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Lecture # 1
Introduction to Semiconductors
Atomic Structure
• Atom is the smallest particle of an element
that retains the characteristics of that
element.
• Atom consist of Nucleus and Shells
• Nucleus contains two particles inside
– Proton (+ve charge)
– Neutron (Neutral – No charge)
• Shells contain
– Electrons (-ve Charge)
Atomic Number
• The atomic number equals the number of Protons in the
nucleus, which is the same as the number of electrons in
an electrically balanced (Neutral) atoms.
Electron Shells and Orbits
• Each Discrete (Orbit) from the nucleus corresponds to a certain
energy level. In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy bands
known as Shells.
– Shells are, K, L, M, N, and so on.
– Number of Electrons in each Shell
• Ne = 2n2
• Valence Electrons
• The outer most shell of atom is known as
Valence shell and electrons in this shell
are called valence electrons.
• Ionization
• The process of losing/gaining a electron
is known as ionization.
Core of an Atom
• All shells except the valence shell is
known as core.
Conductors
• A conductor is a material that conducts electrical current.
• Best conductors contain one valence electron very
loosely bound to the atom. These loosely bound valence
electrons can easily break away from their atoms and
become free electrons. Therefore, a conductive material
has many free electrons that, when moving in the same
direction, make up current.
• Insulators
– An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current
under normal conditions.
• Valance electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore, there
are very few free electrons in an insulator.
Energy Bands
• Valence shell of an atom represents a band of
energy levels and the valence electrons are
confined to that band.
• Energy required by a electron to leave the
valence shell and become a free electron and
exist in what is known as the conduction band.
• The difference in energy between the valence
band and the conduction band is called an
energy gap.
Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a Conductor Atom
Silicon and Germanium
Covalent Bonds
• Two atoms share the same number of
electrons.
Silicon Crystal
• The electrons in the n-region that occupy the upper part of the
conduction band in terms of their energy can easily diffuse across
the junction and temporarily become free electrons in the lower part
of the p-region conduction band.
• After crossing the junction, the electrons quickly lose energy and fall
into the holes in the p-region valence band.
Biasing the PN-Junction
• Applying DC voltage across PN-Junction
is called Biasing.
– Forward Bias
• This is the condition that allows current through
PN-Junction.
– Reverse Bias
• This is the condition that prevents current through
the PN-Junction.
Forward Bias
• Connecting a DC voltage source with PN-Junction in
such a way that –ve terminal connects with N-region and
+ve terminal connects with P-region.
• The Applied voltages are called Bias Voltage (VBIAS).
Effect of Forward Bias
• Negative side of the bias-voltage source “pushes” the
free electrons, this flow of free electrons is called
Electron Current.
• The bias voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the
free electrons for them to overcome the barrier potential
of the depletion region and move on through into p-
region
• Once in the P-region, electrons have lost energy to
combine with holes.
• The +ve side of the bias voltage source attracts the
electrons.
• Electrons moves one hole to the next, effective flow of
holes is called Hole Current.
As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions is
reduced, as more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the other side
of the PN-Junction, the number of –ve ions is reduced. This causes the depletion
region to narrow.
The effect of Barrier Potential During Forward
Bias
Forward Voltage VF 0
VBIAS
Forward Current IF
RLIMIT
Reverse Current IR 0A
Reverse Voltage VR VBIAS
The Practical Diode Model
Silicon VF 0.7V
Germanium VF 0.3V
VBIAS VF
Forward Current IF
RLIMIT
Reverse Current IR 0A
Reverse Voltage
VR VBIAS
The Complex Diode Model
VF 0.7V I F rd
VBIAS 0.7V
IF
RLIMIT rd