Durham E-Theses The contribution of Quran and Hadit early Islamic chronology.

McPartlan, Maurice A.

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The Contribution of Qur'an and Hadit to Early Islamic Chronology by Maurice A. McPARTLAN
The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the written consent of the author and information derived from it should be acknowledged.

Doctoral Thesis

Presented at the University of Durham, Department of Philosophy, 1997

0

2iij ,

']

M. A. McPARTLAN, PhD. 1997

The Contribution

of Qur'n and Hadit to Early Islamic Chronology.

The researcher in the field of early Islamic chronology has a plethora of sources to work with many of which contain numerous variants, some of which contradict each other. Many serious attempts have been made to unravel the chronology of Muhammad's life and the beginnings of Islam without success because, in the view of the present work, they lack a certain critical approach. One important factor to have been ignored is "hindsight chronology". This concept stems from the fundamental problem of distinguishing whether sources being studied can be traced back to the earliest years of the Islamic community without any significant alteration, or if they have been edited. The most obvious example is that of a source which describes an event as happening a number of months after the Higra. If, in the process of collecting and transmitting this tradition, an author works out the month name from the number of months, s/he has already altered the source and imposed his or her interpretation of the prevalent calendar on it. The sources available are too numerous and rich for any one piece of research, which is why the present work concentrates on events described in the Qur'n and Hadil which could yield a chronological fix. This initial exploration of the above mentioned sources has made use of material from many different disciplines, all of which deserve systematic and detailed exploration in order to discover whether they could yield chronological data. The conclusions of this present work can in no way be considered definitive, but rather as a first larger to a much undertaking. Nevertheless, it has demonstrated that there and small contribution is valuable information to be gleaned from careful and systematic study of seemingly insignificant details contained in widely differing sources.

Many thanks to all those who have lived with this work for the past six years and it in to various contributed ways. Special thanks to Professor F. Richard Stephenson for his guidance

and encouragement.

The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without their prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLES ............................................................................................................................. iv

................................................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................

viii x xiv

TRANSLITERATION MUHAMMAD

:A Traditional Chronology ..............................................................................................

GLOSSARY

xx ............................................................................................................................................... 1 ........................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................... 3 4 4 4 6 7

INTRODUCTION

Contemporary history Astrology

..................................................................................................................................................

Sunni and i'........................................................................................................................................... Conclusion

................................................................................................................................................

CHAPTER ONE : Calendars ........................................................................................................................ The South Arabian Calendar .....................................................................................................................

The Jewish Calendar 8 ................................................................................................................................. The Julian Calendar 10 ................................................................................................................................

The Pre-Higra Calendar The Higra Calendar .......................................................................................................................... 10 20 25 26 30 34 35 38

................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................

The Muhammad! Calendar

Calendar Calculation/Prediction Conclusion

..............................................................................................................................................

CHAPTER TWO : Astronomical and Natural Phenomena ........................................................................ Eclipses ................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................

Meteor Showers

Comets

.................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................

39 40 41

Volcanic Eruption? Earthquakes

............................................................................................................................................

41 Plagues ....................................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER THREE : The Qur'n ............................................................................................................... 43

Abraha

46 ....................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................. 47

Ma'rib Dam

Al Nasi'

48 ...................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. 49 50 51 53 54

Conclusion

CHAPTER FOUR : Hadit .......................................................................................................................... Eclipses ................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................

Astronomical Eclipses

Geographical considerations ...................................................................................................................

Ibrhim's death

56 ....................................................................................................................................... 57 ....................................................................................................................

Muhammad drags his cloak

The use of water 58 ...................................................................................................................................... The Last Day 59 ...........................................................................................................................................

59 Shooting ..................................................................................................................................................
Punishment of the grave ......................................................................................................................... 61

The toilet

62 .................................................................................................................................................

63 A sign ......................................................................................................................................................
The wrong garment ................................................................................................................................. 64

65 A hot day ................................................................................................................................................

Muhammad in Makka ............................................................................................................................. 65

Others lead prayer ................................................................................................................................... Shooting stars .......................................................................................................................................... Splitting the moon ................................................................................................................................... Yawm `Mr' .........................................................................................................................................

66 71 72 73

Conclusion 73 .............................................................................................................................................. CHAPTER FIVE : Higra to Death 75 .............................................................................................................. AH 11: Muhammad'sdeath AH 10 AH 8

AH 5 AH 4 AH 3 AH 2

75 ....................................................................................................................

78 .....................................................................................................................................................

80 .......................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................. 80 80 81 85 87

Conclusion

CHAPTER SIX: The Higra

88 .......................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................... 88

Events leading to the Higra

The Higra

89 ................................................................................................................................................

Conclusion 90 .............................................................................................................................................. CHAPTER SEVEN : Birth to Higra 92 ...........................................................................................................

The First Revelation 92 ................................................................................................................................ Mubammad'sbirth and the year of the Elephant 93 .................................................................................... CONCLUSION Qur'n
I Iadit

103 .........................................................................................................................................

103 ...................................................................................................................................................
104

.....................................................................................................................................................

vi

Nsi'

105 ...................................................................................................................................................... 108 ............................. .................................

108

APPENDIX I: South Arabian Inscriptions Concerning Abraha Ryckmans 506. Muraygn

....................................................................................................................

Ma'rib dam, (CIH 541)

109 .........................................................................................................................

APPENDIX II : The Jewish Calendar 114 ......................................................................................................

Sequence of Months in the Jewish years .............................................................................................. APPENDIX III : Caussin de Perceval's Pre-Higra Calendar .................................................................... 117 118

APPENDIX IV : Hshim Amir `Ali Table of Concordance 119 .................................................................... APPENDIX V: The hiliya and Higra Calendars 122 .................................................................................
APPENDIX VI : Makka & Madina .......................................................................................................... APPENDIX VII: Procopius BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................... 130 132 134

.....................................................................................................................................

vii

TABLES

Table 1. Variations of Concordance between Calendars ........................................................................... Table I Solar eclipses visible in Makka and Madtna ................................................................................ Table 3. Lunar eclipses visible in Makka and Madina ...............................................................................

31 36 38

Table 4. Meteor showeis which could have been visible in Makka and Madina TableS. Comets which could have been visible in Makka and Madina

39 .......................................

40 ....................................................

Table 6. Distribution of eclipse texts in the Hadit 52 ...................................................................................... Table Z Solar Eclipses visible from Makka (AD 612-622) & Madina (AD 622-634) 54 .............................. Table 8. Events connectedto eclipseaccounts 55 ........................................................................................... Table9. Death ofIbrhim 57 ..........................................................................................................................
58 58 59 61 61 63 63

Table 10. Muhammad dragged his cloak. No death ................................................................................... Table 11. The use of water during the prayer emphasised ......................................................................... Table 12. Muhammad thought it was the last day ...................................................................................... Table 13. Shooting when eclipse occurred ................................................................................................. Tablel4. Punishment of the grave .............................................................................................................. Table 15. Muhammad going to the toilet at the time ofan eclipsc. ............................................................ Table 16. Eclipse account using the word "Sign = flya.. ...........................................................................

Table IZ The Wrong Garment 64 ................................................................................................................... Table 18. Eclipse on a hot day 657 .................................................................................................................... Table 19. Names ofpeople alleged to have led the eclipseprayer 68 .............................................................
68 Table 20. Possible solar eclipses when prayer led by someone other than Muhammad ............................ Table 21. Sara recited during the eclipse prayer ........................................................................................ viii 69

Table 22. Meteors and shooting stars .........................................................................................................

72

Table23. Splitting the Moon 73 ......................................................................................................................

1X

TRANSLITERATION
Alphabet
Whenever quoting from a source, the source's system of transliteration is followed in so far as possible, otherwise the following system of transcription is used which transliterates one Arabic letter with one transliteration letter. The rationale behind this, is that the computer makes it relatively simple and it is the first step towards automated transliteration.

Arabic

Translite ration

Phonetic description

Pronunciation

Laryngeal plosive

No equivalent in English

Mary, or half'
Bilabial plosive Dental plosive Interdental fricative

cv
e: J

b
t

big
tee

cJ

tbinl:

Velar plosive Pharyngeal fricative

jade

]1

No equivalent in English

Velar fricative

loch (Scotland)

Dental plosive Interdental fricative

dog

that

Dental rolled

rolled as sometimes in Scotland

Dental fricative

zebra

The pronunciation guide is only an indication. Different letters of the alphabet have different regional pronunciations, which can not be taken into account here.

Arabic

Translite ration

Phonetic description

Pronunciation

L)a

S 5

Dental fricative

Sun

V%

Palato-avcolar fricative

ship No equivalent in English No equivalent in English No equivalent in English

ip

S d

Dental fricative

Interdental lateralised

Dental plosive

Interdental fricative Pharyngealfricative

Velar fricative

No equivalent in English No equivalent in English

prends (Parisian French) file

es

Bilabial fricative

Ly cJ

q k

Velar plosive Velar plosive Dental lateral

Qatar

kettle

long

Bilabial nasal Dental nasal Laryngeal fricative

moon

n h

nut house

w y
a

Bilabial semivowel Bilabial semivowel

Open back velar vowel

war yellow
cat

"

Long a
i Close front palatal vowel

Mary or half
thin

C1

Arabic

Translite ration

Phonetic description

Pronunciation

LS

Long i

feel

Close back velar vowel

Short "oo"

ll

Long u

boo

Some rules of transliteration:

1. The "thymarbta" is not written Makka and not Makkat - unless the word is in the construct state -

Madina, but Madinat al Nr. 2. If the hamza is the first letter of a word it is not transcribed.
3. The middy and a/ifnlagsra are both transcribed as "i". 4. The article is never assimilated: al gams not as Sams. 5. The nisba is written "i" in the masculine form and "iya" in the feminine. 6. The final vowel of a word is not usually transcribed. 7. In quotations, the transliteration used in the work being quoted, is respected.

Common words and names

With the advent of word processors and font editors, there is no longer any excuse for not making the fence, I the text this. the to transliterate more common words within of a study such as and names effort following from the are used: sources other when not quoting

Muhammad

The nameknows many different spellings: Muhammad, Mahomed,

Mohamnmad... Most commonly spelled "hadith".

hadit

xii

Makka Madina Qur'n Muslim Sra

Mecca Madina Koran, Quran Moslem Surat, Soura

X111

MUHAMMAD
AD 570 AH EVENT

Traditional Chronology :A

Attack on Makka by Abraha, the Ethiopian governor of South

Arabia. The role played by an elephantled to the year becoming known as Year of the Elephant.
Birth of Muhammad, shortly after the death of his father,

`Abdallh b. 6 Abd al Muttalib, in the year of the Elephant. 577 Death of Amina bint Wahb, Muhammad'smother. Muhammad
`Abd his by al Muttalib b. IHsim and after grandfather, was raised his death, by his uncle, Ab Tlib. 590-595 591 Voyages with caravans to Syria. Muhammad enters into the service of a rich widow, Hadiga bint Unwaylid. 596 Muhammad marries, IJadiga bint Ijuwaylid. They had several

children: Qsim, Zaynab, Ruqayya, Umm Kultm and Ftima 3

This chronology presents generally accepted dates for events during the life of Muhammad, some of which the present work is attempting to verify. Little effort has been made to reconcile the differences between different chronological theories. The aim of this section is simply to provide a chronological skeleton which will help the reader situate events discussed in detail later in the study. Such an attempt is always going to be unsatisfactory, given that the form does not allow for all possible nuances of the presentation to be discussed.

The main sourcesused are:

Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Mahomet(Paris: Albin Michel, 1969), 59-207.

Robert Mantran, Le Gmndi Date: Islam (Milano: Paoline, 1991), passim. Muhammad b. gar?rAb Oa`farTabari, Mohammed, sceaudesprophetes(Paris: 360.

Sindbad, 1980),

William Montgomery Watt, Muhammadat Medina (Karachi: Oxford University Press,1955), 339-343. J. M. B. Jones,"The Chronology of the Maghzi -A Textual Survey," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 19 (1957): 245-280.
3 Mubammad was known by the Kunya Abn Qsim and therefore had a son of the same name. If this is indeed the case, then the child died before it was weaned. Zaynab died in Madina in AH 8, survived by a daughter, Umma who married `Ali after the death of Fatima, another of Mubammad's daughters by Uadiga. Ruqayya married 'Utman b. `Affn, after a first marriage to a son of Ab Lahab was broken by
xiv

AD 610 613

AH

EVENT Muhammad receives the first revelation of the text of the Qur'an. Muhammad preaches to the Makkans: among them are the first believers and first persecutors.

615 619

Exodus of first believersto Ethiopia. Death of Hadiga bint Hwaylid. Death of Ab Tlib.

620-621

Conversion of the Iiazrag and Awl tribes from Yatrib 4 Muhammad marries Sawda bint Zama, widow of al Sakrn ibn

`Amr, who had gone with her husbandto Abyssinia.

Raab 27 Ramadn 17 622 Al Isr', the nocturnal journey made by Muhammad to Jerusalem. Laylat al mi`rg, or Muhammad's nocturnal journey to heavens Pact of `Aqaba in which the new converts pledge obedience to Muhammad. Departure of believers for Madina. 1 Rabi' I 1 Ramadan 1 gawwl Arrival of Muhammad in Madina. Hamza's raid to the coast. Attack6 against the Qurays a at Rbig, led by `Ubayda. No fighting.

her father, she fled to Abyssinia then returned to Madina where she died just before her father returned from the battle of Badr. Umm Kultiim, like Ruqayya, had a first marriage to a son of AbU Lahab which was broken by her father. After the death of Ruqayya, she married `Utmn b. `Affn. She died in AH 9. Fatima married `Ali b. Abi Taub, and bore him several children, the most famous being Hasan and Husayn. She died a few months after her father, in AH 11.

4 s
6

Yalrib becameknown as Madinat at nab! (City of the Prophei) which is usually shortenedto Madina. incidents,assertingthat at Isra' and laylat at Some sourcesquestionwhether there were two separate at the sametime. mi'rag happened
Chronologically speaking, the battles and raids are of interest because they are the source of much discussion about when they took place. As some of the sources date events by counting the number of months between them and the Higra, there is potential for different interpretations of the underlying
xv

AD

AH I D al Qa'da

EVENT Raid against the Qurays at al Uarrr. Raid against the Qurayg at al Abw' led by Muhammad. No fighting.

623

2 $afar

2 Rabi' I

Raid againstthe Qurays at Buwt led by Muhammad.No fighting. Expedition to kill the Jew Ka'b b. al Asraf.

624

2 Oumd II

Raid against the Qurays at al `Usayra, led by Muhammad. No fighting. Kurz b. 6abir at Fahri raided the camels of Madina and Muhammad went in pursuit.

2 Ragab

Attack on a Makkan caravanat Naijla, led by `Abd Allah b. Ciahs. One Quraygi killed.

2 a`bn7
2 Ramadn8

Changeof the qibla from Jerusalemto Makka.

Victory over the Qurays at Badr. Death of Ruqayya bint Muhammad before her father's return from Badr. Institution of the Ramadn fast.

2/1 gawwl9

Muhammad marries `Aisa bint Abi Bakr. In reality, they had been married some two years previously, but it was only at this time that the marriage was consummated.

Marriage of Fatima bint Muhammad to `Ali ibn Abi Tlib. Raid on the Ban Sulaym in al-Kudr. No fighting.

calendar.Once again, it is worth noting here that we are less interestedin discussingwhy any given event took place, than in dating it.
7 8 Other sources say that this took place in the middle of the month. Other sources give 17 of the month.

There is somediscussionas to whether the marriage was consummatedin AH I or 2. xvi

AD

AH 2 LM al I;iigga 3 Muharram 3 $afar

EVENT Raid against the Qurays at al Sawiq, led by Muhammad. Raid of l) Amarr in the Nagd, led by Mul}ammad. No fighting. Raid Martad b. Abi Martad, also known as the Ragi' incident. 10

3 Rabi' I
3 Ciumd I 625 3 awwl 4 $afar

Zayd b. Hrita capturesa Qurays caravanat al Qarada.

The Ban Qaynuga', a Jewish tribe, are expelled from Madina.

The Quraysbeat the Muslims at Uhud.

Attack against the ban! Sulaym at Bi'r Ma`dna, led by al Mundir b. `Amr. Some Muslims were killed.

4 Rabi' I

The Ban Nadir, a Jewish tribe, are expelled from Madina. Muhammad marries Hafp bint `Umar b. al Uattb, widow of a Muslim killed at Badr.

626

Muhammad marries Umm Salama (Hind) bint al Mugira, whose husband, Ab Salama died of wounds received at Ubud.

4 6umd I

Raid into the Nagd, led by Muhammad, known as "Dt al Rig`". Badr Maw'id an expedition, led by Muhammad to fight the men of Makka, but Ab Sufyn turned back his army.

4 a`bn

4 Ramadan

Muhammad marries Zaynab bint Ijuzayma who died a few months (years?) after the marriage. ' Previous to this marriage, Zaynab had married al Tufayl b. al Hrit, divorced him and married his brother, `Ubayda, who was killed at Badr. bint al I-Irit, daughter of the chief

627

Muhammad marries 6uwaynya of the Ban! Mqtaliq.

Captured in an attack on her tribe, she

professed Islam, was set free and married.

10 Seebelow, Sarlya Martad b. Abi Martad 81 if. for details this of event.

xvii

AD

AH

EVENT Muhammad marries Zaynab bint Oahs after her divorce from Zayd b. H,ritaZaynab's mother was a paternal aunt of Muhammad.

5 D al Qa'da

Siege of Madina which is protected by hastily dug trenches (bandaq). Extermination of the Ban Qurayza, a Jewish tribe.

Muhammad takes Rayhna bint Zayd, a Jewess of the Ban Qurayza, as his concubine. She died before Muhammad in 632.

Muhammad marries Umm Ijabiba bint Abi Sufyn, after his return from HHaybar. She was the widow of `Ubaydallh b. Oahs with whom she had fled to Abyssinia. Muhammad takes the Jewess $afiya bint Huyayy as concubine. She was captured at Flaybar but freed when she professed Islam.

628

6 Du al Qa'da

Opposition of the Makkans to Muhammad making the pilgrimage and pact of Hudaybiya.

Muhammad takes the Copt, Mriya bint Sam`n, as his concubine, after she had been offered to him by the ruler of Egypt. Her sister Sinn was given to Hassan b. Tbit. Muhammad marries Maymna bint al Hrit.

7 Safar? 629 7 In al Qa'da

Conquest of the oases of Ijaybar and Fadak. Muslims make the `Urara al Qadiyya (the litigation `Umra). Ibrhim is born to Muhammad by Mriya the Copt. The birth took place shortly after Muhammad's return from al T'if which is dated as the end of D al Qa'da or the beginning of Dn al Higga.

11 Some sources say she married Muhammad in 625.

xviil

8 Oumd I

Muslims beaten by Heraclius' forces at Mu'ta. Breaking of the pact of Hudaybiya.

630 AD

8 Ramadn AH

The capture of Makka and Muhammad's entry. EVENT Destruction of the idols in the Ka'ba and the sanctuary declared off-limits to non-Muslims (Karam).

631

9 a`bn 9 Dii al Qa'da

Death of Umm Kultm bint Muhammad. Ab Bakr leads the pilgrimage (hagg) to Makka. Muhammad leads the "Farewell Pilgrimage" ffiggat al Wad , during which he forbids the intercalary calendar system. Ibrahim b. Muhammad dies at the age of 18 months or two years.

632

10 D al I1igga

11 Rabi `I 09 11 Rabi' 112

Muhammad falls ill and delegates Ab Bakr to lead the prayers. Muhammad dies and is buried in Madina.

xix

GLOSSARY
Abraha South Arabian leader who is famous in Islamic tradition for his '2 `ba. in Makka destroy Ka to the attempted attack on order

Ab
Ab Bakr

"Father of' used in names- seeKunya below.

One of Muhammad's first and closest companions, as well as his father-in-law through the marriage with isa. He accompanied Muhammad on his escape from Makka and when Muhammad fell terminally ill, he was chosen to lead the community prayers. He was the first Caliph to succeed Muhammad and ruled, for about two years, until his death in AD 634.

`Aisa

Daughter of Abd Bakrwho was married to Muhammad while he was still in Makka. Due to her youth, the marriage was not consummated in Makka, but several years later in Madrna, in AH 1 or 2.

`All

Muhammad's son-in-law through his marriage with Fatima. He was the last of the ifulaf'al 40) until his assassination. rxsidn, reigning as Caliph (AH 35 -

Ansr

Literally "helper" or "protector", but in Islam it has taken on the special meaning of "Muhammad's followers in Madina".

Bint
Bann

"Daughter of' used in namesto indicate the nameof the father.

Plural of Ibn meaning "sons" but generally used to mean the name of a tribe, as in Ban Quray? a. This is the nominative form of the word. In the accusative and genitive it becomes Ban!.

Badr

The place where a victory was gained over the Quray.S

12 All words written in itelicsarc explained in the glossary.

Black Stone

A Stone placed in the corner of the Ka'ba, said to contain the footprint of Abraham. Pilgrims attempt to touch it while walking round the Ka'ba.

Buhtnassar era

Arabic name for the Nabonassar era which was based on the

astronomicalCanon of Ptolemy, this era begins on 26 February 747 BC.

Da`if In the study of hadit, the judgement that there are doubts about either their contents or the transmitter. I? al Higga The twelfth month of the Hiira year, "was called so, because in it people performed the Hagjor Dot al Qa'da 13 pilgrimage".

The eleventh month of the Higra year, "was called so, because in it 14 in homes". their people stayed

Ohiliya
Gazwa

The time of ignoranceor the time before Islam.

Attack or campaign. In the context of this study, one of the campaigns fought by the Muslims from Madina.

(`sinn

Invisible beings, either harmful or helpful that interfere in the lives of mortals. "And the grrn, He created from a blend of fire. "15And "there are among us those who are righteous and those who are not; we follow divergent paths. " 16

6umdd

The two Oumds, the fifth and sixth months of the Higra year, stand either for cold, in which case they would have to fall in

13 Abn Rihn Muhammadb. Abmad Birini, The Chronology al al ofAncient Nation. -An English version of the Arabic Text of the Athr-ul-Bikiya ofAlbirini or Vestigesof the Past collectedand reduced to writing by the authorin AH990-1, AD 1000,trans. Eduard C. Sachau(Frankfurt/Main: Minerva Verlag GMBH, 1984),71. 14 Ibid.
15 Qur'n 55: 15. 16 Qur'an 72: 11.
XXl

winter or for dryness, in which case they follow the Spring

'? months.
Hadiga bint Huwaylid Muhammad's first wife who died before the Higra. She bore him Zaynab, Umm Kullrim, Rugayya, Fatima, al Qsim, al Thir and al Tayyib. The three sons died before Islam. Hadit "Traditions" about the life and teaching of Muhanunad, second only in importance to the Qurn. Iiagg The Pilgrimage to Makka, one of the "Pillars of Islam", " which every able-bodied Muslim must make at least once in his/her life-

time if possible. Halal

Handaq

That which is permitted.

"Trench", the name given to the siege of Madina by Makkan forces (c. AD 627), when trenches were dug to protect the town.

Harn Haram

That which is forbidden to a Muslim. A place considered sacred by Muslims, forbidden to non-believers. Makka and Madina are such sites. Though the Qur'n specifically says that it is polytheists who are forbidden access (9: 28), the rule is generally applied to all non-muslims.

Hasan

In the study of hadZt, the judgement that a tradition has a slightly weak isnd or is of questionable orthodoxy.

17 A. P. Caussinde Perceval,"Memoire sur le calendrier arabeavant I'islamisme," Journal Asiatique4 (1843): 342-345.
18 The others being al, salt. "Prayer", five times a day, alzaknr. "Compulsory almsgiving", especially at the end of Ramadan, alsawm: "Fasting" from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadn and algihd. Effort to overcome that which keeps one from God. This effort can be both interior and exterior, In the latter case, it has come to take the more specific meaning of "Holy War", to favour the expansion of Islam by the use of arms. This interpretation is rejected by moderate Muslims.

xxii

Higgat al Wadd'

Literally the "Farewell Pilgrimage", is the Pilgrimage made by Muhammad in AH 10, a few months before he died.

Higra

"Flight", the term used to describe Muhammad's departure from Makka to Madina following the persecution of the first community of Muslims by the Makkan population. When the Muslim community wished to fix its calendar, it was decided to

count from the first month of the year in which Muhammad left
Makka for Madina, even though the flight was supposed to have

taken place during the third month of that year. Al Hulafa' al Rgidn "The Orthodox Caliphs", a title give to the first four Caliphs, Ab
Bakr, `Umar, `Ufman and `A11 Ibn Igma' "Son of', which is often written "b. " when listing full names. Consensus of the legal authorities, one of the sources of Islamic law. Imm "In front of", the name given to the person who leads communal prayers by praying in front of the group. Also the title given to those who succeeded `Alt and his family in the Seii tradition. Intercalation When describing calendars, addition of days or months to adjust the calendar. Isnd The chain of names of those who had passed on the tradition which makes up the authority of a had%t.The chain begins with the person furthest removed from the life of Muhammad to end with that of a Companion, Muhammad, and in rare cases, God. 19This is also known as "silsila" or "chain".

Ka'ba

The shrine in Makka, said to have beenbuilt by the Prophet Abraham. Sometraditions talk of the reconstructionof the shrine

19 When one can infer from the text that whatever is told came from God.
xxiil

during Muhammad's life. The story tells us that there was a lot of

discussionabout who should replacethe Black stoneand that

Muhammad solved the problem by placing the Stone on a cloak and having representatives of the main tribes lift it into place. This building housed the Makkans' idols until Makka was taken by Muhammad in AH 8, at which time all the idols were destroyed. The Ka'ba was a place of pilgrimage, protected by the custom of having sacred months during which no fighting was allowed. 20

Kunya

The name given to a parent after the birth of the first male child
containing the element "Father/Mother" of (Ab I Umm) and the name of the child.

Madina

Originally known as Yalrib, it became Muhanunad's home after he fled Makka.

Makka

Birth-place of Muhanimad, important as a trading centre and a place of yearly pilgrimage. Muhammad was forced to flee, along with the first community of believers, following persecution by the Makkan leaders.

Ma'rifat al rigl

Early biographical studies of transmitters of hadit known as "the knowledge of the men", which looked at the integrity of persons in a hadit chain, as well as whether they could have known the persons who precede or follow them in the isnd.

Matn

The body of text which follows the isnd and contains the teaching of a hadij.

Matrk Mawd'

A doubtful had( said to have originated from one weak source. A hadit considered to be completely false.

20 See.prr `da, Qa D a1Hija a1

and Muharram.
xxiv

MudrA

A doubtful hadif to which words are considered to have been

added.
Mubarram First month of the Higra year. According to some sources this name was only applied to ,SafarIat the beginning of Islam. 2' Musnad Muwatta' A collection of hadif attributed to one transmitter. As in the Muwatta' of M1ik, is the earliest extant collection of hadiL Nsi' A term used to describe part of the calendar practice of the preIslamic community which probably consisted of adding months to the lunar calendar. Negus The Emperor of the Ethiopians. According to Arab sources, EllaScham was the ruler at the time when Muhammad started preaching. However, Ethiopian sources refer to the king as Adriaz, who ruled the country for 20 years (EC22 603-623). "At this time arose the infidel Mohammad in the East, occupied all countries, killed the magicians in Egypt, burned their books and came as far as Habab the land of the Sudan. But he could not subdue the Empire of Ethiopia, for God kept it in His hands.03 The Emperor's son Gitmay, whose throne name was Asfer, succeeded him and reigned for 15 years (EC 623-638). Qibla The direction which the faithful face when praying. Before the Higra it is not clear if Muhammad had a clearly defined qibla. In

21 A. P. Caussin de Perceval, Essaisur I'histoire des Arabes: avant Ilslamisme, pendant I'epoque de Mahomet, et jusqu /a reduction de toutes les tribus sous /a /oi musu/mane (Paris: Librairie de Firm in Didot Freres; 1847), 1,243-244.

22 The Ethiopian calendarwhich is approximatelyeight years behind the Julian calendar. 23 Ethiopian Chronicle ( an unpublishedmanuscript,the property of Qese Gebez Tekle Haimanot of

Aksum), 63. Quoted in Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270(Addis Ababa, 1972), 185.
xxv

Madina the early Islamic community seems to have adopted Jerusalem as its qibla. This was changed by divine revelation, ga`bn in AH 2. The change in the Qibla is remembered probably in the Qur'n 2: 14424

Qiys Qur'n
Qurays Rabi'

Comparisonor allegory, one of the sourcesof Islamic law. The Islamic Holy Book, revealedto Muhammad.
The leading tribe of Makka, which tried to suppress Islam. Third and fourth months of the Higra year. Rabi` meaning "greenery" the two months with this name had to have been rainy; when there was vegetation, the spring. 5

Ragab

The seventh month of the Higra year. "As for the sacred month of Ragab, it was always isolated in the middle of the year, for which "al It far4" "al it the called also was unique. reason was called followed the war because dumb " the which the silence of apmm, cries and sounds of arms. It was considered the most inviolable of the sacred months, and consecrated to fasting, penance and the `Umra, which could also be carried out in other months. Perhaps

the descendants of Modhar gave Ragab this special respect, because it was also called Ragab of Modhar. The month was also known as al Muharram. This name was only applied to $afarl at the beginning of Islam. ,26It "was called so, because in it people formed the intention of travelling, there being no fear of the evils of war. For "rugba" means a thing by means of which a tree is

24 "Often We seeyou turn your face towards heaven.We will turn you towards a Qibla which will please you. Turn your face in the direction of the SacredMosque! Whereveryou may be, turn your facesin its direction."
25 Caussin de Perceval, "Memoire sur Ic calendrier arabe avant l'islamisme, " 342-345. 26 Caussin de Perceval, Essai sur I histoire des Arabes: avant I7slamisme, I: 243-244.
xxvi

propped up, and hence people say, 'a propped up (muraggab) palm-tree which bears a heavy load of fruiti27 Rak'a "Bowing": a part of the ritual prayer during which the Muslim bows forward from the standing position and places his/her hands on his/her knees, before returning to the upright position. This is usually followed by two "kneelings" or "prosternations" (sec Sagda). Three of the main prayers are made up of four rak`a (pl. t), rak one of three and one of two. Ramadan The ninth month of the Higra year. "Ramadan means great heat, which can only mean the hottest of the months which would fit into the scheme of the four previous months. "28 ga`bn The eighth month of the Higra year "was called so, because in it

"29 the tribes were "dispersed. SacrilegiousWar A war which broke out when Muhammadwas still a youth. So
called because it happened during one of the sacred months. There was much discussion about this war, because it was important for the community to know how old Muhammad was when it took place - was he old enough to be legally responsible or not - and to what degree did he participate in the fighting - actually fighting or simply collecting enemy arrows for members of his family? $afar Second month of the Higra year. During it "people used to procure their provisions, going out in a company of men who were called $afariyya. i30 Muharram was also known, at some stage, as Safar I.

27

al Birni, The Chronology ofAncient Nations, 71.

28 Caussin de Perceval, "Memoire sur le calendrier arabe avant 1'islamisme, " 342-345. al Biriini says, "... because of the stones being roasted by the intense heat. " The Chronology ofAncient Nations, 71. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid., 70.

xxvii

Sagda

"Kneeling" or "prosternation" where the Muslim goes from the standing position to the kneeling one, then bows forward to touch the ground with the forehead. S/he then returns to the kneeling position, sitting back on her/his heels.

$ababi

A "Companion" of Muhammad. A classification used in the study of hadit to define any person who knew or met Muhammad, no matter how briefly - there are some 123 Companions accepted in

31 hadif. the study of $ahih In the study of hadil, the judgement that a tradition is orthodox and containsno weaknesses. Sariya Another name given to Muslim campaigns,usedexclusively for
battles in which Muhammad did not take part. gawwl The tenth month of the Higra year, "was called so, because of the increasing and the decreasing of the heat" 32 Shhnrna Epic poem about the Persian kings from the beginning of history

up to the beginning of Islam. The work containssome 60,000

verses.

Sira

Early biographies of Muhammad, the earliestof which contained mainly accountsof the campaignsand battles fought by
Muhammad and the early Islamic community.

i`i`i

From the Arabic root which has the meaning of "those who

follow", "disciples." In this group the meaning is more specific,

describing those who believe that i41i, Muhammad's son-in-law, was his rightful successor rather than Ab Bakr, `Umaror `Ufmn

31 See Muhammad Zubayr Siddigi, 5adith Literature: Its Origin, Development & Special Features (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1993), 15-18. 32 at Birni, The Chronology ofAncient Nations, 71.
xxviii

who preceded him as Caliph. This succession, according to si`i doctrine, was then passed to his sons and a series of Imm s.33 Sunna In the time of the hiGya this was traditional practice. In the Qur'an, God's sunna was the punishment meted out to those who received the prophets with scorn or disbelief. In the hadit sunna took on the meaning of "the actions and sayings of Muhammad" which became a guide for all Muslims. With the divisions which `Ali the arose around role of and whether he, and his descendants, should have been Mu$ammad's heirs, Sunna became opposed to .34

Sunni

A personwho follows the traditions handeddown by Muhammad

and accepts the qur'3n, bulaia' a1r7sidim, sunna, giyas and igma as the sources of Islamic law. Some would call them Orthodox Muslims as opposed to the Si i (see below), but this description is less acceptable than when used in the Christian context, where "Orthodox" is the accepted title of one of the Christian churches. In Islam, both the Sunni and the i`i`i claim to belong to the orthodox branch of Islam.

Sra

A section or chapter of the qurn of which there are 114 arranged by order of length.

Tabagt

Early collections of traditions ordered according to the names of the transmitters.

Tbi` al Tabi`in

The "Followers' Followers", or thosewho had known and received hadit from the Tbi n.

33 See The Encyclopaedia ofls/am: New Edition (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975-). (E. I. s.v. SHi`a. 34 See E: I. 2 s.v. Sunna.

xxix

Tbi`n

The "Followers" were those who had not known Muhammad, but had known one or several Companions. This too is a classification used in the study of had%t.

`Umar ibn al Hattb

A companion of Muhammad, as well as his father-in-law through Muhammad's marriage with his daughter Hafp. He succeeded Ab Bakr, in AD 634, as second Caliph and ruled until his assassination in AD 644.

Umm `Umra

"Mother of' used in names - see Kunya above. The lesser pilgrimage carried out at any time, except during the month of D al Higga.

`Umrat

al Qadiyya

An event during the j hiGya, used to date subsequent happenings in the same way that the Year of the Elephant became a chronological marker for the Makkans.

`Ulmn b. `Af an Yamma

Third Caliph (AH 23 - 35). Most famous of the battles which the Muslims had to fight against the false prophets who claimed to succeed Muhammad as the new prophet of Islam. Musaylima's revolt was put down early in AD 633. This battle is often cited as being the reason for Ab Bakr compiling an official text of the Qurn, as many of the companions who had learned the text were killed at the battle. 35

Yatrib Year of the Elephant

The pre-Islamic name for Madina. The year in which Abraha is said to have tried to attack Makka in order to destroy the Ka `ba.Also said to be the year of Muhammad's birth.

35 SeeChapterthe section on the Qur'n below, for a more detailed discussionof the subject.
xxx

Zamzam

A well next to the Ka `basaid to have appeared miraculously to

saveIshmael, Abraham'sson, and rediscoveredby Abd al

Muttalib, Muhammad's grandfather.

xxxi

INTRODUCTION
In the search for more knowledge about the life of Muhammad, we are faced with the dilemma of defining what exactly we mean by knowledge. It is a question which has been faced by historians been has historical If to the the acute the always more when applied problem great ages. over figures: Alexander, Bonapart.... it is even more delicate when the person is also a key religious figure: the Buddha, Christ and of course, Mul}ammad. Though what follows can be applied equally to most religious figureheads, we will refer simply to Muhammad as he is the subject of this research. The way that Muhammad is perceived depends very much on the state of mind of the researcher: a Muslim will talk of the "Prophet of God, God grant Him peace and salvation", because Mubammad's status as the last of the Prophets is a key part of his/her faith. This is not the case for the non-believer, or believer in another faith. Faith has probably been the greatest single cause of war and hatred in the history of the human race and even now, so-called inter-faith dialogue is plagued by misconceptions about the difference between faith and science even though believers of different faiths would probably belief beyond is faith "attitude the available evidencei36 and therefore that of which goes an agree by definition cannot be proved, while the "theories of science aim at accounts of the world which depend on no particular perspective on the world and no particular type of observer... 07 which can be verified if the rules of the system are adhered to. Many believers have great difficulty in

in faith know difference to they as a tool or weapon with this attempt and will use what accepting faith his/her faith. Christian A Muslim to negate the use cannot they another or a can negate which faith of another as the different faiths are mutually exclusive and therefore not to be compared. The story of Muhammad, as we know it, is made up of history and myth, where history "has as its subject-matter the actual human past, the latter being viewed from a universal or synoptic

36 William L. Reese,Dictionary PhilosophyandReligion: Easternand WesternThought.(Atlantic of Highlands, N. J.: HarvesterPress,1980),s.v. faith.

37 Ted Honderich, The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), S.V. science, art and religion.

viewpoint and studied with the aim of disclosing the overall workings and significance of the historical process as a whole", 38while myth is "a narrative account which is taken to be true, but 39 be known true". The difference between the two can be very slight, as myth is often based to not historical has long but fact, the underlying reality as not been demonstrated it remains a as upon myth. A work of historical research cannot pass judgement on myths surrounding a person or event except to acknowledge that the underlying historical event cannot be corroborated using historical methodology. 40 Though modem researchers often have an advantage over their medieval counterparts, because of the tools at their disposal, they suffer the great disadvantage of rarely having clear-cut, unaltered material with which to work. The Higra calendar has been the subject of intense discussion and speculation since the life-time of Muhammad. Most chronicles of the life of Muhammad have adopted one or another of the theories about what calendar system was in use during his life and if 41 is In be he inspired this to context, what the to changed. system or when ordered or was order be historians cannot the researchers or previous regarded as generally perceived opinion of accepted without question, as many publications do little more than collect and reproduce the opinions of previous authors.

38 Ibid. s. v. history. 39 Reese,Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion, s.v. myth.

40 A good example of this are the "astronomical events" recorded in the Iiadit. Eclipses are mentioned and they can be verified by comparing the accounts with astronomical calculations of what the eclipse must have been like. On the other hand, there are also accounts of the Moon having been "split", which is an astronomical impossibility so there is no means of verifying this either by astronomical calculation or independent historical accounts, and so the researcher can only admit that s/he is unable to verify their historicity. This is not to say that the accounts should be rejected out of hand: In 1990 the Full-Moon was seen in Northeast England with a narrow band of cloud, seen edge-on, splitting it in two. If the sky had been darker and the cloud less obviously a cloud, the uninitiated could have supposed the Moon to have been split. There is no scientific way of verifying this event which was told to me by Professor Stephenson. If, as in the case of Muhammad we are talking more of the miraculous or divine signs, then by definition, they cannot be corroborated by scientific methodology. A "lunar event" is reported in the Chronicle of Melrose: "... [4 April 1216] the moon was 13 days old, ... as this convert was when ... looking at the moon, (which was at this time full and round, ) at that very time he saw, as it were, a black and dusky rope cutting the moon into two halves. The blackness of this rope diffused itself over that half which was towards the north, and made it become darker and duskier than the other part; whereupon, in the twinkling of an eye, that half which had lost its colour appeared to cut itself off and separate itself from the other portion, from which it became detached about the eighth part of a mile; and so great was the violence with which that paler half of the moon was separated and plucked asunder from the other, that it emitted sparks, like a dragon when it is flying through the sky...... J. Stevenson, The Church Seeleys, 1856), IV/1,162-166. Historians ofEngland(London: 41 As we will be going into the question in detail in a later section, we will limit ourselves to saying that the discussion revolves round the question of whether the calendar was purely lunar or luni-solar in the early days of Islam, and if the latter, when it reverted to being purely lunar.

A Muslim will always have difficulty

researching questions related to his/her faith as s/he will

often face the wrath of other Muslims who misunderstand what s/he is attempting and can easily 42 faith. his/her This pressure from other believers, their scientific approach as an attack on accuse combined with the "emotional" content of the researcher's own faith, will inevitably lead to hesitations and doubts, but the unavoidable question will always be on what verifiable grounds can be based. the theories of any A Christian also faces the danger of allowing his/her faith to colour his/her judgement when studying the historical facts surrounding Islam: applying rigorous scientific criticism to stories about Muhammad, while negating the necessity of such rigour when looking at similar stories in the life of Christ is an all too familiar pattern a3 In the search for historical data about the life of Muhammad, we have, obviously to start with the in God" Islam and the Hadit "Word itself Qur'an the the of principal sources, as recognised (traditions about Muhammad), 4' but we must not neglect other possible sources: archaeology, contemporary historical texts, biographies, astronomy and astrology.

Contemporary history
Muhammad did not live in a political vacuum and so we can hope to cross-reference events in his life with known, historically dated, events in the lives of other rulers or dynasties. This data will be all the more authoritative if it provides independent datings, or can be found to refer to Muhammad. The possible sources would be Ethiopian, 45South Arabian, Roman, Persian and Jewish.

42 The growth of scientific exegesis in the Christian faiths was not without its problems, and Islam is not immune from similar difficulties.

43 Seefor "D'apresJeKoran et la Tradition exampleAbd oul Masih' al Ghalwiry, Les Miracles de Mahomet. (Alger: Maison-Carree,1937),passim. Let it not go unsaid, however that the oppositecan be equally true. This has to be statedbecausesuch have beenusedto illustrate that yet one more "Christian" author seemingly one-sidedstatements recogniseshow biasedChristians have beenagainstMuslims, without onceacknowledging that the same is true of many Muslims writing about Christianity. 44 "liadit" is used to refer to the body of tradition while "hadit" is used for individual traditions.
as With the account of the first believers who fled to seek protection from the Negus or Ethiopian King, or even more precise information about the different rulers and the dates of their reigns.

Astrology
The study of astronomical phenomena, during the sixth century and for many centuries to follow, bodies for The be better the portents they termed and celestial were studied stars astrology. would contained. One such portent was the "Great Conjunction" of Saturn and Jupiter, which some saw as predicting Muhammad's birth. Numerous horoscopes have been drawn for the different events in his life and we have to ask ourselves if any conclusions of historical value can be drawn from them.

Sunni and Si'

Given the concentration in this study on the Qur'an and Hadit, we have also to remind ourselves that there are two main schools of Islamic thought and that their interpretation of events and the 46 Islam different "actors" in the early history of vary according to the school roles of

Conclusion Once the more obvious sourceshave been studied, we still have to be awarethat genuinehistorical fact could be hidden in other texts: non-orthodox readingsfrom the Qur'an,hadil not included in the officially recognisedlists, biographies,legends,poetry.... The problem will always be one of in lies The first towards the acceptingthe step recognition of such pieces. value recognising possibility of their existence.
Throughout this study we will have to distinguish between "historical events" and "historical events which can be given a chronological definition". Interesting and necessary as it is, to discuss

the historical background to any given event in the life of Muhammad, within the scope of this study it is meaningless unless it can help date it. Limiting the scope of the study more specifically to the Qur'n and Hadit, has not eliminated the in be for information for to together, purposes, one work. The reference collected need certain is intended information in the as a starting appendices contained astronomical and calendrical improve for the present study. to those may wish continue and who point

The very reasonfor this study is the confusion which reigns concerningthe calendarwhich was in use in the kahiliya and the early years of Islam. "The fundamentalbasisof this confusion is the

46 SeeGlossary for more details. 4

fact that there are two distinct and different theories regarding the nature of the Arab calendar as current in this decade [AH 1-10]. One theory asserts that, until intercalation was forbidden at the time of the Farewell Pilgrimage, a luni-solar calendar was observed and a thirteenth month was intercalated at intervals for the purpose of keeping the moon calendar in conformity with the seasons determined by the sun. The other maintains that the Arab calendar was always a purely lunar reckoning in which the months and the festivals always receded from one season to another. "47 The aim of this research is to define the calendar and use it to find a chronological fix for the life

of Muhammadand if this proves to be impossible,to preparethe terrain for future research.

47 Amir `All H"sim, "The First Decade of Islam: A Fresh Approach to the Calendrical Study of Early Islam, " The Moslem World44 (1954): 126.

CHAPTER ONE : Calendars

Any attempt to better define the chronology of Mubammad's life will obviously have to investigate the Higra and pre-Higra calendars and part of the process of understanding them will entail working out how they related to other calendars which might have been used either to date events mentioned in Islamic and/or ghiliyya chronicles, or served as a model for one or the other. Principal among them are the South Arabian and the Jewish calendars. Nor should we forget the Julian calendar, which as Europeans, we use as a reference. It is not sufficient to study the facts and theories about these different calendars, we also have to understand the different eras related to them which often figure in documents concerning, or in some way connected to Islamic history: The Nabonassar, 48Seleucid49 and Yezdegered5 eras, as well as some more specifically Arab ones which we will see when looking at the pre-Higra calendars' That the Arabs had their calendar for hundreds of years before the birth of Muhammad is usually accepted by the majority of scholars; problems arise when trying to define exactly what form the 2 It is also worthy of note that though the calendar does seem to have existed, the took. calendar Arabs were in the habit of dating events according to their own eras. "... the Ishmaelite Arabs... used to date from the construction of the Ka'ba by Abraham and Ishmael till the time when they were dispersed and left Tihma. Those who went away dated from the time of their exodus, whilst those who remained in the country dated from the time when the last party of the emigrants had left. But

48 Based on the astronomical Canon of Ptolemy, this era begins on 26 February 747 BC and is known as the Bubtn4sar era in Arabic. 49 For the Jews, this era is known as the Era of the Contracts and begins on 1 October 312 BC, while the Christian Syrians know it as the Greek or Alexandrine Era which began on 7 February 311 BC and the Muslims call it the Era of the Man with Two Horns (Vu a! Qamayn) which began on 1 April 311 BC.

so Used by the Persiansthis era begins on 16 JuneAD 632, date of the death of the last the Sassanid of kings, YazdegeredIII.
51 Many different eras were used in Palestine and Arabia, which we will not consider in this work, but whose existence researchers need to be aware of. See Yiannis E. Meimaris, "Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia: The Evidence of the Dated Greek Inscriptions, " 17 (1992): 394-395. MEAETHMATA 52 The main questions lie in whether the calendar was, at some time luni-solar, or always purely lunar. Were intercalary months used? What were the months called? When, if ever, were changes made? When did the year begin?

afterwards, after a long course of time, they dated from the year when chieftainship devolved upon `Amr ben Raba'a, known by the name of `Amr ben Yahy, who is said to have changed the religion of Abraham, to have brought from the city of Balg the idol Hubal, and to have himself made the idols 'Isf and Na'ila. This is said to have happened at the time of Shpr Dhii-al'aktf.... Afterwards they dated from the death of Ka'b ben Lu'ayy till the Year of Treason, in which the BannYarb' stole certain garments which some of the kings of Himyar sent to the Ka'ba, and when a general fighting among the people occurred at the time of the holy pilgrimage. Thereupon they dated from the Year of Treason till the Year ofthe Elephants, in which the Lord, when the Ethiopians were coming on with the intention of destroying the Ka'ba, brought down the consequences of their cunning enterprise upon their own necks, and annihilated them. Thereupon they dated from the era of the Hijra. "s3

The South Arabian Calendar

Our interest in this calendar stems from the story of the attempted invasion of Makka by Abraha in the Year of the Elephant. Though much is known about the calendar(s) in use in South Arabia, there is still some discussion M in began 109 115 BC. or about whether their era We have a relatively good idea of the months 55and their approximate concordance in the Julian calendar:

53 al Birn, The Chronology ofAncient Nations, 39. 54 Smith also proposesthat era year 640 be equatedwith AD 522, which would meanthat the era began in 118 BC. See,Sidney Smith, "Events in Arabia in the 6t Century A. D. BSOAS 16 (1954): 456. ," 55 Alfred F. L. Beeston,"The Himyarite Problem," in Proceedings the Eighth Seminar forArabian of Studies,3 July 1974, The Oriental Institute, Oxford (London: Seminarfor Arabian Studies, 1975): 1-7. Alfred F. L. Beeston,"New Light on the Himyaritic Calendar, " Arabian Studies 1 (1974): 1-6. Christian Robin, "Le Calendrier Himyarite: Nouvelles Suggestions, " Proceedingsof the Fourteenth Seminarfor Arabian Studies,22 July 1980, Oriel College, Oxford (London: Seminar for Arabian Studies, 1981): 43-53.

d-Tbms6 d-Mbkrn57 d-Qyzn58 d-Mden" d-lIrfn60 in d-$rbn61 d-Mhltn62 4-'ln

d-D'wn d-Hltn d-M`n

April May June July August September October November December January February March

We will have to return to this calendar and the South Arabian inscriptions when considering the events of the Year of the Elephant and their possible dating.

The Jewish Calendar

Like the traditional Higra calendar, the Jewish calendar, and long before that, the Babylonian 63 fact Despite by the based the the witnesses. new reliable sighting of crescent calendar, was upon that sighting of the new crescent was necessary in order to begin the new month, the Jewish calendar also stayed more or less synchronised with the solar cycle because extra months were added according to a fixed pattern. Thus the Jewish calendar is described as luni-solar. The reform which he started was In AD 358 the calendar was reformed by Rabbi Hillel 11.64 in fifth is known, It for the that communities some century. example, probably completed after

56 With the idea South Arabian Alfred L. Epigraphic "collecting F. Beeston, water". or of"firmness" Calendars and Dating (London: Luzac & Co., 1956): 17. 57 With the idea of "the first rains of Spring"? Ibid. 2, and Ade Biberstein Kazimirski, DictionnaireArabe Francais (Beyrouth: Librairie du Lilian, 1860), s. Y. bkr.

58 With Calendar, " 2 Summer"? See Light Himyaritic "middle Beeston, "New the on and of of a meaning Kazimirski, s.v. qyz. 59 The month of "sowing". Beeston,Epigraphic South Arabian Calendarsand Dating, 17.
60 The time when "fruit is collected". See Beeston, "New Light on the Himyaritic Kazimirski, s v. brf. Calendar, " 2 and

61 Indicating a late autumn or early winter harvest.Beeston, Epigraphic South Arabian Calendars and Dating, 17. 62 Containing the idea of "slackening" in agricultural activities. Ibid. 63 SherrardBeaumontBurnaby, Elements the Jewish and MuhammadanCalendars:with Rules and of Tablesand Explanatory Notes on the Julian and Gregorian Calendars(London: GeorgeBell & Sons, 1901), 10-39.
64 Tradition would have it that he was a direct descendant from Gamaliel who presided the Sanhedrin when the Apostles and Paul were brought before it. This would seem to be untrue. What is known is that Rabbi Hillel became president of the Sanhedrin when he was about eighty years old. The calendar reform was carried out to allow Jewish communities, especially those at a distance from Jerusalem, to fix the dates of the more important feasts accurately. Ibid., 15-16.

Palestine and Babylonia continued to look for the new crescent till the middle of the fourth century. In the "standardised" Jewish calendar, there are two main types of year, the Common year of twelve months and the Embolismic year of thirteen. Both these years can be either "regular", "deficient" or "abundant". In the case of the Common year, this means that it can contain either 354,353 or 355 days, while the Embolismic year contains respectively 384,383 or 385 days. There are seven Embolismic years in the nineteen-year cycle of the Jewish calendar. The rules governing which of the years are used depend both on astronomical and liturgical 65Suffice to say that the Jewish calendar, and its do here. to reasoning, which we not need explore life be Mubammad's for Julian the the can calculated, of concordance with calendar, period supposing that the Jewish community of Madina was using Rabbi Hillel's method and not still 66 the observing new crescent.

The months of the Jewish calendar are: Tishri, Marheshwn, Kislew, Tebeth, Shebhat, Adhr, Nisn, Iy.n, Siwan Tammuz, Abh, 'Elul and the intercalary month, veAdhr, which follows Adhr in the embolismic years. 7 There are two Jewish calendars contained in the one set of months: the civil calendar which follows the order given above with the intercalary month in the middle of the year, and the religious calendar in which the year begins with Nisn and the intercalary month comes at the end of the year. The fact that the intercalary month comes somewhere other than the end of the year is an indication that the beginning of the year has moved, just as the extra day

65 Some extra detail is needed in order to understand the table of dates in Appendix II below pp. 114ff. The beginning of each month is worked out from the Molad which in turn is calculated from the mean value of lunation in the Jewish computation. See Burnaby, Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan Calendars, 63. This is not the only factor which enters into fixing the beginning of the new year. As the months follow in a regular sequence, and certain feasts cannot fall on certain days of the week (for example, 15 Nis .n cannot fall on a Monday, Wednesday or Friday), it is necessary to adjust the beginning of the year in order to make allowance for these factors, hence the "deficient" and "abundant" years. 66 I am unaware of any documents or studies which allow us to decide which form of the Jewish calendar was in use in the Jewish communities of the region. Later Islamic writings and studies supposed that the "standardised" calendar was in use. See Appendix 1 for a table of Jewish calendar dates from AD 550650. For the period from AD 610-650 the tables are taken from Burnaby, Elements ofthe Jewish and Muhammadan Calendars, 302-303, while the earlier dates have been calculated following the explanations given in Burnaby, Elements ofthe Jewish and Muhammadan Calendars, 63-102. 67 See the table in Appendix II, Sequence of Months in the Jewish years, 117.

added to February in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, is an indication that the New Year used

to be celebratedin March.

The Julian Calendar

The reference dates used for all concordances will be the Julian calendar which was introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BC. To begin with an extra day was added every third year. The calendar was fell fixed January "leap beginning 1 in 9 BC the the year" the was as and of year when reformed in four. The Julian fourth the remained calendar year number was a multiple of year, when every it (AD 1572-85) Gregory XIII Pope AD 1582 to give the present-day reformed when use until Gregorian calendar. 68As with the Jewish calendar, we are able to date events accurately according in in it Julian to though use actually able ascertain whether was we are not always to the calendar, any given region or community.

The Pre-Higra Calendar

There have been many serious studies carried out to try and elucidate exactly which calendar Such Madina before Islam. Makka in the studies and advent of around and used system was began, define the to calendar when as well as when any eventual changes were usually attempt The in be it, the the most years. they month names counting or system of to actual changes made important question being when, if at all, the purely lunar calendar, used in Islam, was adopted. We important Throughout this section we need brief the theories. of more of some resume a will give to be aware of the limitations of the term "pre-Higra" as this can cover three separate 'realities': a during in different to the a calendar used use, names were ones presently month calendar whose the ghiliya up to the Higra and the calendar used from the time of the Higra until the calendar during have taken the Farewell Pilgrimage. place to reform said Al B1rni 9 writes about the calendar as follows: "Their (pre-Hijra Arabs) months were distributed git'70]; [called Rabi'; beginning four then winter with autumn, which they called over the seasons,

68 Not did for Great Britain, Gregorian time, the the at same example calendar reforms all countries adopted so, by act of Parliament, in September 1752, at the same time adopting 1 January as the beginning of the year. 69 Born in K1, the capital of Uawrizm, of an Iranian family in AD 973, Abii al Rihn Muhammad b. Ahmad at Birni became an authority on calendars, chronology and astronomy, writing about 180 works. He died some time after AD 1050, probably in Gazna. See E. I. 1, s. v. al-Biriini. 70 Not in the text.

10

then spring, called $ayf, or by others Rabi' II; then summer, called Qayz. This nomenclature, however, has altogether been dropped and forgotten. Of the way in which they divided the `or beginning Rabf know the that of autumn fell on 3 Ill (September), the only seasons, we beginning of winter on 3 Knnn I (December), the beginning of $ayfor spring on 5 Adr (March) ' beginning Qayzor (June). "7 4 Ilazirn of summer on and the The author also provides month names and their etymology, reportedly used by ancestors in two

slightly different lists: Muharram Mu'tamir $afar

Rabi` I

al Mu'tamir72 Ngir73

al Ndkira

6umd I

Ijawwn74 1LIawwnRabi' II $uwan $uwn75 Hantam

6umd II Zabb76
Ragab Apmm a`bn Zabb al Aamm78 `Adi179 Wgi1 Ramadn

Mild 77

al

Nfiq gawwl Nlil S

Wgilg, 'Adila

71

al-Birnni, The ChronologyofAncientNations, 322. Thesedatesare close to thoseof the Solstices and Equinoxes,but not close enoughto be of any significance.

72 "It'obeys' all the decreesof fortune, which the year is going to bring." al-Birni, The Chronology of Ancient Nations, 71. 73 Is derived from " Ibid., 72. najrwhich means'intenseheat'... 74 Is the form fa `/of the verb'to deceive..." Ibid. 75 is the form fi /of the verb 'to preserve, to take card..." Ibid. ...
76 because in it frequently ' The there was 'great so, called was occurring month ca/amity. and means a ... much and frequent fighting. " ibid. Effendi gives this month as Rabb with the meaning of something to do with the "Equinox". Mahmoud Effendi, "Memoire sur le calendrier arabe avant l'Islam et sur la 146-156. Mohammad, du Prophete " JournalAsiatique(1858): l'fige naissance et

77 "... in fighting 'perish' it. from in it, " for its to the used al-Birni, The people many name received Chronology ofAncient Nations, 72. 78 "... was called so, becausein it people abstainedfrom fighting so that the clash of weaponswas not heard." Ibid.
79 "... is derived from' adl (which means either'to be just' or'to turn aside'). The month was called so, because it was one of the months of pilgrimage, when they used to abstain from the use of the Nlil, i. e. the wine-pot. " Ibid. 80 "... means 'a measure, a pot of wine. ' The month was called so, because in it people indulged in debauches and frequently used that pot. " Ibid. 81 "... means'one who comes to a drinking party without having been invited' This month was called so because it suddenly comes in after Ramadan, and because in Ramadan there was much wine-drinking, on account of the following months being the months of pilgrimage. " Ibid.

11

IN al Qa'da D al Higga

Huwd' Ranna82 Burak83 Burak

He also notes that if the etymology of the two series of names is correct, then the interval between the names having been used must be great, as Ramadn, in the Higra calendar means the hottest month while, in the older calendar Ngir, which corresponds to $afar, was the hottest one. 84 Talking of the intercalation system used by the Arabs during the time of the g . hiliya al Birni describes it as follows: "This proceeding they called "Nasi"', i. e. the postponement, because in every second or third year they postponed the beginning of the year for a month, as it was required by the progression of the year... The first intercalation applied to Mubarram; in consequence $afar was called Muharram, Rabi' I was called $afar and so on; ... The second intercalation applied to $afar; in consequence the following month (Rabi' I) was called $afar. i85

82 "... was called so, becausethe sheepwere'crying on accountof the drawing near of the time when they were to be killed. " Ibid.
83 "... was called so, because of the kneeling down of the camels on being led to the slaughter place. " Ibid. 84 The implications of this are complex! If the original luni-solar calendar enabled the months to remain synchronised with the seasons whose characteristics they reflected, then the calendar must have passed through a stage of being purely lunar in order for the difference between the months and the seasons to come about, or the system of intercalation was not adequate and a much more gradual slippage occurred between the months and the seasons. It is worth noting that the Gregorian reform of the Julian calendar, corrected an eleven-day discrepancy which had occurred over nearly 1,600 years. Another possibility which should not be ignored, is that, like the Jewish calendar, the pre-Higra calendar could have undergone a transformation which reflected a move away from religious influence to a more secular one.

85

al Blrni, The Chronology ofAncient Nations, 74. This can be understoodin two ways:
1. The intercalation was carried out every time after l) at Higga but considering the position of the in intercalated to the the original each month compared series, month would replace additional month tum, until it came back to replacing Muharram. Leap-month ii at Higgs ]? Mubarram Muharram Leap-month $afar $afar Muharram Rabi' I $afar Rabi' I Rabi' II Dii al IIigga Du al Qa'da Sawwl

2. The intercalation was carried out, in the first case, after 1) al Higga, then in the second after Mubarram and so on, without referring back to the original series of months. Leap-month I) al Higga Muharram Muharram Mubarram $afar $afar Leap-month Rabi' I Raba` II Rabi' I $afar D6 al Higga Da al Qa'da gawwl

Though the end result is the samethe two possibilities needto be kept in mind. 12

"... This went on till the time when the Prophet fled from Makka to Madina, when the turn of intercalation, as we have mentioned, had come to Sha`bn. Now, this month was called Muharram, and Ramadn was called $afar. Then the Prophet waited till the 'farewell pilgrimage, ' he addressed the people, and said: "The season, the time has gone round as it occasion on which heavens day God's the the creating of and the earth. " (Sra 9: 38) By which he meant that on was the months had returned to their original places, and that they had been freed from what the Arabs used to do with them. Therefore, the'farewell pilgrimage', was also called'the correct 06 pilgrimage'. A. P. Caussin de Perceval87 starts his study by quoting a tradition which claims that the Higra month names, as we know them now, were introduced some two hundred years before Islam, at the time of Kilb b. Murra, one of Mubammad's ancestors. The author then studies the different possible methods of intercalation: 1 month every three years, 7 months every 19 years (Jewish 88 The Nasi': 9 24 He the of addition of a then meaning explores system) or months every years. month, the name of that additional month, or the fact of transferring the sacred nature of Muharram to *afar as a means of not having 3 months in a row when it is forbidden to carry out raids. Muhammad supposedly put a stop to the practice, whatever it was, during the Farewell Pilgrimage. 89The quotation. "Certainly time in its revolution has come back to what it was on the day heaven and earth were created" (Sra 9: 38), was interpreted by some to mean that a cycle of

86

al Biriini, The Chronology ofAncient Nations, 74. Though the author obviously believed the theory he has presented and even informs us that cycles of intercalation were used to date events (73), he gives neither his source, nor an example so that it is difficult to ignore the possibility that he, or his source, ga`bdn in from "Farewell Pilgrimage" had back the to that the to come order conclude cycle at calculated the time of the Higra. See APPENDIX V: The dahiliya and Higra Calendars.

87 Caussinde Perceval,"Memoire sur le calendrier arabeavant l'islamisme," 347-348.

88 There was also another tradition which states that the Qurays used to intercalate a month in every year, so that D al Higga fell at the proper time only once in twelve years. Alfred Guillaume, "New Light on the Life of Muhammad, " Journal of Semitic Studies: Monograph No. I. n. d.: 22. In describing Manuscript 727 from the library of the Qarawiyn mosque in Morocco, Guillaume says: "The title page of the beginning of the work has not survived, but Part II is entitled "Part II of the'Book of the Campaigns' (Maghazi). The report of Y5nus ibn Bukayr from Muhammad ibn Ishq and others. The report of the shaykh Abii'l-Husayn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Naqr al-Bazzz from AbU Thir [Muhammad ibn `Abdu'l-Rahman] al-Mukhli from Ridwn from Ahmad ibn 'Abdu'l-Jabbar al-`Utiridi from Ynus. " ... " 5.

89 Caussinde Perceval,"Memoire sur le calendrierarabeavant l'islamisme," 348-350. 13

intercalation was complete and that Muharram was back in its rightful place (i. e. 12 months had been intercalated into the calendar). 90 The author also looks at Maqrizi's suggestion that there was a special form of intercalation in Madina (One lunar month every 975 days, as opposed to 9 months in 24 years)91but rejects the idea, given that Madinans went on the pilgrimage at the same time as the Makkans. 92 Caussin de Perceval concludes that the Pilgrimage of Farewell fell around 9 March AD 632; whereas l) al Higga should fall in the autumn. AH 10 began on 9 April AD 631. If, according to Muhammad Djarcaci, al Birilni and al Maqrizi, intercalation had been practised for 220 years by

AH 10 (other texts say "about 2 centuries before Islam"), intercalation would have begun on 21 November AD 412 with the pilgrimage on 21 October AD 413. The year AH 1 would have begun 93 19 April AD 622 on The author quotes History of the Wars94in which Procopius tells of a meeting of Roman generals from Syrian 2 discuss by in Belisarius, officers Daras AD 541, to campaign, of a plan called at from King leave to in felt attack the open the country that participating campaign would garrisons Mundhir III. Belisarius explained that they were approaching the summer solstice93 at which time 96 the Arabs devoted about two months to the practice of their religion, and arms were not allowed . Caussin de Perceval cites two events from tradition to prove that his interpretation of the calendar fits historical facts:

90 Ibid., 354. 91 In Biriini's original text, this method of intercalation is attributed to the Indians, not the Madinans. 92 Caussinde Perceval,"Memoire sur le calendrier arabeavant l'islamisme," 356-359. The author'stable of proposeddateshasbeenreproducedin APPENDIX III : Caussindc Perceval'sPre-Higra Calendar,p. 118. 93 Ibid., 365-368,371-373.
94 Procopius, History of the Wars, Vol. II, trans. H. B. Dewing. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1914), 401-403. See APPENDIX VII: Procopius, for the Greek text.

95 The summersolsticeof AD 541 fell on 20 Juneat 10.56h. 96 Interesting this text may be, it also raisesquestions!Was the mention of "two months" a mistakemade as

by Belisarius or Procopius, or is it the indication that intercalation was being practised and would be used that year? One other possibility is that the author talks of two months and ignores the third. Are we even able to say what calendar King Mundhir was using? At this time, there is no way to answer these questions. On the other hand, the text gives the impression that the Arabs did the same thing every year at the same time, which is an argument for the fact that a luni-solar calendar was in use. According to the purely lunar calendar the summer solstice would have fallen in (`,umd II, whereas in the luni-solar calendar, as we have calculated it, the summer solstice fell in Rabi' II.

14

1 AH when Muhammad arrives in Madina in Rabi' I, the heat was considerable. 5 AH the army which laid siege to Madina in Sawwl suffered a lot from the cold 97 bad and the weather.

Mahmoud Effendi98studiesthe pre-Islamic calendarin the secondpart of his study. All his
calculations in this section are based upon the three dates he had deduced in the first section:

Muhammad'sbirth The Higra Ibrahim's death

20 April 571 = Monday 9 Rabi' I 20 September622 = Monday 8 Rabi' I 27 January632 = Monday 29 gaww199

A comparison of the dates of Mubammad's birth and the Higra shows that the difference must always be a whole number of years minus one day, whether the calendar system was lunar tic lunisolar. Using the Julian calendar, the difference between the two dates is 18,780 days and so the 10 in lunar that the author concludes vague calendar was use. Effendi quotes from Manuscript no. 213 from the supplement des manuscrits arabes de la Bibliotheque imperiale de Paris, second last page of the volume: called dam a al `Idda which says that a lunar eclipse occurred in umd II in the year AH 4, and concludes that it must have been the one of 20 November AD 625 corresponding with 14 Gumd II AH 4.101 He also quotes Procopius on the incident from AD 541.102The author also uses the lunar eclipse, but I am less sure as to the veracity of the Higra month name. Between 28 January AD 632 and the summer solstice of AD 541, the number of days is 33104, or 1121 lunar months. The author 13 New Moon Ragab. 541 AD the that the concludes after summer solstice of was

97 Caussinde Perceval,"Memoire sur le calendrier " 378. arabeavant 1'islamisme, 98 Effendi, "Memoire sur le calendrier arabeavant l'Islam, " 146-156. 99 This is based the date of a solar eclipse. The questionof the date of Ibrahim's death will be studied in on more detail when looking at information contained in the Hadit literature. 10 Once again the author has entrappedhimself within a closed system;if intercalation was being used, then there would be extra months addedand the number of days, Julian or other, would vary. This sort of argument can only be valid if the datesusedwere fixed independentlyof this theory. If the dateswere fixed, even by someoneelsewho presumedthat a vague lunar calendarwas in use, then of coursethe results will prove that a vague lunar calendarwas in use. 101The question remains whether this text is anotherexample of hindsight chronology or not. 102Seenotes 94,95 & 96 above.
103 According to the tables in APPENDIX V: The i,`hiliya and Higra Calendars, the solstice would have fallen in 6umda II -84 AH in the lunar calendar or Rabi' 11-81 AH in the luni-solar calendar.

is

The author's conclusion, that despite the correspondence of names to climatic factors, there was never a luni-solar calendar, seems weak. Effendi also quotes from al Ulfof Abn al Ma`sar, which presents the old calendar as having been one of intercalation of 1 month every two years, with the conclusion that the months would come back to their original position every 25 years. The text says that "in the year of the Higra, the ga`bn in beginning 16th the with and ending with Ragab, during year of the cycle, calendar was 104 " The 23rd year of this cycle would begin with DO al the took pilgrimage which month place. l1igga (AH 8) in which year Makka was captured. Muhammad did not accomplish the pilgrimage as it fell in D al Qa'da, but in the 25th year of the cycle (AH 10), when the pilgrimage was back in Dn al Higga he went on the Farewell Pilgrimage and stopped the practice. He also quotes a1Atar al Bagiya which states that intercalation started about 200 years before the Higra. The author rejects both al Uhifand a1.41ara1 Bgiyds conclusions as he finds that their authors '05 hesitant seem very and contradict themselves. Muhammad Hamidullah106 quotes Qur'n 18:25: "And they stayed in their cave three hundred have to add interpreted 300 " This they to would years and added nine. as solar years which was nine lunar years. Using the averages for astronomical solar and lunar months, 300 solar years would be equal to 309.21 lunar years. Though there is no exact correspondence with one of the suggested methods of pre-Islamic intercalation, there is very close agreement with the system of 107 19 7 years. adding months over

104Effendi, "Memoire sur le calendrier arabeavant 1'Islam, " 168-178.

105 According to calculations for the beginning of the month of Rabi` I: The Astronomical New Moon occurred on 10 April AD 571 at 09h. 41 local time Makka, the first sighting would have been on the evening of 11 April, giving 1 Rabi` I as Sunday 12 April AD 571, therefore Muhammad's birthday had to be Monday 9 Rabi` I, or 20 April AD 571. The calculations carried out according to Ilyas' parameters give the time of the New moon as 15h.26 local time with first visibility on the evening of 11 April AD 571. 106 Muhammad Hamidullah, "Intercalation in the Qur'n and the Hadith, " Islamic Culture (1943): 327-330. 107 The other possibility, of course, is that this was just a "quaint" way of saying "three hundred and nine years", just as One thousand and one nights is known as One thousand nights and one night (alf layla wa layla) in Arabic. If this is not the correct interpretation and Hamidullah is correct, we are left with the problem of interpreting the message of the text...

16

Alavi Is'haqunnabi works on the basis of the contradictory and inexact dates given for many important and lesser events during the life of Muhanunad. After listing these events, the author concludes that: "the original calendar, according to which the events were dated, is lost; that perhaps there were two different types of chronologies working side by side in the Prophet's Medina, a fact which was not given due attention by the coming generations; and the only solution lies in discovering the lost truth. " 108 In the second chapter, the author recognises that Winckler was the first to put forward the idea and in he idea by Hamidullah which given speaks of two no comments on an expressed reference parallel chronologies which became one at the time of the Farewell Pilgrimage. In the opinion of the author, this was not the case. The author then discusses different ways of adding months to the lunar cycle so that it will stay 109 Qur'nic basis exegesis, that of synchronised with the solar calendar concluding, on the Makkans added a month as it was needed. A short third chapter returns to "double documentation" on the grounds that most historical sources refer back to Ibn Ishaq (d. AH150) and Waqidi (d. AH 207) and that the aforementioned authors, while sharing some common sources, and therefore giving common dates for some events, also have independent sources which reflect different calendars. The events and the sources are listed as follows:

Kuru b. Obir Fahri Banu Sulaym

Event10

Ibn Ishq
(umd II AH 2 awwl AH 2

Wgidi
Rabi` I AH 2 Muharram AH 3

1 `Amr SaryaZayd b. Hrila Uhud

Raji Accident Badr Maw'id Dt al Riq' Haybar

awwVD al Qa'da AH 3" Sa`bn AH 4 `, umd I AH 4 Muharram AH 7

Muharram AH 3 Rabic IAH 3 awwl AH 3

Rabi' I AH 3 Ciumd II AH 3 Muharram AH 4

$afar AH 4 D al Qa'da AH 4 Muharram AH 5 umd 1 AH 7

108Alavi Is'haqunnabi, TheArab Calendar prevalent during the Life-time ofMuhammad (Delhi: Rampur Institute of Oriental Studies, 1968), 10. 109Al TafsiralKabir, (Qur'an 9:36) quoted in BirUni, The Chronology ofAncient Nations, 13. "... adding it to the year as one month as soon as it completedthe number of days of a month."
110 See the glossary for more details of these events. ttt In fact Ibn Isb5q dates this event $afar AH 3, see Alfred Guillaume, The life ofMuhammad. "A (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1955), 426-433. translation oflbn Ishaq's SiratRasulAllah

17

concluding that the sourceswere:

Event Kuru b. Obir Fahri Banu Sulaym D `Amr Sarya Zayd b. Hrita Ubud Raji Accident Badr Maw'id Dt al Riga' HIaybar Ibn Ishq Madinan Makkan Makkan Makkan Makkan Makkan Makkan Madman Makkan Wgidi Makkan Madinan Madinan Madinan Madinan Madinan Madman Makkan Madinan"Z

Chapter four attemptsto reconstructthe two calendars.Starting from the premise that the Makkan
calendar was luni-solar and the Madman lunar. The beginning of the Makkan year fell when the Sun was in, or about to enter, Libra and the full

moon was seenin Aries, around the date of the Autumn Equinox, while the beginning of the year
in the Madman calendar was not fixed. ' 13

Year AH 1 AH 2
AH 3

Makkan Monday 13/09/622 Sunday 02/10/623

Friday 21/09/624

Madman Friday 16/07/622 Tuesday05/07/623

Sunday 24/06/624

AH AH AH AH AH AH

4 5 6 7 8 9

Tuesday 10/09/625 Sunday 28/09/626 Friday 18/09/627 Thursday 06/10/628 Tuesday26/09/629 Saturday 15/09/630

Thursday 13/06/625 Monday 02/06/626 Saturday23/05/627 Wednesday11/05/628 Monday 01/05/629 Friday 20/04/630

112 Reordering

following: Event

the table to put the "Makkan" and "Madman" texts together, we obtain the

Makkan
Rabi` I AH 2

Madman
C;umd II AH 2

Difference
4 months

Kuru b. bir Fahri

Banu Sulaym IN `Amr Sarya Zayd b. Hrita

Uhud

Sawwl AH 2 Muharram AH 3 Rabi' I AH 3

Mubarram AH 3 Rabi `I AH 3 umdII AH 3

Mubarram AH 4

4 months 3 months 4 months

Sawwl AH 3

4 months

Raji Accident Badr Maw'id ])at al Riga Haybar

113 The

9aww5l/Dfi al Qa`daAH 3 9a`bnAH 4 Muharram AH 5 Muharram AH 7

$afar AH 4 5/4 months 4 months Dn al Qa`daAH 4 6umd I AH 4 I AH 7 C`iumd 5 months 5 months

weakness of this argument lies in the fact that the author has not considered the possibility of hindsight chronology! An equally valid argument, based upon the given facts, is that the original sources in firm dates, the belief that one or the other calendar system existed. them the provided calculated which The overall consideration of the results as shown in the table above, would be that between AH 2 and AH 5, one month was added in the intercalary system, but there is no independent proof that this was actually the case.

18

AH 10

Thursday 03/10/631

Tuesday 09/04/631

Chapter five studiesindividual datesin more detail and attributes a Julian date to them.
The main interest of this work lies more in the "unravelling" of mixed ideas about dating.

Evidence for the existence of two different calendars is much less convincing. F. A. Shamsi has written a number of articles concerning the Higra and pre-Higra calendars. 114 The two which interest us the most here are "The Year in the Qur'an" and "The Meaning of Nasi"". In the first, the author studies the different Arabic words used to describe the year in an effort to discern whether any of them were used to describe a particular calendar. He concluded that there was no clear evidence that any of the terms was used to describe a particular calendar. The second article is 37.115 discusses four Qur'n 9: The author the of meanings a study of possible possible interpretations: that Nasi' means the "postponement of the ... sacredness of a month" that it "means a month shorn of its sacredness"

" "

" "

that it "meansthe intercalatedmonth" or "a certain number of days equivalent to the progressionof a calendaryear".

The first two hypotheses are rapidly discarded for different reasons. The third, within a limited context is much more tenable, however it is discarded because Nasi' would then seem to have been sacred sometimes and not sacred at others for no apparent reason. This leaves the fourth interpretation that Nasi' meant the difference between the lunar and solar bring in days the two calendars to the the added at end of order well as some years calendars as back into synchronicity. The rest of the article elaborates on this theme. Hshim Amir `Ali16 starts from the premise that the origin of many of the problems faced by the student of early Islamic chronology lies in the two prevailing theories about the calendar which

114 F. A. Shamsi, "Three Proposed Arabian Calendars with Special Reference to the Date of the Hijrah, " Islamic Studies23, (1983): 189-224,239-323.

F. A. Shamsi,"The Date of Hijrah, " Islamic Studies23 (1984): 189-323.

F. A. Shamsi, "The Meaning of Nasi', " Islamic Studies 26 (1987): 143-164. F. A. Shamsi, "The Year in the Qur'dn, " Islamic Studies 25 (1986): 305-324. F. A. Shamsi, "Mahmd Psh on the date of Holy Prophet's Birth, " Hamdard lslamicus 12 (1989): 3-24. 115"The month postponed is an increase of unbelief whereby the unbelievers go astray; one year they make it profane, and hallow it another, to agree with the number of months that God has hallowed, and so profane what God has hallowed. " 116 Hiishim Amir `All, "The First Decade in Islam: A Fresh Approach to the Calendrical Study of Early Islam, " The Muslim World44, (1954): 126-138.

19

was in use before the coming of Islam and during the ten years which followed Muhammad's
arrival in Madina. The author then goes on to study, and refute Caussin de Perceval's arguments for adopting the theory of regular triennial intercalation, in favour of the more complicated Jewish system. He also makes a very pertinent observation when he highlights the number of calendars where there has been a shift between the spring and autumn equinoxes for the beginning of the year. In fact the Jewish calendar integrates both with the religious year beginning in the month of Nisan, in the spring, while the civil year begins in autumn with the month of Tishri. Amir `Ali believes that a change in calendar policy from spring to autumn, some time in the past, better explains the fact that the month names no longer correspond to the seasons their etymology would seem to suggest, rather than trying to explain this by a gradual displacement of the months because of faulty intercalation. A comparison of the Jewish and the prevailing Arab calendar for AH 10, according to the author shows clearly how close the two were, and he posits that the Nsi'month of the Arab calendar must have corresponded very closely to the veAdhrmonth of the Jews. He also remarks on the similarity between Nsi'and Nisan. Conclusion The different theories presented in the studies which we have looked at so briefly here contain some very interesting information and theories. Nevertheless, the theories all leave unanswered questions, or seem to ignore information which does not appear to fit the theory. None of the authors consider the problem of hindsight chronology, and none are able to present any independent evidence to corroborate at least one chronological point. The major weakness of all these theories is that they are attempting to prove a point, leaving the reader to wonder if all facts, even those which contradict the theory, have been presented for his/her consideration.

The Higra Calendar

The calendartakesits name from Mubammad'sflight (Him) from Makka to Madina, where he However, in order not to complicate matters,the year of the Higra arrived on Monday 8 Rabi' I"117

117

al Birni.

The Chronology ofAncient

Nations, 34.

20

calendar is calculated to begin on the first day of the month of Muhar am which preceded Muhammad's flight. The date for the beginning of the Higra is generally given as AD 622,15/16 July. The Higra calendar was introduced by the Caliph `Umar ibn al Mattab (AD 634-44) in about AD 639, some seventeen years after the event and seven years after Muhammad's death. "' The problem that we face, when investigating the period preceding the fixing of the Higra calendar, is in deciding exactly what sort of calendar was in use. We have evidence which suggests that in the but not enough details to work out early community, the Higra era was used to date events, 119 exactly how they counted. Similarly, we do not have many details about how `Umar calculated back to the Higra: did he allow for intercalary years or simply ignore them? The Higra calendar is now a purely lunar calendar, its months being defined by the time between one sighting of the new crescent and the next. Tradition has it that during the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad altered the calendar from being a luni-solar one to bring it back to being a purely lunar one. In so doing, he abolished the practice of

intercalation (nasi).
Al Birni gives the namesby which the first ten years of the Higra were commonly known which
could have been of potential interest, but proves to teach us nothing new about the chronology of Muhammad's life: "At the time of the Prophet, people had given to each of the years between the Flight and his death a special name derived from some event, which had happened to him in that identical year. " "The 15" year after the Flight is the year of the permission. The 2d year after the Flight is the year of the order for fighting. The 3'd year after the Flight is the year of the trial. The 4`hyear after the Flight is the year of the congratulations on the occasion of marriage. The 5thyear after the Flight is the year of the earthquake. The 6`hyear after the Flight is the year of inquiring. The 7thyear after the Flight is the year of gaining victory. The 8`hyear after the Flight is the year of equality. The 9t year after the Flight is the year of exemption. 12

118 Tabari tells us that Muhammad himself defined the Higra calendar when he ordered that letters and documents be dated from that time. Tabari, Mohammed, sceau desprnphetcs, 115-119. 119 We will study events below which are dated by counting the number of months between them and Muhammad's arrival in Marina.

120Also known as the year of the delegations.Guillaume, TheLife ofMuhammad, 627. 21

The 10`hyear after the Flight is the year of farewell. " "By these names it was rendered superfluous to denote the years by the numbers, the 1s1, the 2`d, etc., after the flight. 121 What is not too clear, is whether these years were counted from the Higra or from Muharram, or whether they are an indication of a "primitive" Muhammad's arrival in Madina. Mahmoud Effendi'ZZ discusses the dating of Ibrahim's death, quoting al Buljri's Sahih'Z' which dates the death in Rabi` I or Ramadan of AH 10 and al Sira al Halabiyya124 which says that he died in AH 10 at the age of 1 year, 10 months and 6 days, 125 and both agree that there was a solar eclipse that day. Both also agree that he was born in D5 al Higga AH 8. The date of the eclipse is awwl in AH 10 and this 632. The AD 29 that January this 27 author says concords with given as is his first fixed chronological point. Next, al Mas`ndi is quoted: "Muhammad was born 50 days after the arrival of the Ethiopians at Makka, to which they had laid siege on Monday (with) 13 (nights) left in Muharram, 882 Seleucid, or 17 Muharram in the year 216 after the betrayal, 126 and during the 40th year of the reign of Kasra Anoucherwan. " The author rejects Abn al Fid's chronology which places the birth in year 881 of the Seleucid era and year 1316 of the Nabonassar era as well as in the 42nd year of Kasra Anoucherwan's reign, which would place it between AD 569 - 570. As there is contradiction between the Seleucid and Nabonassar dates, the author rejects them both. '27 Higra calendar based upon the date of

121 Ibid., 35. In a chapter called "Epochs of the Ancient Arabs", al Birni lists different events which were used for dating by different tribes, and the reasoning behind the custom. Ibid., 34-35,39-40.

122Effendi, "Memoire sur le calendrier arabeavant ]'Islam," 109-192,Part 1,112-116. 123Ab `Abd Allh Bubri, "Times Prayer," Sahih. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1862-1908). al of 124 Ijalabi Nur Din `Ali, al al al Seraal tfalabiya, (Bayrt, 1980). 125Other sourcessay 18 months. Effendi, "Memoire sur hecalendrier arabeavant l'Islam, " 109-192,Part 1, 113-114. 126The betrayal (algadr) refers to an episodelost in the mists of time, but quoted as having been a chronological referencepoint. 127Hcrc too, we are obliged to rememberthat none of the historical material is of any value if the date of Muhammad'sbirth is incorrect in the first place. 22

H. Lammens128points out that though revelation states that "the number of months is twelve", '29 which was a rejection of the system of intercalated months, nowhere is it said that the twelve 130 This is not simply hair-splitting on the part of Lammens, but serves to months constitute a year! This point underline the fact that the years were not counted as assiduously as months and days 131 . is strongly supported by looking at how often the Qur'n talks of the Sun and the Moon as being signs sent by God to mark the passage of time, how day and night are presented time and again as 132 fundamental Another indication of the relative unimportance of years as a the measures of time. chronological measure, at least in the early community, may well be found in older versions of the Sira where, up until about the year AH 6, events are dated in terms of months after the Higra, while earlier events are situated much more vaguely, placing them before or after the Prophet's 133 Abyssinia. We will have to come back to this point when to vocation, or after the emigration considering whether events from that period can be accurately dated or if they can teach us anything about the calendar. H iim Amir `Ali starts his calculation of concordance for the calendar of the first ten years of

Islam, from the one date which, according to him, no one questions, the date of the Farewell Pilgrimage. The month of D al Higga AH 10, began on Friday 28 February AD 632, so that the feast which falls on 10 DU al IIigga would fall on 10 March. The Jewish month was not Adhiir, but 134 `Ali argues that Amir Hsim veAdhr. no matter what system of intercalation was used, the month of D al Higga AH 10 would have been followed by the Nsi' month and that there could have been some speculation that it would have been omitted in order to bring the Jewish and Arab

128Henri Lammens, "L'Age de Mahomet et la chronologie de la Sira, " Journal Asiatique 17 (Avril 1911): 209-250. It has to be noted that, though Lammens was erudite, the impression one obtains of Islam through reading his works is not a very positive one. This is a regrettable trait as the author's style of writing and presentation can well blind the reader to valid observations.

129Qur'n 9:37 130Lammens,"L'Age de Mahomet," 223.

131 It goes almost without saying that the year did have its own importance for yearly events such as the pilgrimage, the departure and arrival of different caravans etc. The point that is being made is that counting the years seems to have been less common than counting the months. The word commonly used for "year" in modem Arabic sana, meant "a time of shortage or hardship" in the sixth and seventh centuries. This is found in the Qur'n in the plural sinn as in: "We struck the Pharaoh's people with years of famine and lack of fruits, perhaps it would make them think about their ways. " 7: 130.

132Qurn 6:96,10: 5,14: 33,17: 12,36: 37-40,39: 5,41: 37,45: 3-5,55: 5,57: 6. 133SeeIbn Sa'd, Tabaga4 III, 21,24,25,43,56, and Lammens,"L'Age de Mahomet," 241.

23

calendars back together. 1 -' The author can speculate as to why there is a difference of one month between the two calendars, but is unable to provide an explanation. Following his presentation of the theory that the Arabs followed the Jewish system of intercalation, the author provides a table of concordance between the Julian, Jewish, Perceval's and his version of the Arab calendars for the first eleven years of the Higra. 136

The next logical step,according to the author, was that when the Higra calendarwas actually
defined, the fact that Muhammad had rejected intercalation was a deciding factor in working out

the first ten years.This was done calculating a purely lunar calendar.
The author then compares different sources which mention the date of Muhammad's arrival in Madina and concludes that according to the calculated Higra calendar, this fell on Monday 8 Rabi' I, but that in the Arab's luni-solar calendar it was Monday 8 6umd II, which corresponded to 10 Tishri in the Jewish calendar, which fell on Monday 20 September. Conclusion Once again, we have been presented with interesting and persuasive arguments. It is easy to imagine the confusion which must have reigned in the early years following Muhammad's death the same confusion remains to this day - when dating an event by counting the number of months it happened after the Higra, are the sources calculating from a month name or did their original sources contain a number and no name? Either hypothesis leaves the same quandary about whether information has been lost or destroyed - even unintentionally - by authors who reworked the source material to add more information: calculating a month name from a number or vice versa.

134Adar was the twelfth month in the Jewish religious calendarand sixth month in the civil one which meant that Veadar cameat the end of the religious year, but in the middle of the civil one. 135Seebelow, 26, for discussion p. a about some of the assumptions made concerning the nasi'. 136The tables are reproducedin APPENDIX IV : Hshim Amir `Ali Table of Concordance,119. According to the author, AH 10 falls during the year 4391 of the Jewish calendar,during the secondyear of the nineteen-yearcycle and the beginning of the Higra era is dated 17 April AD 622.

24

The Muhammadi Calendar"'

A more recent approach to the question of early Islamic chronology, the Muhammad! Calendar is based on the premise that, not only does the Higra calendar not permit easy dating of pre-Higra different dated life Muhammad to three but according to the are of also that events relating events, Higra, making chronological Qur'n first the birth, the and Muhammad's the of revelation eras: birth in Mubammad's the For month of starting these reasons, a calendar work over-complicated. is suggested, and in order to avoid any confusion, new month names are devised, based upon important events which happened during them. This gives the following concordance of months:

al Niu'138 al Quds139
II al Karrr'40 dumd I 6umd II

Rabi `I Rabi'

al Zahr'1a'
al IsrW142 al Qdisiyya143 Ramadan

Ragab a`bn

Ramadn
al Nasr144 al Bay`a145 Qa'da al Hagg14G Higga awwl IN al IN al

137 The two sources used here are: Shaykh Muhammad at Casnazni al-Hussein and others, "An (1994): AlMaseg7 Study" Pilot A Early History: Chronology Islamic Gregorian Investigation of the of Islamic dates Julian "Finding events Louay J. Fatoohi, Dargazelli the of Muhammad 227-266, and and al 1-23. (1992): 11 Studies East Middle The Journal Institute the the before Hijra using computer" of of

138So called because the Qur'an, 5: 15 gives this name to the month in which Muhammad was bom. Al 234. History", Early Islamic Gregorian Chronology Investigation "An the of Casnaznial-Hussein, of 139Jerusalem(al Qudsin Arabic) becauseit was conqueredin this month during the caliphate of `Umar ibn Ibid. 637. in AD Uattb at 140Meaning "the attacker",this title was given to `All b. Abi Taub becauseof the leading role he played in the battle of Uaybar in AD 628. Ibid., 234. 141Meaning "the ever flowering", a title given to Fatima b. Muhammad who was born during this month in AD 606. Ibid. 142Name for the night journey which Muhammad made from Makka to Jerusalemand then to heavenin AD 620. Ibid. `Umar 143Month in ibn in 637. Uattb AD during the of Muslims caliphate at the victory achieved which Ibid.
144 Month 145 in 627. Ibid. AD Uadaq the at of victory which commemorates

at Bay`a or "the pledge" of at Radwn which took place during this month in AD 628. Ibid. of the Pilgrimage. Ibid.

146 Month

25

al Higra147 Muharram al Fut5b148 $afar As Muhammad was born fifty three years and ten months before the Higra, the Mubammadi calendar dates are obtained by adding 53 years and 10 months to the Higra date. One of the arguments central to the creation of this calendar system, is that al nasi'simply meant

the removal of the ban on fighting during one of the months during which it was usually taboo, intercallation. At the same time Higga, Qa'da D Ragab, D Muharram, without al and al namely the authors refute the idea that the Arabs ever had a luni-solar calendar which corresponded had in the the some sort of seasonal significance. month-names and which seasons roughly with Rather the Arabs switched between solar and lunar calendars often and that any names with described The above, the as calendar, relics of some earlier solar calendar. are seasonal overtones is then used to provide a chronology of the life of Muhammad dated in both the Higra and Muhammadi calendars. In so far as it goes, this calendar shows distinct advantages over the Higra calendar for anyone interested in the chronology of the early life of Muhammad and the beginnings of Islam. However, its be fixing importance key little to to the the calendar, namely given seems point of very beginning. For a calendar which is supposed to provide us with accurate concordances of dates for be does to Islam, There is importance. important the seem starting point the events of of vital different detail, least the investigate, in to the to more at require authors much enough evidence doubt Mubammad's date the birth. Any the of accuracy thought regards about with of of schools dates the and the critical methods calendar, naturally raises questions other of about point starting dates be discern should to accepted or rejected. which used

Calendar Calculation/Prediction
Ever since peoples started using the Moon as a means of calculating and marking time, they have been faced with the problem of trying to predict its movement through the sky, its different phases would appear. and, above all, when the new crescent149

147First month of the Higra calendar.Ibid. 148"The conquests,in memory of severalIslamic conquestswhich took place during this month. Ibid.
149 Throughout this work, the author will use "new crescent" to denote the first sighting of the lunar crescent after the astronomical "new moon". The sighting of the new crescent is used in many calendars to mark the beginning of the month.

26

Different rules for the prediction of crescent visibility

have been worked out by astronomers, from

the times of Ancient Babylon until the present day, not least among them being the Muslims. '50 But these efforts were handicapped by the difficulty 15' Sun Earth. to the the position relative and Even when modem studies produced more reliable formulae for calculating planetary positions, they were so complex that their use was rather limited until computers become powerful enough, and more readily available, to handle the iterative process of calculating them within reasonable time-limits. One other factor which needs to be considered when calculating astronomical events which occurred centuries ago is the slowing of the Earth's rotation which causes a discrepancy between the calculated and historical values. Much of this work is carried out by comparing calculations of astronomical events such as eclipses with historical records. A recent study has shown that the 152 for in be For (AT) have the Earth's the to changes accepted values rate of the modified. rotation the period of Muhammad's life (c. AD 571 - 623) this will give a difference of about one hour in the calculated time of the New Moon. of calculating the Moon's orbit and its

It is not sufficient to know the positions of the Sun and the Moon relative to the Earth. The new
crescent has to be observed and this implies taking into consideration other factors which could

150 For

more details see Frans Bruin, "The First Visibility of the Lunar Crescent, " Vistas in Astronomy 21 (1977): 331-8 and Mohammad Ilyas, A Modem Guide to Astronomical Calculations of Islamic Calendar Times and Qibla (Kuala Lumpur: Berita Publishing, 1984), 3-140. Even more detailed studies of more specific theories can be found such as Edward S. Kennedy, "The Lunar Visibility Theory of Ya'qub Ibn Tariq, " Journal ofNeat-Eastem Studies27 (1968): 126-132 and Regis Morelon, Tbitlbn Qurra: Oeuvres d'astronomie (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1987), which also recalculate data by computer or compare older parameters with more modem ones. This is not within the scope of the present study.

151 It is interesting to note that, for the ordinary person, crescent visibility prediction, from month to month is simple: they simply need to look for the new crescent in the evening, 29 days after the sighting of the previous one, and if it is not visible, look for it again on the following evening. All of this, of course weather permitting. If we need to estimate when a new crescent will be visible some months or years ahead, using the average of 29.5 days per lunar month will give a good approximation. The problem lies in predicting, with any accuracy over long periods, exactly when the crescent will be visible. In the shortterm, the lunar months do not necessarily alternate between 29 and 30 days regularly. Maurice A. McPartlan, "Astronomical Calculation of New Crescent Visibility 579H. 583H.: A Five-Year Test of Dr. Mohammad Ilyas' Parameters" (Licentiate dissertation, Pontificio Istituto di Studi Arabi e d'Islamistica, Rome, 1991), 135, showed that there are rarely more than two months of 29 days in succession, whereas three or four months of 30 days can and do follow each other. 152 F. Richard Stephenson, and L. V. Morrison, "Long-term fluctuations in the Earth's rotation: 700 BC to AD 1990, " Phil. Trans Roy. Soc. 351 (1995): 165-202. Allowance for changes in the rate of the Earth's rotation (AT = 31e where 't' is measured in centuries from the epoch AD 1820) will have a value of circa 4000 300 seconds for the period under consideration. This difference of roughly one hour as compared

27

153 This aspect of crescent visibility affect visibility.

calculation remains much more

54 '55 than the controversial' purely positional side of calculations. Much of the work on this subject from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was based ' 56 date the crucifixion, upon efforts to while more recent work has largely been inspired by the Higra calendar and efforts to define and implement an International Higra Calendar which respects both religious precepts and scientific data. One of the most prolific writers in this field is Professor Mohammad Ilyas. 157 In a thesis based ' 58McPartlan demonstrated that the Ilyas' upon parameters, computerised prediction of new crescent visibility is more reliable than the use of tables of concordance. '59

with uncorrected calculations is obviously more critical when considering eclipses low down on the horizon. 153 These can be the sensitivity of the eye, relative luminosity of the crescent and the sky, crescent size, the weather - no matter what form of computation is used, the crescent can only be observed if the weather permits - and refraction, which in turn depends upon atmospheric pressure and temperature, the altitude of the observer, the observed object and any obstacles which may lie between the two. It is immediately evident that the weather factor cannot easily be included in such calculations, especially if they pertain to events far removed in time.

ts SeeBruin, "The First Visibility " 331-8, Muammer Dizer, A Calculation Method of the Lunar Crescent, for the Visibility Curve of the New Moon (BosphorusUniversity, Kandilli Observatory,n.d.), Ilyas, A Modem Guide, 82-111 and Bradley E. Schaefer,"Visibility of the Lunar Crescent, " Q. A. R. astr. Soc. 29 (1988): 511-523.
155 It could be argued that the average length of the lunar month is very close to 29.5 days, which means that months will always be either 29 or 30 days long and that is correct. What is less simple to predict, is the sequence of months of 29 or 30 days. In standardised calendars, the months alternate between 29 and 30, but more modern astronomical predictions of crescent visibility have shown that months of 29 days can follow each other, as can months of 30, even though, over a longer period the length of the months will average 29.5 days. If we are looking for accurate dating of events these variations are important.

lse SeeG. Amadon, "Ancient Jewish Calendation," Journal ofBiblical Literaturr6l (1941): 227-280, J. K. Fotheringham,"The Date of the Crucifixion, " Journal of Philology 29 (1903): 100-108,idem, "The Evidence of Astronomy and Technical Chronology for the Date of the Crucifixion, " Journal of TheologicalStudies(1973): 146-162. 157ProfessorMohammad Ilyas, Ph.D. (Adelaide), M. Sc.(Aligarth), Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society and Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, is lecturer in the School of Physics at the Universiti Sains,Malaysia and one of the leading figures in the International Islamic Calendar Programme.His English publications are listed in the bibliography. Most of his earlier results and conclusionswere summedup in A Modem Guide to Astronomical Calculationsof Islamic Calendar, Times and Qibla, though someof his parameterswere subsequently modified, details being given in "Limiting altitude separationin the new Moon's first visibility criterion," Astronomy and Astrophysics 206 (1988): 133-135and Intemationalisation of the Islamic Calendar (Penang:Universiti Sains, 1988). 158McPartlan, "Astronomical Calculation New CrescentVisibility. " Passim. of
159 See H. H. Cattenoz, Tables de concordance des tires chndtienne et hdgirienne (Rabat: Editions Techniques Nord-Africaines, 1961) and G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville, The Muslim and Christian Calendars (London: Oxford University Press, 1963). Though Freeman-Grenville is usually referred to in the English-speaking milieu, Cattenoz has more complete tables which are easier to use.

28

In order to start a series of calculations an approximate date of the astronomical new moon is taken from a table of concordance such as that of Cattenoz. The Julian day number is then calculated for Oh. Terrestrial Time (TT) on this date and the apparent geocentric longitudes of the 160 for this moment. sun and the moon are calculated Using an iterative process, the program compares the lunar and solar longitudes on the selected date and TT, then adjusts the time to approximate the conjunction; then it recalculates the The computer then calculates the longitudes until an acceptable degree of proximity is obtained. 161 162 iterative location process. The moon's using another time of sunset for the given geographical 63are calculated for the time of sunset and from them the moon's angular topocentric co-ordinates' Ilyas' be from These to then the two compared sun can values are obtained. and altitude separation it is If the the calculates visibility programme otherwise predicted, prints results, values. visibility for the following day. In the original project, the program calculated visibility Africa and the Arab Peninsula (10N-45N, visibility North Spain, covered which over an area

10W-60E) and plotted the curve of limiting

in The historical data. This unique remains results were compared study map. with on a

The data historical it theoretical results, over with visibility. that compares predictions of crescent the five years of the test compared to the tables of Cattenoz give 54% of the dates correct and 12% incorrect in both systems. In 26% of the cases, the calculations proved correct though Cattenoz dates in 80% 8% in A the were the total correct true. of results of opposite was error, while was improvement. is 62% for by to the tables, as opposed a significant calculations which obtained The study had three main conclusions: Astronomical calculations using Ilyas' parameters give

factor Cattenoz; better the than tables vertical separation calendar predictions such as significantly

160 The formulae for the calculation of the solar and lunar co-ordinates were taken from Emerson B., Approximate lunar coordinates, NAO Technical Note 48 (H. M. Nautical Almanac Office, 1979) and Emerson B., Approximate solar coordinates, NAO Technical Note 47 (H. M. Nautical Almanac Office, 1978).

161An angular toleranceoft 0.0085 which correspondsto an accuracyof a 0.5 minute. 162Refraction was calculatedusing the formula given in NORTON's 2000.0 Staratlas and reference handbook.Eighteenthed. Ridpath, Ian, Editor. (Essex:Longman Scientific & Technical, 1989) p. 44. The values for atmosphericpressureand temperaturebeing taken as constants(1013.25 millibars and 10 C). 163The moon is, relatively speaking,so close that the difference betweenthe topocentric and geocentriccoordinatescan be as much as 1.

29

in Ilyas' parameters may well be too conservative by approximately 0.5; '6' months calculated to have 29 days rarely follow more than two in succession whereas months of 30 days often occur in 165 in four The calculations of concordance used in this series of two, three and even a row. months study are based upon the programme elaborated in the thesis. When all factors are taken into account, a fundamental difference remains between positional and observational astronomy: though we may regret the absence of records detailing observation of certain events, and so turn to astronomical calculations to define, with an accuracy which sometimes belies belief, where or when certain events took place, no amount of calculations can guarantee that the event, the parameters of which have been calculated so painstakingly, was actually observed! The reasons for this can be different, either the event was simply not noticed -a good example are partial solar eclipses which most people are not aware of - or climatic conditions would not allow the observation. Conclusion In an effort to contribute to the discussion, I have calculated lunar crescent visibility from AD 500

6ahiliya '66 V: The 633 February 18. AD The in APPENDIX April 16 to and results are presented Higra Calendars. Given that there are different theories about the ghiliya calendar, one of them being that it followed the Jewish system of intercalation, the table presents both a lunar and a lunisolar version of the calendar. Working back from AH 10 which, according to some writers, was preceded by the last intercalary month, and placing the extra months following the system used in the Jewish calendar, it is possible to "reconstruct" this, or any other calendar system in order to test its validity. The value of this exercise with regards the present study, is not simply one of 167 it can also help us to explore all the implications of a given system. data, verifying Looking further into the possible permutations of concordance between lunar and luni-solar calendars, the table in Appendix IV offers two further possibilities: that the months of Muharram

164McPartlan, Maurice A. "Astronomical Calculation New CrescentVisibility 579-583 AH. " Quarterly of Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 37 (1996): 837. 165Ibid., 840. 166The beginning date to cover the eventmentionedin Procopius, History of the Wars,seeabove,note 94, 14, and ending with the year of Muhammad'sdeath. 167For example, seenote 96 above. 30

168 it, during the the nineteen year cycle, rather than at end of or that the year AH 10 cametogether
169 first during two calendars agreed. Though neither of the above was not the which the year it 631, does latitude in for / AD dates AH 10 the offer some of possibilities changes concordance fixing which years between AH 1-10 were intercalary years. Supposing that the luni-solar calendar carried on, an extract of the table in Appendix N would have years AH 10,11 and 12 together. Taking the opposite extreme, but with the calendar change happening in the third year of the cycle

below. AH have fallen in 1 Equally, 10 Table the on the could shown variant up with we come
in Similar during the two the three conjunction. reasoning calendars were years which second of

(nineteen-year) be the to the of of year cycle saw the two question which also applied can follow intercalary in dictates turn the this together, of years which as sequence come calendars
Taking in irregular two after one. sequence, sometimes after and sometimes years other an each the two variables together gives a large number of possible combinations without even considering other luni-solar calendar models.

CONCORDANCE
Cycle Luni-Solar
Lunar

VARIANT
Cycle
uni-W of ual-War

12 13 He

15 16 17e

18 19e

01 02 03e

Nsi I Rama4iin 01 -1 Rabi' 1101 2 Mubarram 01 1 awwi101 1 Muharram 01 13 2 Rabi' 1101 2 Muharram 01 1 Rabi` II 01 3 Muharram 01 2 awwal 01 2 Muharram 01 14e 3 Rabi' It 01 3 Muharram 01 2 Rabi` 1101 4 Muharram 01 3 gawwl 01 Nisi 4 Rabi` II 01 3 Muharram 01 4 Muharram 01 15 Nsi 4 gaww101 3 Rabi` 101 4 Muharram 01 5 Muharram 01 4 D at Qa'da 01 16 5 Rabi` 10 1 4 Rabi` 101 5 Muharram 01 6 Muharram 01 5 IN at Qa`da 01 5 Muharram 01 He 6 Rabi` 10 1 6 Muharram Ol 5 Rabi` I 01 NBsi 7 Muharram 01 6 Dual Qa'da 01 7 Rabi' 101 6 Muharram 01 7 Muharram 01 18 6 Safar 01 Ndsi 7 Dual Qa'da 01 8 Muharram 01 7 Muharram 01 19e 7 Di at Higia 01 8 Safar 01 8 Muharram 01 7 Safar 01 9 Muharram 01 Nisi 8 Dpi at Higga 01 9 Safar 01 8 Muharram 01 9 Muharram 01 01 Nsi 9 Muharram 01 9 D at Higga 01 02 10 Muharram 01 10 Muharram 01 03e 10 Muharram 01 11 Muharram01 11 Muharram01 12 Muharram 01 12 Muharram 01 Table 1. Variations of ConcordancebetweenCalendars.

01 Muharram -1 gawwl 01 -1 I Muharram 01 1 awwdl 01 2 Mubarram 01 2 gawwl 01 2 Dual Qa'da 01 3 Mubarram 01 3 Da at Qa`da 01 4 Muharram 01 4 Dii at Qa`da 01 5 Muharram 01 5 Dpi at Qa'da 01 5 D at iiigga 01 6 Muharram 01 6 D at liigga 01 7 Muharram 01 7 Dual Higga 01 8 Muharram 01 9 Muharram 01 10 Muharram Ol

168 Previous to AD 631, they cametogether in AD 599-600, in the seventhand eighth years of the cycle. 169 In AD 599, the previous occasionwhen the two calendarsstartedtogether, they were together for two before the intercalary month separated them again. In AD 566, the calendarsstayed years in succession together for three years. If the luni-solar calendarwere to be abolished at any time during thosetwo or three years that the two coincided, there would be no problem of missing months. 31

Following this brief resume of our knowledge of the calendars in use in the world with which Muhammad was familiar, we have to strike a note of caution. Though we may be conversant with everything there is to know about different ways of marking the passage of time and the seasons in it is difficult illustrate how to many such a claim! make and the preceding paragraphs should indeed in in or community, use a specific that was to a given calendar prove cases we are unable hindsight brings This to the it being in of if it concept us used properly. that use, was was The into introduce question of whether research. chronological errors can chronology which Muhammad arrived in Madina on a Jewish feast illustrates this problem well: with our knowledge date, in then Madina Muhammad we on a given that Jewish arrived assuming and the calendar, of Julian calendars and so in Jewish date the terms that and of the of concordance can calculate is based is during feast. did The this did that he calculation problem a not arrive or conclude that being it in Jewish that used that the was use, calendar was the reformed supposition upon in use among the pagan indeed day, did Muhammad that that the calendar that arrive on correctly, Arabs was of the sort we believe and that the weather had allowed sighting of the new crescent on in date does indeed the day that question concord with our calculations! so the predicted When dealing with history which is so far removed and scarcely documented, the researcher will fact, historical for The danger lies in until them be to make assumptions. mistaking obliged always independent evidence has been found to support any given theory. None of the works devoted to the unravelling of the calendrical puzzles surrounding the beginnings of Islam have been entirely convincing, despite the fact that they point to a wealth of different possible solutions and highlight sources which may possibly help to shed light on the few hindsight the have the trap even acknowledge and of chronology avoided they not subject, his Lammens, In this the with themselves sense, of problem. their are part sources possibility that highly critical approach, has done the most to distinguish points which seem more reliable. Part of any serious investigation in this field has to be the search for vestiges of information which details Islam, Higra the introduction calendar of which seem official as the the calendar of precede insignificant in the context of the story being told, but which might point to climatic details, astronomical events or even the sequence of months. Only if we are fortunate enough to find

32

significant details will we be able to begin to unravel the enigma of the chronology of the beginning of Islam.

33

CHAPTER TWO : Astronomical and Natural Phenomena

Astronomy has become an increasingly important tool in historical research for two reasons. Firstly, computers and modem research now allow for extremely accurate calculation of the timing of astronomical phenomena such as eclipses and how they would be seen from anywhere on the earth's surface and secondly, study of old astronomical records, especially those of the Far East, is providing information about other phenomena, such as comets and meteor showers, which are not so amenable to astronomical calculation and prediction. It is a striking feature of the astronomical records known to us from other parts of the world, that the period in question corresponds to a "dark age" when in general, records were either not kept or This means that we have to rely on astronomical calculations which in the have since been lost! 170 case of solar and lunar eclipses or planetary movement are very reliable. In other areas such as the prediction of the time and intensity of meteor showers, or the movement of comets other than Halley's, astronomy cannot predict events with any accuracy. In the cases when positional astronomy fails us, the historian is obliged to fall back on records of observations. It goes without saying that any records of comets or meteor showers noted anywhere in the world, at a period during Mubammad's life are of great interest. 171 What the researcher must never forget is that a meteor shower observed in China might well not have been seen in Arabia. Without detailed records of observations made in Arabia, astronomical events witnessed elsewhere in the world can only serve to guide the researcher. The researcher has the two tools of positional and observational astronomy which both have their

the former giving no guaranteethat the event was witnessedand the latter, if seen weaknesses;
elsewhere, offering no guarantee that they were visible. When records do exist, the historian has

170 The

most important astronomical records come from China. During the period which interests us in this study, the Tang dynasty ruled. In AD 760 there was a rebellion known as the An hu-shan rebellion during which the capital of the Tang dynasty, Chang-an, was devastated and most records lost.

171Other phenomenasuch as meteorsare much more localised

and therefore, of less interest.

also to be aware that astronomical phenomena were often reported with inadequate accuracy. Lastly, we have to remember that the lack of reports about an event does not mean that there was 172 no event. The ideal is, therefore, to have events which were not only observed, but whose accuracy can be verified by positional astronomy. Even in the rare cases when these two conditions are fulfilled, the researcher is not always able to identify the event with complete accuracy! 173

Eclipses
Using astronomical calculations, we are able to chart all the solar and lunar eclipses which could possibly have been seen either in Makka or Madina, during Muhammad's lifetime and to do so with absolute certainty that though all the eclipses may not have been observed, sightings which do not match the calculated data either did not happen, or have been wrongly dated. Of all the astronomical phenomena, solar eclipses are, potentially the most useful and accurate in attempting to date events. The time and date of both solar and lunar eclipses can be calculated to a high degree of accuracy, but the advantage of the solar eclipse is that it is only visible over a relatively small area of the earth's surface, which can also be calculated, whereas the lunar eclipse should be visible anywhere that the moon is above the horizon. It goes without saying that all astronomical phenomena are subject to favourable viewing conditions. Without accurate reports on weather conditions, this factor has to remain an unquantifiable unknown when using historical for data purposes. astronomical

Solar eclipses are much rarer than lunar eclipses which can sometimes help to identify. Tables 2 and 3 below list all solar and lunar to them easier make have been could which visible. eclipses

172 This is an important distinction to keep in mind when discussing the story of meteor showers at the time of Muhammad's birth. See below: Mubammad's birth and the year of the Elephant, p. 93

173Seebelow, note 199 about Halley's comet and the discussionabout the identity of the eclipsesreported in CHAPTER FOUR : IHadit below. 35

Solar Eclipses1'
Julian Date 534/04/29 536/09/01 538/02/15 540/06/20
541/12/23

Type Partial Partial Partial Partial

Partial

Mag. +0.69 -0.86 +0.67 +0.26

+0.54

Alt. I 19 31 39 65
24

Time I 7.0 16.0 9.4 10.2

15.4

Alt. 2 35 14 51 79
10

Time 2 8.2 17.2 10.7 11.2

16.6

Alt. 3 54 -2 57 85
-3

Time 3 9.5 18.3 12.0 12.3

17.6

Duration 2.5 2.3 2.6 2.1

2.2

547/02/06 550/11/24 551/05/21 559/06/21 562/04/19 563/10/03 566/08/01 569/11/24 573/03/19 577/12/25 584/02/17 590/10/04 592/03/19 601/03/10175 603/08/12 604/12/26 606/06/11 612/08/02 613/07/23 616/05/21
617/11/04

Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial Partial
Partial

-0.82 +0.79 -0.84 -0.48 +0.89 +0.21 +0.94 -0.65 -0.25 +0.58 -0.32 +0.83 +0.38 +0.82 +0.87 +0.83 +0.48 -0.82 -0.93 +0.80
+0.61

19 38 81 57 79 46 24 0 58 42 52 58 40 2 43 47 4 15 20
28

7.8 10.0 12.6 9.6 12.3 9.6 7.3 6.6 10.3 14.4 13.8 10.4 9.0 18.2 13.1 8.9 18.2 6.6 6.9
8.7

34 47 56 74 57 58 41 11 66 -4 29 33 68 56 -9 31 67 00 31 37
44

9.1 11.6 14.4 10.9 14.2 10.7 8.5 7.5 11.2 6.3 15.5 15.4 11.4 10.4 19.0 14.7 10.3 18.5 7.8 8.2
10.2

48 44 35 86 35 64 61 23 69 9 18 15 68 65 16 87 49 56
52

10.6 13.3 15.9 12.2 15.8 11.8 9.9 8.5 12.1 7.4 16.4 16.8 12.5 11.8 16.1 12.1 9.1 9.6
12.0

2.8 3.3 3.3 2.6 3.5 2.2 2.6 1.9 1.8 1.1 2.0 3.0 2.1 2.8 0.8 3.0 3.2 0.3 2.5 2.7
3.3

620/09/02
624/06/21

Partial
Partial

-0.77
-0.66

13
5

6.8
18.4

28
0

7.8
18.8

45
-

9.1
-

2.3
0.4

627/04/21 628/10/03
632/01/27176

Partial Partial
Partial

-0.05 -0.12
-0.82

62 0
1

10.2 6.1
6.6

67 2
16

10.6 6.3
7.8

72 9
32

11.0 6.8
9.3

0.8 0.7
2.7

634/06/01

Partial

0.88 21 17.1 7 18.2 Table2 Solar eclipses visible in Makka and Medina.

2.1

Lunar Eclipses
Julian Date 531/06/15 531/12/10 532/11/28 534/10/08 535/04/04 536/03/23 536/09/15 538/01/31 538/07/27 539/09/17 540/01/09 542/05/15 Type total total partial partial total partial partial partial partial total partial total Mag. +1.18 +1.74 +0.42 -0.39 -1.80 -0.36 +0.63 +0.65 -0.94 +1.36 -0.47 -1.53 Alt. I -15.7 44.8 -5.5 12.8 30.3 -26.5 10.0 45.0 -19.8 38.6 57.7 31.0 Time I 17.44 3.14 16.95 5.15 3.49 16.16 18.77 3.11 17.08 1.79 21.66 2.76 Alt. 2 0.3 32.3 17.8 28.4 20.0 Time 2 18.73 4.09 4.45 2.93 3.77 Alt. 3 13.5 11.5 -4.7 12.6 1.2 Time 3 19.84 5.72 6.12 4.37 5.33 Alt. 4 27.3 -0.2 23.9 -19.5 -17.6 3.1 45.7 5.3 20.0 -1.1 89.3 -11.6 Time Durtn. 4 21.13 3.69 6.67 3.53 19.29 2.34 7.58 2.43 7.08 3.59 18.37 2.21 21.48 2.71 6.06 2.95 20.26 3.18 3.71 5.50 2400 2.34 3.58 6.34

174Details the meaningof the different columns are given below note 250. of
175 This eclipse is reported in different chronicles such as Chronicon Anonymurn, Pseudo-Dionysianwn. Trans. Robert Hespel (Louvain: E. Peeters, 1989), 110, but is also recorded on an ostracon held in the Egyptian Museum at Turin. The text says, "On the fourteenth of Phamenth of the fourth indiction, the sun was eclipsed in the fourth hour of the day and in the year in which Peter son of Palu, was made village official in Djeme. " The village of Djeme was quite close to the town of Thebes, latitude 32.6 E and longitude 25.7 N., see Edwin Brown Allen, "A Coptic Solar Eclipse Record, " Journal of the American Oriental Society47 (1967): 267-269. In Makka, as the table shows, the eclipse was not total.

176This eclipse was supposedto indicate Muhammad'sdeath and the accessionof Abn Bakr - there is no Thousands mention of Ibrahim. David Pingree, The ofAbuMa Mar (London: The Warburg Institute, 1968), 118. 36

Julian Date

Type

Mag.

Alt. I

Time I

Alt. 2

Time 2

Alt. 3

Time 3

Alt. 4

Time 4

Durtn.

542/11/08 543/05/04 543/10/28 545/09/06 546/03/03 547/08/17 548/12/30 549/06/26 550/06/15 550/12/10 552/04/24 553/10/07 554/04/03 554/09/27 557/01/30 559/11/30 560/11/19 561/05/15 561/11/08 563/03/25 563/09/18 564/03/13 564/09/06 565/03/02 567/01/11 567/12/31
569/06/14

total partial partial partial total partial partial total total partial partial total partial partial total partial total total partial partial partial total total partial partial total
partial

-1.73 +0.87 -0.47 +0.65 +1.60 -0.45 -0.79 +1.02 -1.24 +0.42 +0.53 -1.72 -0.46 +0.69 -1.72 +0.66 -1.75 +1.00 -0.49 -0.63 +0.58 +1.69 -1.88 +0.38 -0.78 +1.75
-0.05

8.2 4.9 6.5 -1.4 -34.9 43.0 41.4 44.9 35.5 67.8 13.4 -29.4 60.9 40.6 -10.6 70.4 57.7 36.0 59.9 34.2 49.0 60.9 -2.2 71.2 16.0 44.5
5.7

18.15 18.82 18.16 17.95 15.24 1.98 20.49 23.89 1.93 1.52 19.40 15.69 23.51 3.00 16.73 22.56 2.21 2.32 2.03 20.58 2.23 22.49 18.00 23.18 5.23 20.69
19.20

22.4 -21.1 39.9 24.6 -16.0 2.0 43.1 20.0 69.3 10.4 57.2
-

19.22 16.34 1.46 3.14 16.72 17.73 3.28 3.82 23.58 18.94 21.64
-

46.0 2.6 37.2 11.3 6.9 24.0 19.8 18.7 62.1 32.0 79.1
-

20.96 18.04 1.86 4.36 18.42 19.41 5.02 3.94 1.33 20.60 23.28
-

60.7 39.0 42: 1 32.9 16.3 17.0 80.1 22.8 -3.1 36.8 41.6 21.0 48.7 3.3 37.5 70.8 5.9 0.4 23.4 63.3 15.9 49.6 43.5 63.1 -19.1 87.3
14.9

22.03 21.80 20.78 20.65 19.14 4.32 23.36 3.43 5.57 3.85 21.85 19.44 1.98 5.80 20.41 1.41 6.10 5.44 4.72 23.46 4.81 2.42 21.54 1.56 8.09 0.23
20.01

3.88 2.98 2.62 2.70 3.90 2.34 2.87 3.54 3.64 2.33 2.45 3.75 2.47 2.80 3.68 2.85 3.89 3.12 2.69 2.88 2.58 3.93 3.54 2.38 2.86 3.54
0.81

570/05/06 570/10/29 571/04/25177 571/10/19 574/02/21 575/02/11 576/07/26 578/06/05 581/04/05 582/09/18 583/09/07 586/01/11 586/12/31 587/06/26 588/11/09 589/05/06 590/10/18178 592/03/04 593/08/17 594/02/10 594/08/07 595/12/22 596/06/16 596/12/10 597/06/05 597/11/29 599/10/09 601/09/18 603/02/01 603/07/28179 604/07/16 605/01/11

partial partial total total partial total partial total partial total partial total partial partial partial total partial partial total partial partial partial total total total partial partial partial partial partial total partial

+0.41 -0.32 +1.73 -1.68 +0.55 -1.76 +0.20 -1.26 -0.52 +1.81 -0.60 +1.76 +0.42 -0.19 -0.30 +1.60 +0.78 +0.48 +1.73 -0.56 +0.34 +0.64 -1.13 -1.76 +1.27 -0.52 +0.49 -0.67 -0.74 +0.57 -1.68 +0.43

29.1 45.5 6.1 78.4 12.7 73.5 -5.8 -16.8 23.0 48.0 -9.6 13.8 15.0 34.9 19.0 37.7 30.2 52.3 49.9 77.5 51.2 -22.9 42.5 12.6 -19.1 7.9 19.2 57.1 69.3 15.6 38.8 48.0

3.17 20.96 18.82 23.88 18.69 0.95 18.08 17.35 4.00 2.27 17.51 5.40 18.53 1.96 4.98 2.31 19.88 2.33 22.65 23.30 0.53 15.41 0.67 18.33 17.16 17.99 19.18 1.49 22.56 19.73 22.10 2.94

18.2 72.4 60.3 -3.0 36.5 1.8 27.1 54.9 35.9 26.5 -5.7 45.0 -

19.79 0.90 1.94 18.46 3.21 6.35 3.30 23.70 1.89 19.41 18.23 23.15 -

37.3 51.2 37.2 11.3 14.8 -17.8 7.7 49.5 28.6 49.6 8.7 45.0 -

21.45 2.59 3.63 19.67 4.87 7.99 4.91 1.45 2.77 21.15 19.43 0.87 -

2.3 75.1 46.2 37.3 50.1 23.6 16.8 23.5 -12.5 2.3 26.1 -28.1 45.6 19.9 -8.6 -4.9 69.3 16.9 39.9 62.1 34.0 10.0 16.1 64.1 20.8 43.4 51.5 23.2 70.1 44.5 38.9 16.7

5.37 23.17 22.42 3.61 21.45 4.63 19.89 20.78 6.66 5.80 20.19 8.94 20.88 3.58 7.11 5.89 22.79 4.93 2.51 1.83 2.82 18.24 3.99 22.23 20.50 20.74 21.58 4.28 1.36 22.59 1.91 5.31

2.20 2.21 3.60 3.73 2.76 3.68 1.81 3.43 2.66 2.53 2.68 3.54 2.35 1.62 2.13 3.58 2.91 2.60 3.86 2.53 2.29 2.83 3.32 3.90 3.34 2.75 2.40 2.79 2.80 2.86 3.81 2.37

177Mentioned in a horoscopecalculatedby Abn Ma`sar, ibid., 115.

sar, ibid., 116. The text mentions other lunar eclipses: 178 Mentioned in horoscope Ma by Ab calculated a 630 AD 1, AD 622 April in Makka, there eclipse, 610 March 15, no AD was this eclipse was not visible August 28, a partial eclipse not visible from Makka. Ibid. 116-118. 179 Mentioned in the 603. July AD 16 he date Thursday Edessa, James the though as gives of chronicle of See E. W. Brooks, "The Chronological Canon of James of Edessa," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlndischen Gesellschaft 53 (1899): 322.

37

Julian Date

Type

Mag.

Alt. I

Time I

Alt. 2

Time 2

Alt. 3

Time 3

Alt. 4

Time 4

Durtn.

606/05/27 607/11/09 608/05/05 608/10/29 610/09/08 611/03/04 614/01/01 614/12/22 615/06/17 615/12/11 617/04/261R 617/10/20 618/04/15 618/10/09 619/04/04 621/08/08 622/02/01 622/07/28181 624/11/30 625/05/27182 625/11/20 626/05/17 628/03/251"' 629/03/15
630/03/04'x4

partial total partial partial partial total partial total total partial partial partial total total partial partial total partial P. L. T. L. T. L. P. L. P. L. T. L.
P. L.

+0.15 -1.64 -0.82 +0.81 -0.52 +1.84 +0.62 -1.78 +1.41 -0.53 -0.26 +0.46 -1.61 +1.71 +0.69 +0.44 +1.81 -1.82 -0.28 +1.32 -1.63 -0.96 +0.31 +1.76
-0.68

0.0 -12.8 27.7 24.1 62.3 -10.4 84 59 44 64 -02 36 12 16 30 38 67 06 47 -20.9 78 24 -13 64

-29

18.63 16.56 20.69 4.50 23.87 17.10 23.54 02.13 00.32 01.78 18.25 03.59 19.16 18.97 20.35 02.40 22.37 04.85 20.92 17.01 00.77 03.25 17.15 00.79
15.68

0.2 2.7 45 40 26 29 79 -11 64 55

17.59 18.09 03.21 01.33 20.26 19.92 23.33 17.82 01.79 01.78

22.0 25.6 22 29 45 51 79 05 42 34

19.24 19.79 04.96 02.74 21.98 21.54 0.99 19.17 03.43 03.46

16.1 35.8 50.0 -13.9 45.6 38.8 58 09 19 27 22 05 54 63 60 08 63 -07 75 17 29 -16 15 21

06

19.99 20.27 23.84 7.43 2.43 20.77 02.35 06.04 03.74 04.55 20.23 05.91 23.08 22.49 23.38 04.96 01.94 05.89 22.97 20.25 04.46 06.59 19.29 04.45
18.41

1.36 3.71 3.15 2.93 2.56 3.67 2.81 3.91 3.42 2.77 1.98 2.32 1.92 3.52 3.03 2.56 3.57 1.04 2.05 3.48 3.69 3.34 2.14 3.66
2.73

Table 3. Lunar eclipses visible in Makka and Madina.

Meteor Showers
Meteor showers would not be unknown to a people who lived in the Arabian desert. Some

showersappearregularly and astronomersname them after the constellation from which they
seem to appear. 185

What is less predictable, is the intensity of the shower; some years there will only be few meteors

in the shower,while othersproduce what is often describedas a meteor storm, as some of the texts
in Table 4 illustrate. Weather permitting, meteor showers are like lunar eclipses in that they should

be visible at any location for which they are above the horizon. Meteor orbits are much more
complicated to calculate than those of the planets and our moon. This means that astronomers are not able to calculate historical meteor showers with any great degree of accuracy. Even for

180The moon rose soon after the eclipse began. 181The moon set abouthalf eclipsedbefore totality began. 182The moon rose totally eclipsed. 183The moon rose at about the time of mid-eclipse. 184The moon rose eclipsed, not long before the end of the eclipse.
185 So we get the Leonid and the Perseid showers whose meteors seem to come from the constellations of Leo and Perseus respectively.

38

modem times, it has proved difficult to predict the intensity of showers. Nevertheless, records of

showerscan sometimesprove useful.

Date 530 April 09 532 August 29 534 March 551 July 26 . 551 August 01
566 June/July

Description Large shooting starsfollowed one anothernorthwestwards;trails which never 186 in ceasedappearing,numbered thousands ... Starsfell like a shower... The night had innumerable meteorsall gliding towards the north or northwest... Small meteorsglided along intersecting paths from all directions...
Stars fell like a shower...

Place 187 China China18B China China China

Korea189

581 March 20 585 September 23 586 June/July 625/26

Stars fell like a shower... Hundreds of meteorsscatteredin all directions and camedown... Starsfell like a shower... The starsmoved towards the North
Table 4. Meteor showers which could have been visible in Makka and Madfna.

Korea190 China Korea191 Arabia192

Comets
As stated above, comets other than Halley's, are not so amenable to positional astronomy. Nevertheless, they are a rare and striking enough phenomena to merit comment and serve as a

length in for As of time, they a certain guide some cases. comets are usually visible chronological
Though fix comets showers. as accurate a chronological or meteor provide as eclipses rarely will

do not seemto have attractedthe attention of the Arab chroniclers in the early years of Islam, it is
be discovered impossible text that a may one day, and so records of observations of comets are not included here for reference purposes.

186Quoted in Barry Hetherington, A Chronicle ofPre-telescopicAstonomy(Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1996), 68. All showerdescriptions are taken from Hetherington. 187SeeBeijing University (ed), Zongguo gudai tianxiangjilu zong%i (A union table of ancient Chinese records of celestial phenomenon)(Kiangxu: Kexue Jishi Chubanshe,1988). 188According to the chronicle of John of Asia, the peaceagreementwas made in AD 532. "On that same day, the starswere seento dance in the sky." F. Nau, "Analyse de la secondepartie inddite dc l'Histoire Ecclesiastiquede Jeand'Asie," Revue de %OrientChretienII (1897): 475. The sameinformation is recordedin ChroniconAnonymum, Pseudo-Dionysianum,39. 189SeeHetherington, A chronicle, 71. 190Ibid., 73.
191 Ibid., 74. 192 Seen as a sign of the imminent defeat of the Romans by the Arabs. See Chronicon Anonymum, PseudoDionysianum, 112, also Chronique de Denys de Tell-Ma/inf, IV, Trans. J. Emile Chabot. (Paris: -B. Bouillon, 1895), 5.

39

530 August 29 539 November 17 539 December/January

541 March 31195

Halley's comet Perhapssameas previous

China China Svria194 197 Mediterranean China China China China China China China19B
China France196

542-3 560 October 09 561 September26 565 April 21 565 July 23 568 July 20 568 September03 574 May 16
575 April 27

581 January20 582 January 15 583 February 20 588 November 22 594 November 10 595 January09 607 February 28 607 April 04 608 October 22 615 July 02 617 July 617 October 06 626 March 26
634 September 20

199 Hallev's comet? Halley's comet?

China China China China China China China China China China China China China
China

639 April 30

China

Table S. Comets which could have been visible in Makka and Madina.

Volcanic Eruption?
Many of the chroniclers of this period, including Procopius, talk of the sun having beenobscured for a period of twelve to eighteenmonths. "And it came about during this year that a most dread

193 See Beijing University (ed), Zongguogudai this work.

tianxiangjiluzongji.

All Chinese sightings are quoted from

194Brooks, "The Chronological Canon of Jamesof Edessa, " 320. Procopiussaysthat the sun was in Capricorn (November-December)and the comet in Sagittarius.Procopius,History ofthe Wars;1,287.
195 In fact the sighting is given as "Easter 541 ", which fell on 31 March, see A. Cappelli, Crvnologia, Cronografia e Calendaiio Perpetuo: dal principio deli 'era cristiana ai nostri giorni. (Milano: Ulrico Hoepli, 1988), 54.

196SeeF. Baldet, "Liste Generaledes Cometesde l'Origine d 1948. " Annuaire du Bureau desLongitudes pour 1950(1950): B24-B27. 197This comet was taken to be the sign of coming problems: "Et dans la suite, commebeaucoupobservaient de Fair, la soif et le ce qui se produirait apresce signe, ils virent de nombreux combats,la secheresse 59. In manquede pluie, l'agressiondans les villes...." See Chronicon Anonym um, Pseudo-Dionysianum, the chronicle of Michael the Syrian, the comet is dated as having beenseenin the 11'I year of Justinien, (AD 538), but is probably the sameone. See Chronique de Michel /e Syrien: PatriarcheJacobite d'Antioche (1166-1199),Trans. J-B. Chabot. (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1901),v. 2,205. 198See also ChroniconAnonymum, Pseudo-Dionysianum,107f., and Nau, "l'Histoire Eccidsiastiqucde Jean d'Asie," 492f.
'99 There is some doubt as to which of the two sightings for AD 607 was in fact Halley, though the specialists tend to opt for the February sighting. See F. Richard Stephenson and Kevin K. C. Yau, "Far Eastern observations of Halley's comet: 240 BC to AD 1368, " Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 38 (1985): 204-205. Though it is of little direct interest to the present study, which of the two observations could have been Halley's comet, it is worth noting that there is some doubt about these sightings.

40

portent took place. For the sun gave forth its light without brightness, like the moon, during the whole year, and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear nor such as it is accustomed to shed. And from the time when this thing happened men were free neither from war nor pestilence nor any other thing leading to death. And it was the time when Justinian was in the tenth year of his reign. ,200 The same event is recorded, with additional detail, in the Chronicon Anonymum: "The sun was darkened and covered in shadows, for one and a half years, which is eighteen months. Even though rays were visible for two to three hours, they were feeble, so much so that the fruits ceased to ripen and wine tasted horrible. i201This chronicle dates the event in AD 530-531. Michel le Syrien dates the event in AD 536-7 and describes the event in terms similar to the Chronicon Anonymum202 One hypothesis, is that this event was caused by a volcanic eruption throwing clouds of dust into the atmosphere. So far the reason for the sun's rays being blocked has not been identified, nor are we aware of it being mentioned in South Arabian or Arabic sources.

Earthquakes Recordsof earthquakes are quite common in Syrian chronicles for a period betweenAD 530 and 203 There are none recorded which could be the earthquake AD 570, but then becomemore scarce. which is supposedto have occurred in AH 5. Plagues As there are sometraditions which link Abraha's attack on Makka to the first outbreakof measles 204 in the region, it is obviously worth checking to seewhat reports there are of and smallpox epidemics.According to Syrian chronicles, there was widespreadplague in the region and that the

200As Justinian becameEmperor 4 April AD 527, on we have a date for this event of AD 537. Procopius, History of the Wars,I, 329. 201 ChroniconAnonymum, Pseudo-Dionysianum, 53. 202See Chroniquede Michelle Syrien, 2,220. v. 203 Chronicon Anonymum, Pseudo-Dionysianum for AD 538-9, AD 539 November, recordsearthquakes AD 541 January,AD 542-3, AD 550 August 7,AD 552 June,AD 555 May, AD 556-7, AD 558-9, AD 563 September,AD 564, Juneand AD 568 January,pp.54-106, but no others up to the year of Muhammad'sdeath. 204Guillaume, The Life ofMuhammad, 26. 41

plague continued on and off for a number of years 20' The first plague, in AD 543-4,206contains a description of the classical symptoms of the bubonic plague which not only devastated people and animals, leaving entire villages empty, but also had a longer-term effect on agriculture and food production. In an aside, to the description of the events, the chronicler tells us that: Chosroes was king of Persia, Justinien emperor of Rome, Arethas, son of Gabala was king of the Arabs..., that Abraha was king of the Himyarites... and Andoug king of the Cushites. 207 This outbreak was said to have lasted three years. 208 Some three years later, in 858 of the Alexandrine era (AD 546-7), there are reports of "famine, 209 into Mesopotamia. The famine started regions of plague, madness and rabies" spreading affecting people in AD 547-8 and lasted for eight years, three of which were exceptionally 210 severe. The years 867 and 871 of the Alexandrine era (AD 555-6 and AD 559-60) saw two outbreaks of rabies (7) in the town of Amida in Mesopotamia. The chronicle contains a description of people, "barking like dogs, bleating like goats and mewing like cats...and they would become furious and Between these two outbreaks, in 869 (AD 557-8), there was a further bite each other ". 211 ... 212 in Amida, is killed have inhabitants. 35,000 the to plague which estimated outbreak of

205 'Van huit cent cinquante-cinq d'Alexandre il y eut une peste grande et violente dans le monde enticr, aux jours dc 1'empereur Justinien.... on pouvait les voir frappes... du mal des tumeurs de 1uine, qui daps notre langue nous, Syriens, s'interprete "plaie des tumeurs" et qu'eux-memes appelaient "bubons".... ellc montra aussi son action chez les animaux, non seulement chez les animaux domestiques mais aussi chez les (animaux) sauvages...". Chronicon Anonym um, Pseudo-Dionysianum, 59-84. Procopius, History of the Wars, II, 451-479, gives quite a detailed account of the plague, saying that, "it started from the Egyptians who dwell in Pelusium. Then it divided and moved in one direction towards Alexandria and the rest of Egypt, and in the other direction it came to Palestine on the borders of Egypt; and from there it spread over the whole world, always moving forward and travelling at times favourable to it.... (453) And in the second year it reached Byzantium in the middle of spring... (455) and ran a course of four months, and its greatest virulence lasted about three. "(465).

206See above,note 49,6 for a description of the Alexandrine era. 207 ChroniconAnonymum, Pseudo-Dionysianum,83. 208Ibid., 89. 209Ibid., 84-86. 210The chronicle of Jamesof Edessaaddsthat there were even acts of cannibalismbecauseof the famine. Brooks, "The Chronological Canon of Jamesof Edessa, " 321. 211Ibid., 86-89. 212Ibid., 89. 42

CHAPTER THREE : The Qur'n213

According to the Muslims, the Qur'n is the authoritative collection of God's revelation to humankind through Muhammad. It therefore follows that the Qur'n must be the first source of possible information about events during the formative years of Islam. Because of its sacred nature, it would be a great mistake for a researcher to consider the Qur'an as just another book, albeit a book of revelation. It is important to know something of the history of this text before attempting to use material contained in it. From the time of the first revelation to Muhammad, the words he transmitted to the believers were revered. Though some of the revelations were written down on any available material: planks of wood, pieces of leather, palm leaves, animal ribs, shoulder blades, papyrus, parchment or flat stones, above all they were memorised. to Tradition tells us that after the battle of Yamma214 `Umar ibn al Hattb urged Ab Bakr '215 make a written copy of the revelation because a great number of Muslims who knew large parts of it by heart had been killed in the battle. After some hesitation, Ab Bakr commissioned Zayd ibn Tabit to carry out the work. The text was collected and written down. After Ab Bakr's death this `Umar 216 ibn Caliph, Uattiib, the text passed to new al and upon his death to his daughter, and Muliammad's widow, Hafa. Plausible as this tradition sounds, there are indications that it later is tradition: events and traditions seem to ignore this text as an authoritative a only probably collection of revelations received by Muhammad; the majority of those who died in the battle of Yamma were recent converts to Islam and if the collection had been an authoritative one then it would not have passed to Haffa after her father's death, but rather to the next Caliph.

213SeeEt, s.v. Kor'n, and William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell, Introduction to the Qur'an (Edinburgh: University Press,1970),passim. 214A battle fought againstMusaylima of the bani Hanifa who claimed a divine mission to succeed Muhammad. The battle probably took place in JanuaryAD 633. 215The first Caliph (AD 632-34) and close companion of Muhammad. Seeglossary. 216The secondCaliph (AD 634-44). Seeglossary. 43

A second, and more probable, tradition concerning the first collation of the revelations into one `Ulmn 217 `Affhn. its having ibn tells taken authoritative collection, of place under the reign of During campaigns in Armenia and Azerbaijan, disputes broke out between Syrian and Iraqi factions in the Muslim army, over the Qur'nic texts used in their prayers. This was serious enough for General IIudayfa, commander of the army, to ask the Caliph to produce an authoritative version of the Qur'an. Once again Zayd ibn Tbit is named as being asked to carry `Abd least his in the this time, though three the work: out work, at other names are associated with Allh ibn Zubayr, Said ibn al `A and `Abd al Rahmn ibn al 1, Iril. We are told that the commission worked on the principle that if variants of the same text were found, the version closest to the Qurays dialect was to be retained as this was the dialect that Muhammad would have spoken. The text was also compared to the version that I-Iaffa had in her possession. A copy of the new authoritative text was sent to Kufa, Basra, Damascus, perhaps also to Makka and one was `Ulmn then had the in Madina. older versions of the text destroyed to avoid confusion retained and dispute. At the time of the recording of this text in the middle of the seventh century, Arabic was written in, what would be considered today, a truncated form, that is without the dots which distinguish between similarly shaped letters, the short and long vowels and the signs used to denote the 18 doubling The problems that this causes in the search the or of a consonant. absence of a vowel for a definitive text of Muhammad's revelations is illustrated in a book written by Ibn Abi Dwd (d. AD 928), called Kitb al Machif, or "The Book of Readings" or "Codices" which lists some fifteen primary codices and nearly the same number of secondary ones. Two of these versions `Abd Allah ibn Mas`d had been Muhammad's personal servant and his were particularly revered. codex was revered in Kufa, while Ubayy ibn Ka`b who had been Muhammad's secretary for many years had another codex which was popular in Syria. Though most of the variations in the different codices are to be found in the vocalisation and punctuation, they also contain some more important differences.

217The third Caliph (AD 644-56). Seeglossary.

218 If a similar system were to be used in English, then "hd" could be read "ahead", "had", "hid", "hide", "head", "heed", "hoed"...

44

By the beginning of the eighth century, the Arabic script had evolved enough for the caliph `Abd 219 Malik (AD 685-705) for to recognise the need al another authoritative version of the text Publication of Ibn Mughid's book, The Seven Readings, in the late ninth or early tenth century, helped to clarify the situation. In his book, Ibn Mughid postulates that Muhammad received his 220 in different having This theory was two revelation seven slightly versions, each version variants. accepted and backed by the law. Though specialists know of these variants and study them, many Muslims know little about them. With the advent of the printed text the Haff variant of the `A$im reading has become the standard text used by Muslims. When looking for historical events which are mentioned in the Qur'an the main texts which we will have to consider are SUra 105 concerning the "People of the Elephant" who attempted to 221 its Sra 34: 15-16 Makka, destruction dam, Mrib Sra 9: 36-37 to the the and attack relation of the words allegedly said'by Muhammad, during the "Farewell Pilgrimage"222 about the calendar.

219There are accountsof certain readings being condemned:Malik ibn Anas, for example,declared illicit any prayer led by an imm using Ibn Mas`d's reading, seeWatt, Introduction to the Qur'an,48. 220This is an oversimplification of the question,as other authorspostulateten or even fifteen versions. For our purposesthis suffices. The sevenreadingswith their two variants can be linked with different geographicallocations:
Location Reading

Madina Makka
Damascus

Nfi` (d. AD 785) Ibn Kafir (AD 737)

Ibn `Amir (AD 736)

Basra Kufa Kufa Kufa

Ab `Amr (AD 770) `Aim (AD 744) Hamza (AD 772) al Kis'i (AD 804)

Variant 1 Wars (AD 812) at Bazzi (AD 854) Hism (AD 859) at Bari (AD 860) Haff (AD 805) Ualaf (AD 843)

at Dri (AD 860)

Variant 2 Qln (AD 835) Qunbul (AD 903) Ibn pakwn (AD 856) al Ssi (AD 874) u`ba (AD 809) FJalld(AD 835) Ab5 al Hril (AD 854)

221Situated in South Arabia, this dam is important becauseof the historical information contained in inscriptions about its upkeep.
222 The only pilgrimage made by Muhammad once he had fled Makka, he returned some ten years later. Many sources say that he did so because the cycle of intercalation was completed that year, thus allowing him to make the calendar change without causing disruption as happened in 1582 when 10 days were 'removed' from the Julian calendar in order to conform with the new Gregorian system. See below: The Farewell Pilgrimage, 78.

45

Abraha Surat al Fil (105) and, to a lesserextent, Surat Qurays (106),223 talk of the Year of the Elephant but do not link it to Muhammad'sbirth. The text, which contains vocabulary used only once in the Qur'n, raises questionsabout interpretation. 24
The "flights of birds" (tayran abbil) is unique to the Qur'an and the commentators do not know following lists Jeffery the the possibilities: to abbil. make of what i. ii. foreign is "flight". The "flock" is of the or word and means of abla plural abbil origin. The word has nothing to do with birds, but indicates another calamity and comes from abila which means "vesicle". There is a tradition that Abraha and his army is by beaten that the Persians used the word to mean a and suggestion smallpox were "smallpox" having borrowed it from ab "father" and abil "lamentation". Another ingenious suggestion is that fayran abbil was originally a misreading of tayr bbll or "Babylonian arrows".

iii.

Jeffery concludes that the word is probably of foreign origin, but as of yet the source is unknown 225

Some sources give more detailed descriptions of the abbil, describing them as having beaks like 26 being black dogs like feet birds and and as white and green. Newby states that, "This confused description is suggestive of the hayyt (who, according to some sources, destroyed Sennacherib's army which was attempting to take Jerusalem227)mentioned in Ezechiel's vision'228 which are

223 There has beenmuch discussionamongstspecialistswhether 105 and 106were originally one text. See below.
224"Did you not see how your Lord treated the people of the elephant? Did He not confound their strategy? Did He not send flights of birds Qayran abbil) against them, that threw stones (siggil) at them, so that the Lord made them like beaten foliage? " Sra 106 continues, "because of the understanding of the Qurays during the winter and summer caravan. Let them adore the Lord of this temple who has provided them against hunger and protected them against fear. "

See:Irfan Shahid, "Two Qur'nie Sras:al-Fil and Qurays," in: a! Qddi, [Vaddd,Editor. Studia Arabica etIslamica: FestschrifforIhsinAbbds(Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1981): 429-436. 225 Arthur Jeffery, The Foreign Vocabularyofthe Qur'an(Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1938),44-45. 226SeeTabari, mi `al Bayn y Ta'wil al Qur'an,(Cairo, 1954): v. 30,299. MS 727 of the an Qarawiytin Library describesthe birds as being, "black like na45mim (flamingoes)." Guillaume, "New Light on the Life of Muhammad," 14. 227SeeBible, 2 Kings 18-19. 228SeeBible, Ezechiel 1& 10. 46

usually identified with the cherubim. In the Sefer5an6kthese cherubim are ranked as a separate
class of angels and are considered as angels of destruction. "229 The "stones" (siggil) are slightly less problematic. In the Qur'an (51: 21- 46), we find the story of the visit made to Abraham and Sara by "honoured guests"230who prophecy the birth of a son to the elderly couple. When asked the purpose of their presence, the guests say, "We have been sent against a sinful people, to throw stones of clay at them". 1

Another version of the story of Sodom and Gomorra has, "We rained down upon them marked
stones ofsiggili232 (Sra 11: 82)

The fact that si II

was replaceby tin in one of the versions led the commentatorsto interpret
3

is The "clay". Persian word probably of origin. as meaning siggil

The linking of the Abraha text with that of the story of Sodom and Gomorra reinforces the idea that the defeat of Abraha was an act of divine retribution, but does not lead us any closer to a datable event. 234 to these As there are no significant variations verses, we are left with a text which does not

dating. to the as clues any obvious provide

Ma'rib Dam
Linked to the story of the invasion of Makka is another text which talks of the Saba' and is thought

to refer to the Ma'rib dam in South Arabia. Al Anm, where the floods happened,was first of all understoodto be a place name,but later
arim 235 has been borrowed from dam" "the It is South Arabian that al and means studies showed

thereforebelieved that this text refers to the Ma'rib dam which, from inscriptions on it, we know

229 Gordon B. Newby, "Abraha and Scnnacherib: A Talmudic Parallel to the Tafsiron Srat al-Fl, " Journal of the American Oriental Society 94(4) (1974): 436.

230 The Bible has "three men" who go on do destroy Sodom and Gomorra. Bible, Genesis18: 1-15. 231,li `alayhim higra min lin. " Sra 51: 32-33. nursil 232Sra 11: 82. Yet anotherversion has, "We rained down upon them stonesofsijil. " Sdra 15: 74. 233Jeffery, TheForeign Vocabulary the Qur'an, 164-165. of 234See:Arthur Jeffery, Materials for the History of the Text of the Qur'n(Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1951). 235Le Coran, trans. Regis Blachere, Sra34: 15. 47

was damaged, and subsequently repaired, in about AD 450 and AD 540. Historians believe that the dam eventually became unusable during the life of Muhammad, and that this is what the text is referring to. The text itself, is found in Sra 34 - called SratSab'- and talks of Solomon and his death in between flood "We follow 10 14, the the text then the and continues, verses about put verses them and the towns that We have blessed, linked towns at a measured distance (saying), "Travel between them night and day in safety. " They said, "Lord, stretch the distance of our travels", and they did themselves wrong so We turned them into legends (ahdij) and tore them (apart) be inscriptions has in dam, is " Abraha As the to the the one of on question named completely. asked whether the Saba' who became legends could have done so between the Year of the Elephant and before Muhammad left Makka for Madina 236 This verse contains no significant variants which could either help obtain a more precise reading, less towards a vague chronology. or point We are therefore obliged to echo Rippin when he concludes that, "as historians, we have no basis for deciding on the "historical kernel" unless we have some other sort of external and neutral information. "237 verificatory

Al Nasi'
The verses attributed to revelation during the Farewell Pilgrimage are, potentially, of great importance to any study of the chronology of the early years of Islam. Much of the discussion 238 in been the the term and we will meaning of a previous section nasi'has evoked surrounding restrict ourselves here to the Qur'nic text: "The number of months, before God, is twelve in God's

236This Sra is generally consideredto have been revealedat Makka. 237Andrew Rippin, "Epigraphical South Arabian And Qur'nic Exegesis, " JerusalemStudiesin Arabic and Islam 13 (1990): 174. 238See above:Conclusion
The different theories presented in the studies which we have looked at so briefly here contain some very interesting information and theories. Nevertheless, the theories all leave unanswered questions, or seem to ignore information which does not appear to fit the theory. None of the authors consider the problem of hindsight chronology, and none are able to present any independent evidence to corroborate at least one chronological point. The major weakness of all these theories is that they are attempting to prove a point, leaving the reader to wonder if all facts, even those which contradict the theory, have been presented for his/her consideration. The Higra Calendar, 20f.

48

Book, the day he created the skies and the earth, of them, four are sacred. That is the true religion, so do each other no wrong during them... The nasi' is an increase of unbelief whereby the unbelievers go astray; one year they make it profane and another they make it sacred in order to
conform to the number that God made sacred. They profane that which God made sacred... 11239

Blachere draws from all sources in an effort to re-create the text of the Farewell Address (hutbat al 240 5 by Muhammad One of Blachere's first conclusions is, "... we are no longer able to wad made define whether one or other specific theme - later integrated into the Farewell Address - should be `Arafa, in discourse the or that of Mina. At the most, one could accept that the subject in of placed consideration was part of one of the sermons pronounced by Muhammad during these two When it comes to moments of the pilgrimage of AH 10. Even here, one has to be circumspect. X241 the question of calendar practices, the author notes that the wording is very close to that of the Qur'an, which would probably have helped the person telling of the event to remember the 242 which is a reminder that the text was revealed at some not very well defined time, prior words, to the pilgrimage. but none of them contribute anything of chronological Verse 37 has a number of variants, 243 significance.

Conclusion Interesting and as important as they are, the texts found in the Qur'n do not contribute, of themselves,to a more preciseunderstandingof the chronology of the life of Muhammad and eventsof the early years of Islam. This is not a negation of the inherent value of the Qur'n, rather it is the recognition that we are unable to draw any historical conclusionsfrom thesetexts.

239.Inna `iddata Kuhar`inda 1! `a`sara itn sahranfit kitbi IU yawm balaqaat samawtwa I andminh 1t at arba'tun hurum dlika at din at gayyim fal taalimn tThinnaanfusakum... Innam at nasi'u ziydatun C at kufr yudallu bihi alladin kafant yuhillnahu `atttanwa yubarrimiinahu `manliyuwli' `iddata m barrama11h fayuhill m batrama 11h... " Qu'rn 9:36-37. 240Regis Blachere, "L'allocution de Mohamet lors du Pelerinaged'Adieu," MelangesMassignon (France: L'Institut Frangaisde Damas, 1956),223-249.
241 Ibid., 231-2. 242 Ibid., 238-9. 243 There are three variant readings for nasfl nas'u, nass u, and a! nasu from secondary codices not even mentioned in note 220 above.

49

CHAPTER FOUR : Hadit244

After the Qur'n, the collections of traditions (badil) concerning the life, words and actions of Muhammad are the next most important source of information about the formative years of Islam. Here again, we have a corpus of material which has its own history. At the death of Muhammad, the teachings of the Qur'an, did not cover all the problems with which Muslims were faced daily, decisions life base find from Muhammad's to tried to the on examples which community and so about what was permitted (hall) or forbidden (har m) in subjects which range from food, purity, courtesy and good manners, to heaven and hell or dogma and law. In order to obtain this information, the community turned to Mubammad's "companions" (ca(ibi) who were anyone who had known him from his closest friends and wives, to people who had from learned him. Later had known they turn the companions, to those would and met who simply n) (tbr "followers" (al bi followers" later "followers' f a! and still, the a group classed as the tabi in). The badit soon came to be considered as consisting of two parts: the "chain" (isna) of those who reported having heard the badit from someone who had heard it from ... Muhammad or one of his companions and the actual "teaching" (matn). Traditional hadit criticism was largely based upon the study of the companions, followers and followers' followers: whether they were known to be honest and devout Muslims, and could they have met the person(s) they were supposed to have passed the tradition on to calculating both by dates and where the individuals were known to have lived and studied. From this science of "knowledge of the men" (ma iifat al ri& came the biographical treatises, most commonly

ordered according to the closeness of the "transmitters" to Muhammad (tabagal) and the classification of the hadit according to their orthodoxy: from orthodox with no weakness (,sahi{i) to a slightly weak isnd or a question about the orthodoxy (hasan) to doubts about either their ii (da In their turn, doubtful badit were classified according to the transmitter contents or .

244 See E. L?

s. v. Hadith, and $iddigi, adith Literature passim.

be to from had been considered were they source or weak one originated added, whether words

completely false (mudraj, matnik, mawd5.

The earliest collections of badit were arranged according to the transmitters, and the collection of hadit attributed to one transmitter was known as a musnad a term later applied to the whole is have form today important hadit. The this we which of collection of example most collection of the Musnad of Al}mad ibn Hanbal (d. AD 855). The majority of collections, however were be have to the considered which are to six collections we matter and subject arranged according in importance Qur'an. These the to the works are only second sources, orthodox authoritative and by: al Bubri (d. AD 870), Muslim (d. AD 875), Ibn Mg (d. AD 886), Ab Dwd (d. AD 888), 245 (d. 915) Nis'i AD 892) (d. AD and al al Tirmidit The authority of these collections was not recognised overnight and criticism of some of their Nevertheless, the these standard and authoritative as now recognised are uncommon. not contents 246 Musnad been indexed, having have the of with the along added advantage of collection, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the Musnad ofal Darimi and the Muwatta' ofMalik. As the purpose of this study is to look for possible chronological material within the corpus of hadit literature, an initial search was made for day names, feast-days and month names, numbers for days natural phenomena such as eclipses, comets, planets, shooting as as well months, or of 247 here. interest is the natural phenomena which us the most stars and earthquakes. It

Eclipses
Though studies have been made which investigate what eclipses could have been seen during the

248 life of Muhammad, none consider the detailed descriptionsof the eventswhich are to be found

245Seebelow, note 250 for full Bibliographical details. 246A. J. Wensinck, Concordanceet indices de la tradition musulmane(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1933-1969). 247No in but in Earthquakes found Wensinck. usually the are mentioned, was or planets comets of mention in in Sunan Darimf, One the talks text the time. an earthquake of quoted to the of end of signs relation `Abd Allh (the author), but it provides no chronological evidence for dating the event. the time of 248Leone Caetani,Annals de117slam (Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 1972). Leone Caetani, ChronographiaIslamica (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1912). Sonnenfinsternisse: (8-10 A. H. und 64-72 A. H.)," EduardMahler, "Uber zwei zu al-Madina gesehene Zeitschrift frdie Kunde desMorgenlandes14 (1900): 108-114.
N. Rhodokanakis, "Uber zwei zu al-Madina gesehene Sonnenfinstemisse: (Schilderung des Gebetes, wie es Mohammed bei dieser Gelegenheit vor der versammelten muslimischen Gemeinde in der Moschee leitete, " ZeitschriffifrdieKundedesMorgenlandes 14 (1900): 78-108.

51

in hadit literature.249 For the purpose of this study we needto examine this corpus in order to
discover any details which could lead to historically valid conclusions about the events it claims to

describe.It follows, therefore,that we will be more interestedin the body (math) of the hadil than
in its chain of transmission (isnd), though the latter can be of interest in confirming maw

material, or indicate links betweenseemingly unrelatedtexts. As the eclipse material is quite

in in be information (198 table-form texts), given order to save space and will most extensive

50 deserves further highlight study. anything which avoid repetition while permitting us to Sources Mlik
Ibn Hanbal Drimi Al

Number of texts 4
25 6

Bubdd
Muslim Ab Dwnd Ibn Mga al Nis'i
Table 6. Distribution of eclipse texts in the Hadif.

38
26 20 5 43

A quick survey of the texts shows that not all of them have the same value for a study such as this.

Some accountstell of Muhammad calling for communal prayer, the liberation of slaves,or
because death birth idea the that the could occur of eclipses or of a person, while others refuting

loud historical he out or silently, without providing any prayed whether on concentrate

Virginia Vacca, "Le preghiere dei musulmani durante le eclissi, " Calendario de/R. Osser vtorio Astronomico di Roma 11 (1935): 3-10.

249All the texts consideredhere, were identified through: Wensinck, Concordanceet indices de la tradition musu/mane.SeeTable 6 below for their distribution. 250The tablespresentthe texts in the chronological order of the death of the authors of the collections: Malik b. Anas (d. AD 795) al Muwatta, Cairo 1952-53,2v. (Malik'): See"Kitb Salat al Kusf," 1: 186189. Ahmad b. lIanbal (d. AD 855) Musnad, Cairo 1895,6v. (Ibn Hanbal): See 1: 143,346,459; 3: 318,374, 382; 4: 245,267,269; 5: 16-17,27,62,134; 6: 53,65,349,354-5. Ab Muhammad `Abd A1lh al Drim (d. AD 868) Sunan,Damascus1930,2v. (Al Drimi): See"Bab `inda $alt al Kusf," 1: 359-360. al Ab `Abd Allah at Bubari (d. AD 870) Sahi(i, Leyden 1862-1908,4v. (Bubri): See 1: 59,192-3; "Kitb at Kusnf," 264-275; 2: 305; 3: 445-446; 4: 108. Muslim (d. AD 875) Sa{ii(i,Cairo 1955-56,5v. (Muslim): See"Kitb al Kusbf, " 2: 618-630.
Ab Dawd (d. AD 888) Sunan, Cairo 1952,2v. (Ab(i Ddw-id): See "Kitb al $alt, " 1: 268-273. Abn `Is Muhammad ibn `Is al Tirmidi (d. AD 892) Gmi , Homs 1965-1968,10v. (Tirmidi).

Ibn Maga (d. AD 896) Sunan, Cairo 1952-53,2v. (Ibn Mga): See "Kitb Igtnat al $alAt, " 1: 400-402.

52

information and can therefore be eliminated before we go any further. 25' In the remaining texts, we will look at the events which provide the background to the report of an eclipse, the names of people, other than Muhammad, who supposedly led the prayer and any astronomical details.

Astronomical Eclipses
Before going further with the textual study, we have to remind ourselves that our aim is to find links between the texts and astronomical events, the details of which can be calculated to a great in important denominator leads degree of accuracy, 252 to all the texts common one very us which under scrutiny - even those already eliminated - namely that hadil literature only seems to talk of 253Computation shows that there were no total solar eclipses visible in Makka solar eclipses. (21.43N, 39.82E) or Madina (24.50N, 39.58E) during Mubammad's life-time. Of the partial solar have been few listed, would very noticeable unless there were special circumstances such eclipses as their happening at low altitude or in special climatic conditions such as dust storms or clouds. Table 7254 gives all the solar eclipses which could possibly have been seen in Makka between AD 612 - 622 and Madina between AD 622 - 634255and it cannot be stressed enough that no other

al Nis'i (d. AD 915) Sunan, Cairo 1930,8v. (al Nis'i): See "Kitb al Kusiif, " 3: 124-154. 251 This reduces the number of texts to 167. 252 All the calculations for the solar eclipses were computed by Professor F. R. Stephenson, on the basis of a detailed recent investigation of the Earth's past rotation. See F. Richard Stephenson and L. V. Morrison, "Long-term fluctuations in the Earth's rotation: 700 BC to AD 1990, " Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 351 (1995): 165-202. I would like to extend my thanks to him for all his help. Allowance for changes in the rate of the Earth's rotation, the clock error AT, ranges between 4640 seconds in AD 610 and 4460 in AD 630. This difference of roughly one hour as compared with is horizon. low down the calculations obviously eclipses on more critical when considering uncorrected If the solar eclipse of AD 632, January 27 is calculated with AT = 0, the eclipse would begin at 08.18h at an altitude of 20 degrees, reach a magnitude of 0.85 at 09.58h and altitude of 35 degrees and end at 11.30h at an altitude of 46 degrees. This would mean that the eclipse would not have been recognised as happening in the early morning as described in the hadit texts. 253 In modem Arabic the root ks fis usually understood to denote a solar eclipse while (i s fis reserved for lunar eclipses. In the period we are considering, this does not seem to have been the case, with both roots being used for one eclipse.

254The table provides information about the percentageof the Sun'sdisk covered by the eclipse (magnitude bottom disk Sun's the to the top the that to the + and eclipse was and a magnitude of signifies where greaterthan 1 denotesa total eclipse). Time - measuredin decimal hours - and altitudes - measuredin degrees- are provided for first and last contact with the Moon (beginning and end of the eclipse), in during in 2. In for 3, the 1 the column case of occurring eclipses and maximum magnitude columns and sunriseor sunset,the time is given for solar altitude 0. Duration gives the time during which the eclipse would have beenvisible.
Thus the eclipse of AD 632 January 27 reached a magnitude of 0.82 at Madina. It began at 6.6h. (about 6h. 36) just after sunrise at an altitude of 1, reached maximum phase at 7.8h. (7h. 48) at an altitude of 16 and ended at 9.3h (9h. 18) at an altitude of 32. The eclipse lasted 2.7h. or 2 hours and 42 minutes.

255Thesedates cover the period betweenthe generally accepteddate of the beginning of Muhammad's ministry up to the time he left Makka for Madina and the time there up until his death. The eclipse of AD 53

solar eclipses could have been seen at these locations. The importance of this situation will

becomeapparentshould "historical facts" not fit any of the calculatedeclipse data, as the validity
date have be to the "historical then to or with the either with regard questioned material" would of

256 have importance Given to the the the we to visibility, calculations of eclipse of event regard
dwell briefly on the factors which have been introduced into the equations in order to produce

them.
Makka Julian Date 612/08/02 613/07/23 616/05/21 617/11/04 620/09/02 Madina Julian Date 624/06/21 627/04/21 628/10/03 632/01/27 634/06/01 21.43N Type P. solar P. solar P. solar P. solar P. solar 39. 82E Mag. -0.81 -0.93 +0.80 +0.61 -0.77

Alt. I 03 16 20 29 14

Time I 18.2 06.7 07.0 08.7 06.8

Alt. 2 00 32 37 44 29

Time 2 18.5 07.8 08.2 10.3 07.9

Alt. 3 50 57 52 45

Time 3 09.2 09.7 12.0 09.1

Duration 0.3 2.5 2.7 3.3 2.3

39. 58E 24. 50N Time 2 Mag. Alt. I Time I Alt. 2 Type 18.8 05 18.4 00 P. solar -0.66 10.6 67 P. solar 62 10.2 -0.05 06.3 00 06.1 02 P. solar -0.12 07.8 01 06.6 16 P. solar -0.82 07 18.1 P. solar 0.86 21 17.1 Table Z SolarEclipses visible from Makka (AD 612-622) & Madina (AD

Alt. 3 71 09 32

Time 3 11.1 06.8 09.3

622-634).

Duration 0.4 0.9 0.7 2.7 2.0

Geographical considerations
In calculations, the positions of Makka and Madina have been taken as 21.43N, 39.82E and 24.50N, 39.58E respectively. Makka's relief is a problem, in that the town lies in the bottom of a

different distances Given by hills is the size of altitude. at and of varying surrounded and valley
Makka and the altitudes to be considered, any movement of the observation point would cause a

is Makka horizon Eclipse town the the going to of of profile. visibility within change considerable
for if for to points on relatively close more so considered points each other, and even greatly vary the surrounding hills. As we do not have exact information as to the whereabouts of observers, we are better served by calculations of a more general nature, in the knowledge that should the

detailed be computations more could carried out. arise, occasion

634 is included to show when the next possible eclipse following accepted dates for the death of Muhammad. 256 See for

the Ibrahim eclipse, was well after the

example the account of the solar eclipse during the battle of Alhandic of AD 938 in J. A. Condd, History of the Dominion of the Arabs in Spain, trans. J. Foster (London: Bohn, 1854): 1,424: "The following day there was a fearful eclipse, which covered the light of the sun with a dark amber-coloured shadow in the middle of the day. The minds of the young and inexperienced, who had seen nothing similar in their lives, were much troubled by that event, and two days passed during which no movement was made by either the Christians or the Moslemah; ... " No solar eclipses were visible in Spain at this time; though there was one in July 939. The two events would seem to have been assimilated.

54

Madina does not present such tortured relief, with a mean altitude of 600 metres and little in the

57 horizon obstruction. way of The eclipse accountswhich interest us here contain certain key words, or are built around some 258 The most famousevent is the to them. special event, which enablesus organiseand compare
but led to the famous death of Ibrhim, Mubammad's son, supposedly marked by an eclipse, 259 reply, "The Sun and the Moon are not eclipsed for the life or death of a person. i260Ibrhm's

death,and the eclipse connectedwith it, will be one of our reference-pointswhen considering
other events and so will be studied first.

Summary Titles

Death

Cloak

Water

Last

Shoot

Riding

Toilet

Sign

Wrong

Heat

Sources Malik Ibn Hanbal

0 3

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 3

1 1

0 0

1 1

0 1

0 2

Al Drimi Bubdri Muslim

Abn Dwiid Ibn Mga

0 4 3
1 0

0 1 0
1 1

0 0 0
1 0

0 0 0
1 0

0 0 3
2 0

1 2 1
0 0

0 0 0
0 0

0 2 1
0 0

0 0 2
0 0

0 0 1
1 0

al Nis'i TOTALS

1 12

4 7

1 2

1 2

2 10

1 7

2 2

0 5

0 3

1 5

Table 8. Events connectedto eclipse accounts.

257The mapsin Appendix V give some idea of the relative topography of Makka and Madina. 258Table 8 gives a resumes of the different eventsand their distribution among the collections. 259Muhammad'ssonby Mriya the Copt, he was supposedlyborn in D at Higga AH 8 and died between Rabi` I and Sawwl AH 10 (between 7 June AD 631 to 28 JanuaryAD 632), agedbetweensixteen and twenty-two months. Seeal Ya`qbi, T'rib, ed. M. Th. Houtsma (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1969) 2: 95f; this accountalso addsthat the Sun was eclipsed for two hours on that day, Caetani,Anna/i, 311ff.
260 Given the relative frequency of lunar eclipses as opposed to solar eclipses, it is worth noting that the only mention of the moon being eclipsed in the hadil is to be found in the aforementioned phrase, denying that eclipses marked the birth or death of people.

55

Ibrhim's death26'
The textual tradition surrounding Ibrahim's death is quite confused, with six different names being given as sources to the isnd. This does not by any means question the validity of the tradition such a well-known event would surely be reported from different sources - but it does tend to confuse the issue. As can be seen from Table 9, there are four different traditions to be found in the "key words", the texts which talk of an eclipse "the day Ibrahim died", one text which is part gu`ba by b. Mugira al of a sermon given after he had led the eclipse prayer, and the tradition of the "dragged cloak" which comes in two different branches, one of which has the narrator with Muhammad when the eclipse occurs. To these latter texts, we have to add other texts which talk of 62 but do "dragged Ibrahim's death. All the texts, bar one use the same root the cloak" not mention to describe the eclipse, ksfand there is a variant, in two of the texts, which for the end of the t (rose, appeared), indicating, perhaps, an eclipse which ended soon after sunrise tale eclipse uses or at least during the morning. One weakness inherent to this textual tradition is that the beginning 6abir 63 is isnd has for fabricating bad!,. A second the given as who a certain reputation of problem lies in finding a solar eclipse which fits the generally accepted chronology of Ibrhim's death; however, four texts refer to the death without using the words, "on the day of Ibrahim's death", only one of which can definitely be said to have occurred as a completely separate incident. The others say that "a son of his, called Ibrahim, had died". This wording, if it refers to the same eclipse as would seem to be the case, counterbalances the aforementioned objections to linking Ibrahim's death with a solar eclipse and could well be the original tradition which at some later date was buried in the mass of other material which put the two events on the same day. From

261 Though the texts are obviously similar, there are relatively few which are, word for word, the same. A translation of one of the Ibrahim traditions (with a note of the variants) is given below. "The Sun was eclipsed during Muhammad's time died. The the day Ibrahim (the Prophet's on son) ... ... it because people said that was eclipsed of Ibrahim's (his son's) death. The Prophet stood and prayed ... six bowings with four prostrations... he took a long time in his prayer and the rows of people praying) did the same (behind him, with him), then he stepped forward (and so did the people) (he stood in his place) and {the eclipse) had finished when his prayer had finished and the Sun had appeared and said: "Oh people the Sun and Moon are two signs among God's signs and they are not eclipsed for the death of a person, if you see anything like that, then pray till it is ended.... "

The presentationof the accountsof eventsincludes the vocabulary for the beginning of the eclipse, its end, words after the eclipsewhen they talk of eclipses(sermon),the isnd and key words.
262 The texts in Table 10 should therefore be considered part of the textual tradition concerning lbrdhim's death.

263 Cxibirb. `Abd Allah, see G. H. A. Juynboll, Muslim tradition: Studies in chronology, provenance and authorship of earlyhadith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 29.

56

the silsila attributed to Abn Bakara2M we can conclude that the eclipse had to take place after the 265 beginning AD 630 Looking at the list of solar T'if siege of of which probably took place at the eclipses we are left with only one choice, the solar eclipse of AD 632/01/27 which began at about 06h. 30 and ended at about 09h. 20. At the maximum point of the eclipse 82% of the Sun's disc would have been obscured, making the event a noticeable one. As there are no other solar eclipses which could be the "lbrhim eclipse", we have to conclude that the eclipse did not take place on the day of his death, but some time 266 Once this conclusion is reached, we are left with no

definite date for Ibrhim's birth or death.

Sources

Eclipse

End

Scrmon

Silsila

Key Words

Ibn Hanbal Bubri Bubri Buljri

Muslim

kasafat kasafat inkasafat inkasafat

inkasafat

lala`at

la yankasifan l yankasifan la yankasifn

l yankasifan

Cubir al Mugira b. tu`ba tu`ba b. Mugira al al Mugira b. tu`ba

Cibir

The day Ibrahim died The day Ibrahim died The day Ibrahim died The day Ibrahim died
The day Ibrahim died

dat

Muslim Muslim
Ab Dwd

inkasafat inkasafat
kusifat tala'at

Id yankasifan
l yankasifn

al Mugira b. t`u`ba Ism`il

Obir b. `Abd

The day Ibrahim died The day Ibrahim died

The day Ibrahim died

Ibn lianbal Ibn Hanbal

Bubi

kasafat kasafat
basafat

tagallat guliya
ingalat

l yankasifan l yankasifan
l yankasifan

Allah Ibn `Amr Abu Bakara

Abii Bakara

tuba b. Mugira al said His son Ibrahim had died Dragged his cloak in haste
Son.. Ibrahim had died

al Nisa'i

inkasafat

inkagafat

la yabsifan

Ab Bakara

Dragged his cloak Son.. Ibrahim had died Dragged his cloak We were with the Prophet

Table 9. Death ofJbrAbFm.

Muhammad drags his cloak267

As noted above, if the tradition attributed to Abu Bakara is to be accepted, then this version of the badit has to refer to the "Ibrhim eclipse". The texts which describe the event do not provide any

264This was a freed slavewho had fled from T'if at the time of the siege(c. AD 630) and had attached himself to Muhammad. SeeTabari, Mohammed,sceaudesprophetes,333. 265SeeGuillaume, Thelife of Muhammad, 597. Though sourcessuch as this tell us that Muhammad left Ta'if in Dual Qa'da AH 8, the exact chronology of this period remainsvague. 266This gawwl 29 AH 10, probably obtained the date from Ya`giibl, death dated that the as al who means astronomicaldata rather than from historical sources.The most commonly quoted date for Ibrhim's deathis Tuesday 10 Rabi' I AH 10, but the day and date do not correspond.According to Hshim Amir `All, Appendix IV this date was Saturday 15 JuneAD 631, while calculation according to Ilyas Appendix V- gives Sunday 16 June for 10 Rabi' I AH 10.
267 Ab Dwnd's text says "The sun was eclipsed (to the point that the stars appeared) during Mubammad's time and he went out, alarmed -I was with him that day in Madina - and he prayed two bowings with lengthy standing. He finished and the eclipse ended, then he preached " ...

57

it in fix help to terms the of this information or us conclusion contradict either would which other Higra calendar.
Sources Eclipse End Sermon Silsila Key Words

Ibn Mga Ibn Ijanbal Bubi Ab Dwnd

inkasafat inkasafat inkasafat kasafat

ingalat ingalat ingalat

IA yankasifan 11yankasifan l yankasifan

at Nu man b. Bagir at Nu`mn b. Bagir Abii Bakara Qabia al Hilldli Ab Bakara

Dragged his cloak Dragged his cloak Dragged his cloak We were at the Prophet's Dragged his cloak I was with him
(the stars appeared)2"

al Nis'i al Nis'i al Nisd'i

inkasafat

ingalat

l yankasifin l yankasifan

kasafat kasafat

ingil' ingalat
Table

Qabia.. al Hillli Abii Bakara

cioaK. Jvo acaui.

Dragged his cloak We were at the Prophet's In haste2R9 Dragged his cloak We were with the Prophet Dragged his cloak Sitting with the Prophet

JU Mut2amrnaaarnggeaals

The use of water27

first, lives. In the between links we deny people's that there are Two other traditions eclipses and denial If during the the prayer. have two texts which talk of people splashing water on themselves been having is be in lives on said between to link as accepted events people's and eclipses of any this occasion, then it must have occurred during the "Ibrhim eclipse", as there were no other solar inclined to 632. If AD June death in May were Muhammad's we between or that one and eclipses sadidan), (giyman then length we description the the to the of prayer of give more credence "post-Ibrahim" have to a consider would lunar eclipse, but calculations show that the last lunar

630/03/04, some two years AD death before Muhammad's in Madina that of was eclipse visible before the accepted date of Ibrhim's death.
Sources
Ab Dawd at Nis'i

Eclipse
kusifat kasafat Table II.

End

Sermon

Silsila

Key Words
poured water over them poured water over them

`A'ik I yankasifn tagallat `R'isa I takallat yankasifin The use of water durine the player emphasised

268 The

Ibrhim during been have the eclipse. visible would not stars

but hurrying, 269One has Muhammad Kusnf, " 145-6, mentions "Kitb Nis'i, Sunan from al al other text neither the cloak, nor Ibrhim. 270Ab Dwd has the following text: "The sun was eclipsedduring Muhammad'slife and the Prophet stood for a long time: he stood with the people, bowed then stood, bowed then stood then bowed... to the point that men fainted ... and water had to be poured on them. " 58

The Last Day2 '

The second example of reference to eclipses not being signs of births or deaths also suggests that Muhammad thought it was the last day. The internal evidence of this tradition raises doubts to its validity, in that on the one hand, Muhammad thought the eclipse was a sign of the last day, and on the other, denied any link between the eclipse and natural events. Turning now to the other texts which do not mention the famous denial of links between eclipses and births or deaths, we could be forgiven for assuming that they chronicle events prior to Ibrhim's death; this does not seem to be the case.

Sources Bub7.272 Muslim al Nisa'i

Eclipse basafat basafat h_asafat

Sermon Silsila I takn li mawt Ab MGsA 1$takn li mawt Ab Ms3 I takn li mawt Ab MsA Table 12. Muhammad thourht it was the last day. End

Key Words He though it was last day He though it was last day He though it was last day

Shooting2'
Possibly the richest tradition with regards "astronomical" detail, is the shooting event. This is the `Abd how al Rahmn b. Samura274was out shooting, either on his own or with account of decided He/they in Madina Sun. happened to see the to the region when something companions, in him found Muhammad's Madina to prayer with the people. reaction was, on and returning what As can readily be ascertained from Table 13, the textual tradition can be split into two main families, based both on the Jsnd and the Key Words. The top of the table presents quite a homogenous appearance with the eclipse word being taken from the ksfroot in all cases except one. The second group of texts offers more information, but also raises some questions.

271Bubri's text says:"The sun was eclipsed and the Prophetgot up worried that it might be the Last Day. He went to the mosqueand prayed..." 272The Bubri and al Nisii'I texts are identical. 273Ibn Hanbal has the following text: "While I (Samurab. t`,undab) and rfriends were shooting some An4; our arrows during the life of Muhammad, and the sun was two or three "lances" (seenote 277 below) above the horizon when it blackenedand becamelike the "tanaww umd" (seenote 275 below). We said to of the sun.." So we went to each other "Let us go to the mosqueand tell the Prophet about the appearance the mosque... "
274 Died in Kfa in AD 678 ' been have See l. 680 E. AD the quite young when and must event occurred. or `Abd s.v. al Rabman b. Samura.

59

Three of the texts use the term iswaddat (meaning darkened or blackened) instead of the usual terms for eclipse, which could suggest that the eclipse was only partial. This may seem a rather facile statement, in that we know that there were no total eclipses visible from Madina during Muhammad's life, but even the partial eclipses visible there would have caused hardly more than a slight darkening of the Sun which would have been more noticeable the closer the Sun was to the horizon, or in special climatic conditions such as a dust storm or haziness. The existence of at (rose) raises the question of whether this event was introduced by text talc virtually the same indeed an eclipse. The description which likens the Sun to the tanawwum275 could suggest a be has been latter former The the transit276 excluded cannot possibility and or sunspot. a planetary is Sun fact The the the talks that the after event probably because the event witness of verified. took place while the Sun was rising. The description of the Sun as being "about two or three lances

indicate horizon (nrmhayn aw talta)277 the the the an early eclipse mentioning end of above and
best The horizon. Sun the the which eclipse altitude with at an appreciable above morning eclipse fits this scenario is the "Ibn him" eclipse. Four of the texts give details about how Muhammad prayed, but cannot be taken as an accurate duration the of the eclipse/event and so are of little chronological value. of calculation Moving on to another tradition, we find an account of an eclipse included in the story of a Jewess `A'isa about the "punishment of the grave". `A'i"sa then asks Muhammad if there is to talks who any such thing and he says that there is. Some time after that, Muhammad goes riding early and he is he during during There talks about the sees a vision which morning. an eclipse which returns when the prayer is over.

27$The tanawwumais of the Trollius or Globe-flower family. A note in the Ab Diwd text describesit as a plant whose flower and fruit are speckledwith black. 276Though visible to the naked eye, such eventsare difficult both to observeand identify in written accounts as noted by Bernard R. Goldstein, "Some Medieval Reports of Venus and Mercury Transits," in Theory and Observationin Ancient and Medieval Astronomy. London: Variorum Reprints, 1985,XV: 49-59. Seealso JeanMeeus, "The Transits of Venus," !. Brit. Astren. Assoc. 68 (1958): 98-108. The only planetary transit visible to the naked eye is that of Venus which occurs about once every 100 years. Meeus' calculations clearly demonstratethat this event could not have beena Venus transit. Chronologically, the two closesttransits would have been AD 554 May 22 between07h. 28 and 09h. 46 local time and AD 667 November 23-24 between22h. 00 and 06h. 07, but this secondtransit would not have beenvisible in the region as the sun was below the horizon. 277E. W. Lane, Arabic English lexicon (London: 1863-93), s.v. rm{ , gives izfmi(rwhich has a value of between4.5 and 9 degrees,which would here give us altitudes from between9 and 13.5 (m( 3.5) and up to 18 and 27 (ml?=9).

60

Sources Ibn Hanbal Muslim Muslim Muslim Ab Dwd at Nisa'i Ibn Hanbal275

Eclipse kasafat kasafat inkasafat basafat kasafat inkasafat iswaddat

End husira 'an husira'an 'an gulliya husira'an husira `an tagalli

Sermon

Silsila 'Abd at Rahmn b. Samura 'Abd at Ral man b. Samura 'Abd al Ra6dn b. Samura `Abd al Ra6dn b. Samura `Abd at Ra6dn b. Samura `Abd at Rahmdn b. Samura Samurab. (lundab

Ibn Hanbal Ab Dwiid

tala'at iswaddat tagalli

Samurab. (undab Samurab. Oundab

at Nis'i

iswaddat

tagalli

Samurab. cundab

Key Words Shooting my arrows Shooting arrows Shooting arrows Shooting arrows Shooting arrows Shooting arrows Shooting at targets 2 or 3 lancesabove horizon Becamelike the tanawwuma Shooting at targets 2 or 3 lancesabove horizon Shooting at targets 2 or 3 lancesabove horizon Becamelike the tanawwuma Shooting at targets 2 or 3 lancesabove horizon

Table 13. Shooting when eclipse occurrrd.

Punishment of the grave279

Sources Eclipse End Sermon Silsila Key Words

Malik

basafat

'R'iga

Ibn Hanbal Al Darimi Bubri

basafat basafat kasafat

tagallat ingalat

'A'i3a 'A'ik 'A'ila

Bulri

basafat

'A'i! a tagallat in"alat `Arara"" 'A'ila I so cly. rwusnmenr o! megrave.

Between dawn and sunrise Returnedduring the morning Punishmentof the grave Punishmentof the grave Punishmentof the grave Betweendawn and sunrise Returnedduring the morning Punishmentof the grave Betweendawn and sunrise Returnedduring the morning
Punishment of the grave

Muslim al Nisi

basafat inhasafat

Between dawn and sunrise

Punishment of the grave

Punishmentof the grave

The textual tradition under consideration here is a complex one worthy of study in its own right, as the eclipse and the riding appear as insignificant details in the story. The very insignificance of the details, with regards the actual theme of the text is a strong indication of their validity. The time references dt algadt and fa raja a duhan,281found in three of the texts, are for the morning and This leaves us with a give the impression that Muhammad returned because of the eclipse. 282

278This text and the Ab Dwd one below, are identical. 279The secondof the Bubri texts states:"A Jewesscameto ask `A'isa about something.She said to her, "May God give you refuge from the punishmentof the grave!" So `R'i'saaskedGod's Apostle, "Would " God's Apostle askedGod's refuge from the punishmentof the the peoplebe punished in their graves? grave (= affirmative reply). Then one day God's Apostle rode off somewherewhen the sun was eclipsed. He returned before noon, passedthrough the back of (his wives') dwellings and stood (in the mosque)for the prayer..." 280In `'isa `Amra is the texts, all other words. cited as reporting 281SeeKazimirski, s.v. gdw, "Temps entre I'aubedu jour et lc lever du soleil." s.v. cIw, "Heure du jour o le soleil est dej elevb sur 1'horizon" 282"He " went riding early one morning, the Sun was eclipsedand he returned (Iujuzn... 61

choice between the "Ibrahim eclipse" of AD 632/01/27 and that of AD 628/10/03, both of which are morning eclipses. Though it is impossible to state with certainty that this is another account of the "Ibrahim eclipse", it does seem more likely, given the larger magnitude and length of the event.

The toilet2$'
Another, very similar, tradition, is that of Muhammad having gone to the toilet when an eclipse 284 We can immediately ask ourselves why this tradition is only to be found in the Sunan occurred. of al Nis'i, the collection chronologically furthest removed from events, as we can also remark on

the similarity between this tradition and the previous one: the time given as d4wa, 185 the use of bsfto indicate the eclipse, `Amra in the silsila reporting `A'isa's words, and one of the texts mentioning the Jewess and the punishment of the grave. This tradition is possibly a variant of the previous one but the use of dawa rather than (foan could well indicate a separate event which took place slightly earlier in the day. This possibility is strengthened when we realise that the two traditions cannot be easily reconciled286 Consultation of Table 7 reveals two remarkably similar solar eclipses, the "Ibrahim eclipse" which started with the Sun about one degree above the horizon and the earlier one of AD 628/10/03 which would have been visible as a cleft in the lower right-hand edge of the Sun as it rose above the horizon. Without being able to fix this event with certitude, there are three indications that it could well be the eclipse of AD 628/10/03: Firstly, `R'isa is quoted as the source in both of the preceding accounts, so that supposing the reports to be exact, the fact that she might well have given different times287for them is significant. Secondly, the prayer seems to have been said with only women present, which would again suggest that it was early and thirdly, in many countries it is customary for people to go to the toilet before sunrise or after sunset. There is another eclipse account in the body of hadil literature which uses the term

283 "The Prophet had gone out to the toilet, when the sun was eclipsed. We (`A'isa and the other wives? ) went out and were joined by a group of women. God's Apostle came, it was morning, and stood for a long time... "

284SeeTable 14. 285Kazimirski, s.v. dhw, "Heure de la matineebientt apresIc lever du soled et avant l'hcure Iu(zan." 286Muhammad returning from a ride and going straight to prayer, as opposedto his having gone to the toilet.
287 See notes 281 and 285.

62

dahwa, but in this case the tradition refers to Mugira b. u`ba leading the prayer. 288If we accept that Muhammad only prayed one eclipse prayer289we have to conclude that the eclipses described in the two traditions are one and the same, otherwise this tradition could be referring to the earlier eclipse of 3 October AD 628.
Sources al Nis'i at Nis'i Eclipse busifat basafat End tagallat tagallat Sermon Silsila A'ik `A'ia Key Words During the morning During the morning Punishment of the grave

Table 15. Muhammad eoine to the toilet at the time ofan eclipse.

A sign290
Turning to another tradition, we find Asm' bint Abi Bakr going to `A'i`sa's house during an 291 in it if (Aya). This Madina A detail in the event took place eclipse and asking was a sign second text informs us that Asm' was wrapped in one of Zubayr's (her husband) blankets (gati a), possibly because it was early morning and she was just waking up. The "! yabsifin" from Ibn IIanbal's Musnadlooks to be an addition to the original tradition, in a text which differs quite radically from the other four: other people talking of a sign and using water, as opposed to Asm' `A'isa about a sign, and splashing water on her head or face. A look at the isndd confirms asking `Abd `Ibd b. b. Ibn Hanbal from Muhammad Asm' to that there are two textual traditions, gives Allah b. al Zubayr, while the others go to Fatima b. al Mundir.
Sources Eclipse End Sermon Silsila Key Words

M31ik 9 Ibn Hanbal Bubri Bubfiri Muslim

basafat basafat basafat basafat basafat

tagallat

la yabsifan

Asm3' b. Abi Bakr Asm3' b. Abi Bakr

Asm3' b. Abi Bakr Asm3' b. Abi Bakr Asm3' ta"allat Table 16. Eclipse account using the word Sign - Ilya ".

Till I fainted poured water .. Wrapped in Z's blanket Peoplesplashing water Till I fainted poured water .. Till I fainted poured water .. Till I fainted poured water ..

288 See

note 302 below.

289SeeSolar Eclipses69 below.

290 Ibn Hanbal's text says: "... from Asm', daughter of Ab Balte: the sun was eclipsed during Muhammad's time. I heard the commotion made by the people saying that it was a sign and we were afraid. I went out wrapped in Zubayr's blanket and went to see A'i"sa. When I entered, I found God's Apostle praying with the people. I asked `R'i`sa what was happening with the people and she pointed at the sky. I prayed with them. God's Apostle had completed the first prostemation and stood for such a long time that I saw some of the people who were praying splash themselves with water... "

291This `Visa, "Muhammad's wife". Her marriage to be deduced fact Asm' from to that the went can Muhammad was consummatedin Madina.
292 This text and the two Bubri texts below, are identical.

63

The wrong garment"'

Continuing with another event whose isnadgoes back to Asm', we find the story of the "wrong garment" in which she tells how Muhammad mistakenly took a woman's garment instead of his cloak, on his way out to lead the eclipse prayer. In one variant, which has a different isnrtd, we find her going to the toilet before joining the crowds in prayer. This tradition seems to raise more questions than it answers! Why mention the fact that Muhammad took the wrong garment and can we infer anything from this? Why include the detail of Asm' having gone to the toilet? Is this 29' As there seems to be just tradition? the account not a variant of previous no logical reason for mentioning either the toilet or the wrong garment, we can argue for their authenticity. Both these incidents are compatible with an early morning event. As with `A'isa's accounts of events surrounding the two morning partial solar eclipses, we now have two other very similar stories which could refer to one or two events. Comparison of these two traditions with the "`R'isa" traditions show some interesting coincidences: both schools have someone going to the toilet and Muhammad's use of a feminine garment would fit the scenario of his having gone to the toilet and being surprised by the eclipse. Though it would be difficult, if not impossible, to untangle the

different elements of the stories, it does seem possible that Asmd' and 'R'isa are reporting the same one or two events, namely the "Ibrahim" eclipse and that of AD 628/10/03.

Sources

Eclipse

End

Sermon

Silsila

Key Words

Ibn Hanbal Muslim Muslim

kasafat (kasafat) kasafat

Asm3' b. Abi Bakr Asma' b. Abi Bakr Asm3' b. Abi Bakr

Took blouse. His cloak was brought Took blouse. His cloak was brought Took blouse. His cloak was brought I went to the toilet
I wanted to sit down

Table IZ The Wrong Garment.

293The longer Muslim's texts of says: "... from Asm', daughterof Ab Bakr: the sun was eclipsed during the Prophet'stime and he was excited (to the point that) he took a (woman's) blouse insteadof his cloak which was brought to him later. I went to the toilet, then I came and enteredthe mosqueand saw God's Prophet standing and so I too stood. He stood for such a long time that I found myself wanting to sit down..."
294 In that one too, Asm' arrives when the people are already praying.

64

A hot day295
A rather unusual tradition talks of an eclipse on a hot day and Muhammad praying with his Companions who begin to collapse. The event's "uniformity" is marred by a mixture of eclipse

words, there is no indication of location and Muhammad prays with his Companions, whereas on 296 The find him going to the mosque and/or praying with the people. other occasions we usually fact that the text tells us that it was a very hot day does not help much, as the concept of heat is relative.
Sources Ibn Hanbal Ibn Iianbal Muslim Ab Dwiid al Nis'i Eclipse basafat basafat kasafat kusifat kasafat End Sermon Silsila (Dabir tabir b. `Abd Allah bir b. `Abd Allah bir (abir b. `Abd Allah
Table 18. Eclipse on a hot day.

Key Words Prayedwith his Companions They began to collapse Prayedwith his Companions They began to collapse Prayedwith his Companions They began to collapse Prayedwith his Companions They began to collapse Prayedwith his Companions They began to collapse

Muhammad in Makka297
'ta'iga There is one tantalising tradition to be found in Sunan al Nisd'i and attributed to which is This during Zamzam. Muhammad already statement the that an eclipse at of prayed well states If it if it this in does Sun Moon eclipsed. that the the was which not say was or remarkable, `'isa is talking of something she be have is then to that to taken tradition seriously, we suppose born As her the told to she was the of event. chain say who witnessed otherwise we would expect in about AD 613, the eclipse would have to have occurred between about AD 618 - 632. Considering the period before the Higra, there are numerous possibilities of both solar and lunar for information indicate As them the the postto as event. one of enough any and not eclipses, Higra possibilities, there are many more restraints. Muhammad only went to Makka rarely during the ten or so years he lived in Madina. The first occasion was for the lesser pilgrimage umra

295Muslim's version of this tradition: "The sun was eclipsed ... on a very hot day and God's Apostle prayed with his Companions:he stood for such a long time that they beganto collapse..." 296Many texts mention specifically the mosque,Madina, his wives' house(a/ 4'w.ar) which was attachedto the mosque,or the place reservedfor his prayer (muss/lift). Similarly, many texts mention the crowds gathering and praying with him. However, it has to be rememberedthat the title of Companion/ ,cu{iob (seeGlossaryxx) was given to anyone who had met Muhammad.
291 "God's Apostle prayed, during an eclipse, at the well of Zamzam... "

65

in February/March Hudaybia, following took the treaty probably place the of accords of which, AD 629 298 The next occasion was the capture of Makka to be dated in January AD 630 when he . `umra in in March February days, he 15 20 to then accomplish another an to or returned stayed 299 overnight ViSit. The last visit was for the farewell pilgrimage in March/April AD 632. The two

`umra are the only two possible candidates for a match between a lunar eclipse and Muhammad's `umra. between in in but is link the Makka, tradition there no an eclipse and one of made presence It would be remarkable if an eclipse had occurred during one of these visits to Makka, and even from draw The little it this only conclusions we can that mention. so received more remarkable text, are very tentative. It seems very unlikely that there was an eclipse during one of Muhammad's post-Higra visits to Makka. With regards the eclipses which took place before the Higra, there is too little information available to allow us to opt for any of them. Lastly, there is `Abd Ibn led by Allah talks tradition prayer of an eclipse which another, remarkably similar `Abbs300which could well be the origin of this tradition.

Others lead prayer

A last category of texts we have to take into consideration, are those which mention other people leading an eclipse prayer. In some cases it appears impossible to marry knowledge of their career to known eclipse phenomena, there are, however one or two notable exceptions, either when a place name has been included in a tradition, or when an exceptional eclipse occurred. `A11301 20 661. Table in AD in Kfa AD 657 there shows the two to and was assassinated moved but low for he have led Both on the the quite partial, are which could prayer. possible eclipses horizon and neither are very spectacular.

298The calculation of visibility of lunar eclipsesdoes offer one possible partial lunar eclipse which took 23 (at which time the Moon's altitude was -10.1) to 19h.32 local place in AD 628,25 March from 17h. time (altitude 18.7),which meansthe moon rose partially eclipsed. 299Not `umra. historical SeeTabari, Mohammed, sceaudes Islamic this the validity of all authorities accept prophetes,326f. 300See note 303 below for the text. 301"The `Ali was in Kfa and he got up (and prayed) ... sun was eclipsedwhile

66

Al Mugira b. tu`ba, Abn `Abd Allah al Tagafi, 302 became governor of Basra (30.30N 47.50E, founded in AD 638) under `Umar, but was then dismissed for adultery. In AD 642 he became `Utmn `All Kfa. Under he held he retired to T'if. In AD governor of no public office and under 661 he again became governor of Kfa where he died between AD 668 671. The outstanding possibility for al Mugira was the Total eclipse of AD 667/08/25 which reached totality about one hour after sunrise and this concords with the text which says that the eclipse occurred early in the morning. Ibn `Abbas, `Abd Allah303 led the pilgrimage to Makka in June AD 656. After a short period as governor of Bara AD 657 - 659, he left for Makka, but was banished from there by `Abd Allah b. Zubayr when he proclaimed himself Caliph. In about AD 680, he returned briefly, at the time of the siege, after which he went to Mina then Td'if where he died. The tradition states quite clearly that the eclipse prayer was at the Well of Zamzam. The Annular eclipse of AD 671/12/07 would have been one of the most spectacular of the eclipses in the table and could well be the one referred to. As Table 20 shows, the Sun set before totality during the eclipse of AD 666/09/04. Iiudayfa b. al Yamn, 304 a Companion of Muhammad who died in Kfa in AD 657. The only real possibility for him was the eclipse of AD 644/11/05.

`Abd Allah b. al Zubayr305 son of Asm', was in Madina betweenAD 647 - 650 and AD 656 680 and in Makka, where he proclaimed himself Caliph, betweenAD 680 - 692. `Abd Allah b. 'Umar d. AD 693. It is difficult to locate this person with enoughaccuracyto '306

allow calculating eclipseswhich he could have seen.

302 "The

sun was eclipsed in the morning ({lzhwa see note 285 above) and Mugira b. u`ba got up and prayed with the people... "

303 "`Abd Allah Ibn `Abbas prayed with them at the Well of Zamzam... `Ali b. `Abd Allah b. `Abbas gathered(the crowds to pray) and Ibn `Umar prayed (in the sameway). " This text bearsa remarkable resemblanceto the previously quoted one, attributed to `R'isa about Mubammad having prayed at Zamzam, even to the detail of not mentioning the sun or the moon, but talking of the eclipse prayer. 304"Hudayfa b. Yamn " al prayed during the eclipse... 30$"From Zuhri: I `Urwa, "On the day that the sun was eclipsed in Madina your brother (Abd to al said Allah b. al Zubayr) only prayed two rak a " " ... ... 306`Abd Allah b. `Umar `Abbas `Abd `Ali b. b. Allah are both said to have led the eclipseprayer, but and their namesare given without further detail at the end of the text referring to `Abd Allah Ibn `Abbas having led the prayer at the Well of Zamzam(seenote 303 above for the text).

67

`Ali b. `Abd Allah b. `Abbas, b. AD 661, exiled by Walid I (AD 710-715) to the province of
art, he lived in Humayma where he died in AD 735/6. During the period of exile, it is

questionablewhether any of this person'sactions would have been noteworthy.

Name `Ali `Ali `All `All `Ali `Ali
at Mugira

Source Ibn Hanbal " Ibn Hanbal Ibn Hanbal Ibn 1ianbal Ibn Hanbal Ibn Hanbal
Ibn Hanbal

Eclipse inkasafat inkasafat kusf inkasafat inkasafat kasafat

kasafat

End

Place

Key Words

ingaliya inkasafat
tagallat

at Kfa
During the morning

Ibn `Abbs Ibn `Abbas Ijudayfa Ibn at Zubayr Ibn at Zubayr Ibn `Umar `Ali b. `Abbas

It got darker kasafat Ibn Hanbal Zamzam Zamzam Bubari Ibn Hanbal at kusf basafat Bubri at Madina Bubri at Madina Bubri Buhari Table 19. Names ofpeople alleged to have ied the eclipseproycr.

Date

Type

Person

Place

Mag.

Alt. I

Time I

Alt. 2

Time 2

Alt. 3

Time 3

Duration

638/03/21 639/09/03 644/11/05 659/01/28 659/01/28 660/07/13 660/07/13 661/07/02 665/04/21 666/09/04 666/09/04 667/08/25 667/08/25 670/06/23 671/12/07 671/12/07 674/10/05 678/01/28 678/07/24 679/07/13 686/02/28 686/02/28 688/12/28 692/04/22

P.S. P.S. A. S. P.S. P.S. P.S. P.S. P.S. P.S. P.S. T. S. T. S. P.S. P.S. P.S. A. S. P.S. P.S. P.S. P.S. P.S. P.S. P.S. P.S.

Mugira Mugira lludayfa `Ali Ibn `Abbas `Ali Ibn `Abbas Mugira Mugira Mugira Ibn `Abbas Mugira Ibn `Abbas Mukira Mugira Ibn `Abbas Ibn `Abbas Ibn `Abbas Ibn `Abbas Ibn `Abbas Ibn at Zubayr Ibn `Abbas Ibn at Zubayr Ibn at Zubayr
Possible

Ba. ra B4ra Kfa Kfa Makka Kfa Makka Kfa Kfa Kfa Makka Kfa Makka Kiifa Kfa Makka Makka Makka Makka Makka Makka Makka Makka Makka

-0.51 +0.34 +0.92 +0.39 +0.14 -0.24 -0.44 +0.18 +0.22 -0.83 1.04 1.00 +0.69 +0.84 -0.72 0.92 -0.30 -0.35 -0.76 +0.22 -0.78 -0.78 -0.55 -0.87
when nrnver

52 32 38 15 20 00 18 00 04 04 00 00 25 27 25 39 87 28 16 16 09 50
led by cnmenne

13.7 08.2 13.2 16.0 16.0 05.0 06.5 05.4 17.9 17.9 05.6 05.7 09.6 09.0 08.0 14.3 11.9 16.5 07.3 07.3 16.6 09.5
other

38 44 26 04 12 02 00 27 02 00 12 06 00 34 43 36 29 64 18 32 32 63

15.0 09.2 14.9 16.9 16.6 05.2 05.4 07.2 05.6 18.2 06.5 06.2 04.9 11.4 10.8 08.8 15.2 13.8 17.2 08.6 08.6 10.2

24 55 10 00 05 10 03 36 09 00 25 20 07 32 43 47 19 42 09 49 49 00 70

16.2 10.2 16.5 17.3 17.1 05.9 05.6 07.9 06.2 18.8 07.6 07.2 05.5 13.4 13.0 09.7 16.1 15.4 17.9 10.0 10.0 17.4

2.6 2.0 3.3 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.2 1.2 0.8 0.9 0.3 2.0 1.5 0.6 3.8 4.0 1.7 1.8 3.5 1.4 2.7 2.7 0.8

Table 20

Soler eclincec

than Mnhnmmad

307 All

the Ibn Hanbal texts except the account of the prayer led by at Mugira are from the marginal text. note 254 for an explanation of the table.

308 See

68

Conclusion
Length of prayer
Sources Malik Ibn Hanbal Buhri Muslim
Abii DO. wiid

Fitiha Two Cow Al `Imrn Y Sin al Riim at Ha"' at Hi' at Nahm Long at mubin 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 10 1 1 1 II 2" 1 3* 4* 00 20 10 21 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0I 0

al Nis'i

0 00 0 0 Table2l. Sresrecited during the eclipseprayer

A factor common in the majority of eclipse texts, is the emphasis put on how long the eclipse

by the These saying which emphasise effect texts and often adjectives various use prayer was.
Sras were recited during the prayer. If we are to take these quotations as a serious estimate of the

length of the eclipse prayer, they would usually refer to a lunar eclipse even though a solar eclipse,
hand, hour. On followed for there are many wellbe the other an over could once noticed,

documentedcasesof medieval chronicles over-estimatingthe length of solar eclipses.As Srasare

here. little detail, in devoid historical to they us use texts are of of other often named The most striking character of the above descriptions is their vagueness. Trying to take into

issue during the description to tends rather the confuse the any given event of prayer said account
than clarifying it, leading me to conclude that the prayer descriptions are the least reliable part of

the accountswe have analysed.

Solar Eclipses
We began this study taking it for granted that the generally accepted distinction between bsf(lunar

Having hadil in texts does hold the ksf(solar texts. and true the studied eclipse) not and eclipse)
the events they describe, it is clear that a case could be made, at least in some of the stories, for the

have We late lunar been have than solar eclipse. to early morning night an a eclipse rather eclipse
to ask, therefore, if there is any way that hasafat a/sams (or any one of the variants used from

kstj lunar The bsfor indicate eclipse. simplest answerto this seems two could a the roots either of
to lie with Muhammad's famous rejection of any link between eclipses and natural events: al jams

both both Sun Moon the the and with of the which names yankasifan/yahsifan... wa al gamar1 roots and leads to the conclusion that none of the aforementionedtexts refer to lunar eclipses.This

309The texts `Ali been have by during to eclipses. recited supposed are marked with an asterisk 69

leadsto anotherquestion: Why, if Muhammad denied any link betweenlunar eclipsesand natural
310 in hadil literature? events, are there no examples of this much more common phenomenon cited All the events we have identified could refer to the two partial solar eclipses of AD 628/10/03 and 311 in But the hadil contain one Madina AD 632/01/27, which occurred while Muhammad was found in Sunan Nisd'i, in form the text and al the on of a commentary more piece of evidence, be `A'isa, Makka, to Muhammad the or at that eclipse prayer prayed which claims attributed to 6all "without Suynti Din that, Well Zamzam. any quite clearly states al al the of more precise, at doubt, God's Apostle only prayed the eclipse (prayer) once, in the mosque in Madina... ". If this is indeed the case, then we have to conclude that all the texts refer to the eclipse of AD 632/01/27 which occurred some time after the death of Ibrahim. We have been unable to identify any pre-Higra eclipses, even though the solar eclipses visible in Makka were generally more striking than those visible while Muhammad was in Madina. Hadit 312 in Makka "astronomical" took so there literature contains examples of other place which events is no reason for them not to have been included. From an astronomical point of view, some of the texts show an amazingly accurate description of Despite for be has our known their to the authenticity. strongest argument the event313which inability, at this point, to integrate either of these eclipses more accurately into the chronology of Muhammad's life, we have discovered that reliable information is available in the hadil. It is also be Mubammad's to for differing be difficult it actions the all accounts of clear that would

310 Though

innocuous to the the often compared eclipses solar more spectacular aspect of mention we could into how lunar take small some the account we when especially eclipses, question remains, appearance of lunar the eclipses. the even smaller observe one can the were and which ease with of partial solar eclipses We also have one reference in the marginal text of the Musnad of Ibn llanbal, 3: 320 which tells us that Muhammad would "hurry to the mosque to pray on windy nights until the wind died down. Or if a hurry he Moon Sun to the place of the the would occurred, eclipse as an of or celestial event such prayer".

311The in 624/06/21 have been AD likely less the eclipse was to seen: two partial eclipseswere even other to the lower edgeof the Sun which was setting, while in AD 627/04/21 the combination of altitude and the small percentageof the Sun eclipsed madeit almost impossible to see. 312The Moon. the being the the of splitting stars and shooting most noted
313 The differentiate between, for degree to to the necessary accuracy example, of to eclipses calculate ability those of AD 628 and AD 632, is relatively recent and precludes the possibility of the stories about them being based upon "later" astronomical calculations. We may regret that there were two rather similar it difficult descriptions, fit this to obtain a the as makes more partial solar eclipses which could be invalidate that them too to does the fix, but some of are argument accurate pure this not chronological fabrication.

70

reconciled into one coherentaccountand so, we have to conclude that they are not all of equal
historical value.

Shooting stars
314 There are severaltexts in the corpus of badil which talk of meteors or shooting stars.
As Table 22 shows, there are three distinct traditions, though the isndd for two of these traditions `Abbs. back The second tradition shown in the table does not even refer Ibn to one person, goes to Muhammad other than indirectly. Of the other two, the first sounds like a meteor, but we have little means of identifying it. We also find with this tradition the same negation about any connection between meteors and the birth or death of a person as we do with the eclipse alleged to have taken place on the day of Ibrhim's death. It is possible that any extraordinary celestial happening was considered by people of the ghiGya as being the sign of the birth or death of someone important. The third event is more difficult to decipher. We are told how the spirits used to have a place in the heavens, from where they could hear God's teaching and that they used to add falsehoods to the teaching when repeating it. When Muhammad received his mission, the spirits no longer had access to their place in the heavens. The tradition says that shooting stars did not fall before this occasion, a statement which is difficult to accept, coming as it does from a people who lived close to the desert and must have witnessed many shooting stars. This leads to two possible conclusions: that the image of the shooting star is allegorical, or that there was an extraordinary display of shooting stars, a storm of shooting stars. Both these possibilities have to remain hypothetical, as ts As the story of the have independent disprove them. records to either confirm or we no expulsion of the spirits from the heavens is also said to have happened at Mubammad's birth '316we have to ask if this was indeed a historical event.

314 "Rumiya bi nagam" or "Rumiya bi kawkad' are common terms. Sec: " 4: 1750-1751. Muslim, Sahih, "KitAb al Salm,
, Tirmidi, al mi "Kitb tafsir al Qur'an, " 8: 357; 9: 63. Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, 1: 218,274,323; 5: 299.

315If, however, we refer to the Table of observed meteor showers, Table 4,38, there are no recorded sightings against which we can confirm or deny the phenomenon. Nor can we offer a better date. 316See below, CHAPTER SEVEN Birth to Higra. 92ff. :

71

Sources Ibn Hanbal Ibn Hanbal Muslim

Event rumiya bi nagmin `a; im rumiya bi nagmin rumiya bi nagmin rumiya bi nagmin
kawkaban inqa44a

End fastanar fastanr

Silsila Ibn `Abbas Ibn `Abbas Ibn `Abbas Ibn `Abbas

Key Words Sitting with companions Sitting with companions Sitting with companions... (meteors) do not appearbecauseof the death or the birth of someone Sitting with companions... (meteors) do not appear becauseof the death or the birth of someone
Sitting at our house... NOT the

Tirmidi

fastanr

Ibn Ijanbal

Muhammad

Muslim Ibn iianbal

kawkaban inqa44a knat at nugm I yurma 317 (sic] bih qabla dalika knat at nugiim I tugrii wa knat at ayd1inla turmd

bariha rumiya bi 3ihb

liusayn b. `Abd at
Rahmn

Prophet NOT the Prophet The spirits used to listen to Revelation... When the Prophet was sent a spirit could not go to its place without being thrown down by a meteor. The Laydlin had places in heaven listen to to they used ... Revelation... When the Prophet was sent a gayln could not go to its place The spirits used to listen to Revelation... When the Prophet was sent a spirit could not go to their places...

Ibn `Abbas

Ibn Ijanbal

ga'ahu iihb

Ibn `Abbas

Tirmidi

knat at nugm l turmd

Ibn `Abbas

Table 22. Meteors and shooting stars.

Splitting the moon318

As stated previously, this event was miraculous, a sign shown to some of the people. As such, it

cannot be used to offer chronological data.

Sources Ibn lianbal Ibn }ianbal Muslim

Event lnsigdq at qamar fa inagqaat gamar Insagqaat gamar

End

Silsila Anas b. Mdlik Anas `Abd Allah

Key Words They saw the moon twice split in Makka ... The moon twice split in Makka ... The moon split during the life of the Prophet of God and he said, "Believe! " The moon split into two parts: one went behind the mountain and one did not.., the Prophet of God and he said, "Believe! "
The moon split during the life of

Muslim

Ida infalaga at qamar filqatayn

Ibn Mas`d

Muslim

Insagqa at gamar

Ibn Mas`dd

the Prophet of God and the mountain hid one part and the other was over the mountain. The Prophetof God said, "By God, Believe! " Muslim Fa arhum intigq at Anas He showed them the splitting of

317Should read twm.

318In the Qur'n, the splitting of the moon is one of the signs of the end of the World (see 54: 1). Not all the references to this are given as there is no scientific way of confirming the event and as such, does not further the study. For the alleged witnesses this was a sign which confirmed Muhammad's authority and mission.

72

Sources Tirmidi

Event qamar Infalaqa al qamar

End

Silsila Ibn `Umar

Key Words the moon twice The moon split during the life of the Prophet of God and he said,
"Believe! "

Tirmidi

fa iniagqa at qamar

hatt ara firgatayn

Abii (ubayr

Tirmidi

fa inlagqa al qamar

Ibn Mas`ad319 Ibn `Umar Ibn Mas`d

The moon split into two parts: one over this mountain and one over that mountain The moon split during the life of the Prophet of God and he said,
"Believe! "

Tirmidi

fa insagqaal qamar

The moon split into two parts: one went behind the mountain and one did not...

Table23. Splitting the Moon.

G "1

Yawm Asur

Much is made in different accounts,of the possibility that Muhammad reachedMadina on the
Jewish feast of Yom Kippur or Atonement. When we look at the corpus of badit, we find

statements such as "Yawm `snr', was a day of fast for the Prophet of God/Qurays in the times of
'Agar-a"', in ghiliya... Muhammad ", discussion "Fast the the arrived whether on about and

Madina on the Feastof Atonement or not could blind us to the fact that Yawm `Asr' was a feast
in the times of the ghiliya. Al Brni tells us that, "The 10"' (of Muharram) is called `Ashr, a

most distinguished day. The Prophetis reported to have said: "0 yc men, hastento do good works
on this day, for it is a grand and blessed day, on which God had mercy on Adam. " ... "Some

`Ashr `Ashur, i. e. the 10th is Hebrew Arabized of the Jewish month people say that an word, viz.
Tishri, in which falls the Kippur fast; that the date of this fast was compared with the months of

day of their first month, because the Jews fast on the the Arabs and that it was fixed on the 10`h
10`hday of their first month. 020

Conclusion
The study of astronomicaleventsmentioned in the corpus of hadil has shown that some of the
accounts compare favourably with astronomical data or calculations, which leads to the conclusion

that hadit material can neither be taken as a chronicle of historical events,nor can it be rejected
out of hand as containing no genuine historical material. The problem will always lie in attempting

to identify the genuineaccountsfrom thosewhich are either complete fabrications or heavily

edited versions of an authentic core. These conclusions have been reached without studying the

319Two texts containing the same material but with a different chain of transmission. 320 Birni, Chronology ofAncient Nations, 326-327.

73

individual hadl. judging Though the traditional of the authenticity transmission, of way chain of the study of the isnd could help better discern areas of concern, it has to be remembered that body does does is impossible, the text that the of not mean automatically not proving a chain information isnd does Similarly, historical that not guarantee a valid material. contain valid passed on in good faith, is correct.

74

CHAPTER FIVE : Higra to Death

As our interest lies specifically with the Higra calendar, and the most authoritative dates that we have concerning it and the events of Muhammad's life, are the later ones, the logical way to dates be backwards from to to the the surer seem work would approach chronological question towards the less well documented ones even though this contradicts the usual order of a biographical study.

AH 11: Muhammad's death

It is generally accepted that when Muhammad fell ill, he delegated the responsibility for leading 321 last his death, Bakr. On day Muhammad Abil time at morning to the one appeared of prayers prayers, thus leading the community to believe that the worst was over and that he was on the `'isa's later died in Hours Muhanunad house, and according to some traditions in her arms, mend. 322 63 His death took the community by surprise. The most commonly accepted date at the age of is Monday 12 Rabi' I AH 11.323 He was buried on the Tuesday or Wednesday night.

There are many badit which attest to Muhammad'sbeing "born on a Monday, receiving his first
Monday, Ka'ba in Black Stone Monday, the the the on a of a corner revelation on replacing

While accepting fleeing Makka and arriving in Madina on a Monday and dying on a Monday".324

321Though others had led prayerswhen Muhammad was absentfrom Madina, this would seemto be the first time that anyoneelse led the prayers while he was present.There is much discussion among different Islamic schoolsas to the significance of Mubammad'schoice of Ab Bak-r,but none question the fact that he was chosen.There is somediscussionabout how many times Ab Bakr actually led the prayers; 18 (3.5 days) or 15 (3 days). 322Other traditions give his ageas 60 or 65. The questionof Mubammad'sage can only be discussedat a later point.
323 Other dates put forward are: Monday 13 Rabi' I (al Wgidi), Monday 2 Rabi' I which was in the foreign month of March, in the conjunction of Scorpio (al Ya`qubi, Ta'rib, v. 2,126). Elias of Nisibis (AD 1018) gives the date of AH 112 days left in $afar (see 1Bliae Metropolitae Nisibenl I. - Opus chronologicunt 1. Edited and translated by E. W. Brooks. Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, vol. 63,

Scriptores Syri, t. 23, Louvain: Imprimerie Orientaliste, 1954,63.) which according to traditional tables of concordancewould be AD 632 May 25, Monday, or according to astronomical calculations, AD 632 May 24, Sunday,seeAppendix V. 324Tabari, I, 1255-1256.

that it is possible that Muhammad did die on a Monday, Caetanidescribesthis tradition of the
325 "fable" Monday life happening as a on a main events of Muhammad's According to Caetani's concordance of dates, the Monday of his death fell on 13 Rabi' I AH 11 which was 8 June AD 632. Cattenoz gives the same concordance. Our calculations of visibility show that the beginning of the month should have been on 26 May AD 632326so that the is if 12 Rabi' I 14 Rabi' I327 fall 7 the Monday the the or or on either would concordance with a preferred, then Muhammad died on a Saturday. The divergence of opinion about the exact date might be an indication that Cactani was correct in

in died Rabi` "Muhammad is that that the the tradition that states one most authentic surmising
r. 328

Regrettably, there are no contemporary datings of Muhammad's death in a different calendar,

329 dates which would allow us to control the concordanceof

325 "... tuto favole le dobbiamo benche lunedi, tra mettere accettare the egli morisse un at pi4 possiamo l'affermazione di ibn `Abbs, the Maometto nacesse un lunedi, venissc facto profeta un lunedi, di lunedi di " luncdi infine, di fugisse da Madinah, Nera, Makkah, la Pietra vivere. cessasse e a e arivasse alzasse Caetani, Anna/i del/Islam, 510. 326 It is The here Islamic is based the the that the sighting of new crescent. upon calendar worth repeating from days begins, the therefore, the are counted sunset to sunset. on evening sighting and of new month In order to avoid confusion, we have adopted the practice of naming the Julian date which corresponds the most to the Islamic one. In the above-mentioned concordance, this has to be read as, "... the beginning of the month would have been the evening of 25 May (after sunset) and 26 May (up to sunset) AD 632. It is also worth mentioning that if weather conditions were not good, the month could have begun on 27 May AD 632. Without detailed meteorological records, we cannot take weather into consideration except ignore factors Nevertheless, basis. which we can neither control nor we cannot simply a statistical on calculate on a computer. It is possible to use statistical data to approximate results, but these could never guarantee that the predictions are correct.

327The New Moon occurred on AD 632/05/24 at 04h.37 and the New Crescentwould have been visible on the evening of AD 632/05/25. 328Caetani,Annali del/'Islam, 510.
329 Though Muhammad's death is mentioned in non-Islamic chronological works, they arc not Chronique de Michelle Syrien, PatriarrheJacobite le Syrien, in Michel for See example contemporary. d'Antioche (1166-1199), (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1901): II, 417, where the death of Ab Bakr is mentioned, but over 500 years after the event.

76

H. Lammens, 330 concedes that "In the whole Sira one piece of information seems acceptable: the 031 If death. Muhammad's between Higra ten years the we accept that Muhammad died on 13 and Rabic I AH 11, (8 June AD 632 according to the author) - though even this has to be accepted with is however, 622. dated AD His be in has his Madina that theory, to then around arrival caution "without motive, the Prophet's life has been lengthened by ten years. "332His argument for this is that the Sira tells us that Muhammad was surprised by death in his prime333and this is confirmed by the number of his contemporaries and seniors who are said to have lived to about the age of a hundred. 34The author closes this argument with a tradition which has Muhammad saying, "Each life his beginning At his begins his half the of public the predecessor. age of mission at prophet Jesus was forty. I received my mission when I was twenty. " Lammens also points out that in his birth dating Hebraeusi135 Bar life by Muhammad's of ten some years would make shortening 892 of the Seleucid era, or AD 580 in the Julian calendar, correct. As none of these arguments his bases fix, the the texts author on which quote events which can give us a chronological reasoning, have to be treated with as much circumspection as those he criticises. Nevertheless, the 336 has be to taken seriously. possibility

330Lammens,"L'Age de Mahomet," 209-250. Idem. "Qoran tradition, " Recherches Religieuse. de Science et (1910): 5-29. 331"Dans toute la Sira couleesentre 1'hdgireet la mort dc une Beuledonneeparait acceptable:les dix annees, Mahomet." Ibid., 218. 332Lammens,"L'Age de Mahomet," 231.
333 "He being 4, In AH hairs in his had few to on young. as was referred and was well-built, prime and grey turned down, having offered his hand in marriage to Umm Salama on the grounds of her age - she is Muhammad her 29 in have died AH 59 84, time the the the to of proposal at at age of making supposed is supposed to have replied that he was about the same age. " Ibid.

334Ibid., 231-5. The argumentbeing that many neededto be old enoughto witness to the miracles of Mubammad'sbirth and yet died someyears after him. 335 Ibn al `Ibri bag iriyns Ab al Farag, better known as Bar Hebraeus,(1225-1286), JacobiteArchbishop of Aleppo whose Chronography,written in Syriac, gives details about the history of Islam which sometimes ' E. 1. "Ibn See from v. al-'Ibri". accepted s. the ones. generally more vary
336 Another, less feasible, solution to the question of Muhammad's age, is to be found in the Chronicon Anonymum Pseudo Dionysianum, 112. Written in 1086 of the Alexandrine era (AD 774-5) and AH 58, see page 108 - the chronicle reports that, "In the year 938 of the Alexandrine era (AD 626-7), Muhammad, the Arab's Caliph, or Prophet, died... ". The chronicle does not give a date of birth for Muhammad, and it is difficult to explain how an error of four to five years could have crept into one of the most dependable dates available in the chronology of the early Islamic community. The credibility of this chronology has to be suspect, at least for this date. A previous report tells us that the Arabs took over Palestine up to the Euphrates in 932 of the Alexandrine era (AD 620-21), that Muhammad became the first caliph and that he reigned for seven years, (p. 111-112). If this report is supposed to be about the Higra, it shows that the author's knowledge of events was, to say the least, vague. The same information is given in Chronique de Denys de Tell-Mahr, 4-5.

77

Conclusion Difficult as it is to discern among the wealth of sources pertaining to the death of Muhammad, the is from information historical that the the conclusion of many researchers apocryphal, authentic this date is the most reliable one that we have. Earlier dates were not only more difficult to fix because of the longer period between them and the definition of the Higra calendar, but could well have been further confused by attempts to find symmetries and signs in the life of Muhammad which would prove or confirm his status as the Prophet.

AH 10
This year heralded two events which are important to our study, namely Ibrhim's death and the Farewell Pilgrimage, the former because of the tradition which links the baby's death to an eclipse Muhammad been is have latter the to reformed the calendar the when occasion supposed while system.

The Farewell Pilgrimage

After the fall of Makka to the Muslims in AH 8, Muhammad returned to Madina and, on the AH himself led it. lead He 9, Bakr Pilgrimage AH Ab the of to pilgrimage the sent of occasion of 10. The story of this pilgrimage, and how Muhammad went about accomplishing it is found in both hadit and biographical literature. It is of great importance to Muslims because it became the ihiliyya Islamic to the the pilgrimage. model of pilgrimage as opposed The most common explanation given for Muhammad not having led the pilgrimage of AH 9 is that, as the calendar system allowed intercalation, the Pilgrimage did not in fact fall in the month intercalation 9 AH in but Vii Qa'da. At there D Higga of the was an the of end month of al al of Pilgrimage intercalary brought that the to the of so cycle of completion, months one month which AH 10 fell in D al Higga. As alluring as this theory may be, none of the sources provide any clear proof that the calendar

337 had if it reachedthe end of a cycle That was, that the calendar was an intercalary one, or
Muhammad pronounced the words of Qur'an 9: 36-37,338condemning the intcrcalary system,

337The during is in be found Blachcre, Mubammad's this to teaching pilgrimage most exhaustivestudy of "L'allocution de Mohamet lors du Pdlerinaged'Adieu," 223-249.
338 See above, Al Nasi , p. 48 for more detail.

78

during the Farewell Pilgrimage does not necessarily mean that these verses were revealed to him at that time. On the other hand, all Qur'nic exegetes, Muslim and non-Muslim, agree that this Sra 339 it difficult being be This last the to explain the to case, would seem more revealed was one of the import of the revelation if the intercalary system had been abandoned years before, or had have been directed intercalary The the could eventually practice of never existed. condemnation against the Jewish calendar, but the context does not indicate this, or the term nasi'has been completely misinterpreted.

Ibrhim's death
340 link death Ibrhim's in hadil As we saw texts which the study of the with a partial solar eclipse, the textual tradition surrounding this event is confused. Though the link between the two events does seem to be strong one, there is no solar eclipse which fits the generally accepted chronology death his death, Ibrhim's to texts and the eclipse without there which refer of and are also other using the words, "on the day of Ibrhim's death". The study of the 1}adit which mention a solar eclipse, point to the one which took place in AD 632/01/27, began at about 06h. 30 and ended at about 09h. 20.341 Tradition dates Ibrhim's death by his age, which is given as between sixteen and twenty-two

342 8 Higga AH from date DLL he died. birth Working we obtain the al a around old when of months following datesof death according to the calendarused and the supposedage at death:
Calendar Lunar Luni-solar Sixteen months 631/07/07 631/06/07 Twenty-two 631/12/30343 631/12/01 months

339Nldeke in order of revelation. Muir and Grimme rank it and the official Egyptian text rank Siira 9 1131e 110. SeeWatt, Introduction to the Qur'an, 206-207. 340SeeIbrahim's death, page56. 341The fact that Ab Ma`sar identifies this eclipsewith Muliammad's death rather than Ibrahim's, could also be taken as an indication that Muhammad's son did not die on the day of the eclipse. Seenote 176.
342 Sixteen and twenty-two months are usually quoted. As a tradition has Muhammad saying that his son would complete his nursing in Paradise, and the Quran states that "mothers should breast-feed their children for two years" (2: 233), the age of something between sixteen and twenty-two months could well be correct. It seems impossible to give a more exact estimate. Vacca, "Le preghiere dei Musulmani durante le eclissi, " 5, gives his date of death as 10 Rabi` I AH 10 at the age of 8 months which in Madina on this date. 631. There 16 June AD to eclipse no solar visible was corresponds

343This date would take us into the lunar month during which the solar eclipse took place, leaving us, once again with the dilemma of deciding if it is the product of hindsight chronology.

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Ibrahim probably died somefive months before the solar eclipse. We cannot, therefore fix the date
of his death with any greater precision.

AH 8 Ibrhim's birth
Once we reach the conclusion that we are unable to fix a date for Ibrhim's death, we are left with very little to go on with which to fix a date of birth. An age is often suggested, and the most common date given for his birth is Dii al Ijigga, AH 8, based upon the accounts that Muhammad had just returned from the raid on Ta'if when he was born. 344 The uncertainty about dating Ibrhim's death, grows as we try to date his birth. There are some who would go so far as to doubt the very existence of Mriya al Qibtiya and therefore of The very grounds upon which we base the analysis that there is not enough evidence to Ibrhim. 345 pin-point the date of death are equally valid in the argument that there is not sufficient evidence to question the existence of Ibrhim and his mother.

AH 5
Though this year was known as the Year of the Earthquake,there is no evidencein hadit literature
and I have not been able to find any reports in contemporary chronicles which will allow us to

346 identify date either or an earthquake. AH 4 Lunar eclipse AH 4

Manuscript no. 213 from the supplement des manuscrits arabes de la Bibliotheque imperiale de Paris, 2nd last page of the volume: called dam `aal Idda which states that "a lunar eclipse

344The date for Muhammad'sreturn was given the as end of DU at Qa'da - one sourcesays24th- or the beginning of DU at Higga. Guillaume, TheLife of Muhammad,597 & note 853.
345 Kaj hmberg, "Mriya al-Qibtiyya Unveiled, " Studia Orientalia 55 (1984): 297-303. In this article, the Mriya drin her the to a tradition in the Shah-nma which tells the and sister story of author compares story of Maria, the daughter of the Emperor Maurice who was married to the Sasanian ruler Khusraw Parviz (AD 590-628) who later married his first love Shirin. The latter, according to the story, later poisoned Maria. 346 See above, CHAPTER FOUR : Hadit, 50. Local chronicles identify an earthquake prior to AD 567/10/05, See Chronique de Michelle Syrien, 2: 284.

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6umd in II in the year AH 4, which must have been that of 20 November AD 625 occurred
047 14 Gumdd II. which corresponds with Vacca, reports of a tradition which has the first lunar eclipse of the Higra dated as AH 5, (`umd II, which would require a lunar eclipse to fall in October-November AD 626. As there was no eclipse visible - though there was an eclipse on November 9- during that period, she concludes that the eclipse must have occurred in AH 4,6umd November 20, which fits. 348 According to the lunar calendar, the eclipse would need to fall between AD 625/06/12 and AD 626/05/3 1: According to the table of lunar eclipses, if the lunar calendar was in use, there were two possible eclipse sightings: a total eclipse on AD 625 November 20, or a partial eclipse (93%) 6umdd 626 AD May 17. As II as being the month, it would then seem on a tradition mentions that the eclipse in question was the former of the two. According to the luni-solar calendar, there is the possibility of sighting two total eclipses, the first on AD 625 May 27 and the second the above-mentioned total eclipse of November AD 625 November 20. Referring to the mention of Ciumd II, we would need an eclipse which occured between AD 625/08/11 and AD 625/09/08, which is not the case. Once again, a tradition provides us with information which we are unable to confirm from independent sources. II, as there was an eclipse, on AD 625

AH3
Sariya Martad b. Abi Martad319
This is the account of how a group from the tribes of `Adl and al Qra went to Muhammad and asked him to send some of his companions to teach their people about Islam "in $afar, 36 months 350 ". Six Muslims were sent to the tribes but were betrayed by those who Muhammad's exodus after had asked for them; their real reason being to sell them to the Qurays in Makka. Af ight ensued

347 The

question remains whether this text is another example of hindsight chronology or not.

348 Vacca, "Le preghiere dei Musulmani durante le eclissi, " 5.

349Ibn Sa`d, 7'abagt,II: 39-40.

350 Ibid., 40. As with all other occasions when events are dated counting the number of months since the Higra, the month of arrival is included in the total. If the authors have worked out the month from the number given in a tradition, they could not be sure that the original number did include the month of his arrival.

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during which three of the Muslims were killed and the other three surrendered their arms and had their hands bound. One of the three captives managed to free his hands and escape but was followed and killed. The remaining two were sold as captives in Makka to the sons of men they had killed at Ubud. The author continues: "They imprisoned them until the sacred months had 351 killed Tan`im them" and ended, then took them out to This text raises some questions about the calendar which need to be examined as the only reason why the text would state that the prisoners were held "until the sacred months had ended' would be that they were captured or sold to the Makkans during the sacred months - when killing was forbidden - rather than in $afar which would mean that they would have had to be held for a year before they could be killed. This argument is all the more powerful as the detail about holding the likelihood lessening the to the thus the story, adds nothing sacred months were over prisoners until that it is a later embellishment. Broadly speaking, there are five possible explanations: 1 The most obvious is that the event took place in $afar counting the

number of months since the Higra, that is from Rabi` I. The problem with this interpretation, is that it does not present any logical reason why the prisoners should have been held for a full year afterwards. The only in be from took that the this place capture conclusion scenario would awwl, but the event is dated from the death of the two prisoners in $afar. Rabi' I 1 13 25

Rabi' II 6umd I 6umd If

Ragab

2 3 4
5

14 15 16
17

26 27 28
29

ga`bn Ramadan awwal

P al Qa'da Ihn al Higga

6 7 8
9 10

18 19 20
21 22

30 31 32
33 34

Mubarram
$afar

11
12

23
24

35
36

351"fahabashumd " Ibid. a! hatt baragatat ashur at herum tumma abraghumila at tanim fa gatalhum... ashural burum "the sacredmonths" is written in the plural which only leavesthe choice of the three months of I?n at Qa'da, Du at Higga and Mubarram. 82

The request to Muhammad was made during one of the sacred

is in $afar killing but the took the event remembered and place months, as dated $afar. If this is the case, then the event teaches us nothing about the calendar. This theory is unlikely, because the capture and killing of the Muslims would have taken place during a sacred month which would have been worthy of comment. 3 In calculating the number of months after which the request was

made to Muhammad, the calculation was made according to the official Higra calendar which began in Muharram, rather than from the month of Rabi` I, when Muhammad allegedly arrived in Madina. This would allow us to calculate the number of months as follows: Muharram 1 13 25

$afar Rabi' I
Rabi' 11 6umd I

2 3
4 5

14 15
16 17

26 27
28 29

6umd II Ragab ga`ban Ramadn

gawwl

6 7 8 9
10

18 19 20 21
22

30 31 32 33
34

D a1Qa`da Dia a1Higga

11 12

23 24

35 36

This would mean that, once again, the Muslims were captured during a sacred month, which, in itself would have been worthy of mention, but also the number of sacred months that the Makkans had to wait before killing the captives would have been one or two, which are written differently in As there is no valid reason for supposing that the "formal" Arabic 352 calendar was used, without indications that it was used elsewhere, coupled be has to the this rejected. of vocabulary, problems argument with 4 The request to Muhammad was made during the thirty sixth month

after Muhammad's arrival which was one of the sacred months. The prisoners were held till the end of the sacred months and then killed in

352 The Arabic noun has three forms, the singular, the dual (for two) and the plural for more than two. In the text, the plural form is used.

83

$afar. This can only be explained by acceptingthat intercalary months were

in use, but were not known to the author: Rabi` I 1 14 26

Rabic II 6umd I 6umd II

Ragab

2 3 4
5

15 16 17
18

27 28 29
30

ga`ban Ramadn
awwl

6 7
8

19 20
21

31 32
33

D al Qa'da Ihn a1I1igga Ndsi' Muharram

Safar

9 10 11 12
13

22 23 24
25

34 35 36

Here again, we face the problem of the vocabulary, with only one sacred month to go, the plural would not have been used. This solution would have been a neat one, as the kidnapping would have taken place during an intercalary month, which was not sacred. No matter how alluring this possibility may be, the theory has to be rejected. The number of months and/or the month name have been added to the tradition by an earlier author. If this is the case, then all that the story can teach us is what that particular author's idea of the calendar was. The killings most probably took place in $afar, and if the absence of any mention of a kidnapping during the sacred months is to be taken as seriously as I believe it should be, then the kidnapping took place in awwl. The number of months remains an enigma. The dating of events by counting months since Muhammad's arrival in Madina could well represent an older tradition than the one which gives Higra dates. How early and how reliable it is needs to be investigated. On the face of it, though, we have here an indication that intercalary months were not used during those months, or if they were, the author has ignored them in dating this event.

84

AH 2
Sariya Qatl Ka'b b. al Asraf
The expedition to kill the Jew Ka'b b. al Asraf who wrote satirical poems against Muhammad is 353 Tabari. in Sa'd both Ibn in dated the same month and

Gazwat al Sawiq
This is the story of an attack by Ab Sufyiin, supposedly against Muhammad, but in 'reality' against a farmer and a casual labourer. When the Muslims heard of this, Muhammad led a raiding haste. in behind flour (Sawiq) leaving his their but Sufyn Ab sacks of party, escaped, with party, JS4 22 fifth D liigga, flour Sunday is be "the how the event came to the This of al raid". named ass hand, Tabari by Sa`d On date Ibn is Muhammad's the the other given exodus, months after 356In the (iazwat Buwt, Tabari in Qa`da it beginning Da but has al recounts the same event dates it he incident later Sa'd, Ibn this one month earlier. the than one while with one month places 41 Given the paucity of references to the weekday upon which events happened, other than for I; iigga fifth Vi in life famous battles, Sunday Muhammad the al the of of or significant events deserves further investigation. If there had been an intcrcalary month at the end of AH 1, then we his Sa'd, fact Ibn in I? Qa'da. The Tabari that or source this event al places could explain why leads indicate Monday, for fifth Sunday Q Higga the us a when our calculations of al gives tantalisingly close to a significant result, especially when tables of concordance give Tuesday the fifth of I) al Higga, 357 which means that later authors attempting to carry out some hindsight chronology calculating the day from tables would have been unlikely to have come up with Sunday. Here we have an indication that Tabari, or his source, believed in the luni-solar calendar

353With "... 14 " see Ibn Sa'd, Tabagt, II: nights gone in Rabi' I, 25 months after Muhammad'sexodus..., 21-23, or, "... in the samemonth (Rabi' I)... " Tabari, Mohammed, sceaudesprophetes,181-185. 354Du Higga AH 2 beganon Thursday 24 May 624, which would make the 5th of the month a Monday, al rather than a Sunday. 355Ibn Sa`d, T'abagt,II: 20 356Tabarl, Mohammed, sceaudesprophetes, 179-180. 357SeeCattenoz, Tablesde Concordancedes eveschr&ienne et hegirienne. 85

theory or that it was in use and Ibn Sa'd, or his source, corrected what was perceived as an 358 error.

Sariya `Abd Allah b. 6ahs al Asadi at Nahla359

`Abd Allh b. Oahg al Asadi is reported to have been sent out by Muhammad in Ragab, 17 months after his exodus. During this raid people were killed and a lot of the account deals with the question of killing during the sacred month of Raab when killing was forbidden. This text also illustrates another point of primary importance; namely that we cannot accept or reject the theory of intercalary months without examining other texts which are similarly dated to see if this interpretation of the calendar renders any of the accounts impossible. In Ibn Sa`d's account we are told that "they were not sure if that day was in a sacred month or 360 not", while Ibn Ishq gives a much more detailed account of how "the raiders took council among themselves, for this was the last day of Rajab, and they said, 'If you leave them alone tonight they will get into the sacred area and will be safe from you; and if you kill them, you will kill them in the sacred month, ' so they hesitated and feared to attack them. 061 The Ibn Sa'd text leaves the possibility of interpreting it to mean that the action took place at the end of 6umd II with the doubt being whether the new month of Ragab had begun or not. Another question which the text raises, is why the raiders did not know whether the new month had begun, no matter which month it was; they were in the desert and would have been able to observe the new crescent! Once again we have to conclude that there is not enough evidence to indicate clearly for 362 intercalary or against months.

359 Counting 22 months in the luni-solar calendar, would give us the date of Tuesday 31 January AD 624. Once again the argument is only convincing if the day and date are not the product of hindsight chronology.

359Ibn Sa'd, Tabag4, II: S. 36 "fa sakkn if dlika yawm ahuwamin Bahral harm am l," Ibid. This argument is difficult to acceptand seemsmore like a later attemptto cover the embarrassment of acceptingthat Muhammad could have condonedor even organiseda raid to take place during one of the sacredmonths. 361Guillaume, Thelife ofMuhammad, 287.
most interesting aspect of this account is that the difference between the two versions is the difference between the two calendars. Neither version contains any information which indicates that one theory is better than the other.

362 The

86

Gazwat Buwt
This campaign, an attempted attack on a Makkan caravan, is said to have happened in Rabi' 1,13 364 363 Tabari, Mut to the expedition only left Madina months after ammad's exodus, yet, according in Rabi' II. Though this does not prove anything about the calendar, it does indicate possible uncertainties. Conclusion In the Sariya Martad b. Abn Martad and the Gazwat al Sawiq events, we found two potentially fruitful sources. Analysis of the details contained in the accounts can lead to different hypotheses about what calendar was in use at the time. The absence of independent records of the events means that the historian is obliged to accept the possibility that the traditions have been reworked at different times, by different authors. On one level, this is altogether natural and any author using other sources reworks them to a certain extent, on the other, we have the much more problematic question of whether the original traditions contained all of the chronological details that we find in the texts, in their present form, or whether the authors found the month name and added the number of months or on the contrary, if they found a tradition with the number of months and worked out the month name. In either case, reworking texts can mask their original form and mislead subsequent research. When interesting texts are found, all possible interpretations have to be explored.

363Ibn Sa'd, Tabaga4II: 3-4 364Tabari, Mohammed, sceaudesprophetes,128. 87

CHAPTER SIX : The Higra

Events leading to the Higra
As Muhammad gained followers in Makka, pressures upon him, and those who believed in him, grew taking the form of accusations of madness, possession and public insults. Despite the problems which the early community faced, new members joined them regularly. During the pilgrimage of AD 620 six members of the Ilazrag tribe converted to Islam and probably during the pilgrimage of the following year twelve members of the Uazrag and Awl tribes from Madina joined the believers. At al Aqaba, 365 the new believers swore an oath when Muhammad said, "I invite you to protect me from that which you protect your women and children. 066 The usual interpretation of this first oath is that the new believers were not committed to fighting for Islam. They returned to Yafrib with Mu'ab b. `Umayr b. Hs`im b. `Abdu Manf who was to teach them Islam and instruct them in their new religion. During the pilgrimage of AD 622 some seventy Madinans were in Makka and reswore their allegiance to Muhammad. 367

Shortly after this, Muhammad ordered the Makkan believers to leave for Madina and they became
the first Muhgirr368 or emigrants leaving in different groups. Muhammad stayed in Makka with Ab Bakr and `Ali. According to the traditions, the Qurays` devised a plan to arm young men from the different clans who would go and kill Muhammad, thus spreading the blood responsibility among them all. The angel Gabriel warned Muhammad not to `Ali in his bed, sleep so slept in the bed, wrapped in Muhammad's cloak while Muhammad, miraculously, left the house. The Higra had begun.

365 The first of two meetingsknown as al `Aqaba one and two.

366The account given in Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Mahomc4 105, confounds the two encounters of `Aqaba, as well as translating "nis'akum wa abn'akum" (your women and children), "vos femmes et vos filles", (your women and daughters). At the first meeting of at `Aqaba the new believers swear the Women's Oath, referring to the Quednic text: "0 Prophet, if female believers come to offer you an oath that they will take no gods but God, that they will not steal, commit adultery or kill their children, that they will not bring forth slander that they have devised between their hands and their feet, and will not disobey you in what is right, then accept their oath and ask God's forgiveness for them. God is Forgiving and Merciful. " (60: 12). 367 See Gaudefroy-Demombyncs, This was the second at `Aqaba. 368 In Mahomc4 104-105 and Guillaume, The Life ofMuhammad, 198-199.

contrast to the term Muhgirn, the Madman believers were known as Ancnror helpers.

The Higra
The privilege of sharing the Higra with Muhammad went to Ab Bakr to whose house Muhammad went upon leaving `Ali. From there, the two men went and hid in a cave for a few days before making the trip to Madina. There are long and detailed studies of Muhammad's itinerary. Our main concern here is the It is not clear where this tradition that he arrived at Qub' at noon on Monday 12 Rabi' I AH 1.369 tradition had its origins; was it an independent account passed down through a line of reputable witnesses, or is it the result of early historians attempting to calculate the date, working back from later, more reliably dated events such as Muhammad's death? The answer would seem to be that we just do not know.

Yawm Asur
One set of traditions related to the Higra, suggests that the day of Muhammad's arrival in Madina sur Jewish feast Atonement, Yawm the coincided with of or ;370 while another supposes that

the feast fell in Mubarram AH 2: "The Prophet had arrived in Madina in the month of Rabi' I. In the month of Muharram371 of the following year, he noticed that the Jews celebrated a fast on the tenth of the month, and called this day `Astu'. The Prophet asked them why they marked this day. They replied, 'It's the day when God made the Pharaoh drown in the sea372 when he saved Moses who had fasted on that day in order to give thanks to God. Since then we too devote this day to fasting every year. ' The Prophet ordered the Muslims to fast on that day as well saying: 'I am more `Amrcn. brother ii373Later that year he received follow Moses the to worthy example of my son of the revelation which was to make Ramadn the Muslim month of fasting.

369 According

to the tables in Appendix IV, 12 Rabi' I was Thursday 23 September AD 622, in the lunar calendar. In the luni-solar calendar, 12 Rabi' I was Saturday 29 May AD 622 Other traditions also mention a Thursday or 18 Rabi' I. See Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Mahome4 108.

370 "The Day of Atonement, Yom Kippurin Hebrew, was a day of complete rest, penanceand fasting (celebratedon 10Tishri). Described in the Book of Leviticus, 16: 1-34,23: 26-32 and the Book of Numbers 29: 7-11. The day was celebratedin expiation for the sins of the people. 371 The month begins on 5 July AD 623 and ends on 3 August AD 623, and the feast of ABH, the fifth month of the Jewish calendar,fell on 12 July AD 623, while the feast of the Passoverfell on 22 March 623. Sec Burnaby, Elementsof the Jewish and MuhammadanCalendars.This mixed information about a Jewish feast would seemto indicate that there was someconnection with one of them, but it is not too clear which one. 372 This description is for the Feastof the Passover,rather than the Feastof Atonement. 373 SeeTabari, Mohammed,sceaudesprophetes, 133. 89

What can be said on the subject of Yawm `sr', is that it fell on Monday 20 September AD 6223' which means that if Muhammad arrived in Madina on Monday 20 September AD 622 which according to our calculations was Monday 09 Rabi` I AH 1- then he arrived on Yawm `Asr'. If the second tradition were to be taken seriously, then Mu$arram would have to fall in September, which is not the case. However, as stated previously, there could have been confusion about which Jewish feast fell in Muharram. Mahmoud Effendi quotes from Munrg al dahab -which states that, between the Yazdagird and Higra eras there are 3624 days- as well as from Manuscript 1131 from the Bibliotheque Nationale 375 but offers no independent evidence to support either of these theories, leaving us to conclude that this is probably another case of hindsight chronology.

Conclusion The Higra was an important date in the history of the Islamic community and it is only natural that Muslims seekto define it. Not only was this one of the defining eventsof the early Islamic community - reasonenough for studying it in detail - but also the defining point of the Higra 376 calendar.
The starting point for research can have been either Muhammad's death, or a tradition about a Jewish feast. As we saw above, there are two traditions about Muhammad's reaction to a Jewish feast, both of which have to be studied in the light of the different calendar theories. At present, the concordance of Muhammad's arrival in Madina with Yawm `Asr' fits the accepted chronology, but we have seen that the traditions mix up the Jewish feasts. None of the accounts of Muhammad's arrival in Madina seem to mention the feast. Those traditions which do talk of the coincidence, are independent of the main accounts of the arrival. This could possibly be a sign that, once again, we are dealing with hindsight chronology. Conversely, a tradition of Muhammad

374 See APPENDIX

II : The Jewish Calendar, 114ff.

375"Between the first day of the year, marked by the Sun's presence in the first minute of Aries, of the religious conjunction and the first day of the Higra, there are 51 Persian years, 4 months, 3 days {he corrects the 3 days to 8} and 16 hours. " Effendi, "Memoire sur le calendrier arabe avant l'Islam, " 1: 109192; 2: 116-132. 376.hough, by definition, the Higra calendar begins on 01 Muharram of the year during which Muhammad arrived in Madina, if the arrival is defined according to the luni-solar or lunar calendar, we will obtain different results.

90

arriving in Madina on the day of a Jewish feast - named or not - could have led early historians to
use hindsight chronology in order to find the date of his arrival!

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CHAPTER
The First Revelation

SEVEN : Birth to Higra

The first Revelation received by Mul}ammad was obviously an event which changed his life radically. It is probably equally correct to say that, for the historian, this event is a watershed: anything prior to it sinking into the haze of obscurity whereas once Muhammad started sharing the Revelation that he had received, so he became better known and there is more likelihood that things that happened to him, or that he did, would be recorded or remembered. Tradition has it that the first Revelation was received on the 10 or the 17'h night of Ramadan, 37 forty Another tradition has it that this revelation was received Muhammad years old. was when 378 in lived how long Muhammad Monday. According Lammens, the to on argument much of on a Makka before he received the revelation, is based upon a verse from the Qur'an: "Before it (Revelation), I lived among you for an `umur. i379Lammens insists, rightly, that `umur cannot in Qur'an be 40 the word means the that taken to some years, as authors claim, given simply mean "life", "existence" or "generation "380and so the verse should be translated, "Before it, I lived among you for a long time. " There is little in the way of detailed historical material to discuss for most of the events prior to the Higra, with the notable exception of Muhammad's birth. Unless fresh evidence comes to light, these will always be the obscure years: his childhood, the caravans he travelled on, his marriage, the reconstruction of the Ka'ba... Numerous biographies enumerate events from this period of Muhammad's life, some in great detail. Despite the fact that this period might be obscure, from the historian's point of view, there are no grounds for questioning the main facts presented in biographies, even if historical evidence would be difficult to find.

377 There are, however, other traditions which suggestthat Muhammadwas forty-three when he received the first revelation. Muhammadb. Oar r even mentions one which claims that Muhammad was twenty when he receivedit. SeeTabari, Mohammed, sceaudesprophetes,65. 378Lammens,"L'Age de Mahomet," 209-250. 379Qur'n 10:16 "fa `umuran fikum labi'tu min qablihi". qad 380SeeQur'an 10:16,16:70,21: 44,22: 5,26: 18,28: 45,35: 11,

Muhammad's birth and the year of the Elephant

As the traditions surroundingMuhammad'sbirth are so tightly linked with the story of Abraha's unsuccessfulattempt to conquerMakka, we need to study the chronology of the latter.
The events leading up to the Year of the Elephant could be said to have started with the coming to 381 D Nuws, power of a Jewish South Arabian leader who tried to impose his religion on his 382 subjects. This led to the persecution and massacres of Nagrn, and the Ethiopian invasion to 38' Christians. invasion by The Negus Cosmos383 led by the Aryt, the save was ordered and who had an assistant named Abraha. Once Ethiopian rule had been established, Abraha seized power from Aryt and managed to obtain recognition from the Negus. 385 Abraha built a cathedral in San'd' which he wished to make into an important place of pilgrimage. When the cathedral was defiled, Abraha vowed to set out and destroy the shrine at Makka. Abraha's army advanced on Ta'if, sweeping away any attempts at resistance, in Ta'if he was persuaded not to destroy the shrine of al Lat. He then advanced on Mugammis, some two miles outside of Makka, where he met `Abd al Muttalib, Muhammad's grandfather, who warned him that the Ka'ba was under divine 86 On the day of the attack, Abraha's elephant would not go any further towards protection.

Makka. Abraha's army was then attackedby birds which carried small stones.Anyone who was hit

381Also called Dimnos and Tmhh in Chrnnicon Anonymum PseudoDionysium, 40,46. 382See:E.L2 s.V."Abraha", and Guillaume, The life ofMuharnmad, 14-28.
383 Other sources name the Negus Kleb Ella A$beha and have two Ethiopian raids: the first in about AD 523, during which Ihn Nuws escaped and took refuge in the mountains. Following the withdrawal of the Ethiopian army, and taking advantage of the winter which protected him from the arrival of another Ethiopian intervention, II Nuws organised large scale persecutions in Zaf r, Mrib, Ha4ramawt and, of course, Nagrn. These persecutions led to a second intervention by the Ethiopian army in AD 525 during which DO Nuws was killed. See Jacques Ryckmans, L'institution monarchique en Arabic mdridionale avant ]'Islam (Louvain: Universit6 de Louvain, 1951), 322-4. According to another text, the Negus was called Andoug and became a Christian after successfully beating the Jewish King Dimnos in a raid preceding the persecutions of Nagriin. In a second raid after Nagrdn, he replaced the leader Tmhh by Abraha. Chronicon Anonymum Pseudo Dionysium, 40-51. Manuscript 727 of the Qarawiyn Library at Fez, which contains parts of Ibn Ishq's lectures, tells us that the Negus was called Ma$hama which `Atiya in Arabic. See Guillaume, "New Light on the Life of Muhammad, " 46. means

384 Ibn Ishq contains a tradition which names the commander of the Abyssinian forces Rzbah, Guillaume, "The Life of Muhammad, " 13. 385 Here too the versions differ and the king who replaced IN Nuws, called Esimphaios by Procopius is, in all probability the Sumyafa' Aiwa` known from South Arabian inscription RES 3904, and reigned with two co-regents until about AD 535. Procopius, History of the Wars, 1: 189 again informs us that he was king when the emperor Justinien sent an ambassador to Ella A$beha in AD 531. Ibid., 193.

386 In Manuscript 727 of the Qarawlyn Mosque's library we find that, "The night before the attack on Mecca the very stars appeared to warn the invaders of approaching punishment. " Guillaume, "New Light on the Life of Muhammad, " 14.

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by a stone was either killed or wounded. As Abraha retreated, his fingers fell off, and when he died his heart burst from his body. Some deserters, and camp followers stayed on in Makka. Arab sources inform us that Abraha was succeeded by two of his sons, namely Yaksum and Masrq before South Arabia was occupied by the Persians in about AD 575.87

South Arabian sources

Trimingham, 388says of Abraha: "that he did send such an expedition against the tribal protectors of Mecca seems confirmed in his inscription discovered at Muraygn (Ry 506) and dated 662 of the Sabean era, which is equivalent to AD 547,389but a more pragmatic view has to be that there is a gap of some twenty three years between the last known inscription which names Abraha and the attack on Makka as dated by traditional chronology. Conti Rossini points out that Arab sources differ greatly on the dating of this event and that an elephant would not have been able to survive in the conditions prevailing in the area. Instead, he suggests that tradition has mistaken the name 390 Ethiopian king, Afilas, for Conrad39' of an earlier al-Ill, thus creating the story of the elephant. is much more positive about linking the tradition of the attack on Makka with the Muraygn inscription, arguing that the inscription mentions a place called Turaba which is located only 100 kilometres east of T'if, the event took place in 662 of the Himyarite era, which gives a date between AD 547 and AD 552, depending upon which theory for the beginning of the era one ascribes to, and certainly no later than the date of the death of al Mundir (AD 554) who is mentioned in the inscription. Furthermore, the dating of this event in, or around, AD 552 confirms, in a general way, some earlier Arabic sources which do not link the event of the Year of the Elephant to Mubammad's birth. 392

387Ibid. 325 and Caussinde Perceval, Essaisur I histoire desArabes: avant I7slamisme, 1: 145-6. 388J. SpencerTrimingham, Christianity among the Arabs in Pre-Islamic Times(London: Longman, 1979), 304-305.
389 Trimingham then goes on to explain that the chronology of this expedition does not fit the traditionally accepted Islamic tradition which has Muhammad bom in the year of the expedition. He f ixes the possible dates of the expedition as between AD 540 and 547. Ibid., 305. For the text of this inscription, see below, APPENDIX I, 108.

390Reportedin Ryckmans, L'institution monarrhique, 325.

391 Lawrence I. Conrad, "Abraha and Muhammad: Some observations apropos of chronology and literary topoiin the early Arabic historical tradition, " BSOAS50 (1987): 227-228. 392 See also the following section on Arabic Sources.

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If the inscription of Muraygn is rejected as being the source or inspiration for the tradition of the Year of the Elephant, the preceding debate has achieved little more than establishing that independent South Arabian sources confirm the historical existence of Abraha. Though the evidence may only be circumstantial, the possibility of linking the tradition and the inscription deserves serious consideration. This is all the more important given the absence of any independent evidence for other campaigns led by Abraha in the immediate region. Conrad even suggests that the absence of later inscriptions detailing Abraha's activities also fits the traditions that Abraha died soon after returning from the expedition 393 If this inscription is accepted as being the source of the tradition concerning the Year of the Elephant, it places the attack around AD 547. An independent source informs us that Abraha 394 Patriarch Alexandria, (AD Theodose, 538). the of reacted strongly to the expulsion of

Arabic Sources
Tradition says that the expedition was undertaken as a reprisal for the "assassination of one of Abraha's Hijazi allies, and that it was encumbered with a number of elephants. "395The death of .. Muhammad b. lJuzd'i and his brother Qays' call to Abraha for revenge, is recorded in Arabic sources. These sources continue with an account of the abortive raid on Makka3% which resembles that of the Qur'n in Srat al Fil. J. Ryckmans concludes, "that the expedition mentioned in Ry 506 has nothing to do, unless later reworked by tradition, with the expedition attributed to Abraha against Makka in about AD 570. " Some Arabic sources do not link the Year of the Elephant with the year in which Muhammad was

bom. "... Afterwards they dated from the death of Ka'b ben Lu'ayy till the Year of Treason,in
which the Banii-Yarb' stole certain garments which some of the kings of iiimyar sent to the

393Conrad, "Abraha and Muhammad," 228.

394 Chronicon Anonym um Pseudo Dionysianum, 51. According to Tisserand and Weitt, the Patriarch was reinstated after six months, but later exiled. Tisserand and Weitt. "La Liste des Patriarches d'Alexandrie, " Revue de /'Orient Chrdtien"23 (1922-3): 123-143. 395 Other events from Abraha's career are also reported to have taken place at about the same time: AD 542 suppression of a revolt led by Ma'adkarib Ya'fur b. Sumyafa` A"swa`, AD 543 assumption of a title of independence AD 543-546 expedition of the'elephant' (See Ryckmans, L'institution monamhique, 324) and AD 544 expedition against Ma'add and Abraha receives embassies, (see Sidney Smith, "Events in Arabia in the 6th Century AD, " Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 16 (1954): 465). 22-27.

396 Guillaume, The life ofMuhammad,

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Ka'ba, and when a general fighting among the people occurred at the time of the holy pilgrimage. Thereupon they dated from the Year of Treason till the Year of the Elephants, in which the Lord, when the Ethiopians were coming on with the intention of destroying the Ka'ba, brought down the consequences of their cunning enterprise upon their own necks, and annihilated them. Thereupon they dated from the era of the Hijra... However, people say that between the year of the death of Ka'b ben Lu'ayy and the year of Treason there is an interval of 520 years, and between the year of Treason and the year of the Elephants an interval of 110 years. The Prophet was born 50 years after the invasion of the Ethiopians, and between his birth and the year of Alfijar there were 20 years.... Between the year of Alfijar and the reconstruction of the Ka'ba there are 15 years, and 5 years between the reconstruction of the Ka`ba and the time when Muhammad was entrusted with his divine mission. 097 Another tradition from al Zuhri is recorded by al Zubayr b. Bakkr in his Nasab Qurays, "... Ibn 9ihb : Quraysh counted before the chronology of the Prophet, from the time of the 'Elephant'. Between the elephant and the (battle of the) Fijr they counted 40 years. Between the Fijr and the death of Hishm b. al Mughira they counted 6 years. Between the death of Hishm and the building of the Ka'ba they counted 9 years. Between the building of the Ka`ba and the departure of the prophet for al-Madina they counted 15 years; he stayed 5 years (of these 15) not receiving the revelation... 098 Simple arithmetic gives a total of 70 years between the Year of the Elephant and the Higra. Though the sources do not agree on how many years there were between the Year of the Elephant and Muhammad's birth, they do agree that it was not in the same year. These are by no means the only sources to question this generally accepted theory. Hawting quotes al Fsi as making the "point that some traditions actually have `Abd al-Mutlalib, before his

discovery of Zamzam, on which occasion we are told that only one of his sons had been born, involved in the events of the Year of the Elephant. Since his son, `Abd Allah, the father of the

397

al Birni,

The Chronology ofAncient

Nations, 39-40.

398 M. J. Kister, "The Campaign of Hulubn: A New Light on the Expedition of Abraha, " LeMuseon78 (1965): 427-428.

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Prophet,was the youngestof his ten sons,this hardly gives time for the Prophetto be born in the
Year of the Elephant, as is often stated in the tradition. " 399 When looking for possible reasons why Islamic sources connected Muhammad's birth and

Abraha's attack on Makka, other than that they did happenin the sameyear, the possibility that the
two events share a common denominator has to be considered.

Birds throwing stones 40

The accountsof the expedition againstMakka tell of the invaders being repulsedby a flight of
'mythical' birds which threw stones at the attackers killing them, or causing some sort of illness in

401 their ranks.

Rather than returning to the previous discussion, we may well do better to look at the result of the birds throwing stones at Abraha's army: illness of epidemic proportions which some equate with the first appearance of measles and smallpox and death. In ancient astrology, one of the signs of It is just possible impending disaster and epidemics was the comet or shower of shooting stars.402

399 Gerald R. Hawting, "The'Sacred Offices' of Mecca from Jahiliyya to Islam, " Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 13, (1990): 62-84.

400Seethe discussion about Abraha in the chapteron Qur'nic texts, p.46, for a discussionof someof the details. 401 In the morning Abraha preparedto enter the town and madehis elephantready for battle and drew up his troops. His intention was to destroy the temple and then return to the Yaman. When they made the elephant(its namewas Mahmd) face Mecca, Nufayl b. Habib cameup to his flank and taking hold of its in land! let holy ' He for God's back 'Kneel, Maturand, you are you came, straight whence ear said: or go go of its ear and the elephantknelt, and Nufayl made off at top speedfor the top of the mountain. The troops beat the elephantto make it get up but it would not; they beat its headwith iron bars; they stuck hooks into its underbelly and scarified it; but it would not get up. Then they made it face the Yaman and immediately it got up and startedoff. When they set it towards the north and the eastit did likewise, but as soon as they directed it towards Mecca it knelt down." "Then God sentthem birds from the sealike swallows and starlings; eachbird carried three stones,like peasand lentils, one in its beak and two betweenits claws. Everyonewho was hit died, but not all were hit. They withdrew in flight by the way they came, crying out for Nufayl b. Habib to guide them on the way to the Yaman...."
"As they withdrew they were continually falling by the wayside dying miserably by every waterhole. Abraha was smitten in his body, and as they took him away his fingers fell off one by one. Where the fingers had been there arose an evil sore exuding pus and blood, so that when they brought him to $ana' he was like a young fledgling. They allege that as he died his heart burst from his body.... "

"Ya`qb b. `Utba told me that he was informed that that year was the first time that measlesand smallpox had been seenin Arabia..." Guillaume, TheLife ofMuhammad, 26-27.
402 G. Furlani, "Astrologisches aus syrischen Handschriften, " Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgan/indischen Gesellschaft 75 (1921): 122-128, Idem. "Eine Sammlung astrologischer Abhandlungen in arabischer (1921): 157-168, J. J. Modi, "A Mahomedan view of comets, " Sprache, " Zeitschrift firAssyriologie33 Revue du Monde Musulman 10 (1910): 146.

"Les etoiles chevelues(cometes)annoncentdes mortalites, des guerres,la mort des rois... dix jours apres 1'entree de la troupe des Arabesau pays des Romains.Durant toute la nuit, sur tonte la spheresuperteure, 97

that the symbol of birds throwing stones which caused death and illness, refers to a memorable astronomical event. Some reports of meteor showers have been recorded for the sixth and seventh centuries 403If the Muraygn inscription, which gives a date of April in the year 662 of the Sabean era,404is a serious option for either the raid on Makka or the tradition about it, then we would need a meteor shower sighting between AD 547 and AD 552405- there are in fact, two: AD 551 July 26, AD 551 August 01 - and a plague which corresponds to these dates.406 The fact that we have a record of sightings of meteor showers and incidence of plague add a certain amount of credence to the linking of the tradition to the campaign described in the Muraygn inscription.

Link between Muhammad's birth and Abraha's attack

So far, the only possible reason for linking the two events, is both tenuous and hypothetical: that both events were linked to a similar astronomical phenomenon. However, among the traditions relating the birth of Muhammad, there is the account of the shooting stars or meteorites which 407 his birth. Looking to astronomical records, there are three possible events,409one of announced which occurs on 23 September 585 which was on a Sunday night, or by Arab computation a

de l'ouest 1'est,des fleches et des eclairesde feu en forme de lance,6taient lancessansintdruption, ... nombruex et drus." F. Nau, "Un fragment Syriaquede l'ouvrage astrologiquede Claude Ptoldm6c intitul6 'Le livre du fruit', " Revue de 1'Orient Chretren28 (1929): 246-7.
Ibn Ishq also reports a tradition that, "the first Arabs to be [sic] afraid of falling stars when they were pelted with them were this clan of Thagif, and that they came to one of their tribesmen called `Amr b. Umayya, one of the B. `Ildj who was a most astute and shrewd man, and asked him if he had noticed this pelting with stars. He said: 'Yes, but wait, for if they are the well-known stars which guide travellers by land and sea, by which the seasons of summer and winter are known to help men in their daily life, which are being thrown, then by God! It means the end of the world and the destruction of all that is in it. But if they remain constant and other stars are being thrown, then it is for some purpose which God intends towards mankind:... " Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad, 91.

403Trimingham fixes the dates AD 540-AD 547, as seenote 389,94. There are no recordsof meteor showersfor thesesdates. 404See above, South Arabian sources,94. 405See above, South Arabian sources,94. As the South Arabian calendarstarted in April, either of the two showerscould have been sighted during the raid. 406The chronicles for this period tell us of the plagueof AD 546-7. Seeabove Plagues,41 407 Ya`qbi, TA Tb Ya `qbi, (Najaf: AI-Gherri Press,1939),11:4. al 408See above,
Meteor Showers, p. 38, which contains no records of meteor showers for the traditionally accepted year of birth AD 571 but lists three over a period of five years, some ten years later: AD 581 March 20, AD -, 585 September 23 and AD 586 June/July. Once again, it has to be noted that neither the existence of records of showers, nor their absence, can prove anything about Muhammad, unless we can find a direct link between sources, or at the very least, records of sightings made much closer to Makka.

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Monday, which also fits with another tradition, that Muhammad was bom on a Monday! 409 In
some sources, this event is interpreted as the gins (lesser devils) being expelled from the

heavens410
Dates Al Sira al IHalabiyya gives Mul}ammad's date of birth as Monday 8,10,12 or 17 Rabi' I, in the

Spring. 41 Another source talks of his childhood with his wet-nurse. The argument that he was dancing in the sun and that his wet nurse stopped him because of the heat, was an indication that this must have happened during one of the hottest months of the year seems rather feeble, given the generally high year-round temperatures of the Makka region. Another source gives a Monday in Rabi' I which was 20 April. 412 Al Mas`di says that, "Muhammad was born 50 days after the in laid 13 (days) left had Monday, Ethiopians Makka, they to the siege on of which arrival at Muharram 882 Seleucid, or 17 Muharram in the year 216 after the pilgrimage of betrayal, and during the fortieth year of the reign of Kasra Anoucherwan" but no argument is provided to show that this dating is not another case of hindsight chronology. Ab al Fid' places the birth in year 881 of the Seleucid era, year 1316 of the Nabonassar era and the forty-second year of the reign of Kasra Anoucherwan, which would place it between 569 and 570, because of a contradiction between the Seleucid and Nabonassar dates. 413 H. Lammens414quotes an anonymous resume of the Sira, as saying that Muhammad was born in the Year of the Elephant, 50 days or two months after the departure of the elephant, or even 10,15 415 `Utmn, in 20 hadit In Muhammad's son-in-law, is asked about which or years afterwards. a

409SeeEffendi, "Memoire sur le calendrier arabeavant l'Islam," 109-192.

410 "When Muhammad was born the devils were reviled and the planets fell... " al Ya`qbi, 411 See Effendi, "Mdmoire sur le calendricr arabe avant l'Islam, " 132-146. 412 This method of arguing is quite common in theories put forward about the pre-Higra and early Higra chronology, where earlier sources are quoted without testing the validity of their claims. This could be termed "hindsight" chronology. TdrFb, 5.

413Effendi rejectsAbn al Fid' s dating becauseof a contradiction betweenthe Seleucid and Nabonassar dates.Effendi, "Memoire sur le calendrier arabeavant l'Islam," 146. 414Lammens,"L'Age de Mahomet la et chronologie de la Sira," 209-250. 415Anonymous manuscript number 5051, Paris Bibliotheque Nationale, 17b. Other 10

sources mention years. Conrad also supplies sources which mention a date of 15 years before the Year of the Elephant, or 30 and 70 years after it and yet another which has Muhammad being born on "20 April in the seventeenth year of the reign of the just king Chosroes Anushirvan (i. e., A. D. 547), 578 years after Jesus son of Mary... " Conrad, "Abraha and Muhammad, " 234-235. The latter date taking us back to a possible link to the Muraygn inscription! Sprenger, A. "Uber den Kalender der Araber vor Mohammad, " Zeitschrift der

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their respective ages, 'Utman replies, "The Prophet is greater than me, but I was born before him. " In another source, we are told that `Utmn was born in the year six of the Elephant416which could be another indication that Muhammad was indeed born a number of years after the year of the Elephant. The author also points to certain companions of the Prophet who are given very large life 417 spans, even though certain writers admit that "When I tried to work it out, I could not get past 80. "418The explanation for this is often clear: according to Lammens, a witness such as Hassn Ibn Tbit needs to be that old in order to witness to the appearance of "Ahmad's stari419which allegedly was a sign of the imminent birth of the Prophet, having reached the age of reason.420 Leaving aside the problems that making the Year of the Elephan t up to 10,15,20 or even 50 )"rars earlier than Muhammad's birth may raise for South Arabian chronology, the sources mentioned above suggest a birth date for Muhammad some time after AD 580 and a Year of the Elephant somewhere between AD 530 and AD 570.

Astrological sources
When considering astrology as a possible source of chronological data for Muhammad's birth, there are two possible sources of information: there are calculations which plot the position of the there are also tables and calculations which look at the planets at Mubammad's birth, 421

Deutschen Morganlndischen Gesellschaft 13 (1859): 139, listed the variants he had found: 40,45,50 days, 1,2 months, 10,23,30,40,70 years after the attack, 1,17,18,21 Rabi' 1, $afar, Rabi' 11.He even states that Muhammad probably did not know his own date of birth. Ibid., 141-2. 416 Ibn Sa'd, Tabaqa4 VI: 65,12; 130,20. 417 Lammens, "L'Age de Mahomet, " 213-214. 418 Ibn `Agil, 419 Any Anwan al sa da, Ta'ribi Makka

attempt at linking this star to known observations of astronomical events such as comets leaves us with too many choices, unless a date of birth could be better defined. See the list of sightings of

Comets above, p. 39.

420Lammens,"L'Age de Mahomet," 214.

421 See for example: Mns Ibn Nawbabt, al Kitb al Kanif (Madrid: Instituto Hispano-Arabe dc Cultura; Bellaterra: Universidad Autnoma de Barcelona, 1982), and Edward S. Kennedy, "Two Topics from an Astrological Manuscript: Sindhind Days and Planetary Latitudes, " in: Zeitschrift JUr Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften. (Frankfurt am Main: Institut fr Geschichte der ArabischIslamischen Wissenschaften an der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universitt, 1990): 6: 167-178. As most of these calculations seem to be based on the accepted chronology of Muhammad's life, there seems little that they can contribute to the debate, though a fuller study would be needed to do them justice.

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conjunction of Saturnand Jupiter as a sign of the coming birth of someoneimportant. This

discussion could give some indirect indications of chronology. "There are four astrological triplicities, each composed of three zodiacal signs, so chosen that lines joining the initial points of the signs making up any triplicity form an equilateral triangle. Each of

the four Aristotelian elements (fire, earth, air and water) is associated with a triplicity, containing respectively Aries, then Taurus, Gemini, and Cancer. " "The period of the planet Saturn is about thirty years; that of Jupiter is twelve. This implies that twenty years after Jupiter has left a position of mean conjunction with Saturn it will have made a complete trip around the ecliptic during the first twelve years; in the remaining eight it will traverse an additional two thirds of the circumference. There it will catch up with Satur., which during the twenty years will have accomplished only two thirds of a complete circuit. Thus a second mean conjunction will occur, tending to be in the same triplicity as the first. In fact, the

two mean periods are not precisely thirty and twelve years. They are so related that each successive mean conjunction takes place a bit farther forward along the ecliptic than it did in its previous conjunction. Eventually the conjunctions slip over into the next triplicity. The interval between successive shifts of triplicity is about two and a half centuries. It was asserted that each

shift is accompanied on earth by a fundamental political or religious change. "42-'The conjunction which is supposed to have marked the birth of Muhammad is dated in AD 571.42' The fact that AD 571 was associated with Mubammad's birth because of astrological calculations, could be a reason why it was chosen as his birth date, though this can not be proved.

Conclusion
In attempting to fix or even date Mubammad's birth we are faced with seemingly insurmountable problems, in that the event only became of importance once Muhammad had been recognised by

422 Edward S. Kennedy, "An Astrological history based on the career of Genghis Khan, " Reprinted from Quest for Understanding: Arabic and Islamic Studies in Memory of Malcolm H. Kerr. Edited by S. Seikaly, R. Baalbaki, P. Dodd. (American University of Beirut, 1991): 223-4. 423 In a marginal note which accompanies the horoscope for this event, we read "The conjunction of the religion, which is 40 years from the epoch of the Elephant and it is one year from the epoch of the Elephant (sic) which is approximately 83 years from the Hijra or is the conjunction. " Though the editor attempts to correct the text, the possibility remains that the "40 years from the Elephant... which was 83 years from the Higra, " could be correct. This would put the Year of the Elephant between AD 531 and AD 539. David Pingree, The Thousands ofAbil Ma char(London: The Warburg Institute, 1968), 95.

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the Islamic community as The Prophet. Once the questionhad becomeworthy of consideration, a number of contradictory dateswere postulated.
This also leads us to the conclusion that Muhammad's birth date was not known well enough to make the link seem implausible. This conclusion is further strengthened by Conrad's argument, supported by various examples, that the use of the number forty in describing Muhammad's age when he received the first revelation was more of a literary device to express the idea of a large 424 full he had insisting The impression is, that the time reached maturity. number, while at same therefore, that Muhammad's date of birth was calculated back from later, better known, dates. That one of the theories may be correct is by no means inconceivable, but at this time, we have no

as a conclusion, is that the Year of way of knowing which one it is. What does seemreasonable
the Elephant and Mubammad's birth were not directly linked.

424Conrad, "Abraha and Muhammad, " 230-232 and 232-234. See also Qur'an 46: 15, "... when he (man) reaches maturity and the age of forty... "

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CONCLUSION
So protracted and intense has the discussion about the calendar and chronology of the early Muslim community been, that it is difficult for modern research to progress without taking into

account the concept of hindsight chronology. This factor will initially make research more difficult as the researcher attempts to discern whether sources bear the mark of previous editors who, in passing on a tradition, have imposed their understanding of what calendar system was in 25 use. It is also for this reason that research will often have to concentrate on minor details, too insignificant to have merited editing or secondary to the main story being told, when attempting to discover which sources are the most reliable. As results are accumulated, the work will gain momentum and later studies will be able to build upon the results of those which have preceded them. The source material available is so rich and varied that this study has barely scratched the surface and it will require many other pieces of research, each concentrating on a different category of 426 material, as well as reviewing previous results in the light of newer discoveries, before the subject could be said to have been exhausted.

Qur'n The study of the Qur'nic texts has not brought to light any remarkable chronological data, but has underlined the necessity of using all the resources available. Islam recognises some variant readings as being orthodox and to ignore the information that they contain would amount to 427 From there it is but a short step to considering the negligence on part of any serious researcher.

425This editing need not have beeneither malicious or heavy-handed.The simple fact of adding a month name to a tradition which originally only gave a number of months, would be enough. 426These would not only include Islamic historical sourcessuch as sira and magzi, but also astrological texts, Ethiopian studieswhich could help to identify and date the Negus, South Arabian studies to fix the era and in the hope of finding other inscriptions which would help fill the gaps in our knowledge of eventssurrounding Abraha'sreign, Roman, Persian,Jewish and Christian sourceswould also need to be evaluated.
427 The fact that the study of the variants revealed no significant details does not detract from the necessity of noting that the research was carried out, in order to facilitate the task of those who may wish to continue the work.

the information available in non-orthodox readings,not as a challenge to the authenticity of the acceptedtext, but as a possible secondarysourceof information.
Another challenge to the researcher are the words of non-Arabic origin to be found in the texts. Though much has been achieved, in explaining the roots of many of them, others continue to be an enigma. The text concerning the Year of the Elephant contains vocabulary which is not completely clear.

Hadit In this work we have seenthat the great Kadi collections contain numerousminor variations of to hope that the scrupulousway the the more important traditions, which encourages researchers variants are recordedis an indication that, somewherein the corpus, original and unaltered traditions are to be found. The reverseside of the coin is, of course,that the plethora of details makesit all the more difficult to identify the "authentic tradition" from the variants.
Though the present study has not yielded any chronological fixes, it would be incorrect to conclude that hadit texts are of no value to historical research. A great deal has been written about the value and reliability of Hadil literature with opinions varying from "totally unreliable" to "unquestionably true". Though the truth probably lies somewhere in between, experience has shown that each text has to be judged on its own merits. To ignore this would eventually lead the researcher either to ignore valuable texts or conversely, to build theories on sources which cannot withstand detailed scrutiny. Traditionally, the trustworthiness of individual hadil was gauged by

studying their isnd, or chain of transmission, while relatively little attention was paid to the main or body of the tradition. The detailed study of the eclipse texts shows a remarkable degree of accuracy when comparing them to descriptions of the events based upon astronomical predictions. Calculations in such detail, have only relatively recently been available, which precludes the possibility that these texts were pure fabrication. Such accuracy has to lead to the conclusion that when such cross-checking is possible, the body of a tradition could be accepted even if its chain of transmission were to be highly questionable. Here too, as with the Qur'n, the possibility that hadil which are not accepted within the orthodox collections could contain valuable historical material, must be considered.

104

Calendars Though we know a good deal about some of the calendars in use in the Region, we are far from being able to say that no mysteries remain! The Jewish calendar is eminently decipherable, but it would help if we had something to confirm that it was in use in the Jewish communities which lived in and around Madina. Discussion continues around the beginning of the South Arabian Era and any further lapidary evidence of Abraha's activities and their dating could contribute significantly to the debate on the Year of the Elephant. If the etymological conclusions about the old, pre-Higra calendar are correct, we are faced with different possible conclusions depending upon whether old pre-Higra and the pre-Higra calendars are deemed to have both been luni-solar, lunar or a mixture. Only further research may be able to help us better define these calendars. Nsi' No traditions mention events which occurred during the intercalary month, or if they do, we are unable to identify them as the word nesi'is not used. Nevertheless, there are indications that an intercalary system was used and the evidence is all the stronger coming, as it does, from a nonIslamic source 428Encouraging as this is, we have also seen that even when interpreting the same sources and using the similar basic assumptions, it is possible to create different calendars, as is `All's Hashim Amir from Caussin de Perceval's table of concordance, and evident a comparison of our own. These three tables are based upon the assumption that Muhammad stopped intercalation is but luni-solar in lunar there time the no real evidence at a conjunction, when and calendars were either for or against this theory and, if there were, nothing concrete emerges to show that the two calendars came together at that time, rather than this too being just another product of wishful thinking or hindsight chronology. 429

428 Procopius, Historyofthe

Wars, II: 403. Though Procopius gives the impression that the Arabs did the same thing every year at the same time and this is an indication that a solar or luni-solar calendar was in use, we still do not know if the calendar he was talking about is the pre-Higra one.

429 Until

more is known, both about the calendars and where authors such as Birini obtained their information, there is nothing to indicate that a record of the purely lunar calendar, as it should have been, was being kept, and so it is impossible to know if the two calendars did in fact coincide in AH 10.

105

Higra to Death
This period is the richest both in terms of important events in the life of Muhammad and the early Islamic community. It is also much better "documented" than the earlier years. Despite this, much remains to be clarified and, in an ideal world, a chronological fix identified. There is serious doubt that Ibrhim's death occurred on the day of a solar eclipse, and once doubts are raised regarding the date of his death, all other dates in his short life become suspect too. In all probability, the most reliable date that we have for this period is that of Mubammad's death.

Higra its datingor correspondence Studyof theaccounts with a of theHigra andtraditionsconcerning

Jewish feast has not led to any convincing conclusions. This is obviously a critical date for Islamic

history, especially as it servesto define the Higra calendaras we know it today.430

Pre-Higra Muhammad's birth and the events leading up to it, his early life and the beginning of his ministry remain poorly documented in historical terms, despite the abundance of stories and traditions surrounding these events. Serious and painstaking analysis of the available information does raise some serious questions, both about linking Muhammad's birth to the attempted raid on Makka, the dating of the Year of the Elephant and the possibility that the calculation of his date of birth owes more to spiritual reasoning than to historical data, thus making him older than he actually was. However, it has to be emphasised that, at this time, there are no clear-cut answers. Many of the studies into the chronology of this period were carried out at the turn of the century, when a high proportion of source material was still unedited. Today, many of the major reference works have been published, simplifying the task of the researcher. Nevertheless, the corpus of

material deserving detailed investigation is impressive and there is always the hope that somewhere, either before our eyes, but unrecognised, or in some yet-to-be-studied or discovered

430 It may be doubtful that the Higra calendarwould be changedif it were proved that the historical facts did not match the assumptionsusedto define it originally, nevertheless, any better definition of dates is highly desirable.

106

is This help light this the text on chronology of period. study shed exists which will manuscript, a only a beginning.

107

APPENDIX

I: South Arabian Inscriptions

Concerning Abraha

Ryckmans 506. Muraygn431

1. "By the strength of the Merciful (Rahmnn).The king Abraha Zybmn, king of Saba,Dii Raydn, Hadramt and 2. the Yemens, their Arabs on the high plateau and the coastalplain, wrote this when 3. Ma`addum undertook the spring campaign,in the month
432 `Amirim D Tabtn, ban had time the of at a when risen.

4.

And the king put Abgabar at the head of Kiddat and `Al
and Basirum, son of Hupum were at the head of

S.

Sa`idum. They struck (?) and battled at the head of the

troop: Kiddat againstthe ban `Amirim and Murdum ...

and Sa`idum in the valley (?) 6. on the road to Turabn. And they were killed and taken prisoner. Whoever fled was struck down by the king at Halibn 433

431GonzagueRyckmans,"Inscriptions dixieme s6rie," LeMusson 66 (1953): 275-84. sud-arabes:

432 The author places this month at the end of spring, in May-June, Beeston places it earlier, in April, see above: The South Arabian Calendar, p. 7.

433A village south of the road betweenMakka and Riyad.

7.

Ma`addum disappeared like a shadow. They gave pledges. After that `Amrum son of Muddirn434 acted as guarantor.

8.

He (Mud irn) delegated his son to be governor of Ma'addum. They came back from Hali-

9.

[ba]n, by the power of the Merciful, in the year sixty-two and

10.

six hundred.

,435

Ma'rib dam, (CIH 541)436

1-8 By the might and aid and mercy of the Merciful and of His
Messiah and the Holy Spirit. They have written this inscription: Behold Abraha who has been exalted, the king, the descendant of men of Ge'ez, the ramaihis, Za Bayman, king of Saba and p Raydiin and Haramawt and Yamant and of their Arabs on the plateau and in Tihamat. 9-24 Now they have written this inscription stating that: He subjected and recognised as ruler by decree Yazid b. Kab`sat in their province, whom they accepted over Kidat Wada'. He was established as deputy for him and was subject; and with him were the gayi. princes of Saba, the men of experience, Murrat and Tamimat and Hanis and Martad and Hanif Dii Halil and the men of Za'an, gayfprinces, Ma'adi-karib and their brethren, bany'Aslam. b. Sumu-yafa` and Ha`n

And further that: They sent in

peace Garrah Dn ZBNR that he might be supreme in the cast.

434This is `Amr, son of at Mundir III, the Labmid ruler of at Hira, who ruled from about AD 505-554. `Amr ruled after him from AD 554-569. 435 The author datesthis inscription which is 662 in the Sabeanera as AD 547.
436 Translation from Sidney Smith, "Events in Arabia in the 6th Century A. D. 425-468. The translation is ," used with minor alterations in spelling and transliteration.

109

And the garrisons of Kidar killed him and plundered. And Yazid hw, his At from Kiddat, and command, collected those put under made war on Hadramawt, and seized Mazin, the runaway, the descendent of men of the Dammar sept, and returned to `Abran. 24-46 Then the report reached them, and the Habagat and iimyar called up and collected their armies by thousands in the month 1) Qayzan437of 657. And the generals of Saba set out and `Abran. in And when they from Sirwah Nabat to penetrated reached Nabat, Kidar had appointed their battle force (to posts). And Ijimyar delayed and collected information and their `Awdah both D (iadan, Then Wtih commanders were and Yazid reached them in Nabat, and held back his hand from them (the enemy) before appointing the battle force. And then a report reached them concerning Saba, that the ramp and the dike and the catchment basin and the frontal work were broken in the month of Dii Madra'an438of (year) 7. 46-55 Then after this mandate reached them, the runners presented a covenant which the Arab sept of Wada', who were under orders with Yazid, judged good, (to the effect) that all of them should hold their hands back, and give them pledges by the runner, and as to the battle force Kidar had appointed, the gayi. princes should join (it) to those who were subject. 55-63 And the king appointed a time incumbent on the tribes (for the return) to ditches and plastering and cut terraces and barirland and pitch-pit, and workmen's shops, and mud-bank, for to repair the ramp and the dike and the breaches that were in Marib, and

437This month probably correspondsto June,seeabove:The South Arabian Calendar,p.7f. 439Probably July. Ibid. 110

imposed a promise on them in the month D $arban439of (year) 7. 63-75 Now after they had appointed the time and the Arab judged (it) good, they made for the city of Marib, and they prayed at the church of Marib, for therein (in the city) were a priest, father of a mission (?) and his "son". They lifted the ramp away and dug till they reached the rent, and at a point above the rent, to base the dike, there was anxiety and care"O for the tribes and the city. And all who saw how this anxiety had come nigh upon the tribes made praises heard for them for the ahabis of (among) them and the Himyarites of (among) them. 76-80 And after that they had made praises heard for the tribes, the aal-princes who had fortified themselves in Kidar went down

and when they reached the king with the battle force which they had appointed to join them, then the king and his son held back their hands (from war with them). 80-87 The king decreed in the city Marib: "The builders of the ramp and the qay/-princes who were there are i/lustrissiml'. Then he

had brought before him their "sons": Aksum D DRNH, and `Adug IN Fayis and SYWLMN, a`ban and D Ru'ain D and

and Dii Hamdan and D Kula`an and D Mahadd and others entitles IN, and a strong one, Dii Yaz'an, and Dil Dubayn, and the kabir-officers of Hadramawt and of qmt

439Probably October. Ibid. 440There have beendifferent readingsof thesewords: "Glaser, (film w`wfm, a common phrasewhich does not meanpernicies etpesti/cntia, as ClHrenders: CIH540/68-9, (film mw=, 'anxiety, even death', Fakhry, clearly b!/m: if this is correct, compareArabic ba//a,'to moisten', then 'to exercise benevolence',... Smith, "Events in Arabia in the 6`hCentury A. D., ", n. 7,439. This point is an important one, in that if the text doestalk of pestilenceor plague, it could help in dating both the text and the Sabean era.

III

87-92

And it was then that there reached them the embassy of the nagas, and there reached them an embassy of the Roman king, and a delegation of the king of Fars, and an envoy of Muddiran (al Mundir), and an envoy of Abu-karib b. Gabalat.

92-101

And then after those who wished had prayed in praise of the Merciful, the tribes went according to the previous (fixed) time that he (the king) should call them up, according to their promise for later. And when the tribes arrived at the term of the later Du Da'awn41 and when they sent them, the tribes, to their duties, they repaired what was broken from the dike, about which Ya'fur had given orders obligatory on Saba' and the qay? princes who m tnkn. And he gave them instructions. were

102-114

[Describes the repair of a measured section of the dike, the ditching to reconstruct the ramp and its plaster facing, and the improvement of the area irrigated from the catchment basin so that the outflow could run straight on with two channels from the point of divergence. ]

114-137

And so they completed the work within the period for which they were under obligation at their sections. And Yad'-'il and a butcher gave a blessing at the church and the dike and the ramp over 5,806 of flour and 26,000 of dates of the bgnt kind. There were 3,000 slaughtered beasts, both cows and small cattle, and 300 camels, fast, darkish and with cut cars (she-camels) and 11,000 turtle doves, And they perfected their building work on ....

441Probably January, seeabove: The South Arabian Calendar,if, however the mention of "later" could indicate that it was an intercalary month.

112

the 58th day (that they were responsible for their sections) in the 11O'hour, in the month I) Ma`an 42 658.

442Probably March. Ibid. The year would be AD 547-8, or 542-3.

113

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APPENDIX III : Caussin de Perceval's Pre-Higra Calendar"

years of Mubarram annr Pilgrimage n.. i of Muba. m Pilpim. y. Years of the inaitatioe the our liapeeie of [bu of j. or Mub. rr. w f ilgrlnu

1 4121121 Nasi' 4131110 2 4131209 3 4141128 4 4151118 7 4181115 10 4211112 13 4241109 16 4271106 19 4301103 22 4331031 25 4361028 29 4391025 31 4421022 34 4451018 37 4481015 40 4511012 43 4541009 46 4571006 49 4601003 Nasi' 4310922 50 4611021 51 4621011 52 4630930 55 4660927 58 4690924 61 4720921 64 4750917 67 4780914 70 4810911 73 4840908 76 4870905 79 4900902 82 4930830 85 4960827 88 4990824 91 5020821 94 5050817 97 5080814

4131021 4141109 4151029 4161019 4191016 4221013 4251010 4281007 4311004 4341001 4370928 4400925 4430922 4460918 4490915 4520912 4550909 4580906 4610903 4620921 4630911 4640831 4670828 4700825 4730822 4760818 4790815 4820812 4850809 4880806 4910803 4940731 4970728 5000725 5030722 5060718 5090715

100 103 106 109 112 115 118 121 124 127 Nasi' 128 129 130 133 136 139 142 145 148 151 154 157 160 163 166 169 172 175 178 181 184 187 190 193 196 199 202 205 208

5110811 5140808 5170805 5200802 5230730 5260727 5290724 5320721 5350717 5380714 5390703 5390801 5400721 5410711 5440708 5470705 5500702 5530629 5560626 5590623 5620620 5650616 5680613 5710610 5740607 5770604 5800601 5830529 5860526 5890523 5920520 5950516 5980513 6010510 6040507 6070504 6100501 6130428 6160425 6190422

5120712 5150709 5180706 5210703 5240630 5270627 5300624 5330621 5360617 5390614 5400702 5410622 5420611 5450608 5480605 5510602 5540530 5570527 5600524 5630521 5660517 5690514 5720511 5750508 5780505 5810502 5840429 5870426 5900423 5930420 5960416 5990413 6020410 6050407 6080404 6110401 6140328 6170325 6200322

1
2 3 4

211 6220419 6230319 Nasi' 6230408

212 213 214 Nasi' 6230507 6240407 6240426 6250326 6250415 6260315 6260404

5 6 7
8 9 10

215 216 217 Nasi'

6260503 6270403 6270423 6280323 6280412 6290312 6290402

218 6290501 6300401 219 6300420 6310320 220 6310409 6320309

4" The English translation of Perceval's article, Louis Nobiron, "Notes on the Arab Calendar before Islam, " Islamic Culture 21 (1947): 135-153, reproduces the table but introduces a number of errors.

4 APPENDIX IV : Hshim Amir Ali Table of Concordance445

CHRISTIAN
Secular
Year Day Date Month Month Year

JEWISH
Religious Month

LUNI-SOLAR
HLshirn Arnir"Ali Month Year Month crccva Year

III

RI

Month

Year

622

Saturday Sunday Tuesday Wednesday Friday Saturday Monday Wednesday Friday

Monday

17 16 15 14 13 11 11 10 10
08

April May June July August September October November December

January

08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04
05

4382 02 (12) 03 04 05 06 4383 07 (13) 08 09 10

11

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09
10

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09
10

01 02 03 04 05 06
07

623

Wednesday Thursday Saturday Sunday Tuesday Wednesday

Friday

07 08 07 06 05 04
03

February March April May June July

August

06 07 08 09 10 11
12

12 01 02 03 04 05
06

11 12 01 02 03 04
05

11 12 Nasi' 01 2 02 03
04

08 09 10 11 12 01
02

624

Thursday Saturday Monday Wednesday Thursday Saturday Monday Tuesday Thursday Friday Sunday Monday Wednesday
Friday

01 01 31 30 29 28 27 27 26 25 24 23 22
20

September October October November December January February March April May June July August
September

01 4384 07 02 (14) 08 09 03 04 10 11 05 06 12 veAdhr 07 08 09 10 11 12

01 4385

01 02 03 04 05 06
07

06 07 08 09 10 11 12 Nasi' 01 3 02 03 04 05
06

05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 2 03 04 05
06

03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03
04

625

Saturday Sunday Tuesday Wednesday

20 18 18 16

October November December January

02 03 04 05

(15)

08 09 10 11

07 08 09 10

07 08 09 10

05 06 07 08

445 This table is headings do The by the the columns the of not explain author. one published a replica of dates for Julian beginning function. Hence "Christian" the the the their contains column of very clearly the Jewish months. Some typographical errors have crept into the original tables and have been corrected here: AD 623 January to December 10 was added to the dates so that they were given as 18,17,18,17, 16,15,14 and 13, instead of the dates shown in the corrected table, AD 624 August 2 should read 22, AD 624 October 18 should read November 18, AD 626 July 30 Monday should read Wednesday, AD 630 December 2 should read 11 and AD 632 28 May should read 26. Under Jewish the Year column in the nineteen-year cycle. In the Year that the of year position number, and underneath, contains the original table, the intercalary month was written "I Adar".

CHRISTIAN
Secular Year Day Date Month Month

JEWISH
Religious Year Month Month

LUNI-SOLAR
HAshint mir
Year i Month etceva Year

HI RI
Month Year

Friday Saturday
Monday

15 16
15

February March
April

06 07
08

12 01
02

11 12
01 4

11 12
01 4

09 10
11

626

Tuesday Thursday Friday Sunday Monday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Monday Tuesday Thursday Friday Sunday Monday Wednesday Thursday Saturday Monday
Wednesday Thursday

14 13 12 11 09 09 07 06 04 03 04 03 02 01 30 30 28 27 27
26 25

May June July August September October November December January February March April May June June July August September October
November December

09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03
04 05

03 04 05 06 4386 07 (16) 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 4387 07 (17) 08 09

10 11

02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08
09 10

02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 Nasi' 01 5 02 03 04 05 06 07
08 09

12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06
07 08

627

Saturday Monday Tuesday Thursday Friday Sunday

Monday

24 23 24 23 22 21
20

January February March April May June

July

06 veAdhr 07 08 09 10
11

12 01 02 03 04
05

ll 12 Nasi' 01 6 02 03
04

10 11 12 01 02 03
04

09 10 11 12 01 02
03

628

Wednesday Thursday Saturday Sunday Tuesday Wednesday Friday

Saturday Monday

19 17 17 15 15 13 12
12 11

August September October November December January February

March April

12 06 01 4388 07 02 (18) 08 03 09 04 10 05 11 06 12
07 08 01 02

05 06 07 08 09 10 11
12 01 7

05 06 07 08 09 10 11
12 01 7

04 05 06 07 08 09 10
lI 12

Tuesday Thursday
Friday Sunday

10 09
08 07

May June
July August

09 10
11 12

03 04
05 06

02 03
04 05

02 03
04 05

01 02
03 04

629

Monday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Monday Wednesday Thursday Saturday Sunday Tuesday Wednesday Friday

05 05 03 02 31 30 01 30 29 28 27 26 25

September October November December December January March March April May June July August

01 4389 07 02 (19) 08 09 03 10 04 05 11 06 12 veAdhr 07 08 09 10 11 12 120 01 02 03 04 05 06

06 07 08 09 10 11 12 Nasi' 01 8 02 03 04 05

06 07 08 09 10 11 12 Nasi' 01 8 02 03 04 05

05 06 07 OS 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05

CHRISTIAN
Year
Day Date Month

JEWISH
Month Year Month

I
I Month

LUNI-SOLAR
Year Month

Year

Month

Year

Saturday Monday
Wednesday

23 23
22

September October
November

01 4390 07 02 (1) 08
03 09

06 07
08

630

Friday Saturday Monday

Tuesday

22 20 19
20

December January February

March

04 05
06

10 11
12

09 10
11

06 07 08 09 10 11 12

06 07 08 09 10 11

Thursday Friday Sunday Monday

Wednesday

19 18 17 16
15

April May June July

August

Thursday Saturday
Sunday

13 13
11

September October
November

631

11 Monday Wednesday 09 Friday 08

Saturday 09

December January February

March

Monday Tuesday Thursday Friday Sunday Monday

Wednesday Friday

08 07 06 05 04 02
02 01

April May June July August September

October November

01 07 02 08 03 09 04 10 05 11 06 12 01 4391 07 02 (2) 08 09 03 10 04 11 05 12 06 01 07 02 08 03 09 04 10
11 05

12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03
04

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

10

I0

12 06 01 4392 07
02 (3) 08

05 06
07

1632

Sunday Monday Wednesday Friday Saturday Monday Sunday Thursday Friday Sunday
Monday

01 30 29 28 28 27 26 25 24 23
21

December December January February March April May June July August
September

03 04 05 06
veAdhr

09 10 11 12

08 09 10 11
12

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09

I0

Wednesday 21 Thursday 19

October November

07 01 08 02 03 09 04 10 05 11 06 12 01 4393 07 02 (4) 08 09 03

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09

11

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APPENDIX VI : Makka & Madina447

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131

APPENDIX VII: ProCopiUS448

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As this text is quoted several times, and by different authors, it merits some comments. The 449 OEptvag", interests here "Tporrag section which us reads which means "summer solstice" and 45 "vernal As the text only mentions two by in Loeb Dewing text translated the not equinox" as

48 Scanned from, Procopius, History ofthe Wars I, 400-402. 449 Tponag Oeptvas and Tponaq Xetpcptvac are the usual terms for the summer and winter solstices. The only writer to use tponas was Epicurus (3/4 BC). The term for spring is eapvos, etaptvoS, or rlaptvoq, not too different from Oaptva;, which could explain the error. My thanks to E. Austin who helped clarify this point. 450 We could also ask if Procopius made a mistake in talking of the summer solstice, as the spring equinox would correspond better to some of the proposed models. According to the purely lunar calendar the summer solstice would have fallen in dumd II, whereas in the luni-solar calendar, as we have calculated it, the summer solstice fell in Rabi` II.

months, we are left with the question of whether an intercalary month was to be inserted that year, or if Procopius simply made a mistake when talking of two, rather than three months. As the author does not describe the calendar used by the "Saracens", we have also to ask ourselves if they did use the pre-Higra as described in the early Islamic sources, or whether Mundhir III and his people used some other calendar.

133

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