboutinterestsandperceivedareasofweakness,leadingtosuggestionsforactivities. 7Givelearnerstheopportunitytoreportbackonindependentuse.Onegoodwayofdoingthisisalearnerdiary,wheretheymightmention,amongotherthings, whattheydidintheselfaccesscentre.Youcanrespondwithencouragement,andperhapssuggestions.Thisisagoodwayofhelpinglearnersfeelsupportedintheir efforts. 8Getlearnerstowritereviewsofselfaccessactivities.Thesecanthenbedisplayedintheclassroom.Theyactasinformationforotherclassmembers,andas continuingpublicityforthecentre.Forexample,toencourageextendedreadingyoucouldasklearnerstochoosefromthegradedreadersinthecentreandtowrite commentsonthosetheyhavereadforotherlearnersintheclass. 9Encourageleisureactivities,too.Manyselfaccesscentresincludemagazines,videoedfilmsandlightreading,whichcouldbeseenbymoreadvancedlearnersas relaxationratherthanwork.Reachingthestagewheretheycan'relax'inEnglishboostslearners'selfesteemandcontributestotheirdevelopingidentityasproficient languageusers. 10Contributematerialstothecentre.Differentinstitutionshavedifferentpoliciesonthisissue,butmanywelcomecontributionsfromalltheteachingstaff.Soifyou comeacrossmaterialthatyouthinkwouldbeuseful,trytogetitinthereandbuildupthecollection.

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32 Traininglearnerstouseselfaccessmaterials
Someofyourlearnersarelikelytohaveworkedwithselfaccessmaterialssuccessfullybeforeandwon'tneedmuchhelpregardinghowtomakebestuseofthem. Learnerswhohavenotworkedontheirownbeforearelikelytoneedstudyskillsguidance.Thefollowingsuggestionsmayhelpyoutoworkoutyourownstudyskills briefingforlearnersusingselfaccessmaterials(includingonesthatyouhavedesignedyourself,andonesyoumayhaveadoptedoradapted). 1Explainthebenefitstolearners.Forexample,theycanlearnbydoing,attheirownpace,andattimesandplacesoftheirownchoice.Theycanalsochoose whethertoworkthroughthematerialsentirelyontheirown,orwhethertoworkcollaborativelysometimes. 2Emphasizetheadvantagesofthecomfortofprivacyinwhichtomakemistakes.Learnerswhodon'tliketobeseentomakemistakesinclasswillappreciate theopportunitytopractisewithselfaccessmaterials,sothattheycanhaveasmuchpracticeastheylikeonparticularconceptsorskills. 3Helplearnerstomakegooduseofexpressedlearningoutcomes.Explainthattheseareaframeofreference,allowinglearnerstoseeforthemselveshowtheir studiesareprogressing,andshowingthemwhattheexpectedtargetsandstandardswillbe. 4Remindstudentsofthevalueoflearningbydoing.Explaintothemthattheywilllearnverylittlejustbylookingthroughselfaccessmaterials,andmuchmoreby havingatryateachandeverytaskandexercise.Pointoutthattheheartofindependentlearningistheselfassessmentwhichlearnerscandoastheyworkthroughthe materials.

Page88 5Helplearnerstomakethemostofthefeedbackinthematerials.Pointoutthatthereisnothingtobegainedbylookingattheanswersorfeedbackaftersimply readingtasks,andthatdoingsoisonlyrobbingthemofthevaluetheycouldhavegainedbyusingthefeedbackafterdoingthetasks. 6Trytocheckuponwhetherlearnersareactuallydoingthetasks,questionsandactivities.Forexample,askthemtobringalongtheirmarkedupcopiesof learningmaterialstoclasssometimes,whereyoucanseewhattheyhavedone.Asklearnerstomakelistsofquestionstoaskyouaboutanyaspectsofthelearning materialswithwhichtheyarehavingproblems. 7Remindlearnersoftheirresponsibilities.Selfaccesscanonlymakeameaningfulcontributiontoacourseiflearnersuseitsteadilyoveraperiodoftime.The dangeristhatlearnersmaynotstartusingselfaccessmaterials,withotherpressuresonthemtodocourseworkwhereitwouldbenoticediftheydidnotdoit. Encouragethemtoscheduleregulartimeeachweektoworkthroughtheirselfaccessmaterials,ratherthanleavingsuchworkuntiltheythinkitmightbechecked. 8Makesurethatselfaccessisnotseenasmarginalbylearners.Clarifyhowtheoutcomesofindependentlearningwillbeassessed,andexplainhowtheself accessmaterialscontributetotheresourcingoftheprogrammeasawhole. 9Encouragelearnerstouseparticularsetsofmaterialsmorethanonce.Thesecondtimetheyworkthroughsuchmaterialswilltakethemmuchlesstimethan theirfirstattempt.However,iftherehasbeenadecentgapinbetweentheresultwillbethattheywillfindoutforthemselveswhichpartstheyhavealreadymastered, andwhichpartswarrantsomeextraattention. 10Designassignmentsbasedontheselfaccessmaterials.Thesewillhelpyoutoseehowlearnersareprogressingwiththematerials,andwillalsoforcelearners intodoingsomeworkwiththem.Moreimportantly,youwillbeabletoseefromlearners'answerstotheassignmentsiftheyhaveanyproblemswiththeindependent learningelementsofyourcourse.

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Chapter5UsingInformationandCommunicationsTechnologies
33 34 35 36 37 Helpinglearnerstogetstartedwithemail Settingupcomputerconferencing Choosingcomputeraidedpackages Designingcomputerdeliveredassessmentelements Givinglearnersfeedbackusingemail

Whatare'informationandcommunicationstechnologies'?Everythingfromcomputers,computerconferences,electronicmail(email,orsimplyemail)canbeclassified underthisbroadheading.Inthischapter,weoffersomesuggestionsthatarecentraltoyourlikelystartingpositionregardinginformationandcommunications technologies.Ifthisisamajorareaofyourwork,muchmoredetail(inthesameformatandinthesameseriesofbooks)isavailablein500ComputingTipsfor TeachersandLecturers(PhilRaceandSteveMcDowell,1996)and500ComputingTipsforTrainers(SteveMcDowellandPhilRace,1998). Informationandcommunicationstechnologiesmaybeavailabletolearnersintheirclassroom,inaselfaccesslaboratorysituationor,indeed,intheirhomes.Thenature andextentoftheiraccesswillbeanimportantfactorinyourdecisionsonhowbesttouseinformationtechnologieswiththem.Perhapsamajorityofourtipsinthis chapterassumeatleastadegreeofoutofclassaccess. Webeginwithsomesuggestionsaboutgettinglearnersstartedwithemail.Weassumethatyouarealreadyusingemailyourselfifyou'renot,thenperhapsreading thissetoftipswillencourageyoutogetstarted.Wethenlookatcomputerconferencing:forlanguagelearners,computerconferencingcanbeapowerfulwayof developingspontaneouswrittencommunicationskills,inanenvironmentwheretheycanreceiveagreatdealofusefulfeedbackfromeachother,inthecomfortand privacyofaseatatacomputerterminal. Therangeofcomputeraidedlanguagelearningpackagesisgrowingrapidly,andmuchmaybeavailablewhichwouldhelpyourstudentstointeractwithEnglishin stimulatingandusefulways,provided,ofcourse,thattheavailability

Page90 ofcomputersorterminalsissufficienttogivethemrelativelyunrestrictedaccesstothelearningpackages.Itisjustasimportanttobereallyselectivewhenchoosing computerbasedlearningpackagesasitiswhenchoosingprintbasedones.Wehopethatoursuggestionswillalertyoutosomeoftheprincipalfeaturesthatyouwill needtocheckoutbeforecommittingyourselftopurchasingacomputerbasedlearningpackage. Computerdeliveredassessmentisamorespecializedareaofinformationandcommunicationstechnology,butitcanpayhugedividendswhenadaptedforproviding studentswithlearningbydoingactivitiesatacomputerterminal,combinedwithimmediateandusefulfeedbackonscreen.Itcan,afteraninvestmentofyourowntime, alsosaveyoufromsomeofthemoreroutineburdensofmarkinglearners'workwhenusedincarefullyselectedareasofyourteachingprogramme. Weendthischapterwithsomesuggestionsonhowyoucanuseemailtogivefeedbacktolearners.Thiscanbebeneficialtothemasitisreceivedincomfortand privacy,anditcanhelpyoubymakingitpossibletoharnessthepoweroftechnologysothatyoudon'thavetowriteorspeakidenticalfeedbackmessagestimeand timeagainfordifferentlearnersneedingthesamecommentsandadvice.

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33 Helpinglearnerstogetstartedwithemail
Theuseofelectronicmailhasacceleratedrapidlyinthelastfewyears.Peoplewhowouldnothavebeenthoughttobecomputerliterateoftentaketheirfirststepsinto theareabecausetheyareattractedbythebenefitsofemail.Manyofyourlearnersarelikelytobeuptospeedwithcomputersandemail,butthefollowing suggestionsmayhelpyoutowhettheappetitesofthosewhohavenotyetbecome'mousetrained'. 1Reassurelearnersthattheyarehighlyunlikelytobreakthecomputer!Forthoselearnerswhoarereluctanttogetintocomputerusage,thereisoftena concernthattheymaydosomethingdrasticandirreversibletoexpensiveequipment.Remindlearnersthattheonlythingtheyarelikelytoriskwhenusingcomputersis losingsomeoftheworktheyhavedonewiththemachine,andeventhisriskisquitesmall,with'undo'commandsinmostcomputersoftware,andwithgoodhabitsof savingworktodiskeveryfewminutes. 2Explainthebasicfeaturesoftheemailsystem.Showlearnersatleastthesubjectlineandthesend,replyandforwardfunctions.Makesuretheyallknowyour addressandtheirownaddresses.Youcanalsoshowthemhowtomakeagroupaddressfortheclass. 3Helplearnerstogetstarted.Probablythebestwaytodothisisforyoutorequireallofyourlearnerstoemailsomethingshorttoyou,withatimedeadline.It canbeworththinkingaboutusingashortwrittenexerciseforthispurpose,inwhichcaseyoucanattachatleastsomemarkstothetask.Youcouldalsosendallyour learnersamessage,towhichtheywouldneedtoreply.Ideaslikethiscanmakeallthedifferencetolearnerswhomightotherwisenotgetroundtofindingouthowto logintothesystemandsendanemail.

Page92 4Makelearners'effortsworthwhile.Ifyou'veaskedallmembersofaclasstoemailsomethingtoyou,trytorespondimmediately(withinadayortwo)toeach messageasitarrives.Thefactthatlearnersgetalittleindividualfeedbackviaemailfromyou,andthattheygetitquickly,helpsthemtoseeforthemselvesthepotential ofemailasacommunicationmedium. 5Pointoutthatemailisawayofpractisingspontaneouswrittencommunicationskills.Gettingstudentstocommunicatewitheachotherandwithyouusinge mailgivesthemanopportunitytouseawrittenmediumforrelativelyspontaneouscommunication.Attemptingtowriteinthehighlyinteractional,relativelyinformal mediumofemailcanmakethemmoreawareofstrengthsandweaknessesintheirsemiplannedlanguageuse. 6Promotethebenefitsofcomputerliteracy.Theinformationtechnologyrevolutionhasmeantthatamuchgreaterproportionofpeopleneedtousecomputersin theireverydayworkandlives.Beingcomputerliteratealsomeansthatpeopledon'thavetorelyonotherpeopletoperformvarioustasksforthem.Forexample, universitybasedlearnerswhohavemasteredwordprocessingdon'thavetopaysomeonetoprocesstheirthesesordissertations,andcankeepeditorialcontrolover them,makingitmucheasiertochangethemwhenevertheyreceivesomeusefulfeedbackaboutdraftversions. 7Encouragelearnerstowriteusingawordprocessingpackagebeforecuttingandpastingintoemail.WPpackagesusuallyhavemuchbetterediting facilities,includingspellingandgrammarcheckfacilities.Theyallowlearnerstoeditandpolishtheirwriting,sothattheycanhavecontroloverhowspontaneousthee mailmessageactuallyis.Iflearnersweretoattemptsomucheditingonahandwrittenmessage,itcouldeitherlookverymessy,orhavetobewrittenoutseveraltimes beforethesameamountofadjustmentshadbeenachieved. 8Remindlearnersthatemailcanbeviewedasenvironmentfriendly.Thesavingofpapercanbesignificant.Ifthecomputingfacilitiesarealreadyavailable,it canbearguedthatusingemailincursnegligiblecosts. 9Encouragelearnerstowriteshortemails!Oneoftheproblemswithemailcommunicationisthatpeopleonlytendtoreadthebeginningofamessage.Ifan incomingmessageistoolongforimmediatereading,peopletendeithertofilethemawayforlaterreading(andforgetthem!)orsimplydeletethem.

Page93 10Pointoutthatemailcommunicationsaresavedandkeptonthesystem.Theexactwaythishappensvariesbetweensystems,butallemailusersnormally haveatleastanin,outandtrashmailbox.Itmayalsobepossibletocopymessagestopersonalfilesordisks.Bywhatevermechanism,learnerscankeeptrackofall themessagestheyhavecomposedandsent.Keepingsimilartrackofhandwrittenmessagesislesslikely,orwouldinvolvethetroubleandexpenseofphotocopying. Learnerslookingbackatarangeofemailstheyhavecomposedcanseeforthemselveshowtheirskillswiththelanguagearedeveloping. 11Remindlearnersthatemailcanbeawayofkeepingintouchwithfriendsinotherinstitutions.MostuniversitiesandcollegeshaveInternetfacilities availabletolearners,makingitpossibleforthemtosendmessagestoanywhereintheworld,letaloneintheinstitution.Suchfacilitiesarenormallyfreeofchargeto learners,andinanycasetheactualcostsareinsignificantoncetheequipmenthasbeeninstalled.YoumaybeabletofindEnglishspeaking'keypals'foryourlearners throughalocalTESOLassociation.

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34 Settingupcomputerconferencing.
Ifyourlearnersarepeoplewhowouldenjoyparticipatingindebates,orgroupdecisionmaking/informationbuildingactivities,orpeerfeedbackactivities,thenitis worthconsideringdoingthesethingsviathemediumofacomputerconference.Thiscanbesetupinaparticularclass,oralternativelytoserveparticularneedsof learnersacrossarangeofclasses.Thetechnicalitiesofhowtosetupthecomputerconferencewillofcoursevaryaccordingtoparticularsystemsavailableindifferent institutions,sowedonotcoversetupassuchinthesetips.Butifthemediumofcomputerconferencingisavailabletoyou,wehopeoursuggestionsmayhelpyouto workouthowtomakethebestuseofit. 1Workoutdefinitepurposesforeachcomputerconference.Conferencesaremuchmoresuccessfulwhentheyareprovidedtorelatetoidentifiedneeds,or specificintendedoutcomes.Forexample,itcanbeusefultouseacomputerconferenceasavehicleforthecreationofanannotatedlistofselfaccessresourcesbya class,helpingstudentstolearnfromeachother'sworkintrackingdownrelevantorusefulmaterials. 2Explaintolearnersthebenefitsofparticipatingincomputerconferences.Learnerscanexchangealotofinformation,bothstudyrelatedandsocial,through suchconferences.Theycangetpeerfeedbackontheirownideas,andevenonselectedpartsoftheirwork.Participatingincomputerconferenceshelpslearnersto developcomputerrelatedskills:forexample,itcanquicklyhelpthemtospeeduptheirkeyboardingskills. 3Considerallocatingsomecourseworkmarksforparticipationinacomputerconference.Thisisonewayofensuringthatallthelearnersinaclassengage withaclassconference.Oncetheyhavemasteredthetechniqueofcontributingtoaconference,mostlearnersfindthattheyenjoyitenoughtomaintainahealthylevel ofparticipation.

Page95 4Establishtheextentoflearners'accesstonetworkedterminals.Inparticular,ifcontributiontoacomputerconferenceislinkedtocourseworkmarks,itis essentialtoensurethatlearnerscannotappealagainstassessmentdecisionsonthegroundsofnotbeingabletocontributeduetolackofopportunity. 5Usecomputerconferencesasanoticeboard.Aconferencecanprovideyouwithaquickandefficientwaytocommunicatedetailedinformationtothewholeofa class.Suchinformationcanincludebriefingsforassessedtasks,hintsandguidanceabouthowtogoaboutsuchtasks,aswellasusefuldaytodayinformation. Learnersthemselvescanprintoffandkeepanythingthatisparticularlyimportanttothem. 6Thinkcarefullyaboutstarterpages.Thesearetheintroductorycommentsthatlearnersreadwhentheylogintotheconference,andtowhichtheyappendtheir replies.Eachstarterpageshouldhaveadefinitepurpose,sothatrepliesandensuingdiscussionarefocusedratherthanrambling. 7Aimtogettheessenceofastarterpageontoasinglescreenofinformation,orless.Iflearnershavetoscrolldownmorethanonepagebeforefindingout whatisbeingaddressedandhowtheycanjoinin,theyarelesslikelytoreadthestarterpageand,therefore,lesslikelytostartcontributingtotheconference. 8Choosethetitlesofstarterpagescarefully.Ifyouhavemorethanonecomputerconferencegoing,thetitlesofstarterpagesarelikelytoappearonyour computersystemasanindex,intheorderinwhichthepageswereoriginallyentered.Aimtomakethesetitlesselfexplanatory,sothatlearnerscantellwhateach conferenceisaboutfromthedirectory,ratherthanhavingtoreadthewholeofastarterpagebeforefindingoutwhethertheywishtoexplorethetopicfurther. 9Don'tcovertoomuchinastarterpage.Itisbetterifeachconferenceisrelativelyselfcontained,andprescribed,ratherthanhavingtopicpageswhichcover severaldifferentaspects.Asnewmattersarisefromlearners'repliestostarterpages,decidewhethertointroducenewstarterpages/conferencestocarrythesematters forwardseparately.Addyourownresponsestodirectlearners,whomaybefollowingtheconferencethemes,regardingwhereintheconferenceeachthemeisbeing developedfurther.

Page96 10Vetcomputerconferencesrigorously.Forexample,removeanythingoffensiveorinappropriatebeforeitislikelytobeseenbymanylearners.Ifparticular learnersmisusetheconference,treattheissueseriouslyandseekthemoutandwarnthemoftheconsequencesofsuchactions,forexample,lossofcomputerprivileges orevensuspensionfromthecourse.Theprocessofcontrollingacomputerconferenceisoftenknownasmoderationitisusefultorecruitstudentmoderatorsfrom thoselearnerswhoareparticularlycomputerliterate,andwhomaybeonlytoowillingtobecomeconferencemoderators,editingandrearrangingcontributionsto keepthestructureoftheconferencefluentandeasytofollow.

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35 Choosingcomputeraidedlearningpackages
Asothertipsinthischapterreflect,weareatapointwheretheintegrationofelectronicmaterialsintoteachinglearningsituationsseemsevermorepossible.Learning andreferencepackagesarebeingputontothemarketinincreasingnumbers,andmanyteachershavetheknowledge,interestandfacilitiestocreatetheirown teaching/learningsoftware.Herewewilllookatfactorstoconsiderwhenchoosingcomputeraidedlearningpackages.Manyofthesuggestionsgivenelsewhereinthis bookaboutselectingprintbasedlearningpackagescontinuetoapplywhenchoosingcomputerbasedones.Someofoursuggestionsrelatetopackagesthatyoumight useinaclass,otherstooutofclassuse.Wehopeoursuggestionswillhelpyoutoselectappropriatepackagesforyourparticularlearners. 1Chooseyourpackagescarefully.Readagoodreview,forexampleinaneducationalsoftwarejournal,ofanypackageyouareconsideringbuying.Journalscan raiseyourawarenessofnewpackages,aswellasgiveinformationaboutthoseyouarealreadyawareof!Youcanalsoaskthesupplierormanufacturerfordetailsof clientswhohavealreadyusedparticularpackages,andcheckthatthepackagesreallydeliverwhatyouneed. 2Findoutaboutpackagesfromcolleaguesinotherinstitutions.Useyourcontacts.Askthemaboutpackagestheyknowofthatworkwellandreallyhelp studentstolearn.Alsoaskthemaboutpackagesthattheydon'tratehighly,andaboutthefactorsthatledthemtothisconclusion. 3Considerpackagesthatarenotspecificallydesignedforlanguagelearning.Anythingthatrequiresdecisionmaking,suchasa'dungeonsanddragons'type game,canprovokevaluablediscussionsiflearnersdotheactivitiesinsmallgroups.Childrenparticularlymightenjoyworkingwithpackagesdesignedtodevelopother cognitiveskills,suchasmathsskills,throughthemediumofEnglish.

Page98 4Trybeforeyoubuy.Computeraidedlearningpackagescanbequiteexpensive,especiallyifyouneedtopurchaseasitelicencetousethemonaseriesof networkedcomputerterminals,ortoissuelearnerswiththeirowncopiesonfloppydisk.Thebestindicatorofagoodpackageisevidencethatlearnersengagewithit andareappropriatelystretchedbyit.Ifyou'reconsideringbuyingaparticularpackage,trytogetasampleofyourlearnerstoevaluateitforyou.Theycanthengive youfeedbackontheirexperienceofusingit. 5Getfamiliarwiththepackage,beforegivingittoyourlearners.Thereisalearningcurvetobeascendedwithmostcomputerbasedpackages,anditisbestif yougoupthisaheadofyourlearners.Theywillneedhelponhowtomakebestuseofthepackage,aswellasonwhattheyaresupposedtobelearningfromit.Find outwhatitfeelsliketousethepackage.Byfarthebestwaytodothisistoworkthroughthepackageyourself.Findoutwhatlearnerswilldoastheyusethepackage, andcheckwhetherthetasksandactivitiesarereallyrelevanttoyourlearners,andpitchedatanappropriatelevelforthem. 6Checktheintendedlearningoutcomesofthecomputerbasedpackage.Thebestpackagesstatetheintendedlearningoutcomesclearlywithinthefirstfew screensofinformation.Alternatively,theintendedoutcomesmaybespelledoutinsupportingdocumentation,whichcomeswiththepackageitself.Checkthattheyare appropriateandthatthepackageactuallymatchesthem. 7Thinkaboutaccesstoequipmentandsoftware.Itcanbeprohibitivelyexpensivetogiveorloaneachlearnerboththesoftwareandthehardwareneeded. However,ifthepackageisanimportantpartoftheiroverallprogramme,waysneedtobefoundtomaximizetheiropportunitytoworkwithit.Somepackagescome withlicencearrangementstousethepackagewithagivennumberoflearners,eitherallowingmultiplecopiestobemade,orthepackagetobeusedoveranetwork. Ensurethatthesoftwareisprotectedinordertopreventunauthorizedcopying,orunlicenseduseonmorethanonemachine. 8Checkthatlearnerswillgetadequatefeedbackontheirworkwiththepackage.Oneofthemainstrengthsofcomputerbasedlearningpackagesisthat learnerscanbegiveninstantfeedbackeverytimetheyselectanoptioninamultiplechoicequestion,orkeyinawordorphrase,andsoon.Thefeedbackshouldbe muchmorethanjustthecorrectanswertothequestionortask.Learnerswhogetitwrongneedtofindoutfromtheprogrammewhytheiranswerorresponsewas wrong,andexactlywhatwaswrongaboutit.

Page99 9Checkhowlongactivitiesandpathwayswithinthepackageshouldtake.Thetimespentbylearnersshouldbereflectedinthelearningpayofftheyderivefrom theirstudieswiththepackage.Manycomputerbasedlearningpackagesindicatetheexpectedtimescalesthatareinvolvedinusingthem,butitiswellworthfindingout howlongtypicallearnersactuallytake.Alsofindoutwhetheragame,forexample,canbesavedtocontinuelateritisveryfrustratingforlearnerswhohavetoquita packagepartwaythroughanactivitytohavetostartagainfromthebeginningnexttime. 10Thinkaheadtoassessment.Workoutwhatwillbeassessed,relatingdirectlytothelearningthatistobedoneusingthecomputerbasedmaterials.Expressthis asassessmentcriteria,andcheckhowtheselinktotheintendedlearningoutcomes.Makesurethatlearners,beforeworkingthroughthecomputerbasedmaterials, knowwhatwillbeassessed,whenitwillbeassessedandhowitwillbeassessed. 11Exploresoftwarethattrackslearners.Manycomputerbasedmaterialscanbeusedtotrackindividuallearners'progressthroughthem.Thiscaninvolvepre testingandposttesting,andstoringthedataonthecomputersystem,aswellasmonitoringandrecordingthetimetakenbyeachlearnertoworkthrougheachpartof thepackage.Suchdatacanbeinvaluablefordiscoveringthemainproblemsthatlearnersmaybeexperiencingwiththetopic,andwiththepackageitself. 12Seekfeedbackfromyourlearners.Askthemwhataspectsofthepackagetheyfoundmostvaluableandmostimportant.Askthemalsowhat,ifanything,went wrongintheirownworkwiththepackage.Lookatthefeedbackyouobtainforanythingthatthrowslightonparticularcategoriesoflearnersfindingdifficultieswith learningfromthepackage(forexample,maturelearners,orthosewithleasttimeavailabletostudy,orpeoplewhoareuncomfortablewithnewtechnologies).Be sensitivetotheneedsofthosewhomayprefernottoworkwithacomputer.

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36 Designingcomputerdeliveredassessmentelements
Computerdeliveredassessmentcanbeusedtoreducetheburdenofsomekindsofroutinemarkingoflearners'work.Itcanalsobeusedtogivelearnersimmediate feedbackontheiranswerstostructuredquestions.Somecontemporarypackagesallowauthoringfacilities,sothatyoucanaddyourowntexts,makeassessment questionsandinputfeedback,anddecidewhatistoappearonparticularscreensmanyofoursuggestionsassumethatyouareworkingwiththistypeofsoftware.We hopethesuggestionswillhelpyoutoseewherecomputerdeliveredassessmentcouldfitintoyourwork. 1Workoutwhichareasoflanguagemaylendthemselvestocomputerdeliveredassessment.Suchassessmentispossiblewhereitisstraightforwardto designstructuredquestions,particularlymultiplechoiceones.Thisrequirestheretobeacorrect(orbest)option(referredtoasthekey),andotherincorrect(orless good)optionscalleddistractors. 2Checkcarefullythatthecorrectoptionreallyiscorrect.Ifthereisanythingatalldoubtfulaboutthecorrectanswertoamultiplechoicequestion,themostable learnersinparticulararelikelytobethrown.Alsocheckthatthereisnotthepossibilityofoneofthedistractorsbeingarguablycorrect,too. 3Lookattheclassexercisesthatyoualreadyuse.Manyofthewrittenexerciseswillcontainelementswhichlendthemselvestocomputerdeliveredassessment. Itisparticularlyusefultoconsiderpackagingupstraightforwardquestions,whichyouoftenuse,tosaveyoutime(andboredom)inmarkinglearners'answersbyhand. 4Lookatthemostcommonmistakesmadebylearnersinexistingtestsorexercises.Itisoftenpossibletoturnthesemistakesintodistractorsincomputer deliveredmultiplechoicetests.Thismeansthatyouhavethe

Page101 chancetoallowlearnerstomaketheseanticipatedmistakes,thenusethecomputertogivethemimmediatefeedback,whichisausefulsupplementtothefeedback fromtutormarkedwork. 5Considerusingcomputerdeliveredtestsforfeedbackonly,ratherthanassessment.Whilethecomputerprogramsmaynormallybeusedfortestingand keepinglearners'scores,itiseasytodisablethescoringifyouwishtodoso,andtodesigntestssimplytoexploitthebenefitoflearnersgettingimmediatefeedbackon theiranswers. 6Don'tforgettouseafewwordsofpraiseforlearnerswhoansweraquestioncorrectly.Simplysaying'good'or'welldone'providesusefulpositivefeedback tolearners,andthecomputerdoesn'tgettiredofrepeatingsuchwordsorphrases. 7Begentlewithincorrectanswers.Learnerswhopickanincorrectoptionmayneedreassurance.Theyalsomayneedhelpinseeingwhytheiroptionwas incorrect,andnotjusttobetoldwhatthecorrect(orbest)optionwouldhavebeen.Don'tresorttothedefaultfeedbackprovidedbythecomputerprogram,which maybeasbluntandunhelpfulas'youransweriswrongthecorrectansweris...' 8Helplearnerstoconsolidatetheirlearning.Whenfeedbackisbeingprovidedonscreen,itisparticularlyhelpfultolearnersiftheycanstillseethequestionand theoptionsfromwhichtheymadetheirselection,whilereadingyourfeedbacktotheoptionthattheyselected. 9Considerusingaprintoutofthetest,andthefeedback.Manycomputerdeliveredassessmentpackagescanbeprogrammedtoprovideaprintoutforeach learnerofallofthequestions,alongwithfeedbackontheoptionstheyselected,aswellasanoverallresultandfeedbackontheiroverallperformance.Itisusefulfor learnerstohavesomethingtheycanlookatagain,whentheyarenotatthecomputerorterminal. 10Makethemostofthesoftware.Itmaybepossibletoprogrammethesoftwaretokeeprecordsforeachlearner,andforawholeclass,andtoprintoutclass performancelists.Itmayalsobepossibletogetthesoftwaretoanalysetheperformanceofeachindividualquestionandoption.Thesoftwarecanworkoutthefacility valueofeachquestion,showingwhichquestionsprovedtobeeasyorhardingeneral.Itcanalsocomputethediscriminationindexofeachquestion,showingwhich questionsarebestatseparatingthemoreablelearnersfromthelessableones.

Page102 11Pilotyourtestsorexerciseswell.Eachtimeyourunaparticularcomputerdeliveredtestorexercise,youcannormallylearnalotabouthowthequestions, optionsandfeedbackcanallbefinetunedandpolished.Itisthenpossibletoeditandimprovethetestorexercise. 12Usecomputerdeliveredtestsorexercisestogatherfeedbackfromlearners.Forexample,youcansetafewmultiplechoicequestionstoasklearnerswhat theythinkaboutthetestorexercise(notscoringsuchquestionsofcourse).Youmaybesurprisedtofindouthowmuchlearnerslikethecomputerdeliveredformat, particularlyiftheyfindyourfeedbackcommentshelpfulandrelevant.

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37 Givinglearnersfeedbackusingemail
Emailisparticularlyusefulasavehicleforgivinglearnersindividualfeedbackontutormarkedwork.Thefollowingsuggestionsmayhelpyoutoexploitthebenefitsof email,notleasttosaveyoutimeandenergyingivinglearnersfeedback. 1Makethemostofthecomfortofprivacy.Whenlearnersreceivefeedbackbyemail(asopposedtofacetofaceoringroupsituations),theyhavethecomfortof beingabletoreadthefeedbackwithoutanyoneseeingtheirreactionstoit.Thiscanbeusefulwhenthefeedbackiscomplex,andthereisalotofinformationtotakein. Itcanalsobeusefulwhenthefeedbackiscriticalalthoughsometimeswrittencriticismcansoundverycold.Youwillneedtojudgewhenitwouldbemoreappropriate toaskalearneractuallytoseeyouaboutaparticularpieceofwork. 2Rememberthatyoucanedityourownfeedbackbeforeyousendit.Forexample,youmaywellwanttoadjustindividualfeedbackcommentsinthelightofthat learner'soverallperformance.Itismuchhardertoedithandwrittenfeedbackonalearner'swrittenwork.Emailfeedbackallowsyoutotypeinimmediatefeedbackto thingsthatyouseeineachlearner'swork,andtoadjustordeleteparticularpartsofyourfeedbackasyougofurtherintomarkingtheirwork. 3Exploitthespace.Insertinghandwrittenfeedbackcommentsintolearners'writtenworkislimitedbytheamountofspacethattheremaybeforyourcomments. Withemailfeedback,youdon'thavetorestrictyourwordingifyouneedtoelaborateonapoint.

Page104 4Considercombiningemailfeedbackwithwrittenfeedback.Forexample,youcanwriteontolearners'workaseriesofnumbersorletters,atthepointswhere youwishtogivedetailedfeedback.Theemailfeedbackcanthentranslatethesenumbersorlettersintofeedbackcommentsorphrases,sothatlearnerscansee exactlywhateachelementoffeedbackistellingthem.Thefactthatlearnersthenhavetodecodeeachfeedbackelementmayhelpthemtothinkaboutitmoredeeply, andlearnfromitmoreeffectively,thanwhentheycanseethefeedbackdirectlyontheirwork. 5Spareyourselffromrepeatedtyping.Whendesigningcomputerdeliveredfeedbackmessages,youshouldonlyhavetotypeeachmessageonce.Youcanthen copyandpasteallofthemessageswhereyouneedtogiveseverallearnersthesamefeedbackinformation.Itcanbeusefultocombinethisprocesswithnumbersor letters,whichyouwriteontolearners'work,andbuildingupeachemailtoindividuallearnersbypastingtogetherthefeedbackmessageswhichgowitheachofthe numbersorletters. 6Considerthepossibilitiesof'global'feedbackmessages.Forexample,youmaywishtogiveallofthelearnersinalargegroupthesamefeedbackmessage aboutoverallmattersarisingfromatestorexercise.Theoverallmessagecanbepastedintoeachemail,beforetheindividualcommentsaddressedtoeachlearner. 7Checkthatyouremailfeedbackisgettingthrough.Mostemailsystemscanbeprogrammedtosendyoubackamessagesayingwhentheemailwasopened andbywhom.Thiscanhelpyoutoidentifyanylearnerswhoarenotopeningtheiremails.Itcanalsobeusefultoendeachemailwithaquestionaskingthelearnerto replytoyouonsomepointarisingfromthefeedback.Thishelpstomakesurethatlearnersdon'tjustopentheiremailfeedbackmessages,buthavetoreadthem! 8Keeprecordsofyouremailfeedback.Itiseasytokeepcopiesondiskofallofyourfeedbacktoeachlearner,andyoucanopenafolderforeachlearnerifyou wish.Thismakesitmucheasiertokeeptrackofyourongoingfeedbacktoindividuallearners,thanwhenyourhandwrittenfeedbackislosttoyouwhenyoureturntheir worktothem.

Page105 9Makethemostofthetechnology.Forexample,someemailsystemssupportspellcheckfacilitiesthatcanallowyoutotypereallyfastandignoremostofthe resultingerrors,untilyoucorrectthemalljustbeforesendingyourmessage.Thisalsocausesyoutorereadeachmessage,whichcanbeveryusefulforencouragingyou toaddsecondthoughtsthatmayhaveoccurredtoyouasyouwentfurtherinyourassessmentofthetask. 10Useemailtogatherfeedbackfromyourlearners.Learnersareoftenboldersittingatacomputerterminalthantheyarefacetoface.Askyourlearners questionsabouthowtheyarefindingselectedaspectsoftheirstudies,butdon'tturnitintoanobviousroutinequestionnaire.Includesomeopenendedquestions,so thattheyfeelfreetoletyouknowhowtheyarefeelingabouttheirownprogressandaboutyourteaching,too.

Page106 Thispageintentionallyleftblank.

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Chapter6Assessment
38 39 40 41 42 Designingclassroomtests Givingfeedbackonclassroomtests Gettinglearnerselfassessmentgoing Gettinglearnerpeerassessmentgoing Preparinglearnersforpublicexaminations

Assessmentcanbedescribedastheenginethatdrivesstudents'learning.Thefactthat,inmanycontexts,studentsarebecomingmorestrategicmeansthatassessment canbeharnessedtohelpthemtofocustheirlearning,aswellastomeasuretheleveltheyhavereached.Ifyouwishtoreadfromacrossdisciplinaryperspectiveonthe differentkindsofassessmentyoumaywishtochoosefrom,pleaselookat500TipsonAssessment(SallyBrown,PhilRaceandBrendaSmith,1995),whereamuch widerrangeofassessmentformatsisaddressed. Ourchapteronassessmentbeginsandendswithtesting.Theprimarybenefitthatlearnerscanreapfromtestingisfeedback,sothedesignofaclassroomtestshouldbe regardedaspavingthewayforlearnerstodeepentheirlearningfromfeedbackonanythingtheygetwrong,ratherthantryingtofindouthowmanylearnerscanget thingsright. Wealsoincludesomesuggestionsforinvolvinglearnersintheirownassessment.Selfassessmentcanbringthecomfortofprivacytofindingoutaboutstrengthsand weaknesses.Peerassessmentcanextendtheamountoffeedbackthatlearnersreceive,anddeepentheirlearningthroughtheprocessofapplyingassessmentcriteriato someoneelse'swork.BothselfandpeerassessmentcanhelplearnerstotuneintotheassessmentcultureinwhichtheyarelearningEnglish,andcanhelpthemtosee howtheexaminer'smindwillworkwhenassessingtheirworkwhenitcounts. Ourfinalsuggestionsinthischapterpointtowardshelpingyourlearnerstosucceedinpublicexams,whereyoumayneedtojoinforceswithyourlearnerstohelpthem toadjusttheirstrategicpreparationsinthemostsensibleways.

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38 Designingclassroomtests
Aformalclassroomtestisoneofthemanyoptionsavailableifyouwanttoassessyourlearners'progressandachievement.Inmanyinstitutions,formaltestsarehighly valuedandeveryoneexpectsthatteacherswillusethem.Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyoutodesignsmallscaleteststhatallowyourstudentstoshowwhat theyhavelearnt,andwhichfiteasilywiththestylesofteachingandlearningwhicharepresentinyourclassroom. 1Makeyourtestrepresentativeratherthanexhaustive.Lookbackthroughyourlessonnotestoseewhattheteachinggoalshavebeenintheperiodleadingup tothetest,andthendraftquestionswhichrelatetothosegoals.Thisisagoodwayofensuringcontentrelevance,withouttryingtocovereverydetailoftheteaching programme. 2Useactivitiesthatyouuseinclass.Forexample,ifyousometimesaskyourlearnerstoreorderjumbledparagraphstoformacoherenttext,alsoconsiderthis activityforyourtest.Learnerswilldobetteronactivitiestheyarefamiliarwith,andtheywillalsobeencouragedtoseethelinksbetweenthetestandthewiderlearning experience. 3Avoidunfamiliarquestionformats.Sometimesit'stemptingtochoosethequestionformatsweseeinpublicexams,especiallyifthey'requickandeasytomark. Somepeoplefeelthattheseformatslendauthorityandobjectivitytoclassroomtests.Butifthetestformatsarenotrepresentativeofthewayyouteach,theymaynot providevalidinformationaboutyourlearners'progressinclass. 4Getacolleaguetocheckyourquestionpaper.Itisalltooeasytowriteinstructionsthatarenotclear,or'objective'questionswherethereisactuallymorethan onerightanswer.Acolleaguecanoftenspotproblemslikethis.It'sespeciallyimportanttocheckthequestionpaperinsettingswherethelearnerswillbeexpectedto takethetestinsilence,withoutfurtherhelpfromtheteacher.

Page109 5Makeyourtestcriterionreferenced.Foreachquestionortask,haveaspecificideaofwhatlearnersmustdotogainmarks.Makesurethecriteriarelatetowhat you'vedoneinclass.Ifthismeansthatmanylearnersgetsimilar,highmarks,somuchthebetterthisshowsthattestingandlearningareworkingtogether. 6Usemarkschemeswhereappropriate.Markschemesareanimportantpartofcriterionreferencingforsubjectivelymarkedquestions,suchasletterwritingtasks ororalinteractions.Ifyouwritedowntheexpectedcharacteristicsofperformancesatdifferentlevels,andrefertotheguidewhenmarking,youarelesslikelytofind yourselfmarkingsimplybyimpression.Impressionmarkingtendstoleadtolearnersbeingcomparedwitheachother,ratherthanwiththetestcriteria. 7Helpyourlearnerstopreparewell.Telltheminadvancewhenthetestwillbe,andtellthemaboutthelikelycontent,questiontypesandmarkingcriteria.Learners aremorelikelytolearnfromtestpreparationiftheycanbeconfidentthattheireffortsareappropriatelydirected. 8Givedetailedfeedback,promptly.Ifthetestistobepartofthelearningexperience,learnersneedspecificadviceaboutwheretheydidwellandwheretheydid lesswell.Andthisfeedbackislikelytobemosteffectiveifitisgivenwhenthetestexperienceisstillfreshinthelearners'minds,andwhentheyareanxioustoknow howtheygoton. 9Involvelearnersinmarkingwhereyoucan.For'objective'questions,withonecorrectanswer,itisrelativelysimpletoinvolvelearnersinmarkingtheirownor theirclassmates'papers.Asyouleadadiscussionastowhyvariousalternativesareorarenotacceptable,learnersareencouragedtothinkmoredeeplyaboutthe languagebeingtested. 10Keepitshort!Classroomtestswillprobablyhappenquitefrequently.Soshort,representativetestshelptoensurethattestpreparation,administrationand feedbackdonotcometodominatethewholeoftheteachinglearningexperience.

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39 Givingfeedbackonclassroomtests
Studentscanlearnagreatdealfromfeedbackontests,butthisdependsverysignificantlyonhowandwhenthefeedbackisdelivered,andonhowwellthelearners themselvesareabletoreceivethefeedback.Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyourlearnerstooptimizethebenefitsthatfeedbackonclassroomtestscanbring them. 1Givefeedbackassoonaspossible.Feedbackworksbestwhenlearnerscanstillrememberwhattheyweretryingtodointhetest.Inparticular,whenlearners havemademistakes,givethemfeedbacksoquicklythattheycanstillrememberthepossibilitiestheywereweighingupwhentheymadetheirdecisionsinthetest. 2Helplearnerstoseethatfeedbackisvaluable.Itisusefultomakesurethatlearnersareawareofhowmuchtheycanlearnfromfeedback.Ideally,learners shouldwanttohavefeedbackoneverythingtheydo,bothtofindoutwhattheyaredoingwell,andtodiagnoseareasuponwhichtoconcentratefurtherefforts. 3Helplearnersnottoshrugoffpositivefeedback.Inmanycultures(notleastEnglishspeakingones),thereisatendencytobeembarrassedbypositive feedback.Learners(andothers)oftendon'treceivethefullbenefitoffeedbackonthingsthattheyhavedonewell,duetotheirtendencytodismisspraise.Helplearners toseethattakingownershipofthingsthattheyhavedonewellisanimportantsteptowardsbeingabletocontinuetodothemwell. 4Helplearnerstoreceivecriticalfeedback.Allcriticalfeedbackshouldbeconstructive,showinglearnersnotjustwhatwaswrongwiththeirwork,butwhatsteps theycantaketoovercometheparticularweaknessesorproblemsthatwereinvolved.Inparticular,learnersneedtoknowwhytheirowneffortsmayhavebeen incorrectorproblematic.

Page111 5Beawareoflearners'feelings.Forexample,writtenfeedbackinredpenisimmediatelyoffputting,evenifthefeedbackisentirelypositive.Also,wordslike 'failed','havenotunderstood...','didnotgrasp...','disappointing',andsoon,haveobviouslydamagingeffectsonlearners'morale,andcanclosethemdown regardingtheirreceptionofyourfeedback. 6Useacombinationofwrittenandoralfeedback.Bothkindsoffeedbackhavetheiradvantagesandtheirlimitations,andtomakefeedbackaseffectiveas possibleitisusefultousebothtoolstomakethefeedbackascomprehensiveandrelevantaspossible. 7Exploitoralfeedbackforthehumanwarmthitcandeliver.Facetofacefeedbackcanbringtoneofvoice,facialexpression,smiles,aswellasthechanceto monitortheeffectthatthefeedbackishavingonlearners,andtoadjustthedeliveryoffurtherfeedbackaccordingly.Thedangeristhatlearnersonlyremember particularpartsoforalfeedback,andmay(forexample)onlyrememberthebadnews,anddismissorforgetimportantgoodnews. 8Exploitthepermanenceofwrittenfeedback.Writtenfeedbackcanconveybothgoodandbadnews.Therecordispermanent,whichmeansthatlearnerscan revisitbothkindsofnewsabouttheirwork.Atthesametime,itisparticularlyimportanttodeliveranybadnewsinakindandsensitivewaywhenusingwritten feedback,otherwiselearners'moraleandmotivationcanbepermanentlydamaged. 9Getfeedbackonyourfeedbackprocesses!Findouthowlearnersprefertoreceivefeedbackontheirwork.Expecttodiscoverthatsomelearnersfindoral feedbackmostuseful,whileothersbenefitmorefromwrittenfeedback,andwherepossibleaccommodatelearners'ownpreferences. 10Findoutaboutyourlearners'feedbackagendas.Askyourlearnerswhatfeedbacktheywouldparticularlylike.Sometimesyouwillfindthattheywouldlike feedbackgoingbeyondyourperceptionoftheirfeedbackneeds.Givinglearnersfeedbackonthingstheyhaveaskedforincreasestheirsenseofownershipofthe feedbackagenda,andhelpsthemtoreceivebothpositiveandcriticalfeedbackmoreeffectively.

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40 Gettinglearnerselfassessmentgoing
Studentscanlearnagreatdealfromselfassessment.Itisimportantnottomixuplearnerselfassessmentandlearnerpeerassessmentbothprocessespaydividends, buttheyarequitedifferent.Thefollowingsuggestionsaimtogiveyousomeideasonhowyoucanputlearnerselfassessmenttooptimumuseinyourprogrammes. 1Selfassessmentdoesnothaveto'count'.Manyteachersareafraidtointroducelearnerselfassessment,incasethereshouldbeallegationsthatlearnersarebeing toogeneroustothemselves,compromisingthereliabilityoftheassessment.(Inpractice,infact,moststudiesshowthatifanythinglearnerstendtobeovercritical,not overgenerous,whenassessingtheirownwork).Beginningselfassessmentasadevelopmentalprocessonly,withoutitcontributingtoafinalmark,canbereassuring bothforlearnersandfortheschooladministration. 2Selfassessmentisanexcellentwayofalertinglearnerstowhatisimportant.Applyingassessmentcriteriatotheirownworkhelpslearnerstoseehow assessors'mindswork,andhelpsthemtotunetheirworktomatchwhatisbeinglookedforbyassessors. 3Trainlearnersinselfassessment.Itisworthdoingatleastoneortwowholeclassexercises,thenfacilitatinglearnerselfassessment,sothatanylearnerswhoare uncertainhowbesttogoaboutmeasuringtheirownworkcanbehelped.Suchexercisescanalsohelptoconvincelearnersthattheirownselfassessmentcanbejust asaccurateandvaluableasassessmentbyanexpert,suchasatutor.

Page113 4Bereadyfor'...butyourjobistoassessmywork.'Somelearnersmayholdtheviewthatassessmentisnothingtodowiththem.Thisispartlyaquestionof educationalculture,andyouwillneedtobesensitiveabouttheappropriacyofaninnovationlikeselfassessment.However,youmaybeabletowinlearnersover,by alertingthemtohowmuchtheycanlearnfrommeasuringtheirownwork,andreassuringthemthatyouwillstillbeassessingit,too,butthatyouwillbeabletohelp themallthemorewhenyouseetheirownperceptionsofhowtheirworkisprogressing. 5Selfassessmentcanbedoneinthecomfortofprivacy.Itisusefultogetlearnerstoselfassesssomeoftheirownworkwithouthavinganyinquestordebriefing. Thisallowslearnerstonoteareasofweaknesswithoutanyoneelsebeingawareofthem,andtoaddresstheseareasprivatelybeforeundertakingmorepublickindsof assessment. 6Explorethebenefitsofaselfassessmenttutordialogue.Forexample,getlearnerstoselfassessexercisesortestsbeforehandingthemin,andthengivethem feedbackontheprecisionoftheirselfassessment.Thisisagoodwayoffindingoutthoseareaswherelearnerslackawareness,andworkingoutwhattodotohelp learnerstoaddresssuchareas. 7Useselfassessmenttospeedupyourassessments.Particularlywiththeassessmentoflearners'writtenwork,itcanbemuchfastertomarkworkthatlearners themselveshavealreadyselfassessed,thantomark'raw'exercisesortests.Itbecomeseasiertoidentifythoseareaswherelearnersreallyneedfeedbackfromyou and,forexample,toplanfurtherexercisestoaddressissuesthatarecausingmostlearnerssomedifficulty. 8Allowselfassessmenttodeepenlearning.Itishighlyproductivetogetlearnersthemselvestoworkoutwhatwasgoodandwhatwasproblematicintheirown work.This,attheveryleast,helpsthemtoreflectoneverythingthattheyhavedoneinatestoranexercise.Atbest,learnersselfassessingoftenthenseewhatthey couldhavedonetoavoidmistakes.Theythenhavethesenseofownershipofsuchdiscoveries,andcanbemuchmorelikelytobuildonthisownershipthanifsomeone elsehadassessedtheirwork. 9Helplearnerstodevelopacultureofselfassessment.Learnerswhohavebecomeaccustomedtotheprocessesofselfassessmentareabletoextendtheminto theirrevisionstrategies.Revisionisbetterfocusediflearnersarecontinuouslymeasuringtheirownperformance,ratherthantryingtopreparefortheunknown.

Page114 10Considersometimescouplinglearnerselfassessmentwithpeerassessment.Althoughselfassessmentisessentiallyquitedifferentfrompeerassessment,it isusefulforlearnerstohavesomeopportunitiestocomparethewaystheyareselfassessingtheirworkwithfellowlearners.Awayofbridgingthegapistousethe occasionaltaskorexercisethatisfirstselfassessed,thenpeerassessed,andtogetlearnerstolookforthethingsthattheylearntfromanydifferencesthatarose betweenthetwoapproaches.

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41 Gettinglearnerpeerassessmentgoing
Peerassessmentcanbeparticularlyusefulforlanguagelearning,becauseitisinitselfademandingandmultifacetedcommunicationtask.Thefollowingsuggestionsmay alertyoutowaysinwhichyoumightchoosetobuildonthebenefitsofpeerassessment. 1Usepeerassessmentasawayofgettingmorefeedbacktolearners.Thiscanincludefeedbackonbothoralandwrittenexercises.Iftheabilityrangeofthe groupismixed,youmayneedtoensurethatlearnersdon'talwaysreceivefeedbackfromthesamepeers,sothatthefeedbackgivenbythemostablelearnersisshared aroundthewholegroup. 2Explainthebenefitsofpeerassessmenttolearners.Itisimportantthattheydon'tfeelthatpeerassessmentisacopoutonyourpart!Explaintothemthat peerassessmentmeansthattheygetmorefeedbackthanyouwouldhavebeenabletogivethemyourself,andthatyouwillthenbeabletoconcentrateongivingthem feedbackaboutreallyimportantaspectsoftheirlearning. 3Remindlearnersofthebenefitsofexplainingthingstoeachother.Explainingadifficultareaisoneofthebestwaysofhelpingthelearnerwhoisactuallytrying toexplainit,tomakesenseoftheissue.Puttingthingsintowordshelpslearnerstogettheirownmindsaroundideasandconcepts.Onthereceivingend,having somethingexplainedbyafellowlearnercanbelessintimidatingthanwhenatutorisdoingtheexplaining. 4Maketheassessmentcriteriareallyclear.Whenassessinglearners'workyourself,youwillprobablydomuchofyourassessmentagainstcriteriathatareclear inyourmind,butnotwrittendowninanydetail.Forlearnerstobeabletopeerassesswell,theyneedafirmbriefingaboutwhattheyshouldbelookingfor,and elementsthatshouldscoremarksaswellaslosethem.

Page116 5Considergettingthelearnersthemselvestoformulatethecriteriaforpeerassessment.Asklearners,ingroups,toworkoutamarkingschemeforataskor exercise,andtoputmarksagainstcriteriathattheywouldbelookingforwhileassessingeachother'swork.Geteachgrouptodisplaytheircriteriatothewholeclass, andjustifytheweightingtheyhaveawardeddifferentelementsoftheirschemes.Thenhelpthelearnerstochooseanoverallpeerassessmentschemewhichreflects eachofthegroupproducts.Aimforthewholegrouptohaveasenseofownershipofthefinalpeerassessmentcriteria. 6Thinkaboutwhenthepeerassessmentcriteriashouldbegenerated.Whenthecriteriaaregeneratedbeforelearnersundertakethetaskthatisgoingtobe peerassessed,learnerscankeepthecriteriainmindastheywork,andthequalityoftheirworkisbetter.Alternatively,workingoutpeerassessmentcriteriaafter learnershaveundertakenatasktendstoleadtosharpercriteria,astheyknowwhattheytriedtoachieveinthetask. 7Considerusingpeerassessmenttocovermoreground.Forexample,setarangeofpeerassessedtasks,sothatlearnersareallassessingsomethingthatthey havenotdonethemselves.Thiscausestheclassasawholetodomorethinkingandpractising,andtobecomeawareofanygapintheirownlanguageresources. 8Assessalongsidelearnerswhoarepeerassessing.If,forexample,learnersarepeerassessingeachother'spresentations,itcanbeusefulforyoutoassess alongsidethem,usingthesamecriteria.Whenlearnersseethattheaverageoftheirassessmentisclosetoyours,theirconfidenceinpeerassessmentincreases,andthey becomemorewillingtoenterintoitfullyinfuture. 9Moderateandadjudicateasnecessary.Youmayfindthatitismuchquickertomoderatealargepileofpeerassessedwrittenworkthantomarkitfromscratch yourself.Youwillsoonbealertedtotheparticularlearnerswhosepeerassessingistoolenientortooharsh,andcanadjustaccordingly.Youwillalsoquicklypickup thepointsthatyoumaywanttogivefeedbackontothewholeclass.

Page117 10Considerawardingsomemarksforthequalityofpeerassessment.If,forexample,learnersarepeerassessingsomethingwhichcountsfor20marks,think aboutgivingeachlearnerafurtherfivemarksforpeerassessingreallywell,andaskingthelearnerswhoseworkhasbeenpeerassessedtomakethefirstdecision abouthowmanyofthesemarkshavebeenearned,thenmoderatethisyourself.Thefactthattherearemarksattachedtotheprocessofpeerassessingisnormally enoughincentivetohelplearnerstoapproachthetaskmoreearnestly.

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42 Preparinglearnersforpublicexaminations.
Manyofusareteachinginacontextwhereourstudents'languagelearningwillbeassessedviaanexternalexamination.Indeedforsomelearners,thegoalofpassingan examisinfactthemainmotivationforattendingclasses.Thesesuggestionsshouldhelpyoutorespondbothtothebroadgoalofhelpingstudentstolearnmoreand moreeffectively,andtothespecificgoalofhelpingthemtopasstheirtargetexam. 1Familiarizeyourselfwiththeexamsyllabus.Manyexamboardsprovideinformationaboutthelanguagecontentandprocesseswhichmightbetestedina particularexam.Theyalsoprovideinformationaboutthetexttypesmostusuallyusedforinput,andaboutmarkingcriteria.Gettingapictureoftheprinciplesbehindan examisthefirststepindecidinghowtoprepareforit. 2Familiarizeyourselfwiththequestionformats.Inmanymodernexams,thelinebetweentestcontentandtestmethodisblurred,sothatthequestionformats mightrepresentspecificlanguageskillsthatyourlearnersneedtoacquire.Andiflearnersarefamiliarwiththequestionformats,theywillfeelmoreconfidentand, therefore,performbetterwhentheycometotaketheexam. 3Getholdofexaminers'reportsforpreviousyears.Thesegiveinvaluableinsightintohowmarkingcriteriaareactuallyused,andintothestandardsexaminers expect.Theymayincludeextractsfromtheperformanceofpreviouscandidates,whichyoucouldlookatwithyourownlearners. 4Seeifthereisacoursebookassociatedwiththeexam.Wellknown,internationalexamsdotendtospawncoursebooks.Youwillneedtochoosecarefullythey varyinapproachandquality,andsomehavebeencriticizedfornotactuallymatchingtheirtargetexamverywell.Butbyevaluatingandbeingselective,youwill probablyfindusefulmaterial.

Page119 5Becreativeaboutexampractice.It'softenappropriatetouseanexamfocusedcoursebookorevenpastexampapersinclass.Butyoumayneedtoadaptthese iftheyarealsotofunctionwellasteachingmaterials.Forexample,couldyoupersonalizeanyoftheactivities?Thenyourlearnerswillstillbepractisingfortheexam, buttheywillalsobelearningtotalkabouttheirownlives,whichismorevaluableinthelongrun. 6Encouragecollaborationduringpractice.Someexamquestionseven'objective'questionscouldbeadaptedforlearnerstoworkoninpairsorgroups.This givesthemanopportunitytodiscusswhatlanguageismostcorrectormosteffectiveasananswer.Thediscussionprocessencouragesreflectionand,therefore,deeper learning. 7Sharemarkschemeswithlearners.Wheretestquestions(forexample,writingtasks)havemarkschemes,showthesetoyourlearners.Helpthemtounderstand theconcepts,evenifthelanguageofthemarkschemeisdifficultforthem.Encouragethemtoevaluatetheirownworkusingthemarkingcriteria. 8Recordyourlearners'oralperformance.Iftheexamincludesspeakingtasks,recordyourlearnersastheypractiseoneofthese.Playtherecordingback,and discussit.Thiswillsharpenlearners'awarenessofthosefeaturesthatgetgoodmarksinexams. 9Letlearnersseetheirprogress.Laterinthecourseyoucanrecordthesamespeakingtaskagain,andcomparethetworecordings.Itismotivatingforlearnersto seehowtheyareprogressing.Italsohelpsthemtoseethatlanguagelearningisnotjustlearningtodomorethingsitcanmeanlearningtodothesamethingbetter. 10Don'tlosesightofthewholeeducationalexperience.Agoodcoursewillcontinuetobevaluabletolearnerslongaftertheexamhasbeentaken.Sohelpthem, atappropriatetimes,tofocusontheirwidereducationalaspirationsandalsokeepfocusingonyourown.

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Chapter7PersonalandProfessionalDevelopment
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Usingprofessionaljournals Doingactionresearch Startingateachingportfolio Buildingyourteachingportfolio Managingyourtime Dealingwithstress Workingasaparttimeteacher Copingwithyourpaperwork

Partsofthischapterareaboutyourowncontinuingprofessionaldevelopment,andotherpartsareaboutyoursurvival! FirstwelookatwaysofcontinuingtoeducateyourselfinTESOL.Readingprofessionaljournalsisanimportantwayofkeepinguptodatewith,andreflectingcritically upon,developmentsinourfield.Ifyouwantfurthertipsonfollowingupthelastsuggestioninthisset,try500TipsforGettingPublished(SallyBrown,Dolores Black,AbbyDayandPhilRace,1998). ContemporaryTESOLismovingtowardsbreakingdownunproductivebarrierswhichmayexistbetweenteachingandresearch.Weoffersomesuggestionson'Action Research'thatmayalertyoutowaysthatyoucancontinuetodocreativeresearchduringyourteaching. Wethenoffersomesuggestionsonstartingandbuildingyourownteachingportfolio.Inmanyculturesandinstitutionsthereisagrowingtendencytoaskteachersto buildupaformalrecordofteachingachievement.Avaluableinstrumentforassessmentofteachingcompetenceisprovingtobetheteachingportfolio,collecting togetherevidenceofpractice,includingobservationofteaching.Ifyoucommityourselftothebuildingofsuchaportfolioasadevelopmentalprocess,youwillhavean ideallocationinwhichtoexpressthefindingsofyouractionresearchprojects.Wehopethatoursuggestionswillhelpyoutobuildyourportfolio,sothatitisavailable forassessmentifandwhenyouneedit. Theremainderofthischapterisaboutsurvivalratherthanprofessionaldevelopment,butcanbeviewedoptimisticallyas'personaldevelopment'.Westartwithsome suggestionsontimemanagement.Ifyoualreadymanageyour

Page122 timereallywell,youarelesslikelytoneedournextsetofsuggestionsonstress,butstressisbynomeansconfinedtotheconsequencesoffailedtimemanagement. Thenthefollowingsetofsuggestionsisdirectedparticularlytoparttimeteachers,whoseconditionsofemploymentcaninthemselvescausevariouskindsofstress.We endwithsomehintsonwhattodowiththepapermountainthatmayhaveaccumulatedonyourdeskwhileyouwerereadingthischapter!

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43 Usingprofessionaljournals
Inourfieldthereareanumberofjournalswhosearticlesaremainlywrittenfromtheperspectiveofclassroompractice.Sucharticlescanbeausefulstimulusfor professionaldevelopmentatanystageofacareer.Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyoumakethemostofthem. 1Getaccess,foryourselfandothers.Thinkbothoftheinternationalpractitioners'journals(eg,ELTJournal,EnglishTeachingProfessional,Forum,TESOL journal),andoflocaljournalswhichmaybeproducedbyteachers'associationsinyourarea.Thenfindoutwheretheyarestocked.Ifyourowninstitutiondoesnot subscribetothem,perhapsthereisanearbyacademiclibrarywhichdoes.Withinthelimitsofcopyrightregulations,youandcolleaguescanbuilduparesourcebankof photocopiedarticlestokeepinyourstaffroom. 2Lookoutfordifferenttypesofarticle.Lotsofarticlesinthesejournalsare'howto'articles:reportsofideasthathaveworkedwellintheclassroomforthewriter, andthatreaderscouldtry.Butotherarticlesareevaluationsof,forexample,textbooks,discussionsofdifficultissuesintheprofession,ordiscussionsoftherationale foraparticularapproach.Thesevariousarticletypescanbeusefulindifferentways. 3Readcritically.Articlesareofmostusewhenyoucanrelatethemtoyourownexperience,andmakeyourowndecisionsabouttherelevanceoftheargumentsand usefulnessoftheideas.Thefollowingtipsgiveyousomepointerstolookfor. 4Findthesuggestionsinthetext.If,forexample,anarticlecontainsanaccountofhowselfaccessmaterialsarepreparedinaparticularinstitution,thenthiscould beinterpretedasasuggestionthatreadersmighttrysomethingsimilar.Ifyoureadarticlesinthislight,youwillgetagoodsenseoftherelevancetheymayhaveforyou personally.

Page124 5Lookattheproceduraldetails.Perhapsyouwanttotryoutanideafromanarticle.Hasthewritertoldyouenoughabouttheircontextandtheprocessesthey wentthroughtoenableyoutoseewhatyouyourselfshoulddo?Whatgapsdoyouneedtofillin?Writedownanactionplan,adaptingthewriter'sideastoyourown circumstances. 6Checkthesettingforthearticle.Whatdoesthewritertellyouaboutthelearners,institutionorcountrythattheyhaveinmindastheywritetheirarticle?Isthe writer'ssituationsimilartoyours,ordifferent?Canyouidentifywithitevenifyouhavenodirectexperienceofit?Whataretheimplicationsofanydifferencesbetween yoursituationandthatofthewriter? 7Thinkaboutthescopeofthearticle.Forexample,ifthewriteristalkingaboutadifficultissue,dotheyseeitasdifficultineverycontext,orjustinsome?What arethesourcesofthewriter'sinformationaboutthedifficulties?Doyouagreethattheproblemdiscussedisreallythere? 8Noticehowthewritertalksabouttherestoftheprofession.ManyarticlesincludestatementsaboutwhereTESOLisatthis,ofcourse,isthewriter's interpretationofwhereweareat.Doyouagreewiththewriter'sassertionsandimplicationsaboutwhat'mostof'ourprofessionsaysordoes?Ifnot,howdoesthis affectyourviewofthewriter'sownideas? 9Lookforpositiveevaluations.Thewriterwillprobablytellyouthattheiranalysishasproveduseful,orthattheirclassroomideaworkedwell.Butdotheytellyou abouttheevidencefortheseclaims?Whatexactlyaretheircriteriaforsuccess?Trytofindthisinformation,anduseittocarryonthinkingaboutthearticle'srelevance foryoursituation. 10Writeanarticleyourself.Ifyoureadaparticularjournalregularly,youwillsoongetanideaofthekindofcontributionsitislookingfor,andyoumaybeableto useitasaforumtoshareyourownexperiences.Followthejournal'sGuideforContributorsandaskacolleagueperhapsamoreexperiencedwritertogiveyou somefeedbackonadraft.Goodluck!

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44 Doingactionresearch
Manyteachersfindthatastheircareerdevelopstheybecomeevermoreinvolvedininvestigatingandtheorizingabouttheirpracticeanditsrelationshipstotheworld. Actionresearchisapowerfulmethodforthisinvestigationandtheorizing.Thefollowingsuggestionsthefirsttwelveofwhichformasequentialplanforanaction researchprojectshouldhelpyoutoconsiderwhetheryouwouldliketoundertakethiskindofwork. 1Criticallyexamineyoursituation.Actionresearchisresearchwithaninterventionistgoalitsultimatepurposeistoimprovewhatgoesoninaclassroomand institution.So,thefirststepistoconsideryourcontextinordertofindareaswhichmaybenefitfrominvestigationandchange. 2Criticallyexamineyourpractice.Actionresearchisinvestigationintotheresearcher'sownpractice.Youshouldnarrowdownyourthoughtsaboutyoursituation andfocusonaspectsofyourownrolewithinit.Whatwouldyouliketochangeaboutthewayyouwork?Whatisitinyourpowertochange? 3Trytogetsomecolleaguesinterested.Iftwoorthreeofyoucanengageinactionresearchatthesametime,youwillbeabletogiveeachotherinvaluable stimulationandsupport.Youcanhelpeachotherclarifyyourthoughtsaboutthesubjectofyourresearch,anduseeachothertothinkthroughthelikelyimplicationsof anystrategiesthatyouplan. 4Findastartingpointforresearch.Youshouldchooseanareaofpracticalconcernwithinyourdaytodaywork,whichyouthinkitisfeasibletoinvestigatewithin ashorttimeframe,andwhereyouhaveareasonablechanceofeffectingsomechange.Thinkabouthowyouwillcollect,andanalyse,thedataforyourinvestigation theworkloadneedstobemanageable.

Page126 5Consideryourstartingpointmorecarefully.Trytogetotherperspectivesonwhatisgoingon,inordertodeepenyourunderstandingofthesituation.Thisearly informationgatheringandreflectionmayleadyoutomodifyyourresearchquestion. 6Getpermissiontoundertaketheresearch.Ifyouarecollectingdata,itisessentialthateveryoneinvolvedknowswhatisgoingonandagrees.Forexample,if youaregoingtorecordyourclass,getyourlearners'agreementfirst. 7Startcollectingdata.Dependingonyourresearchquestion,youmaytakerecordingsofyourclasses,interviewlearnersorcolleagues,keepadiary,administer questionnaires.Alloftheseresearchmethodshavetheirowncomplexities,andyouwillneedtoreaduponyourchosenapproach. 8Studyyourdata.Whatdoesitcontributetoyourunderstandingofthesituationyouarefocusingon?Ideally,itwillclarifyyourunderstandingtothepointwhereyou starttogetideasforactionstrategies. 9Plananactionstrategy.Inthelightoftheunderstandingyouhavegainedfromyourinvestigation,formulateastrategytoimprovematters.Youwillneedtothink throughallthelikelyimplicationsofyourchosenstrategy,andmayhavetogaintheagreementofothersbeforeyoucancarryitout. 10Act,recordandreflect.Asyoucarryoutyourstrategy,youshouldrecordwhathappensyoucoulduseadiary,taperecordings,interviews,etc.Thesesources ofdatawillallowyoutoreflectonhowyourstrategyisworking. 11Continuethecycleofactionandreflection.Yourstrategieswillcertainlychangethingsequallycertain,theywillnot'solve'theoriginalproblemcompletely.The resultsofyourstrategywillcontributetoyourevolvingunderstandingofyoursituationandmaydependingonthetimeyouhaveavailablefortheprojectsuggest furtheractionstrategieswhichcanbeevaluatedintheirturn. 12Makeyourresearchpublic.Therearemanywaysofdoingthis,informallyorformally.Onascaleofinformaltoformal,thereareoptionssuchas:talkingto colleagueswhoarealsodoingactionresearchreportingtoalargerteachers'meetinggivingaconferencepaperwritinganarticle.Theimportantthingistofindaway ofsharingwhatyouhavelearnt.

Page127 13Readuponactionresearch.Thesuggestionsonthesepageshavebarelyscratchedthesurfaceofwhatyoucandotheyincludelittleproceduraldetailandeven fewerconsiderationsofunderlyingissues.Buttheymayhaveawakenedyourinterestifso,thenbeforeyoustartworkreadoneofthemanybooksorarticles availableonclassroomactionresearch.Thiswillhelpyoutoplanareallygoodproject.

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45 Startingateachingportfolio
Tostart,andbuild,ateachingportfolioispotentiallyarichdevelopmentalprocess,helpingyoutounderstandmoreabouthowyouteachandwhichaspectsofyour practicearemostsatisfactory.Itisalsooneofthemostsuccessfulwaysofdemonstratingteachingquality.Inmanycountries,attentionisbeinggiven,ineducational institutions,totheimportanceofevidenceofthequalityofteachingasaconsiderationforappointmenttoteachingpostsandforpromotion.Thefollowingsuggestions shouldhelpyoutogoaboutbuildinguparepresentativeportfolioofyourwork. 1Decidewhyyouwanttobuildateachingportfolio.Itisbestthatyouwanttobuildone,ratherthansimplythatsomeoneelsehasaskedyoutobuildone.Ifyou arecommittedtocontinuetodevelopasateacher,aportfoliocanbeavaluablerecordoftheworkyouundertakeaspartofthisprocess.Itcanalsobeuseful evidenceofthequalityofyourworkwithlearnerswhenyouapplyforpromotion,orwhenyouapplyfornewteachingpostselsewhere.Itcanalsobeavaluable discussionvehicleforappraisalinterviews. 2Checkwhetheryourinstitutionalreadyhasspecificcriteriaforateachingportfolio.Someinstitutionsoperate'TeachingFellowships',orsimilarschemes,and havealreadyspelledoutthenatureofateachingportfolio.Ifaframeworkalreadyexists,youshouldkeepitfirmlyinmind,bothwhilecollectingdataandannotatingit withyourownreflectivecommentaries. 3Startcollectingdatastraightaway.Muchofthecontentofyourteachingportfoliowillcomefromyoureverydayworkwithlearners.Themostefficientwayof startingoffateachingportfolioistodecidewhatsortofdatawillbeuseful,andstartcollectingexamplesofthisdataasanormalpartofyoureverydaywork.

Page129 4Decidewhatsortofdatayouwillneed.Theexactnatureofyourowndatawilldependuponthekindofworkyoudowithlearnersinyourjob.Makealistofthe mainthingsthatyoudoinyourjob,andalongsideeachofthesewritedownafewwordsaboutthesortofdatayoucouldcollecttoinvestigatethesuccessofyour practice. 5Collectdataonyourcourseandsyllabusdesignwork.Thiscanincludeexamplesofacourseareayouhaveplanned,intendedlearningoutcomesorobjectives youhaveformulatedoradapted,andplansforhowyoustructureyourdeliveryofasyllabusarea.Youcanalsoincludechangesyoumaketoexistingprogrammes,with yourrationaleandjustificationforsuchchanges. 6Collectdataonyourteachingitself.Thiscanincludeexamplesoflessonplans,courseplansandthematerialsthatyouuseinyourteaching,suchashandout materials,overheadtransparenciesandotherlearningresourcesthatyoudeviseoradapt.Youcanalsoincludeexamplesofvideorecordingsofactualteaching sessions,rangingfromwholeclasssessionstoonetooneencounterswithlearners.Remembertobehighlyselective!Agoodteachingportfolioincludesmanykindsof data,butonlyafewexamplesofeachkind. 7Collectdatafromlearnerfeedbackonyourteaching.Thiscanincludeexamplesoffeedbackquestionnairescompletedbylearners,alongwithyourownanalysis oftheoverallfindingsfromthefeedback.Includereflectivecommentsaboutchangesthatyouhavemade,orwillmake,asaresultoffeedbackfromlearners. 8Collectdatafromyourfeedbacktolearners.Thiscanincludephotocopiesoftypicalassessedwork,showinghowyougivelearnersfeedbackontheirwritten work.Youcanalsoincludeassignmentreturnsheetsthatyouhavedevised,andanaccountofotherwaysthatyouensurethatlearnersreceivefeedbackontheir progressandperformance. 9Collectdataonyourassessmentwork.Thiscanincludeexamplesoftestsandexercisesthatyousetlearners,andabreakdownofhoweachtestperformedin practice.Itisusefultolinkthecontentofeachofthetestsandexercisestotheintendedlearningoutcomes,asexpressedinthesyllabusareasthatyouareworking within. 10Collectdataonotherimportantaspectsofyourwork.Suchareascanincludeyourparticipationincourseteams,committeesandassessmentboards.Youcan alsoincludedatarelatingtoworkyouundertakejointlywithotherstaff,tolookathowwellyoucanworkwithcolleagues.

Page130 11Fileyourdatasystematically.Don'tputitallinafileoradrawer!Sortitfirst,accordingtotheparticularsectionsofyourportfoliothatthedatawillgointo.Itis worthstartingupanumberofparallelfiles,tomakesureyoumakeiteasytodecidewhereeachelementofyourdatashouldbestored.

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46 Buildingyourteachingportfolio
Havingawellfiledcollectionofdatarelatingtoyourteachingisagoodstarttowardsassemblingyouractualteachingportfolio.Thedangeristhatanalysingitand puttingitalltogetherseemslikeanenormoustask,andtendsnottogetstarted!Thefollowingsuggestionsshouldhelpyoutomakethetaskofbuildingyourportfolio morestraightforward,asastepbystepprocess. 1Decideonthephysicalformofyourportfolio.Forexample,youmaydecidetousearingbinderorleverarchfile.Suchformatsmakeitmucheasiertoadjust thecontentsofyourportfolio,ortorearrangetheorderinwhichyoupresentsections.Theyalsoallowyoutousepunched,plasticwalletstocollecttogethersamplesof paperssuchasfeedbackquestionnaires,markedlearnerwork,andsoon. 2Bereallyclearaboutprimarydataandsecondarydata.Forthepurposesofyourportfolio,itisworthdefiningprimarydataasthereflectivebitsthatyouwrite aboutyourownteaching,andsecondarydataasthebackupforyourclaimsandcommentsinyourprimarydata.Muchofthematerialthatyouhavesystematicallyfiled willbethesourcefromwhichyouselectyoursecondarydata,whiletheprimarydatawilllargelybewrittenasyoustarttoworkontheportfolioitself. 3Turnyoursecondarydataintoappendices.Eachofthesewillcontainselectedexamplesofdataaboutyourteaching.Separateappendicescouldcontain respectivelysuchthingsashandouts,listsofintendedlearningoutcomes,examplesofyourfeedbacktolearners,examplesoffeedbacktoyoufromlearners,examples ofassessedtasksthatyouhavedesignedandused,andsoon.Beveryselectiveregardingthedatayouincludeintheseappendices.Itismuchbetterthatthe appendicescollectivelycoverawiderangeofdifferentdata,thanmanyexamplesofonekindofdata.

Page132 4Makeadraftindex.Decideinwhichorderyouwishtopresentdataandreflections.Thereisno'right'orderitwilldependonthenatureofyourwork,andthe rangeofdatayouwishtopresent.Itis,however,veryusefultohavethisordersortedoutinyourmindbeforeyoustarttoputtogetherthe'frontend'ofyourportfolio, inotherwords,yourreflectionsandcommentariesarisingfromyoursecondarydata. 5Thinkofyourtargetaudience.Whoisgoingtoreadyourportfolio?Moreimportantly,whowillperhapsmakejudgementsonit?Thepeoplewhoaremostlikely tolookatitindetailarethosewhoseresponsibilityincludesteachingquality. 6PutTESOLintoperspective.Thosereadingyourportfoliofor(forexample)promotionpurposesmaynotbeprofessionalsintheareaofTESOL.Insuchcases,it couldbeusefultoinclude,nearthestartofyourportfolio,anelementwhichexplains(veryconcisely,andwithoutTESOLjargon)thespecialaspectsandproblemsof teaching,learningandassessmentintheTESOLdiscipline. 7Don'twritetheintroductionyet!Theintroductiontoaportfolioisextremelyimportant.Thereisnosecondchancetomakeagoodfirstimpression!Youcanonly writeareallygoodintroductionwhenyouknowexactlywhatyou'reintroducing,soleavetheintroductionuntilyou'vemoreorlessfinishedeverythingelseinyour portfolio.Youcan,ofcourse,writeadraftintroduction,butthisisprobablybestasabulletpointlist,oramindmapsketch. 8Write(orpolish)thereflectivepiecesabouteachsectionofsecondarydata.Youmayalreadyhavewrittensomeofthese,suchasyouranalysisoflearner feedbackonacourse,oryourdiscussionoftheplanningofthelearningoutcomesforanewcourseelement.However,nowisthetimetomakesurethatallofthese 'primary'partsofyourportfoliowillhangtogethernicely,andwillbewritteninthesameoverallstyleandvoice. 9Getotherpeople'sfeedback.Anotherpairofeyesisalwaysuseful.Showbitsofyourportfoliotocolleagues,friendsandcontactsinotherinstitutionsifyoucan. Askthemtoscribbleliberallyoveranythingwhereitcouldbeworthyouhavingsecondthoughts,orfurtherexplanations.Alsoaskthemalsonottohesitateinpointing outtypographicalorgrammaticalerrors:itisalwayseasierforsomeoneelsetofindthemthanforustospotourown!

Page133 10Nowwritetheintroduction.Italsohelpsenormouslytopresentfirstagoodcontentspage,basedonthedraftindexyoustartedoutwith.Trytomakesurethat yourportfolioiseasyforanyreadertonavigate.Makeiteasyforyourreaderstotellthedifferencebetweenyourprimarydata,andthebackupexamplesthatarethere assupportingdata.Itisnormallybettertocollecttogetheralloftheprimarydata(yourreflections,analyses,actionplans,andsoon)atthefrontoftheportfolio,withall ofyoursecondarydata(illustratingyourworkinteaching,learning,andassessment)thereafter.Thismakesitclearthatyourreadersareintendedtoreadtheprimary dataandscanthesecondarydata,especiallyiftheyhavelimitedtimetogivetoyourportfolio.

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47 Managingyourtime
Timemanagementskillsarenotonlyconnectedwitheffectivenessandefficiency,butarecloselyrelatedtothequalityofyourlife.Stressislesslikelytobeassociated withhavingtoomuchtodo,thanwiththefeelingthatthereisnotenoughtimetodoitallin.Oftenteachershavemuchoftheirtimepredeterminedbytheirteaching timetablesandassessmentcommitments.Butevenifonlyafractionofyourworkingtimeisunderyourcontrol,wefeelthefollowingtipswillhelpyoutomakeitmore productive. 1Keepalistoftheworkyouneedtodounderaseriesofheadings.Theseheadingscouldmakeupaprioritylistof:mustdoimmediatelyshoulddosoon maybeputonthebackburnerorreflectafourwaysplitofeachitemofworkasurgentandcomplexorimportanturgentbutroutinecomplexorimportant butnoturgentroutineandnoturgent.Thistasklistisbestdrawnuponadailybasis,crossingoutorcarryingforwarditemsasyoutacklethem. 2Avoidthetemptationtodotheroutineandnoturgenttasksfirst!Theytemptbecausetheycanbesimple,distractingorevenfun.Butkeepanoteofthem, theycanbedoneinthequieterpatches.However,therearebenefitstobegainedfromspendingnomorethanhalfanhouronanonurgenttaskbeforestartingonan urgentone. 3Whicheverkindoftodolistyouuse,rememberitisdynamicandwillneedtoberevieweddaily.Timehasanastyhabitofmovingthingson,andwhatwas oncenoturgentemergessuddenlyassomethingneededyesterday.Remember,too,thatyoumaybebetteroffbydoingthreethingsfromyourlistinpartthanspending allyourtimebudgetonjustoneofthem.

Page135 4Useawallchartora'WhatIamdoing?'grid.Suchdevicesprovideyouwithameanstoplanaheadandscheduleyourknowncommitments.Theyalsotellother peopleaboutyourcurrentactivities.It'susefulforyourcolleaguesifyoualsoincludealocationandanoteofhowyoumaybecontacted. 5Keepyourpaperworkwellfiled.It'satemptationjustto'pile'thein,outandpendingtrays!Dothisandyou'llinevitablyspendageslookingforthatvitalpieceof informationor,indespair,assumethatit'sbeenlost(ornotreceived).Usearelativelyquiettimetosetup,maintainandupdateyourfilingsystem. 6Isyourjourneyreallynecessary?Avoidmultipletripstothephotocopierormailpoint.Askyourself:'Ratherthanseesomeone,woulditbequickertophone,e mailorwrite?''DoIreallyneedtogotosuchandsuchmeeting?''DoIactuallyneedtogotothewholeofthatmeeting?' 7Workoutwhichtasksyoucandelegate,anddoso.Evenwithtightstaffinglevels,therewillbeclericalandtechnicalsupportstaff.Oftensuchstaffarebetterthan youatdoingjobslikewordprocessingorcomplexphotocopying.Theycanbequicker,too! 8Eachdayscheduleparticulartimestomakeyourphonecallsandtocheckyouremail.Makingandreceivingcallsandemailsadhocacrosstheworking daycanbetimewastinganddistractingfromothertasks.Investinananswerphoneor'voicemail'asawaytocontrol,butnottolosecalls.Encouragethoseyou phone,butwhoneverseemtobeavailable,toinvestinsimilartechnology! 9Trythedoitnowtechnique.Don'tbeputoffifyoucan'tdothewholetaskinonebite.Breakitupintosmallercomponentsthatyoucanandwilldostraightaway. Youcaneatanelephant,ifyoudoitabiteatatime! 10Intheendyoumustdecidewhatkindsofactivityhaveahighpayofforalowpayoffforyouintermsofyourtimeinvestment.Youmayfindthat,for you,doingyourpaperworkbyemailandphoningratherthanwritingwillhavehighpayoffs.Youmightfindthatattendingmeetingshasalowpayoff,asmaywriting jobstodolists!

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48 Dealingwithstress
Workingineducationalinstitutionscanbeextremelystressfulasstaffareputunderincreasingpressuretoteachlongerhours,possiblyinunfamiliarways,andtospend longerhoursonassessmentandrecordkeeping.Atthesametime,yourlearnersmayhaveeverhigherexpectations.Ifyoudon'tfeelstressed,ignorethissetoftips!If youarefeelingstressed,thefollowingsuggestionscannoteliminateyourstress,butmaybeabletopromptyoutosomestrategiestohelpyoutodealwithit. 1Don'tignorestress.Therearenoprizesforstrugglingtothepointofcollapse:indeed,thisisthelastthingyoushouldbedoing.Asthesymptomsofstressbecome apparenttoyou,suchassleepdisturbances,eatingproblems,weightgainorloss,headachesorjustfindingyouareonanincreasinglyshortfuse,trytoidentifythe causesofyourstressanddosomethingaboutit. 2Allowyourselftofeelanger.Itisn'tsurprisingthatpeopleunderstressoftenfeelfullofrage,whichmaynotbespecificallydirected.Peoplecanbecomevery frustratedwhentheyfeelpowerless,soitmaybeworthtakingstockofwhatisandwhatisnotwithinyourcontrol.Anger,oncegenerated,canbedirectedinmany directions,andthemostharmfuloftheseisinwards.Allthesame,itisunwiseaswellasunprofessionaltoventyourrageonothers,especiallyinnocentbystanderswho arecaughtinthecrossfire.Findwaystoletoffsteamthatarenotdestructivetoyourselfandothers.Thesemayincludesomevigorousgardeningorotherexercise (withinyourowncapabilities),alongwalkorevensmashingafewplates! 3Writeitoutofyoursystem.Somepeoplefinditveryhelpfultowriteabouttheissuesthatstressthemandmakethemangry.Thiscantaketheformofadiaryin whichyourecordyourfeelingsandanalysethesituation,orlettersyouwouldliketosendtothepeoplewhoarecausingyoustress,orotherformsofescapistor academicwritingtotakeyourmindoffthe

Page137 currentsituation.Beverycareful,however,aboutthewaysinwhichyouuseyourwriting.Trytoavoidfiringoffmissivesinangerthatyoumightregretatalaterstage. 4Havesomefun.Lookforwaysinwhichyoucandestressyourselfbydoingthingsthatmakeyouhappy.Alittlehedonismgoesalongway.Thinkaboutthethings thatgiveyoupleasurelikecooking,readingforpleasure,goingtoconcertsorhavingadayoftotalsloth.Regardtheseaspartofaprogrammeofactivestress managementratherthanasaguiltinducinginterferencewithyourwork.Youdeservesometimeforyourselfandyoushouldn'tregarditasaluxury. 5Don'tbeafraidtogotothedoctor.Theworstexcessesofstresscanbehelpedbyshorttermmedicationormedicalinterventionofsomekind.Peopleareoften unwillingtoresorttoavisittotheirGPformattersofstresswhentheywouldn'thesitatetoseekhelpforaphysicalailment.Don'tletsuchfeelingsgetinthewayof findingthekindofsupportyouneed. 6Userelaxationtechniques.Thereareinnumerablemethodsthatcanbeusedtohelpyouunwind,includingdeepbreathing,massage,aromatherapyandmeditation. Itmightbeworthwhiletoexplorethetechniquesthatsoundmostattractivetoyouandtrytousethemtohelpyoutocopewithstress. 7Workitoutinthegym.Itmayfeelthelastthingonearthyouwanttodoistotakephysicalexerciseattheendofalongstressfulday,butlotsofpeoplefindithelps themtorelax.Joinagym,takethedogforlongwalks,swim,takeupgolf,playameangameofsquashorjustdoaerobicsathometohelpyourbodytobecomeas tiredphysicallyasyourmindismentally.Findoutwhatkindofexerciseworksbestforyouandtrytouseitasabridgebetweenyourworkinglifeandyourowntime. Thetimeyouspendwillbeasoundinvestmentinhelpingyoutokeepontop,(buttrynottoletyourexerciserequirementendupfeelinglikeanotherkindofworkyou havetodo!). 8Getalifeoutsideyourinstitution.Familyandfriendsstilldeserveyourattention,evenifworkisverybusy.Weallneedtolearntokeepasenseofproportionto ourlives.Trynottoneglecthobbiesandinterestsevenifyousleepthroughthefilmornodoffafterthesweetcourse.

Page138 9Takeabreak.Oftenourpanicsovertimemanagementarecausednotusuallybyhowmuchwehavetodobutmostlybywhetherwefeelwehavesufficienttimeto doitin.Trytotakearealbreakfromtimetotime,soastohelpyougetyourworkloadintoproportion.Alittleholiday,orawholeweekendwithoutworkoccasionally canmakeyoubetteratcopingwiththeonslaughtonyourreturn. 10Prioritizeyourtasks.Trytosortyourworkintojobsthatareurgentornot,andimportantornot.Dourgent,importantthingsfirstanddothemwell,dourgent unimportantthingssoon,too,butdon'tspendtoomuchtimeonthem.Youwillhaveagreatglowofachievementabouthavinggotthemoutoftheway.Blockintime fortheimportant,nonurgenttasks,soyoucandothemmosteffectively.Reviewcarefullythejobsyouthinkareneitherimportantnorurgent,andeitherputthemina basketofworktodowhenyouhaveaminuteorareboredwithyourmoreimmediatetasks,orthrowthemaway. 11Talkaboutyourproblems.Actuallyvoicingwhatisstressingyoutoacolleague,alinemanager,thepersonyouareclosesttooorevenyourcatcansometimes improvethesituation.Bottlingitallupthroughsomemisplacedsenseoffortitudecanbedangerous.

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49 Workingasaparttimeteacher.
Manyinstitutionsrelyonparttimestafftocoverpeakareasofdemandortogiveflexibilityasstudentnumbersfluctuate.Ifyou'reaparttimer,thesetipsaimtohelp youtokeepalevelheadwhileallaroundarelosingtheirs! 1Learntolivewithuncertainty.Theadvantagetotheinstitutionofparttimestaffisthatyouareflexibleandcheap.Youarelikelytobeaskedtostepinatshort noticetofillgaps,andyoumaynotknowwhatisexpectedofyouuntilthelastminuteinsomeinstitutions.Acceptingthis,andlearningtoworkinapermanently changingcontext,willmakeforaneasierlife,andwillbringitsownbenefitstoyouintermsofvariety. 2Looktothefuture.Manyfulltimepostsgotopeoplewhohavealreadyprovedtheirworthasparttimers.Ifyou'rehopingforafulltimepost,itisworthdoing somewhatmorethanyoumayberequiredto,andwinningsupportfromthosearoundyou. 3Developarangeofflexibleactivities.Mostteachershavestandbyseriesoftasksandactivitiestogivetolearnerswhentheyarecalleduponatshortnotice.Such tasksgiveyouabreathingspaceinwhichtogettoknowthelearnersandplanyourteachingprogrammemorestrategically. 4Findyourwayaroundtheinstitution'ssystems.Youwillprobablyhavetofindoutforyourselfhowtogetphotocopyingdone,howtouseinternalandexternal communicationssystems,andwhattodotogetpaid.Makeachecklistofquestionstoaskonyourfirstday,andkeeppesteringpeopleuntilyougettheanswersyou needtohelpyoutodoagoodjob.

Page140 5Networkwithotherparttimers.Thesearethepeoplewhoarelikelytohavealotoftheinformationyouneed,astheyareinthesameboatveryoften.Theycan alsoprovideyouwithgoodsupportwhenthegoinggetstough. 6Findyourselfafulltimementor.Thismaybethepersonthatyoureportto,oritmaybeanotherfulltimememberofstaff,whowillbeabletokeepyouupdated onimportantinstitutionalinformation.Suchapersoncanhelptoensurethattheparttimeteacher'sperspectivedoesnotgetforgotten. 7Helpcolleagueskeepincontactwithyou.Makesurethatyourhomephone,faxandemaildetailsareavailablesoyoucanbecontactedwhenneededurgently. Checkinternalpostsystemsandpigeonholesregularly,andaskacolleaguetopostmailhometoyouoveranynonteachingperiods.Itiseasyforparttimerstoget missedoutiftheyaredifficulttocontact. 8Fightfortherighttofile!Everyoneneedsspacetokeeprecords,storelearners'workandfileteachingmaterials.Parttimersoftenconsiderthemselvesluckyto haveaccesstoadeskandpartofafilingcabinet,butyoushouldargueforwhatyouneedtohelpyoutodoyourjobwell. 9Setreasonableboundaries.Parttimeteacherscanoftenfindthemselvescalledupontoworkalmostfulltimeforsignificantlylessmoneythantheirfullycontracted peers.Itisespeciallycommonforparttimerstobepressurizedintocominginformeetingsoutsidetheirnormalhours.Youwillneedtobalanceanaturaldesiretobe helpful,flexible(andemployable),whileatthesametimenotallowingpeopletotakeadvantageofyou.Youmayalsoneedtocheckwhatyourcontractmaysayabout meetings. 10Letpeopleknowwhatelseyoudo.Manypeopleworkparttimebecausetheyhaveotherworkorresponsibilities.Byinformingpeopleaboutyourotherlives, youwillhelpthemnottomakeunreasonabledemandsinyournoncontractedtime.

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50 Copingwithyourpaperwork
Informationoverload(seeminglyencouragedbytheavailabilityofcomputers),isafactofthelifeofstaffinmanyeducationalinstitutions.Usuallytheinformationflow seemsonewayontoyourdesk!Thispaperworkmayalsoappeartobenotdirectlyrelatedtoyourowncourseandlearnerresponsibilities.Thefollowing suggestionscanhelpyoutotakecareofthisgeneralpaperwork. 1Performacrudesortingtaskonthepaperwork.Mostofthepaperworkcanbesafelyfiled.Somerequiresactiononyourpart,eitherincreatingyourown paperworkorasanitemforaction. 2Prioritizeyourresponses.Dealfirstwithanythingthatdirectlyaffectsthewellbeingoflearnersand/orcolleagues.Dealquicklywithfinancialandbudgetrelated paperwork,too.Studentrecordsandassessmentreturnsusuallyneedtobeprocessedbymanydepartmentsandcanhavefundingimplications,sotheyalsoshouldbe dealtwithassoonaspossible. 3Useyoursecretarial/clericalsupportstaff.Theirjobrolesprobablymakethembetterthanyouatefficientlyprocessingstandardpaperwork.Theywillbeaware ofanyprotocolsaboutofficialstationery,housestyles,etc.Theremayalso,becauseofqualitymonitoringandagrowinginterestinlitigation,bearequirementthatall externalandstudent(orstudent'ssponsor)communicationsbecentrallygeneratedandafilecopyheld. 4Keepfiles,notpiles!Handleeachpieceofpaperasfewtimesaspossible.Trytoavoidthesituationofrepeatedlysiftingthroughpilesofpapers,lookingforthe particulardocumentsyouneed.Equally,pilesseemto'lose'thedocumentyouwant.Ifyouthinkhowlongyouhavespentonoccasionslookingforaparticularpieceof paper,youwillknowinyourheartthatspendingjustsomeofthattimeorganizingagoodfilingsystemwouldhavebeenwellworthwhile.

Page142 5Learntoloveyourwastepaperbinandshredder!Howoftenhaveyoukeptsomethingtoreadlater,knowingfullwellthatyouwouldneveractuallylookatit againexcepttoremindyourselfthatyoudidn'twanttolookatit?Allowadecentperiodoftimetoelapseandthenfeelfreeto'weed'thefiles. 6Labelyourpaperworkwithpostits.Thesestandouteasilyfromthepapersthemselves,andyoucanwriteonthemshortmessagestoremindyouofexactlywhat youaregoingtodowitheachofthepapers,andsaveyouhavingtoreadthemallagaininordertoworkthisout.Youcanmakeyourowncolourcodeswiththepost its,maybetoremindyouofthe'urgent',orthe'important',asopposedtothe'routine'. 7Useplasticwallets.Theseareinvaluableformakingsurethatallthepapersthatneedtobekepttogetherstaytogether.Howoftenhaveyouspentagessearching forthatlastsheetwhichhassomehowescapedfromasetofpapersor(worse)thefirstsheet?! 8Usealternativestopaper.Wouldatelephonecallbeasufficientresponse?Canyouuseemail?Electroniccommunicationisquicker,lessprotocolbound,avoids paperandsavesphotocopycosts. 9Savepaper.Usenoticeboardsforthingsyouwanteveryoneinyourdepartmentorsectiontosee.Fornonurgentdissemination,circulateasinglecopyofa documentwitha'passonto...'list,ratherthansendingeveryoneacopypeoplewhowanttheirowncopycanspendtheirowntimemakingone!Makesurethatthe singlecopyisdestinedtoendupinasensibleplaceattheendofitscirculation,eitherbacktoyou,orpreferablyinthedepartmentalofficeforfilingthere. 10Takeyourpaperworkwithyou.Paperworkcanoftenbedoneinoddmomentsbetweenothertasks,andifyouhaveitwithyouitispossibletomakegooduse ofsuchopportunities.Butdon'tcarrytoomucharoundwithyoudon'tcarryhomemorethanyoucouldreasonablyexpecttobeabletodoovernightorovera weekend.Howoftenhaveyouonlyhadtimetolookatafractionofthepileyoucarriedhome? 11Keepyourpaperworkoutputtoaminimum!Youwillearnthegratitudeofyourcolleaguesifyoudon'taddtothepileintheirintray:useemailorthetelephone. Keepanywrittenworkshortandmakeitclearwhatyouwantthemtodowithit.

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Conclusions
Inthisbookwe'vecoveredmanyissues,andattemptedtodistilourunderstandingoftheaccumulatedideasandexperiencesofmanyteachersandresearchersintosets ofpracticalsuggestionsonspecifictopics.Attheendofsuchanexercise,whatarethemoregeneralconclusionsthatwecandraw? Firstly,anemphasisoncontextualappropriacy.Whetheryouarechoosingacoursebook,decidinghowtotreatgrammarinyourclassorsettingupcomputermediated learning,theneedsandrealitiesofyourownlocalcontextarethemostimportantthingstobearinmind.Thereisnoadvicewecangivethatwouldbeequallyvalidinall contexts.Wecananddomakesuggestions,butyouaretheonewhoneedstoselectfromthemandadaptthemasyouimplementthem. Secondly,thenotionoflearnersandteachersaswholehumanbeings.Allofoursuggestionsonclassroommanagementandinteraction,aswellasmaterialsandtask designanduse,areunderpinnedbyapictureofthelearnerassomeonewholivesandlearnsinasocialenvironment,andforwhomtheacquisitionofasecondlanguage isjustonepartoftheirpersonaldevelopment.Ourlastchapter,onteachers'professionaldevelopment,isunderpinnedbyasimilarpictureoftheteacher. Thirdly,theimportanceofresponsivenesstolearnersandofpurposedrivenwork.Oursuggestionsarebasedaroundapictureofteachersandlearnersinpartnership: eachpartymakesacontributiontothesuccessofthelearningexperience,butteachershavetolead.Thisplacesaresponsibilityonustofindoutasmuchaswecan aboutourlearners'needsandwants,andtobringtheseintoourcourses.Andallofthiswhilestill,inthefinalanalysis,beingresponsibleforthosecourses. Fourthly,weshouldemphasizetheconceptsofresearchinteachingandcommunicationamongteachers.Researchdoesnothavetobeformalorlargescale:everything thatteachersdotofindoutabouttheirlearners'languageandlearningneeds,tolookindetailatthelanguagetheirlearnersareaimingtolearn,andtoreflectuponand developtheirownpracticeasteachers,isvaluableresearchinourprofession.Andthemorethatwecanallbeincommunicationaboutourteaching,eitherthrough informalsharingwithcolleagues,orthroughmoreformalpresentationsand/orwriting,themoretheprofessionasawholecanbenefitfromtheworkwealldo.

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Furtherreading
Chapterone Cunningsworth,Alan(1995)ChoosingYourCoursebook,Heinemann,London. Graves,Kathleen(1996)TeachersasCourseDevelopers,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge. Nunan,David(1988)SyllabusDesign,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. Chaptertwo Campbell,ColinandKryszewska,Hanna(1992)LearnerBasedTeaching,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. Hadfield,Jill(1992)ClassroomDynamics,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. Senior,Rosemary(1997)'Transforminglanguageclassesintobondedgroups'EnglishLanguageTeachingJournal,51/1:311 Chapterthree Edge,Julian(1993)EssentialsofEnglishLanguageTeaching,AddisonWesleyLongman,Harlow. Harmer,Jeremy(1991)ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching,AddisonWesleyLongman,Harlow. Marsland,Bruce(1998)LessonsfromNothing,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. Ur,Penny(1996)ACourseinLanguageTeaching:practiceandtheory,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge. Willis,DaveandJane(eds)ChallengeandChangeinLanguageTeaching,Heinemann,London. Willis,Jane(1996)AFrameworkforTaskBasedLearning,AddisonWesleyLongman,Harlow. Chapterfour Dickinson,Leslie(1987)SelfinstructioninLanguageLearning,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge. FriedBooth,DianaL(1986)ProjectWork,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. Jones,JeremyF(1995)'Selfaccessandculture:retreatingfromautonomy'EnglishLanguageTeachingJournal,49/3:235242. Race,Phil(1998)500TipsonOpenandFlexibleLearning,KoganPage,London. Sheerin,Susan(1989)Selfaccess,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. Waite,Sarah(1994)'LowresourcedselfaccesswithEAPinthedevelopingworld:thegreatenabler?'EnglishLanguageTeachingJournal,233242.

Page145 Chapterfive Carrier,Michael(1997)'ELTonline:theriseoftheInternet'EnglishLanguageTeachingJournal,51/3:279309. Eastment,David(1996)'Surveyreview:CDROMmaterialsinEnglishLanguageteaching'EnglishLanguageTeachingJournal,50/1:6979. Hardisty,DavidandWindeatt,Scott(1989)CALL,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. Levy,Michael(1997)ComputerAssistedLanguageLearning:contextandconceptualisation,ClarendonPress,Oxford. McDowell,SteveandRace,Phil(1998)500ComputingTipsforTrainers,KoganPage,London. Race,PhilandMcDowell,Steve(1996)500ComputingTipsforTeachersandLearners,KoganPage,London. Vallance,Michael(1998)'ThedesignanduseofanInternetresourceforbusinessEnglishteaching'EnglishLanguageTeachingJournal,52/1:3842. Chaptersix Brown,Sally,Race,PhilandSmith,Brenda(1995)500TipsonAssessment,KoganPage,London. Genessee,FredandUpshur,JohnA(1996)ClassroombasedEvaluationinSecondLanguageEducation,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge. Harris,Michael(1997)'Selfassessmentoflanguagelearninginformalsettings'EnglishLanguageTeachingJournal,51/1:1220. Hughes,Arthur(1989)Testingforlanguageteachers,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge. May,Peter(1996)ExamClasses,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. ReaDickens,Pauline(1992)Evaluation,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. Sengupta,Sima(1998)'Peerevaluation:"Iamnottheteacher"'EnglishLanguageTeachingJournal,52/1:1928. Chapterseven Altrichter,Herbert,Posch,PeterandSomekh,Bridget(1993)TeachersInvestigateTheirWork,Routledge,London. McKay,SandraLee(1992)TeachingEnglishOverseas:anintroduction,OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford. Qun,WangandSeth,Nicola(1998)'Selfdevelopmentthroughclassroomobservation:changingperceptionsinChina'EnglishLanguageTeachingJournal,52/3: 205213. Spratt,Mary(1994)EnglishfortheTeacher:alanguagedevelopmentcourse,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge. Wallace,Michael(1997)ActionResearchforLanguageTeachers,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge.

Page146 Thispageintentionallyleftblank.

Page147

Index.
A
accents43 acting73 actionresearch1257 aims9 alcohol,attitudesto31 anger136 animal,vegetable,mineralgame70 anxieties28 appearanceoflearningmaterials14,81 appearanceofquestionnaires33 assessinglearningneeds69,11,1920,29,43 assessment5,30,99,10002,10719 assignments88 assumptions29 authenticspokentexts646 authenticwrittentexts45,613

B
behaviourproblems26 broadcastsources646 broadsheets75

C
classroominteractions12,212,234,257,29,42,479 classroomtests10811 codesofconduct25 cognitivedemands7,19 colleagues,workingwith12,15,24,26,48,78,97,108 collocations39 comfortofprivacy103,113 computeraidedlearningpackages979 computerconferencing946 computerdeliveredassessment10002 computers63,89105 commentaries74 communicationstechnologies89105 connotations39 continuingprofessionaldevelopment12142 coursebooks1113,45,557 crosswords70 cultures25,3032

D
designinglearningmaterials1415 demandinglearners28 dialects43 dictionaries46 diet31 difficultlearners26 discoverytechniques53

E
educationalbackground20,62 email913,10305 emergencies32 examinations11819 exposuretolanguage42 eyecontact21

F
feedbackfromlearners15,24,335,99,102,105 feedbackquestionnaires335 feedbacktolearners4,35,81,84,88,98,101,10305,11011 flexiblelearning(selfaccess)7788 food31

Page148

G.
games71 grammar38,524 groupwork212,23,24,47,723

H
home,communicationwith32 homework44,50 homophones70 houseidentity14,79

I
independentlearning(selfaccess)7788 induction30 information30 informationtechnology89105 institutionalneeds12,27 internationallearners3032 intonation41 involvinglearners20 isolation31

K
keysforcorrections51 knockoutquizzes70

L
largegroups234 learningbydoing4,81,84,87 learningneeds69,11,1920,29,43 learningoutcomes(objectives)9,14,79,8081,84,87,98 learningprocesses45 learningstrategies20,39,434 listening424 literature678

M
maturelearners289 minicorpus63 moderation(computerconferences)96 motivation4 multiplechoicequestions100102

N
names23 nativeEnglishspeakers20 naturallanguagedata5860 news,using745

O
objectives(learningoutcomes)9,14,79,8081,84,87,98

P
pairwork212,23,47,68 paperwork1412 parttimeteaching13940 peerassessment114,11517 permission58 personaldevelopment12142 phonemics41 phonologicalfeatures65 planningacourse910 portfolios12833 professionaldevelopment12142 professionaljournals1234 pronunciation4041 publicexaminations11819

Q
questionnaires335 quizzes70,74

R
radiobulletins75 reading456,613 realtimeprocessing64 recordings41,424,5860 register39 religion31 research1257 resourcebasedlearning(selfaccess)7788 roleplay48,723 rubrics15

S
Scrabble71 security19 selfaccess7788 selfaccesscentres789,856 selfaccessmaterials,choosing8082 selfaccessmaterials,designing834 selfaccess,traininglearners878 selfassessment11214 selfesteem(learners)19 singlelettermindmaps70

Page149 socialroles7 sourcematerials14 speaking479 speech4041,479 starterpages(computerconferencing)95 stressmanagement1368 syllabusorganization11

T
tabloids75 targets6 tasks15,212 teachingportfolios12833 teletext75 tenses63 threats26 timemanagement1345 transcriptions60,65 translation39

V
vocabulary389,62

W
'what'smyline?'game69 'whoamI?'game69 wordformation39 wordprocessing92 wordsearches70 writing5051