1

1. Introduction
Wind is simply air in motion. It is caused by the uneven heating of the Earths surface by
radiant energy from the sun. Since the Earths surface is made of very different types of land
and water, it absorbs the suns energy at different rates. Water usually does not heat or cool as
quickly as land because of its physical properties. An ideal situation for the formation of local
wind is an area where land and water meet. During the day, the air above the land heats up
more quickly than the air above water. The warm air over the land expands, becomes less dense
and rises. The heavier, denser, cool air over the water flows in to take its place, creating wind.
In the same way, the atmospheric winds that circle the Earth are created because the land near
the equator is heated more by the sun than land near the North and South Poles. Today, people
use wind energy to make electricity. Wind is called a renewable energy source because the
wind will blow as long as the sun shines.

2. Wind energy and power
Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric air. Wind
power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind
turbines to make electrical power, windmills for mechanical power, wind pumps for water
pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships. Wind turbines transform the energy in the wind
into mechanical power, which can then be used directly for converting to electric power to
generate electricity.
3. Wind Mill
A windmill is a machine that converts the energy of wind into rotational energy by means
of vanes called sails(blades).Windmills are generally classified in to 2 types, i.e. horizontal axis
and vertical axis.
2





3.1.Comparison between horizontal and vertical axis wind mill.
Horizontal axis Vertical axis
Variable speed power transmission for better
control.
Simpler power transmission system from the
rotor to the axis.

Figure-1
Figure-2
3

Wind vane based controller required for
orientation.

A vertical axis eliminates the need to be
oriented in the wind direction.

High towers ensures greater wind speed. Low height installation leads to lower
available wind speed.

4. Power from wind
We know that the kinetic energy of a mass m moving at a speed v is given by KE=
1
2
m:
2
.
So, power associated with this energy is given by
P=
1
2
(pA:):
2
=
1
2
pA:
3
(1)
Where, p=density of air,
A=area through which air is passing
v = velocity of air
So, Av is the volume of air passing through area A in 1 sec. So, this is the energy available
in the air but we cant completely convert all these energy to another form of energy because
this would reduce the wind speed to zero, according to conservation of energy, it means the
turbine will stop, which is not possible. So, we will have to find out what is the maximum
energy we can extract from the air and this is given by Betzs law.
4.1.Betzs Law
Betz's law helps in calculating the maximum power that can be extracted from the wind,
independent of the design of a wind turbine in open flow. It was published in 1919, by the
German physicist Albert Betz. The law is derived from the principles of conservation of mass
and momentum of the air stream flowing through an idealized "actuator disk" that extracts
energy from the wind stream. It states that
No turbine can capture more than 16/27 (59.3 percent) of the kinetic energy in wind.
The factor 16/27 (0.593) is known as Betz's coefficient. Practical utility-scale wind turbines
achieve at peak 75% to 80% of the Betz limit.

Table-1
4

4.2.Proof of Betzs Law
Figure 2 shows the streamlines of air through a wind turbine.
Notation: In the following we will use index 1 for states far up stream the rotor plane,
index for the states in the rotor plane and index 3 for states far downstream. For simplicity
index 2 states in the rotor plane - will be omitted in most cases.
Long in front of the rotor, the wind speed is v1. After passing the wind turbine rotor (called
the rotor in the following), the wind speed would be reduced to v3.
The pressure distribution is as follows. The initial pressure is p1. As the air moves towards
the rotor, the pressure rises to a pressure p+ and by passing the rotor, the pressure suddenly
falls by an amount of p i.e. the pressure is here p- = p+ -p. After passing the rotor, and far
downstream the pressure again rises to p3 = p1. Curves for wind speed and pressure are shown
in figure 2. If we look at the air moving towards the rotor plane, we can use the Bernoullis
equation to find the relation between the pressure p and the speed v, while we can make the
assumption that the flow is frictionless.
Assumption: The pressure changes are relatively small compared to the pressure in the ambient
(about 1 atm = 101325 Pa) therefore we assume the density to be constant.


Power=
chungc n knctc cncg
tmc


2 2
1 3
1
( )
2
m V V
t

=

2 2
1 3
( )
2
AV V V
=
Figure-3
5


2 2
1 3 1 3
( )( )
4
A V V V V +
=

2
3 3 3
1 2
1 1
1
1 1
4
V V
AV
V V

= +



( )( )
3 2
1
1
1 1
4
AV b b = + , where
3
1
V
b
V
= (2)
So, Betzs Limit=
Powc cxtuctcd ]om wnd
Powc uuIubIc n wnd


( )( )
3 2
1
3
1
1
1 1
4
1
2
AV b b
AV

+
=
( )( )
2
1
1 1
4
b b = + (3)
The maximum value of this will be the Betzs Limit and this function will be maximum at
b=0.33 and the value is 0.59259.So, Betzs Law is proved. Figure 4 shows the variation of ratio
of power extracted to power available with respect to the ratio of velocity after and before the
turbine. From the graph also it is clearly visible that the maximum power that can be extracted
is 59.3% of the power available in the wind.

Figure-4

6


5.Wind Turbine




5.1.Parts of a Turbine
The different parts of turbine are discussed below.
5.1.1.Foundation
The foundations for a conventional engineering structure are designed mainly to transfer
the vertical load (dead weight) to the ground, this generally allows for a comparatively
unsophisticated arrangement to be used. However in the case of wind turbines, due to the high
wind and environmental loads experienced there is a significant horizontal dynamic load that
needs to be appropriately restrained.
5.1.2. Tower
Generally, two types of tower (made up of steel or wood) exists,i.e floating towers and
land based towers. A floating wind turbine is an offshore wind turbine mounted on a floating
structure that allows the turbine to generate electricity in water depths where bottom-mounted
towers are not feasible. A land based tower is an onshore wind turbine which are fixed on hill
tops or places nearer to sea where the foundation is made on land.

A wind turbine is a device that
converts kinetic energy from the wind, also
called wind energy, into mechanical
energy in a process known as wind power.
If the mechanical energy is used to produce
electricity, the device may be called a wind
turbine or wind power plant. If the
mechanical energy is used to drive
machinery, such as for grinding grain or
pumping water, the device is called
a windmill or wind pump. Similarly, it may
be referred to as a wind charger when used
for charging batteries.
Figure-5
7


5.1.3. Nacelle
A nacelle is a cover housing that houses all of the generating components in a wind turbine,
including the generator, gearbox, drive train, and brake assembly.
5.1.4. Wind orientation control
Modern large wind turbines are typically actively controlled to face the wind direction
measured by a wind vane situated on the back of the nacelle. By minimizing the yaw angle (the
misalignment between wind and turbine pointing direction), the power output is maximized
and non-symmetrical loads minimized.
However, since the wind direction varies quickly the turbine will not strictly follow the
direction and will have a small yaw angle on average. Figure 6 shows the variation of power
co-efficient (power extracted upon power available) with yaw angle.


5.1.5. Blades
Designed like airplane wings, modern wind turbine blades use lift to capture the wind's
energy. Because of the blade's special shape, the wind creates a pocket of pressure as it passes
behind the blade. This pressure pulls the blade, causing the turbine to rotate. This modern blade
design captures the wind's energy much more efficiently than old farm windmills, which use
drag, the force of the wind pushing against the blades. The blades spin at a slow rate of about
20 revolutions per minute (RPM), although the speed at the blade tip can be over 150 miles per
hour.
Figure-6
8

5.1.6. Anemometer
Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.
5.1.7. Gear box
Connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the rotational speeds
from about 30-60 rotations per minute (rpm), to about 1,000-1,800 rpm; this is the rotational
speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy)
part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at
lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes.
5.1.8. Generator
Produces 60-cycle AC electricity; it is usually an off-the-shelf induction generator.
5.1.9. Shaft
High-speed shaft drives the generator and low-speed shaft turns the low-speed shaft at
about 30-60 rpm.
5.1.10. Pitch
Turns (or pitches) blades out of the wind to control the rotor speed, and to keep the rotor
from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
5.1.11. Rotor
Blades and hub together form the rotor.
5.1.12. Wind vane
Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine
properly with respect to the wind.
5.1.13. Yaw drive
Orients upwind turbines to keep them facing the wind when the direction changes.
Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive because the wind manually blows the rotor away
from it.

9

5.1.14. Yaw motor:
Powers the yaw drive.
5.1.15. Braking
As wind speed above a certain limit is harmful for the generators, rotors in the turbine, so
before reaching a critical speed the turbine must be slowed down. Braking is used to decrease
the speed of blades when the wind speed is high by converting the kinetic energy to heat
energy. Two types of braking are used in general, 1.Mechanical 2.Electrical.



6.Design of wind turbines
Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a
location. Aerodynamic modelling is used to determine the optimum tower height, control
systems, number of blades and blade shape.
Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. Conventional horizontal
axis turbines can be divided into three components:
The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost, includes the
blades for converting wind energy to low speed rotational energy.
The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost, includes
the electrical generator, the control electronics, and most likely a gearbox (e.g. planetary
gearbox, adjustable-speed drive or continuously variable transmission) component for
Figure-7(Parts of Turbine)
10

converting the low speed incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for generating
electricity.
The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost,
includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.
7.Performance Factors
There are some factors which affect the performance of wind turbine. The factors are
described below in details.
7.1.Wind
It being a wind turbine, its output first most depends on the wind. Both the speed and force
of the wind can be deciding factors. The more wind speed and force you have got, the
greater is the amount of power your wind turbine generates. Different regions have
different wind speeds. You can gather the available wind dynamics data and using a model
like Webull Distribution you can calculate how effective the wind of a particular region
is going to be.
7.2. Height
Places of higher altitudes have more wind due to various atmospheric factors. Besides, at
higher places there is less obstruction from the surrounding hills, trees and building. In fact
the height is so important that alternative energy scientists and engineers are trying to use
kites (due to the heights they can easily reach) to tap the wind power.
7.3. Rotor
The amount of energy produced by your wind turbine is proportional to the size of the
rotor used, when all other factors have been taken into consideration. A bigger rotor
certainly generates more power. Although it may cost more, in the long run, whenever you
are getting a wind turbine erected, go for a big a rotor as possible.
7.4. Tip Speed Ratio
It is an important factor in turbine design.


Where, n=rpm of the rotor
r=blade radius
V=wind speed
Iip SpccJ Rotio(ISR) =
Iip spccJ o bloJc
winJ spccJ
=
2nrn
6uI

11

Knowing the tip speed ratio of your turbine will help you maximize the power output
and efficiency of your wind turbine. Remember that if your rotor spins too slowly, a lot of
wind will pass through the gaps between the blades rather than giving energy to your
turbine. But if your blades spin too quickly, they could create too much turbulent air or act
as a solid wall against the wind. So, if you want to maximize your turbines efficiency,
youve got to calculate the perfect Tip Speed Ratio.
If you want the optimum Tip Speed Ratio for maximum power output, this formula
has been empirically proven:









When a plot between efficiency and TSR is plotted it gives maximum around TSR=5, so
3 bladed turbines are more famous than others. Figure 8 depicts this.




No. of Blades Optimum TSR
2
6
3
4-5
4
3
6
2
TSR(max puwer) =
4a
n
, n = nu. uJ h|adex
Table-2
Figure-8
12


7.5. Power variation with wind speed



7.5.1.Cut-in speed.
At very low wind speeds, there is insufficient torque exerted by the wind on the turbine
blades to make them rotate. However, as the speed increases, the wind turbine will begin to
rotate and generate electrical power. The speed at which the turbine first starts to rotate and
generate power is called the cut-in speed and is typically between 3 and 4 metres per second.
7.5.2.Cut-out speed.
As the speed increases above the rate output wind speed, the forces on the turbine structure
continue to rise and, at some point, there is a risk of damage to the rotor. As a result, a braking
system is employed to bring the rotor to a standstill. This is called the cut-out speed and is
usually around 25 metres per second.
7.5.3.Rated output power and rate output wind speed.
As the wind speed rises above the cut-in speed, the level of electrical output power rises
rapidly as shown. However, typically somewhere between 12 and 17 metres per second, the
power output reaches the limit that the electrical generator is capable of. This limit to the
generator output is called the rated power output and the wind speed at which it is reached is
called the rated output wind speed.



Figure-9
13

8. Economics of Wind turbines
Manufacturers of wind turbines have been improving designs to reduce the system cost. Wind
turbines are complex machines and so have many areas where costs can trimmed without a loss
in performance. Berkeley National Labs data base has shown that the costs of wind turbine
had been declining but have recently seen some increases in costs of the past few years.



One consideration leverages the advantages of a two-blade turbine. The obvious is the
reduced cost of one blade. As the trend of larger rotor diameters continues, material use and
blade cost will also increase. Other advantages of a two-blade design include savings on smaller
mechanical equipment due to the lower torque of faster rotor speeds. A lower turbine weight
then allows reducing the size or eliminating yaw controls. Lower installation costs come from
only one top-lift. And less equipment means lower maintenance costs. Also as more turbines
are installed offshore, two bladed designs offer the advantage of less weight which can directly
reduce the cost of the tower platforms.
But a cost comparison between three and two-blade designs is not as simple as eliminating
the cost of one blade. The three-blade turbine is a proven design and its rotor solves some
mechanical loading challenges. Two-blade designs need additional equipment in the rotor hub
to compensate for the loading, and thus, may increase the cost of the rotor compared with a
three-blade hub. However, a total cost savings from a two blade design would have to include
all of the savings described above.
Figure-10
14

With all the benefits of a two blade design, why are three blade designs in such wide use?
And what mechanical loading challenges do three-blade designs solve? Gyroscopic tendencies
are one issue.
Spinning rotors act like gyroscopes in their plane of rotation. That is, they are content to
rotate in a plane but offer great resistance when changing directions (yawing) out of that plane.
This is problematic when wind direction changes and the wind turbine yaws into the wind to
maximize power generation and equalize blade loads.
Two and three-blade rotors both generate gyroscopic forces. However, the advantage of a
three blade design is that at least two of the blades are always out the vertical plane at one time,
thus reducing shaft and gearbox stresses when the turbine yaws. When the wind changes
direction and the blades of a two-bladed design are in the vertical, 6 oclock position, there is
a minimal amount of force on the hub because the loading of the blades are relatively
equal. However when the blades begin to move to the horizontal position it generates unequal
loading that adds stress to the hub and gearbox.
To solve the problems, most modern two-blade designs use a hub that is not rigidly fixed
to the turbine shaft, so it teeters a few degrees to reduce stresses. As manufacturers build
larger and heavier wind turbines, gyroscopic forces will increase requiring larger and stronger
two and three-blade hubs and thus increasing costs.
There is, however, an idea that with proper research and investment could eliminate the
large gyroscopic forces on two-blade windmills, thereby making them viable for 5 to 20MW
machines. The idea is cyclical feathering.
It can be used for keeping a wind turbine facing into the wind without hub and gearbox
stresses. The idea is to control pitch of individual blades, thereby decreasing gyroscopic forces
on the rotor when yawing. This would take advantage of the winds kinetic energy on the blade
to assist in turning the turbine into the wind. Such a control feature cyclically alters blade pitch
as the wind direction changes so as to present different angles of attack between the blades and
wind. Another plus for the design: it eliminates the need for yaw drive motors.
Experiments with cyclical feathering on wind turbines have been conducted on a small
scale and show great potential. A similar control used on helicopter tail rotors has been reliable
and effective. Continued research and investments are needed before this technology reaches
large-scale wind turbines.


15

9. Advantages of Wind Power
Wind Energy is an inexhaustible source of energy and is virtually a limitless resource.
Energy is generated without polluting environment.
This source of energy has tremendous potential to generate energy on large scale.
Like solar energy and hydropower, wind power taps a natural physical resource.
Windmill generators dont emit any emissions that can lead to acid rain or greenhouse
effect.
Wind Energy can be used directly as mechanical energy.
In remote areas, wind turbines can be used as great resource to generate energy.
In combination with Solar Energy they can be used to provide reliable as well as steady
supply of electricity.
Land around wind turbines can be used for other uses, e.g. Farming.
10. Disadvantages of Wind power
Wind energy requires expensive storage during peak production time.
It is unreliable energy source as winds are uncertain and unpredictable.
Requires large open areas for setting up wind farms.
Noise pollution problem is usually associated with wind mills.
Wind energy can be harnessed only in those areas where wind is strong enough and
weather is windy for most parts of the year.
Usually places, where wind power set-up is situated, are away from the places where
demand of electricity is there. Transmission from such places increases cost of
electricity.
The average efficiency of wind turbine is very less as compared to fossil fuel power
plants. We might require many wind turbines to produce similar impact.
It can be a threat to wildlife. Birds do get killed or injured when they fly into turbines.
Maintenance cost of wind turbines is high as they have mechanical parts which undergo
wear and tear over the time.
11. Global Scenario
Wind power has now established itself as a mainstream electricity generation source, and
plays a central role in an increasing number of countries immediate and longer term energy
plans. After 15 years of average cumulative growth rates of about 28%, the commercial wind
power installations in about 80 countries at the end of last year totalled about 240 GW, having
16

increased by more than 40 times over that same period. Twenty two countries have more than
1,000 MW installed.
The very fact of the size of the industry, however, means that it is not immune to the seismic
shocks that have battered the global economy over the past several years. Demand growth is
very slow, non-existent or negative in most of the OECD, so demand for new power generation
of any kind is slim, and the competition is fierce. China has been the main driver of the growth
of the industry for the last five years, but we said it couldnt go on forever, and now its stopped:
we dont expect significant growth in the Chinese market until after 2015, although it is still
likely to be the market leader. Brazil, India, Canada and Mexico are very dynamic markets, but
cannot yet make up for the lack of growth in the traditional markets in Europe, the US and
China. There are many exciting new markets in Latin America, Africa and Asia where we see
major potential for growth in the medium to long term; but absent a new means for putting a
global price on carbon, new demand growth in the OECD borne on a strong economic recovery,
or some other unforeseen development, the industrys rate of growth will slow substantially in
the coming few years.
Despite the current market turbulence, all of the fundamentals which have driven the
dramatic growth of the industry over the past two decades are still there, and will only get
stronger over time: energy security; electricity price stability; job creation and local economic
development; reducing fresh water consumption and pollution; reducing local air pollution;
and of course reducing carbon dioxide emissions.
The following figure shows the global share of wind power in electricity demand based on
timelines.

Figure-11
17

12.1. Current Scenario
The chart depicts about the current scenario of wind power in different years.



The following chart depicts region wise installation of wind power in different years.




Figure-12
Figure-13
18

The market forecast of wind power demand in coming years as calculated by GWEC is shown
in the below figure.


12. Indian Scenario
Wind Energy has been the fastest growing renewable energy sector in the country. With
a cumulative installed capacity of over 18,000 MW, wind power currently accounts for almost
70 percent of the total installed capacity in the renewable energy sector. About 3,200 MW of
new wind power capacity has been added during the last financial year (2011- 2012) alone
which is the highest in a year, so far. The 12th Five Year Plan proposals envisage around 15,000
MW of grid-interactive renewable power capacity addition from wind energy alone.
India is the 3rd largest annual wind power market in the world, and provides great
business opportunities for both domestic and foreign investors. The Indian wind power sector
experienced record annual growth in 2011 with the addition of more than 3 GW of new
installations. Diverse incentives supported by a long term policy and regulatory framework at
the central and state levels have played a crucial role in achieving this goal. Wind power is now
increasingly accepted as a major complementary energy source for securing a sustainable and
clean energy future for India.
In 2012, despite a slowing global economy, Indias electricity demand continued to rise.
Electricity shortages are common, and over 40% of the population has no access to modern
energy services. Indias electricity demand is projected to more than triple between 2005 and
2030. In the recently released National Electricity Plan (2012) the Central Electricity Authority
Figure-14
19

projected the need for 350-360 GW of total generation capacity by 2022. Despite major
capacity additions over recent decades, power supply struggles to keep up with demand. India
had another record year of new wind energy installations between January and December 2011,
installing more than 3 GW of new capacity for the first time to reach a total of 16,084 MW. As
of March 2012, renewable energy accounted for 12.2 percent of total installed capacity, up
from 2 percent in 1995. Wind power accounts for about 70 percent of this installed capacity.
By the end of August 2012, wind power installations in India had reached 17.9 GW.
State wise installations
Historically, the States of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat have been the
leaders in terms of total wind installations. The States of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Kerala are quickly catching up. By the end of the 11th Plan period in March of 2012, the total
installed capacity had reached a total of 17,351.6 MW. Interestingly more than 95 percent of
the nations wind energy development to date is concentrated in just five states in southern and
western India Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat [LBNL,
2012]. These five states accounted for over 85% of the total installed capacity at the end of the
last plan period. Rajasthan is another emerging State with rising wind turbine installations.





Figure-15
20


13. Conclusion
It is imperative that we take precautions when distributing and consuming the earths
resources. The current use of natural gas and fossil fuels combined with increasing global
population has caused the earths resources to be abused and depleted. The effects on the
environment are exhausting and threatening to the sustainability of the earth. In 2009, the world
consumed approximately 76 million barrels of oil per day, and this number continues to
increase (Nation Master 2010). Our oil reserves are diminishing, and energy production
currently depends too highly on oil and fuels, which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.
Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere have dire consequences, including global warming. The
first step to protecting our world is to take action in renewable, eco-friendly energy sources.
One way to do this is to invest in and expand the wind power industry, which is one of the most
promising renewable energy sources. Wind power helps to maintain low energy costs
comparable to cheap fossil fuels and natural gas, while minimizing negative impacts on the
environment.
14.Reference
1. Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application, James F. Manwell, Jon G.
McGowan, Anthony L. Rogers - 2010.Willey Publications.
2. Wind Turbine Technology, Ahmad Hemami - 2011,Cengage Learning series
3. Wind Energy Hand Book, Tony Burton.
4. CENTER FOR WIND ENERGY AND TECHNOLOGY
5. GLOBAL WIND ENERGY COUNCIL : www.gwec.net