1

Surface Piercing propellers: state of the art

MARCO FERRANDO
1
1
Universita di Genova Dipartimento di Ingegneria Navale e Tecnologie Marine. Via Montallegro, 1 I-16146 Genoa
Italy.
email: Ierrandodinav.unige.it

Abstract
SurIace Piercing Propellers are increasing their popularity, especially Ior high speed craIt. Nevertheless the behavior oI
this propulsion system has not been thoroughly investigated due to its recent diIIusion and to the limited number oI ap-
plications. Furthermore, only a little technical literature is available on the matter. All oI these reasons contribute to the
low degree oI reliability that is credited to their perIormance predictions. This overview discusses the mode oI operation
oI SurIace Piercing Propellers. In addition, the perIormance scaling problems and the inIluence oI the governing pa-
rameters are described. With regard to the applications oI the surIace propulsion some oI the problems that may arise by
an improper use oI this propulsive mean are also addressed.


Notation
A
E
Expanded blade area
A
O
Disc area
A
O
`
Immersed disc area
C
Q
Torque index
C
T
Thrust index
D Propeller diameter
F
H
Propeller Iorce normal to shaIt and in an hori-
zontal plane
F
N
Propeller Iorce normal to shaIt and in a verti-
cal plane
F
n
Froude number
I
T
Immersion coeIIicient
J Advance coeIIicient
J

Advance coeIIicient at oblique inIlow

K
N
Normal vertical Iorce coeIIicient
K
H
Normal horizontal Iorce coeIIicient
K
Q
Torque coeIIicient
K
T
Thrust coeIIicient
P Propeller pitch
R
n
Reynolds number
T
X
Horizontal thrust component
T
Z
Vertical thrust component
T

Axial thrust under oblique inIlow conditions

W
n
Weber number
z Number oI propeller blades
Deadrise angle
Cavitation number
ShaIt inclination
1 Introduction
An ever increasing number oI recreational powerboats
are now equipped with the so-called SurIace Piercing
Propellers (SPPs). Notwithstanding their wide diIIu-
sion only a little technical literature on the matter is
available. This is probably due to the Iact that this kind
oI propeller was mainly employed and studied Ior rac-
ing and Ior naval applications. In both these instances,
whoever has some knowledge on the matter keeps it
restricted Ior obvious reasons. As a consequence, the
peculiarities in the behavior oI this kind oI propulsion
system are not widely known.
An SPP is actually a quite normal screw propeller.
Compared with a traditional propulsion system its main
Ieature is that it is intended to operate with only its
lower halI in the water.
This mode oI operation can appear very strange to
those used to conventional propellers, and indeed it is.
Trying to Iigure out the reason Ior such a layout can be
misleading iI one looks only at the propeller, Iorgetting
the rest oI the boat. Actually, the main reason Ior
adopting SPPs is the considerable reduction in Iorm
and Irictional resistance that can be obtained by raising
halI oI the propeller out oI the water.

Figure 1. Typical SPP layout
Figure 1 illustrates one oI the most common layouts Ior
an SPP. It can be observed that the unit is placed
through the transom oI the boat. Assuming that the wa-
ter breaks out oI the transom along the prolongation oI
the bottom oI the hull, the propeller has only its lower
halI in the water. In this way most oI the shaIting is
also out oI the water, allowing Ior a dramatic reduction
oI appendage resistance.
Operating partially submerged, the propeller itselI does
not improve its perIormances, though these are not
overly spoiled. The boat can generally achieve a
greater speed because oI the reduced resistance.
2
The amount oI appendage drag reduction depends upon
the speed oI the craIt. For very high speeds, i.e. over 35
knots, the appendage resistance Ior a conventional twin
shaIt arrangement can easily exceed 30 oI total resis-
tance. For these applications SPPs become an appeal-
ing alternative. In addition surIace piercing propellers
are less sensitive to cavitation and this contributes to
their increasing popularity.
2 Mode of operation
Contrary to what happens with conventional shaIt ar-
rangements, SPPs operate at the interIace between air
and water, like hulls do. For this reason some peculiar
phenomena have to be taken into account to describe
the 'modus operandi oI this kind oI propulsion sys-
tem.
First oI all one has to consider that each blade, during a
propeller revolution, pierces the water surIace twice.
When a blade enters the water it draws some air below
the water level, the air quantity depending on the pro-
peller loading. On exiting Irom the water a blade car-
ries along some water which is then thrown away pro-
ducing the classic spray tail that characterizes this kind
oI propeller.
At advance coeIIicients near the zero-thrust value, the
amount oI air that Iollows the blade underwater is quite
negligible, while as J decreases the air quantity in-
creases, along with the depth to which air is drawn.
In this Iirst stage oI the operating proIile the air is con-
Iined at the trailing edge oI the blade and this regime is
called base vented.
In the base vented mode the blade itselI is still Iully
wetted and is Iollowed by an air cavity which extends
itselI Irom the Iree surIace to the trailing edge. As the
blade proceeds in its revolution the cavity Iollows until
a balance is reached between the buoyancy oI the air
and the suction oI the blade. AIter this point the cavity
stops its descent in the water and the blade proceeds
quite normally.
In the meantime the tip vortex oI the blade is also ven-
tilated and this phenomenon looks like tip vortex cavi-
tation, the main diIIerence being that cavities are
vented to the atmosphere.
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
1
K
T
2 1 3 4 5

Figure 2. K
T
trend Ior a surIace piercing propeller
As the propeller loading rises the suction on the back
oI the blade draws more and more air. The bubble in-
creases its volume and generally remains conIined by
the trailing edge. Some streaks oI air spring Iorward at
radial positions corresponding to maximum load oI the
blade. This is the partiallv vented mode oI operation.
Region 1 oI Iigure 2 illustrates that in both oI the men-
tioned regimes the shape oI the K
T
vs. J curve is almost
the same as Ior a conventional propeller, the same is
true Ior K
Q
.
A Iurther reduction oI the advance coeIIicients brings
the propeller into an unstable condition called transi-
tion.
Here the air cavity becomes highly unstable. The back
oI the blade changes continuously between Iully wet-
ted, air streaked and completely dry conditions.
This phenomenon is not restricted to a single value oI
the advance coeIIicient, but rather it spans over a cer-
tain range oI J. In this region K
T
and K
Q
values are not
unique Ior a given advance. Actually their value can
change, depending on the condition oI the back oI the
blades. This condition is represented by region 2 oI
Iigure 2.
For advance coeIIicients below the transition range the
blade is Iully vented, and the volume oI the air cavity
increases as an inverse Iunction oI the advance coeIIi-
cient. This is the so-called fullv vented condition. Here
the shape oI thrust and torque curves departs com-
pletely Irom that oI Iully submerged propellers. When
an SPP is Iully vented, mainly the Iace oI the blades
produces the thrust. Actually the contribution oI the
suction is lost, because the back oI the blades is vented
to the atmosphere.
In this mode oI operation the air cavities attached to the
back oI the blades have a considerable thickness,
which keeps increasing as J is lowered. In this way the
interaction oI the blades is very strong and the propel-
ler is aIIected by a considerable cascade eIIect which
limits both thrust and torque. This phenomenon ex-
plains the decreasing oI K
T
and K
Q
as J decreases, and
it can be observed in region 3 oI Iigure 2.
At lower advance coeIIicients another phenomenon
appears, which Iurthermore limits the capability oI the
propeller to produce thrust and absorb torque. This is
the inIlow retardation. The air cavities are so big as to
block the Ilow oI water between the blades, decreasing
the mass Ilow through the propeller. This, in accor-
dance with the momentum theory, reduces the thrust
that the propeller can produce. Region 4 oI Iigure 2 il-
lustrates this situation.
Finally, at extremely low values oI the advance coeIIi-
cient (see region 5 oI Iigure 2) air demand Ior cavity
ventilation can be choked by the huge amount oI spray.
In this way the pressure inside the cavities is lower
than atmospheric and this increases somewhat the
thrust oI the propeller.
3 Governing parameters
For a conventional propeller thrust and torque coeIIi-
cients are usually represented in the Iorm:

=
n n
O
E
F R J
A
A
D
P
: f K ; ; ; ; ; ; ; .
As partially submerged propellers operate at the inter-
Iace between air and water, two additional parameters
3
must be taken into account. The Iirst one is the immer-
sion coeIIicient I
T
, the second one is the Weber num-
ber; in this way the Iormer relation can be written as
Iollows:

=
n n T n
O
E
F W I R J
A
A
D
P
: f K ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
The inIluence oI number oI blades, pitch ratio, ex-
panded area ratio and advance coeIIicient on the be-
havior oI a SPP is much the same as in case oI a Iully
immersed propeller. The same is true Ior the Reynolds
Number.
3a Influence of
The angle between the shaIt line and the incoming
Ilow, indicated by , plays a more important role with
surIace piercing propellers which experience consider-
able Iorces in the propeller plane. This kind oI Iorce
has the same origin as in the case oI Iully submerged
inclined propellers, but here, due to the 'extreme
asymmetry oI the Ilow Iield, their magnitude is greater.
The resultant Iorce in the propeller plane can be pro-
jected in two orthogonal directions. These directions
coincide with the traces oI two orthogonal planes pass-
ing through the propeller axis. The Iirst one is vertical,
the second horizontal. UnIortunately the ITTC Symbol
and Terminology List |ITTC 1993| comprehends only
the component lying in the vertical plane and gives it
the symbol F
N
; the relevant non-dimensional coeIIi-
cient being named K
N
.
-0.07
-0.06
-0.05
-0.04
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 1
KN
KH
Figure 3. Disk plane Iorces coeIIicients.
ThereIore the symbols F
H
and K
H
have been proposed
|Caponnetto et al. 1995| to indicate the horizontal
component oI the resultant Iorce in the propeller plane
and the relevant non-dimensional coeIIicient.
Figure 3 illustrates the K
N
and K
H
curves, correspond-
ing to the K
T
curve oI Iigure 2. The propeller to which
these curves belong is right handed and the positive
versus oI K
N
and K
H
is upward and leItward respec-
tively. Thus the negative values oI the Iormer diagram
correspond to a downward and a rightward Iorce.
As Iar as F
N
is concerned the negative values are
mainly connected with the rake angle oI the blades
which results in a downward Iorce due to the partial
submergence.
As Ior inclined immersed propellers all the Iorces have
to be combined in order to obtain the horizontal resul-
tant thrust T
X
and the resultant vertical Iorce T
Z
. Ac-
cording to ITTC these Iorces are obtained Irom the Iol-
lowing equations:
T T F sin
T T sin F
X N
Z N
=
= +

cos
cos

where T

is the axial thrust.

-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0 0.5 1 1.5
1
KTX
KTZ

Figure 4. Total resultant Iorces
Since F
N
assumes negative values the total horizontal
thrust is actually slightly higher than the axial thrust,
while the resultant vertical Iorce is negative iI the ad-
vance coeIIicient is higher than transition, producing a
bow up moment; the reverse is true iI J is lower. This
situation is illustrated in Iigure 4, which combines the
data oI Iigures 2 and 3.
One important point must be made when dealing with
the interpretation oI open water test results. Generally,
open water tests on SPPs are carried out in towing
tanks or cavitation tunnels with horizontal water sur-
Iaces.
In most oI real applications the craIt in Iront oI the
propeller has a certain amount oI deadrise (see Iigure
5).


Figure 5. SPP arrangement looking Iorward.
Since the Ilow breaks out oI the transom along the bot-
tom, the Iree surIace oI the water that Ilows toward the
propeller is not horizontal but inclined oI the angle .
Thus curves like K
N
and K
H
in Iigure 3 are representa-
tive oI a planing craIt with 0 degrees deadrise angle.
The same is true Ior K
TX
and K
TZ
oI Iigure 4.
To obtain true values oI horizontal and vertical Iorces
the Iollowing equations |Rose et al. 1993| have to be
used:
4


sin F F F
F sin F F
N H
H
N H
N
+ =
+ =
cos
cos
'
'

Accordingly, T
X
and T
Z
must be calculated using F
`
N

instead oI F
N
.
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.20
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
1

K
T
4
6
8


Figure 6. InIluence oI on K
T.

Focusing the interest on the capability oI the propeller
oI producing thrust, even a considerable change in
shaIt inclination produces a minor eIIect. Figure 6 il-
lustrates the eIIect oI changing Irom 4 to 8 degrees.
In order to avoid the bias imposed on the advance coeI-
Iicient by the shaIt inclination, another Iormulation is
used, J

, which is deIined by the equation:

D n
J
J
A

cos
=
3b Influence of I
T

It is obvious that the immersion oI a SPP strongly aI-
Iects its behavior. The non-dimensional coeIIicient rep-
resenting the immersion oI the propeller is the immer-
sion coeIIicient I
T
. This is obtained dividing the maxi-
mum immersion oI blade tip by the diameter oI the
propeller:
D
h
I
T
T
=
Figure 7 illustrates the maximum blade tip immersion.

Figure 7. Maximum blade tip immersion.
The nominal operating condition Ior a SPP is I
T
0.50,
but sometimes a diIIerent immersion is preIerred. Ac-
cordingly, it is very important to know the impact oI
the immersion coeIIicient on the propeller perIorm-
ance.
Thrust and torque increase along with the immersion
coeIIicient. Figure 8 illustrates the changes in K
T
oI a
SPP as a Iunction oI I
T
. From a designer's point oI view
this is surely the most suited presentation, Ior it allows
an easy calculation oI the propeller thrust.
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
1
K
T
0.40
0.50
0.60
IT

Figure 8. InIluence oI I
T
on K
T
.
Nevertheless K
T
and K
Q
do not allow a quick under-
standing oI the real behavior oI a SPP. Actually, these
coeIIicients are obtained dividing thrust and torque by
the diameter. In case oI a partially submerged propeller
T and Q are sensitive to a change in the propeller im-
mersion while the diameter is a constant. This explains
the considerable variation oI K
T
and K
Q
with I
T
Ior a
given J.
In this way one cannot assess iI the immersion coeIIi-
cient aIIects the thrust production oI the immersed part
oI the propeller. Accordingly, Hadler and Hecker
|1968| suggested a modiIied version oI the thrust and
torque coeIIicients:
2 '
'
2 '
'
2
1
2
1
A O
Q
A O
T
J A D
Q
C
J A
T
C

= =
in which A
O
`
is the actual submerged disk area. This is
obtained calculating the area oI the propeller disk that
lies below the undisturbed water surIace, as shown in
Iigure 9.
O

A
'
T
h

Figure 9. Actual immersed area.
They also presented their test results in graphics illus-
trating J and
O
as a Iunction oI C
`
T
. This kind oI pres-
entation prevents the description oI the behavior oI the
propeller at low values oI the advance coeIIicient be-
cause in this zone the thrust and torque coeIIicients ap-
proach inIinity.
5
Following this, it appears more useIul to deIine |Fer-
rando and Scamardella 1996| two dimensionless coeI-
Iicients having the same structure as K
T
and K
Q
in
which the actual immersed area A
O
`
is used, namely:
' 3 2
'
' 2 2
'
O
Q
O
T
A D n
Q
K
A D n
T
K

= =
In Iigure 10 the same test results oI Iigure 8 are illus-
trated, as an example oI the use oI K`
T
. The same pro-
cedure can be applied to K
N
and K
H
.
The use oI A
`
O
has been criticized by Kruppa |1972|
because, due to the possible rise oI the water level as a
consequence oI Ilow retardation, it is not clear which is
the actual immersed disk area iI the advance coeIIicient
is below the transition limit. From Iigure 10 it can be
inIerred, however, that the behavior oI the propeller is
substantially unaIIected by the immersion ratio pro-
vided that the operating point Ialls in the partially ven-
tilated region.
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
1
K
'
T
0.40
0.50
0.60
IT

Figure 10. InIluence oI I
T
on K
'
T
.
3c Influence of
The cavitation index aIIects the perIormance oI SPPs,
because surIace piercing propellers can also suIIer
Irom cavitation.
Cavitation on a SPP is actually possible only when the
blade surIace is wetted. Following this, it is clear that
Ior advance coeIIicients lower than the transition value,
the development oI back cavitation is prevented by the
presence oI the air bubble which covers almost the
whole blade. So the possibility oI the occurrence oI
back cavitation is conIined in the region where the
blades are partially ventilated, namely in the partially
vented mode oI operation (see region 1 oI Iigure2).
However cavitation is much less important than with
conventional propellers. This can be Iully understood
by recalling the mode oI operation oI a SPP. In Iact in
the partially ventilated mode the radial sections that
should carry the greater load in a conventional propel-
ler are generally ventilated preventing the onset oI va-
por bubbles. Accordingly bubble cavitation in the wet-
ted portions oI the blades will eventually develop at
very low values oI cavitation index.
Face cavitation could also develop at high values oI the
advance coeIIicient, where the outer radial sections ex-
perience a negative angle oI attack. Again this is not
the case Ior a SPP, because those sections are generally
Iace vented by streak-like bubbles drawing air through
the water surIace.

Figure 11. InIluence oI on SPPs perIormances.
UnIortunately cavitation oI SPPs is rarely dealt with in
the available literature. Brandt |1973| perIormed the
Iirst study regarding the inIluence oI on the perIorm-
ances oI SPPs. Figure 11 |Rose and Kruppa 1991| oI-
Iers an example oI that inIluence.
OloIsson |1996| also gives some considerations on the
eIIect oI cavitation on SPP`s perIormances.
3d Influence of W
n

As is well known the Weber number is a ratio between
inertial and surIace tension Iorces. Its inIluence can be
easily Ioreseen Ior an SPP, which continually pierces
the water surIace.
Shiba developed the Iirst study on the inIluence oI W
n

in his comprehensive work on air drawing oI marine
propellers |Shiba 1953|. Shiba`s work was devoted to
the study oI merchant ship propellers in semi-
submerged condition, but his Iindings also hold in the
case oI SPPs.
The Weber number has the Iollowing structure:

L J
W
n
2
=
where is the kinematic capillarity. Shiba introduced a
particular kind oI Weber number, which he judged
more adequate to his needs:
W
n D
n

=
2 3

According to Shiba, surIace tension plays its role when
the propeller is about to be Iully ventilated. Actually
complete ventilation is a rather sudden phenomenon
that can be correlated to a certain value oI J called the
critical advance coeIIicient J
CR
. The critical advance
coeIIicient can roughly be located in the middle oI the
transition region and the sudden drop oI K
T
, K
Q
, K
N

and K
H
identiIy its position (see Iigures 2 and 3).
Indeed Shiba Iound a correlation between W`n and J
CR

Ior a single propeller. Figure 12 reproduces this corre-
lation showing that the inIluence oI the Weber number
almost disappears Ior W
`
n
~ 180. In this perspective
model tests can be used to predict the behavior oI Iull-
6
scale propellers iI they are perIormed at values oI W
`
n

greater than 180.
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
70 100 130 160 190
W
'
n
1
C
R
13.0
22.0
11.2
6.10
Temperature
C

Figure 12. Shiba's W
'
n
-J
CR
correlation
Shiba`s kind oI Weber number does not contain the
immersion oI the propeller. II one tries to build a dia-
gram like that in Iigure 12 containing data oI an SPP at
diIIerent immersions the result is Iigure 13. This Iigure
summarizes experiments on E9401 model that were
carried out in the cavitation tunnel oI the University oI
Genoa and in the towing tank at the University oI
Naples. The data points Iall in two distinct sets because
the test conditions in the two Iacilities were kept as Iar
apart as possible in order to obtain the widest range Ior
the Weber number.
E9401
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
160 200 240 280
W
'
n
1
C
R

Figure 13. EIIect oI I
T
change on W
`
n
-J
CR
correlation.
In each set diIIerent points have the same W
`
n
but diI-
Ierent critical advance coeIIicients. These points per-
tain to diIIerent immersions oI the propeller. Following
this consideration a new kind oI Weber`s number was
devised |Ferrando and Scamardella 1996| containing
the maximum immersion oI the propeller tip:
W
n D h n D I
n
T T
= =
2 2 2 3


II the same data oI Iigure 13 are plotted against W
``
n

again a correlation can be Iound as Iigure 14 illustrates
|Ferrando and Scamardella 1996|. UnIortunately in the
Iacilities where E9401 propeller was tested it was im-
possible to attain values oI W
``
n
greater than 190 and so
there is not suIIicient evidence to suggest 190 as a new
minimum value oI the Weber number Ior scaling pur-
poses.
E9401
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
100 120 140 160 180 200
W
''
n
1
C
R

Figure 14. Example oI the use oI W
``
n
.
This impression is reinIorced iI one looks at Iigure 15
|Ferrando and Scamardella 1996|, where test results oI
three diIIerent propellers are illustrated. The main
characteristics oI the propellers are summarized in Ta-
ble1.

Table 1: Geometric characteristics oI propeller models
Model Type D |m| P/D A
E
/A
O

E9401 SPP with cupped
sections
0.25 1.2 0.80
E042 Wageningen B-
Screw Series
0.18 1.4 0.95
E9501 SPP with Diamond
Back sections
0.25 1.2 0.68

0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
80 120 160 200
W
''
n
1
C
R
E9401
E042
E9501

Figure 15. W
``
n
-J
CR
correlation Ior diIIerent SPPs.
Looking at this Iigure one can assume that each propel-
ler has its own minimum Weber number.
It is then evident that Iurther investigations are required
in order to ascertain the real inIluence oI the Weber
number upon the perIormances oI SPPs.
3e Influence of F
n
The Froude number is usually included among the pa-
rameters that govern the behavior oI a propeller as a
result oI dimensional analysis. Actually its inIluence is
negligible Ior deeply immersed propellers and so the
equality oI model and ship Froude numbers is never
achieved.
As every Naval Architect could guess the Froude num-
ber does inIluence the operation oI a surIace piercing
propeller.
7
The Iirst comments on the role oI F
n
are again due to
Shiba |1953|. In his investigation he pointed out that
gravity aIIects the shape oI the air cavity through the
Bernoulli equation that can be enIorced at the boundary
between water and the atmosphere vented cavity.
Accordingly, Shiba showed in his paper that the inIlu-
ence oI:
D g
D n
F
nD
=
vanished when the air cavity approached its ultimate
Iorm, i.e. Ior Froude numbers greater than 3.
Hadler and Hecker |1968| indirectly concurred on this
hypothesis. Actually they stated that the maximum
pressure diIIerential obtainable Ior each radial section
oI an SPP is h, h being the maximum depth oI the sec-
tion. Accordingly, they derived a sort oI cavitation in-
dex in the Iollowing Iorm:
2
2
1
U
h
h

=
where U is the total inIlow velocity to the propeller
blade section. This equation can be transIormed as Iol-
lows:
2 2
2 2
nh
h
F U
h g
= =
Furthermore they suggested the existence oI a limiting
value oI
h
below which no Iurther change could be
obtained in the propeller perIormances.
In addition Hadler and Hecker noted that at the low ad-
vance coeIIicients the propeller and its hub were gen-
erating a wave train which appeared to modiIy the
submergence.
Also Brandt |1973| commented on this matter stating
that the Froude number, calculated with the immersion
h
s
oI the shaIt:
s
nh
h g
J
F
s
=
has a deIinite inIluence on model tests iI its values are
less than 4.
Finally, OloIsson too acknowledges an inIluence oI F
nD

but he sets to 4 the limiting value beyond which the
inIluence disappears.
Summarizing, it is widely recognized that the Froude
number does aIIect the behavior oI SPPs, and all au-
thors have suggested the existence oI a threshold value
that limits this inIluence. The same general agreement
has not been reached on the minimum value that must
be attained to avoid scaling problems. This is probably
due also to the diIIerent kind oI Froude numbers that
have been used.
3f Influence of the yaw angle
During his tests, OloIsson |1996| investigated the in-
Iluence oI the shaIt line yaw angle on the perIormance
oI a SPP model. He varied the yaw angle Irom 0 to 30
degrees and Iound that the eIIiciency oI the propeller
kept increasing until a maximum was reached. In this
optimum condition the resultant horizontal Iorce was
zero. The yaw angle is considered positive when turn-
ing the shaIt line (looked Irom above) in accordance
with the propeller rotation. In other words the yaw an-
gle is positive iI a right handed propeller axis is turned
clockwise causing a propeller shiIt to port.
This Iinding, though obtained on a single propeller, is
very interesting and conIirms the results oI Alder &
Moore |1977| obtained on a surIace-piercing propeller
that was yawed up to 19.5 degrees.
Both the experiments showed an eIIiciency gain oI
10 or higher. OloIsson observed that at maximum
eIIiciency yaw angle the propeller induced velocities
are roughly parallel to the Iree stream velocity, both
over and under the water surIace, the only substantial
momentum losses being those required to produce the
thrust.
Having tested only one model neither author gave indi-
cations about the correlation oI the maximum eIIi-
ciency yaw angle with the propeller geometry.
It appears that at least Ior SPPs another parameter must
be added which inIluences the propeller characteristics.
4 Design issues
Setting aside all oI the open questions regarding per-
Iormance scaling, the surIace piercing propeller ap-
pears to have reached a suIIicient degree oI reliability
to oIIer a valid and appealing alternative to conven-
tional propulsive means, especially Ior very Iast craIts.
Being rather an extreme propeller, special care must be
used when employing the SPP. In this perspective a
Iew design issues are worth oI some attention.
4.1 Start-up
Due to the reduction oI the suction side contribution to
the total thrust, surIace piercing propellers usually have
a rather high pitch ratio; this can be source oI troubles
at start-up.
When the boat is at rest or at low speed, the propeller
operates Iully submerged and then the active area is
doubled. In this condition much more torque is re-
quired to spin the propeller and sometimes the engine
cannot provide enough torque to accelerate the boat.
Figure 16 illustrates the characteristics curves oI a SPP
Ior I
T
0.5 and Ior I
T
2.0.
E9401 6
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
J
K
T
,


O
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
1
0
`
K
Q
IT 2.0
IT 0.5

Figure 16. Comparison between Iully and partially
immersed conditions.
8
From the Iigure one can see that at lower advance coeI-
Iicients the torque requirement in Iully submerged con-
dition is about ten times that in surIace piercing condi-
tion.
To avoid start-up problems two solutions are currently
adopted. Firstly, reduction oI propeller submergence is
employed in articulated drive installations. Secondly,
artiIicial ventilation oI the back oI the blades can be
obtained by means oI passive aeration pipes or direct-
ing engine exhaust into the water in Iront oI the propel-
ler.
4.2 Transom ventilation
A similar immersion problem may arise when dealing
with two speed craIt. Actually the propeller is gener-
ally chosen to IulIill top speed requirements, then the
designer checks the propeller at cruising speed.
In some instances the cruising speed is so low that the
transom remains wetted and the propeller is almost
Iully submerged. This again produces abnormal torque
absorption and prevents the boat Irom maintaining the
cruising speed
4.3 Backing performances
Figure 17 shows some oI the most common Ioil sec-
tions that are employed in SPPs.

Figure 17. Most common blade sections Ior SPP use.
Though the Iirst section is patented and designed in
view oI improving reverse perIormances, neither oI
these provides backing thrust comparable with that oI a
conventional section. For this reason Iinal users oI
SPPs must be cautioned about maneuvering with great
care, especially iI accustomed to conventional propel-
lers.
4.4 Fatigue and loads
SPPs are probably the most challenging propellers
Irom a structural point oI view, because oI the extreme
asymmetry oI their operation.
It is well known that every conventional propeller ex-
periences variations in blade loading during a revolu-
tion, as a consequence oI the wake Iield. This problem
is well known and designers have the tools to deal with
it.
A new aspect oI asymmetry in blade loading arose
when considerably inclined shaIt lines were introduced
in Iast pleasure boats and hydroIoils. Highly inclined
shaIts introduced Iatigue as a design item due to the
oscillatory nature oI the load. This problem is more ex-
treme Ior SPPs because a blade is actually unloaded Ior
a considerable part oI its revolution. This Ieature leads
to a pulsating load that is Iar worse with regard to Ia-
tigue.
Figure 18 shows a qualitative trend oI the blade load oI
an SPP.

Figure 18. Qualitative trend oI blade load.
The peak load corresponding to the entry oI the blade
into the water is due to two causes. The Iirst is the im-
pact oI the blade with the water during the entry phase;
the second is the maximum angle oI attack which oc-
curs at the 90 angular position oI the blades on an in-
clined propeller. For these reasons the propeller itselI
has to be designed bearing in mind the severe Iatigue
loading. Consequently shaIts also suIIer Irom Iatigue
due to the alternating Ilexure and torsion that are im-
posed by the propeller. Furthermore the considerable
disk plane Iorces, that characterize SPPs, require a
careIul design oI the bearings.
Summarizing, a considerable eIIort must be devoted to
the structural design both oI the propeller and the shaIt-
ing in order to achieve a saIe and reliable propulsion
unit.
5.Conclusions
This overview on surIace piercing propellers may have
suggested the idea that this kind oI propulsion is still
immature and skeptics will probably lean toward some
more classic propulsion device.
From a scientiIic point oI view this Ieeling is well justi-
Iied because what we know does not completely ex-
plain the operation oI SPPs. In addition, the inIluence
oI the various parameters has not been thoroughly as-
sessed. But every scientist knows oI not knowing.
From a practical point oI view, the widening diIIusion
oI surIace propulsion and the growing interest on this
matter, suggest that the moment has come Ior using
such a propulsive mean. Furthermore one must re-
member that every propulsion system has been imma-
ture at the beginning, but wide usage has allowed the
eventual ripening.
Summarizing we can draw the Iollowing conclusions:
potential beneIits
the SPP concept is very promising and some ap-
plications have proved that this propulsor could be
superior at very high speed;
9
the eIIiciency oI SPPs are comparable to those oI
conventional Iully submerged propellers;
the appendage resistance saving can be substantial
at high speed;
drawbacks
perIormance scaling needs Iurther eIIort in order
to ascertain the real inIluence oI the various pa-
rameters, namely the Froude number and the We-
ber number;
the inIluence oI geometric parameters has not been
completely studied. In particular blade rake and
skew have so Iar been neglected;
only a Iew systematic test data are available.
In the Author`s opinion, the increasing use oI SPPs will
boost the research eIIorts in this Iield leading to Iurther
exciting research results.
6 References
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inclined shaIt partially submerged propeller operating
over a range oI shaIt yaw angles. NSRDC Report SPD
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Brandt, H. 1973 Modellversuche mit SchiIIpropellern
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TH
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