Quantum Numbers and the Periodic Table

By: Ryan Carlo Magpantay

Quantum Numbers
A total of four quantum numbers were developed to better understand the movement and pathway of electrons in its designated orbital within an atom. Each quantum number indicates an electron's trait within an atom, which satisfies to explain the movement of electrons as a wave function, described by the Schrodinger equation. Each electron in an atom has a unique set of quantum numbers; no two electrons can share the same combination of four quantum numbers. Quantum numbers are very significant because they can determine the electron configuration of an atom and a probable location of the atom's electrons. They can also aid in graphing orbitals. Quantum numbers can help determine other characteristics of atoms, such as ionization energy and the atomic radius.

The Four Quantum Numbers

Quantum numbers designate specific levels, subshells, orbitals, and spins of electrons. This means that they are describing in detail the characteristics of the electrons in the atoms. They describe each unique solution to the Schrdinger Equation, or the wave function, of electrons in an atom. There are a total of four quantum numbers: the principal quantum number (n), the orbital angular momentum quantum number (l), the magnetic quantum number (ml), and the electron spin quantum number (ms). The principal quantum number, n, describes the energy of an electron and the most probable distance of the electron from the nucleus. In other words, it is referring to the size of the orbital and the energy level an electron is placed in. The number of subshells, or l, describes the shape of the orbital. You can also use l to find the number of angular nodes. The magnetic quantum number, ml, describes the amount of energy levels in a subshell. ms is referring to the spin on the electron, which can either be up or down.

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

n= 1, 2, 3,, Specifies the energy of an electron and the size of the orbital (the distance from the nucleus of the peak in a radial probability distribution plot). All orbitals that have the same value of n are said to be in the same shell (level). For a hydrogen atom with n=1, the electron is in its ground state; if the electron is in the n=2 orbital, it is in an excited state. The total number of orbitals for a given n value is n2.

2. Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

The orbital angular momentum quantum number l determines the shape of an orbital, and therefore the angular distribution. The number of angular nodes is equal to the value of the angular momentum quantum number l. (For more information about angular nodes, see Electronic Orbitals.) Each value of l indicates a specific s, p, d, f subshell

(each unique in shape.) The value of l is dependent on the principal quantum number n. Unlike n, the value of l can be zero. It can also be a positive integer, but it cannot be larger than one less than the principal quantum number (n-1): l=0, 1, 2, 3, 4, (n-1)

0 l Letter s

1 p

2 d

3 F

4 g

5 h

... ...

Example: If n=7, what are the possible values of l? Answer: Since l can be zero or a positive integer less than (n-1), it can have a value of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. Example: If l=4, how many angular nodes does the atom have? Answer: The number of angular nodes is equal to the value of l, so the number of nodes is also 4.

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

The magnetic quantum number ml determines the number of orbitals and their orientation within a subshell. Consequently, its value depends on the orbital angular momentum quantum number l. Given a certain l, ml is an interval ranging from l to +l, so it can be zero, a negative integer, or a positive integer.

ml= -l, (-l +1),( -l +2),, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, (l 1), (l 2), +l

Example: If n=3, and l=2, then what are the possible values of ml ? Answer: Since ml must range from l to +l, then ml can be: -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2.

4. Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

Unlike n, l, and ml, the electron spin quantum number ms does not depend on another quantum number. It designates the direction of the electron spin and may have a spin of +1/2, represented by , or 1/2, represented by . This means that when ms is positive the electron has an upward spin, which can be referred to as "spin up." When it is negative, the electron has a downward spin, so it is "spin down." The significance of the electron spin quantum number is its determination of an atom's ability to generate a magnetic field or not. (For more information, see Electron Spin.) ms= +1/2 or -1/2 Example: List the possible combinations of all four quantum numbers when n=2, l=1, and ml=0. ms. Answer: The fourth quantum number is independent of the first three, allowing the first three quantum numbers of two electrons to be the same. Since the spin can be +1/2 or =1/2, there are two combinations: n=2, l=1, ml =0, ms=+1/2 and n=2, l=1, ml=0 ms=-1/2 Example: Can an electron with ms=1/2 have a downward spin?

Answer: No, if the value of ms is positive, the electron is "spin up."

Table of Allowed Quantum Numbers

Number Number of Orbital of orbitals Name electrons 1 1 3 1 3 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14

Writing Electron Configurations

The distribution of electrons among the orbitals of an atom is called the electron configuration. The electrons are filled in according to a scheme known as the Aufbau principle ("building-up"), which corresponds (for the most part) to increasing energy of the subshells: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f It is not necessary to memorize this listing, because the order in which the electrons are filled in can be read from the periodic table in the following fashion:

n 1 2

l 0 0 1

ml 0 0 -1, 0, +1 0 -1, 0, +1

0 1 2

-2, -1, 0, +1, +2 5 0 -1, 0, +1 1 3

0 1 2 3

-2, -1, 0, +1, +2 5 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, 7 +2, +3

THE PERIODIC TABLE

Although some elements, such as gold and iron, have been known to humans since prehistoric times, it wasn't until the 17th century that the first scientific discovery of an element (phosphorus) was made. Only 12 elements were known prior to 1700, but as more and more elements were discovered by 1900 there were more than 80 scientists tried to find a way to organize them systematically, according to their physical and chemical properties. Today, the periodic table organizes the elements in horizontal rows, or periods, by order of increasing atomic number, which equals the number of protons in the atomic nucleus of each element. The elements are also organized in vertical columns, or groups, based on similar physical characteristics and chemical behaviour. This arrangement developed side by side with atomic theory over about 200 years, and it continues to evolve as new elements are discovered.

THE FATHERS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

1864 A scientist, Lothar Meyer, who published a paper in 1864 describing 28 elements classified by their valence, but with no prediction of new elements. Meyer, who is often credited with the discovery of the periodic system, opposed and criticized the Periodic Law. He said that they are arranged in the order of their atomic weights they fall into groups in which similar chemical and physical properties are repeated at periodic intervals. The Periodic Law, in chemistry, law stating that many of the physical and chemical properties of the elements tend to recur in a systematic manner with increasing atomic number. 1869 - In 1869 Russian chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev started the development of the periodic table, arranging chemical elements by atomic mass. He predicted the discovery of other elements, and left spaces open in his periodic table for them. He used it to correct the properties of some already discovered elements and also to predict the properties of elements yet to be discovered. Mendeleev published his periodic table of all known elements and predicted several new elements to complete the table. Only a few months after, Meyer published a virtually identical table. Some consider Meyer and Mendeleev the co-creators of the periodic table, but everybody agrees that Mendeleev's accurate prediction of the qualities of what he called germanium, gallium and scandium qualifies him for the majority of the credit for the table. He pointed out that some of the atomic weights being used at the time were incorrect, and provided for variance from atomic weight order. However, his table did not include any of the noble gases, which were discovered later by William Ramsay. Mendeleev periodic table appeared in his work "On the Relationship of the Properties of the Elements to their Atomic Weights" in 1869.

THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

1945 - In 1945 Glenn Seaborg identified lanthanides and actinides (atomic number >92), which are usually placed below the periodic table. Glenn Seaborg discovered the transuranium elements, atomic numbers 94 to 102. The completion of the actinide series allowed Seaborg to redesign the periodic table into it current form. Both the lanthanide and actinide series of elements were placed under the rest of the periodic table. Dr. Seaborg and his colleagues are also responsible for the identification of more than 100 isotopes of elements. By now, Scientists have identified 90 naturally occurring elements, and created about 28 others. The periodic table organizes the elements in a particular way. A great deal of information about an element can be gathered from its position in the period table.

Elements in the periodic table are also grouped into families/groups. Columns of elements are called groups or families. Families range from IA-VIIIA and from IB-VIIIB Elements in each family have similar but not identical properties.

 For example, lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and other members of family IA are all soft, white, shiny metals. All elements in a family have the same number of valence electrons.

Elements in the periodic table Each horizontal row of elements is called a period. The elements in a period are not alike in properties. In fact, the properties change greatly across even given row. The first element in a period is always an extremely active solid. The last element in a period, is always an inactive gas.

Hydrogen Hydrogen is in a class of its own. Its a gas at room temperature. IA - Alkali Metals They are shiny, have the consistency of clay, and are easily cut with a knife. They are the most reactive metals. They react violently with water. IIA Alkali Earth Metals They are never found uncombined in nature. They have two valence electrons. IIIB IIB Transition Metals They are good conductors of heat and electricity. Many transition metals combine chemically with oxygen to form compounds called oxides. IIIA Boron Family Atoms in this family have 3 valence electrons. This family includes a metalloid (boron), and the rest are metals. IVA Carbon Family Atoms of this family have 4 valence electrons. This family includes a non-metal (carbon), metalloids, and metals.

VA Nitrogen Family The nitrogen family is named after the element that makes up 78% of our atmosphere. This family includes non-metals, metalloids, and metals. VIA Oxygen Family Most elements in this family share electrons when forming compounds. VIIA Halogens Halogens have 7 valence electrons, which explains why they are the most active nonmetals. They are never found free in nature. They react with alkali metals to form salts. VIIIA Noble Gases Noble Gases are colorless gases that are extremely un-reactive. One important property of the noble gases is their inactivity. They are inactive because their outermost energy level is full. All the noble gases are found in small amounts in the earth's atmosphere. Rare Earth Elements Transuranium Elements The thirty rare earth elements are composed of the lanthanide and actinide series. One element of the lanthanide series and most of the elements in the actinide series are called trans-uranium, which means synthetic man-made elements.