Notation Issues?

Practise moving between representations:

(1 +x)
n
=
n n
x
n
x
n
r
x
n
n
x
r n
0 1 2
2
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| ... ...
=
n n n n
r
r n
n
n
C C x C x C x C x
0 1 2
2
+ + + + + + ... ...
=
n
r
x
r
r
n
|
\

|
.
|
=

0

=

=

n
r
r
x
r n r
n
0
)! ( !
!

=

=
n
r
r
r
n
x C
0

Students will find proofs of general results easier if they change the question immediately to the
notation with which they feel most comfortable.

Hints, Tips and Tricks:

1. If the result involves a sum of
n
C
r
s with no xs then a value has probably been substituted in for x.

2. If the result involves a sum of
n
C
r
s with alternating signs, begin by considering
(1 x)
n
=
n n
x
n
x
n
r
x
n
n
x
r r n n
0 1 2
1 1
2
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| ... ( ) ... ( ) and substitute for x.

3. If the result involves powers of a number (say a) as well as
n
C
r
s, the value of x was probably a.

4. If the
n
C
r
s are being multiplied by their corresponding r value, begin by differentiating both sides
of (1 +x)
n
=
n n
x
n
x
n
r
x
n
n
x
r n
0 1 2
2
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| ... ... .

5. If the
n
C
r
s are being divided by their corresponding (r +1) value, begin by integrating both sides of
(1 +x)
n
=
n n
x
n
x
n
r
x
n
n
x
r n
0 1 2
2
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| ... ... , and remember the constant of integration.

Exercise:
1. Prove that
n n n n
r
n
n
n
0 1 2
2
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| = ... ... .
2. Prove that
n n n n n
n
n
0 1 2 3
1 0
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
| +
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
| + +
|
\

|
.
| = ... ( ) .
3. Prove that r
n
r
n
n
r
n
|
\

|
.
| =

=

2
1
0
.
Prove that
1
1
2 1
1
1
0
r
n
r n
n
r
n
+
|
\

|
.
| =

+
+
=

.

Considering the expansion of
( )
1
n
x +
(i) What is ...
0 1
n n n
n
| | | | | |
| | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
+ + + ?

(ii) What is 2 4 ... 2
0 1 2
n
n n n n
n
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
+ + + ?

(iii) If n is even, why is ... ...
5 0 2 4 1 3 1
n n n n n n n n
n n
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
=
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ . \ . \ . \ .
+ + + + + +

?




Now try the Supplementary Problems on page 4

Supplementary Work



5. Hint: Use the identity
( ) ( )
2 2
1
1
n n
n r n r
n r n r
| | | |
= +
| |
+
\ . \ .

Identities with Binomial Coefficients (Part 2)

(1) Prove
n n
k n k
| | | |
| |
| |
\ . \ .
=

, for 0 k n s s

(2) By considering the identity
( ) ( )( )
1
1 1 1
n n
x x x
+
+ = + + , prove

1
1
n n n
k k k
| | | | | |
| | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
+
= +

for 1 s k s n.

(3) By considering
( )
1
1 1
n
n
x
x
| |
|
|
\ .
+ express in simplest form
(i)
( )
... 1
2 0 3 1 2
n n n n n n n
n n
| || | | || | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
\ . \ .\ . \ .\ . \ .
+ +



(ii)
2 2 2 2
...
0 1 2
n n n n
n
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
+ + if n is even.

(4) By equating coefficients on both sides of
( ) ( )
( )
2
1 1 1
n
n n
x x x + =
Show
( )
2
0
1 0
n
k
k
n
k
=
| |
|
|
\ .
=

if n is odd

Identities with Binomial Coefficients Solutions (Part 2)

(1) Prove
n n
k n k
| | | |
| |
| |
\ . \ .
=

, for 0 k n s s

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
LHS RHS
! ! !
! ! ! ! ! !
n n n
n k k n k k n n k n k
n n
k n k
| | | |
= = | |
| |
\ . \ .
= = =
(

(2) By considering the identity
( ) ( )( )
1
1 1 1
n n
x x x
+
+ = + + , prove

1
1
n n n
k k k
| | | | | |
| | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
+
= +

for 1 s k s n.
1
LHS
n
k
=
+ | |
|
\ .
=coefficient of
k
x in the expansion of ( )
1
1
n
x
+
+
Given that ( )( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 1 1
n n n
x x x x x + + = + + + then the coefficient of
k
x of the RHS is the sum
of the coefficient of
k
x in ( ) 1
n
x + and the coefficient of
1 k
x

in ( ) 1
n
x +
i.e.
1
n n
k k
| | | |
+
| |

\ . \ .

1
1
n n n
k k k
+ | | | | | |
= +
| | |

\ . \ . \ .

(3) By considering
( )
1
1 1
n
n
x
x
| |
|
|
\ .
+ express in simplest form
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2 2
0 0
2
0
1
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
1
n
n n
n
n
n n
n n
n k
k k
n k
k k
n n
n
k
n k
k
x
x x
x
x x x
n n
x x
k k
x x
n
x
k

= =

+
| |
+ = =
|
\ .
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .
= =
| |
=
|
\ .

(i)
( )
... 1
2 0 3 1 2
n n n n n n n
n n
| || | | || | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
\ . \ .\ . \ .\ . \ .
+ +


2
n | |
|
\ .
is the coefficient of
2
x in ( ) 1
n
x + and
0
n | |
|
\ .
is the constant in
1
1
n
x
| |

|
\ .


2 0
n n | || |

| |
\ .\ .
is the coefficient of a term in
2
x in ( )
1
1 1
n
n
x
x
| |
+
|
\ .
.


3
n | |
|
\ .
is the coefficient of
3
x in ( ) 1
n
x + and
1
n | |

|
\ .
is the coefficient of
1
x

in
1
1
n
x
| |

|
\ .


3 1
n n | || |

| |
\ .\ .
is the coefficient of a term in
2
x in ( )
1
1 1
n
n
x
x
| |
+
|
\ .
.


So ( ) ... 1
2 0 3 1 2
n
n n n n n n
n n
| || | | || | | || |
+ +
| | | | | |

\ .\ . \ .\ . \ .\ .
is the coefficient of
2
x in ( )
1
1 1
n
n
x
x
| |
+
|
\ .


Now what is the coefficient of
2
x in ( )
2
0
1
n
k
n k
k
n
x
k

=
| |

|
\ .

?
2 2 2 2
2
2
n k k n
n
k
= =

=


So if n is even then ( ) ( )
2
2
... 1 1
2
2 0 3 1 2
2
n
n
n
n n n n n n
n
n n

| |
| || | | || | | || |
|
+ + =

| | | | | |
|

\ .\ . \ .\ . \ .\ .
\ .

BUT if n is odd then there is no
2
x term and so ( ) ... 1 0
2 0 3 1 2
n
n n n n n n
n n
| || | | || | | || |
+ + =
| | | | | |

\ .\ . \ .\ . \ .\ .




( )
( )
2
2
0 odd
... 1
1 even 2 0 3 1 2
2
2
n
n
n
n n n n n n
n
n n n
n

| || | | || | | || | | |
+ + =

| | | | | |
|

\ .\ . \ .\ . \ .\ .

|

\ .


(ii)
2 2 2 2
...
0 1 2
n n n n
n
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
+ + if n is even.
0
n | |
|
\ .
is the constant term in ( ) 1
n
x + and
0
n | |
|
\ .
is the constant in
1
1
n
x
| |

|
\ .


2
0
n | |

|
\ .
is a constant term in ( )
1
1 1
n
n
x
x
| |
+
|
\ .
.

1
n | |
|
\ .
is the coefficient of x in ( ) 1
n
x + and
1
n | |

|
\ .
is the coefficient of
1
x

in
1
1
n
x
| |

|
\ .


2
1
n | |

|
\ .
is a constant term in ( )
1
1 1
n
n
x
x
| |
+
|
\ .
.


So
2 2 2
...
0 1
n n n
n
| | | | | |
+ +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
is the constant term in ( )
1
1 1
n
n
x
x
| |
+
|
\ .
.

Now what is the constant term in ( )
2
0
1
n
k
n k
k
n
x
k

=
| |

|
\ .

?
| |
2 0 2
even
2
n k k n
n
k n
= =
= e


( )
2 2 2
2
... 1
0 1
2
n
n
n n n
n
n
| |
| | | | | |
|
+ + =
| | |
|
\ . \ . \ .
\ .



(4) By equating coefficients on both sides of
( ) ( )
( )
2
1 1 1
n
n n
x x x + =

Show
( )
2
0
1 0
n
k
k
n
k
=
| |
|
|
\ .
=

if n is odd
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 0
2 2
0
1 1 1
1 1
n n
n n k
j k
j k
n
n
r
r
r
n n
x x x x
j k
n
x x
r
= =
=
( ( | | | |
+ =
( ( | |
\ . \ .
| |
=
|
\ .

( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 2
0
Now 1 ... 1
0 1
... 1
0 1 1 0
n
k n
k
n
n n n n
k n
n n n n n n
n n n
=
| | | | | | | |
= + +
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
| || | | || | | || |
= + +
| | | | | |

\ .\ . \ .\ . \ .\ .

n
n
| |
|
\ .
is the coefficient of
n
x in ( ) 1
n
x + and
0
n | |
|
\ .
is the is the constant term in ( ) 1
n
x

2
0
n | |

|
\ .
is the coefficient of a term in
n
x in ( ) ( ) 1 1
n n
x x + .


1
n
n
| |
|

\ .
is the coefficient of
1 n
x

in ( ) 1
n
x + and
1
n | |

|
\ .
is the coefficient of x in ( ) 1
n
x .

2
1
n | |

|
\ .
is the coefficient of a term in
n
x in ( ) ( ) 1 1
n n
x x + .


( )
2 2 2
... 1
0 1
n
n n n
n
| | | | | |
+ +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
is the coefficient of the term in
n
x in ( ) ( ) 1 1
n n
x x + .


Now, what is the coefficient of the term in
n
x in the expansion of
( ) ( )
2 2
0
1 1
n
n
r
r
r
n
x x
r
=
| |
=
|
\ .

?
Ans: 0

It was given that n is odd and all the terms have even powers, there are no terms with odd
powers.

( )
2 2 2
... 1 0
0 1
n
n n n
n
| | | | | |
+ + =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .