Single Phase AC Motor Speed Control

Muhammad Fahad Ahmed Asad Ali Khan Haseeb Fayyaz Abbasi

MS System Engineering 2012-14 Supervised By Mr. Nauman Masood

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Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences, Nilore-45650, Islamabad

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Declaration of Originality
I hereby declare that the work contained in this report and the intellectual content of this report are the product of my own work. This report has not been previously published in any form nor does it contain any verbatim of the published resources which could be treated as infringement of the international copyright law. I also declare that I do understand the terms copyright and plagiarism, and that in case of any copyright violation or plagiarism found in this work, I will be held fully responsible of the consequences of any such violation.

Signature: ____________ Authors Name: Muhammad Signature: ____________ Authors Name: Fahad Ahmed Signature: ____________ Authors Name: Asad Ali Khan Signature: ____________ Authors Name: Haseeb Fayyaz Abbasi

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Acknowledgement
Gratitude and endless thanks to Allah Almighty, the Lord of the World, who bestowed mankind, the light of knowledge through laurels of perception, learning and reasoning, in the way of searching, inquiring and finding the ultimate truth. To whom we serve, and to whom we pray for help. Apart from the efforts of myself, the success of any project depends largely on the encouragement and guidelines of many others. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the people who have been instrumental in the successful completion of this project. I feel my privilege and honor to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Mr. Nauman Masood for all their kind help, guidance, suggestions and support through the development of this project. I would like to express my special thanks and gratitude to Dr Aqil for his support and guidance in carrying out this project work Finally, I would also like to thank Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences for providing very conducive educational environment.

Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................... vi

v Chapter 1. Introduction.....................................................1 Chapter 2. Circuit Description............................................4 Chapter 3. Coding and Flow Chart....................................10 Chapter 4. Results and Simulations..................................14 Conclusion.....................................................................16 Future Recommendations...............................................17 Appendix.......................................................................18

List of Figures
Figure 2-1: Isolation Supply for Microcontroller..................4 Figure 2-2: Microcontroller and its interfacing....................6 Figure 2-3: Driving H-Bridge using ECCP module with dead band delay .......................................................................7 Figure 2-4: Optical Isolation Sceheme................................8 Figure 2-5: High power circuit block diagram......................9 Figure 2-6: PCBs. (a) Low power circuit, (b) High power circuit............................................................................. 10 Figure 3-7 Flow chart representing flow of implemented algorithm........................................................................ 13 Figure 4-8: Comparison of sinusoidal wave with triangular wave..............................................................................14 Figure 4-9: Bipolar Pulses................................................14 Figure 4-10: 10 sec dead time introduced in between the gate signals of higher and the lower switches...................15 Figure 4-11: Fundamental component of pulses................15

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Abstract
Induction motors are ubiquitous. They form a major portion of electrical power consumption. Motor-driven systems are often designed to handle peak loads. This often leads to energy inefficiency in systems that operate for extended periods at reduced load. So, there is a need to adjust motors speed in such a way that enable closer matching of motor output to load and thus results in energy savings. Voltage Control using SCR has limited range and cause harmonic problems as well. Therefor Frequency Control using Volts/Hertz rule is preffered over voltage control. PWM based frequency control is widely used in industry. They requires high speed Solid State Switches for their operation. A major requirement of such drives is to avoid shoot through currents by providing satisfactory amount of dead band delay. Hence a design strategy has been developed using dedicated controller to provide dead time. Furthermore issue of floating ground is resolved through isolation supplies.

Chapter 1. Introduction
This Single phase induction motors are widely used in daily life. Also Induction motors are widely used in industry; hence they form a major portion of electrical power consumption. In the modern Industry, Motor-driven systems are often designed to handle peak loads that have a safety factor. This often leads to energy inefficiency in systems that operate for extended periods at reduced load. So, there is a need to adjust motors speed in such a way that enable closer matching of motor output to load and thus results in energy savings.

1.1 Speed Control

There are number of methods devised to control the speed of ac motors, some of them are given below:

1.1.1 Pole Changing

Early machines were designed with multiple poles to facilitate speed control by pole changing. By switching in different numbers or combinations of poles a limited number of fixed speeds could be obtained.

1.1.2 Variable Rotor Resistance

The speed of induction motors can however be varied over a limited range by varying the rotor resistance but only by using wound rotor designs negating many of the advantages of the induction motor.

1.1.3 Variable Frequency

Since motor speed depends on the speed of the rotating field, speed control can be affected by changing the frequency of the AC power supplied to the motor. As in most machines, the induction motor is designed to work with the flux density just below the saturation point over most of its operating range to achieve optimum efficiency. The flux density B is given by:
B =k2 V f

Where V is the applied voltage, f is the supply frequency and k2 is a constant depending on the shape and configuration of the stator poles.

2 In other words if the flux density is constant, the Volts per Hertz is also a constant. This is an important relationship and it has the following consequences. For speed control, the supply voltage must increase in step with the frequency; otherwise the flux in the machine will deviate from the desired optimum operating point. Practical motor controllers based on frequency control must therefore have a means of simultaneously controlling the motor supply voltage. This is known as Volts/Hertz control. Increasing the frequency without increasing the voltage will cause a reduction of the flux in the magnetic circuit thus reducing the motor's output torque. The reduced motor torque will tend to increase the slip with respect to the new supply frequency. This in turn causes a greater current to flow in the stator, increasing the IR volt drop across the windings as well as the I2R copper losses in the windings. The result is a major drop in the motor efficiency. Increasing the frequency still further will ultimately cause the motor to stall.

1.2 The motive for keeping V/f constant with adjustable speed drives
By using variable frequency control, it is possible to adjust the speed of the motor either above or below base speed. But it is important to maintain certain voltage and torque limitations on the motor as the frequency is varied, to ensure safe operation. When running at speeds below the base speed of the motor, it is necessary to reduce the terminal voltage applied to the stator for proper operation. The terminal voltage applied to the stator should be decreased linearly with decreasing stator frequency. If it is not done, the steel in the core of the induction motor will saturate and excessive magnetization currents will flow in the machine. This is because, in an induction motor induce emf (E) is proportional to supply frequency and air-gap flux, E f If we can ignore the stator resistance and inductance then E will be approximately equal to Vs (Stator supply voltage), E Vs Then, Vs f And Vs/f

3 Therefore when we decrease f keeping the stator supply voltage constant the flux in the core of the motor will increase and the magnetization current of the motor will also increase. But induction motors are normally designed to operate near the saturation point on their magnetization curves, so the increase in flux due to decrease in frequency will cause excessive magnetization currents to flow in the motor. To avoid from this effect it is customary to keep V/f ratio constant.

1.3 Comparison of speed controllability with frequency control and voltage control
By using variable frequency control, it is possible to adjust the speed of the motor either above or below base speed. A properly designed variable frequency induction motor can control the speed over a range from as little as 5% of base speed up to about twice base speed. The torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the square of the applied voltage. Therefore the speed of the motor may be controlled over a limited range by varying the line voltage. This method is sometimes used on small motor driving fans.

1.4 Objective:
Aim of this project is to develop PWM based Single Phase AC Motor Speed Control Mechanism in which V/f ratio is kept constant and to resolve dead time and floating ground issues.

Chapter 2. Circuit Description

The circuit of our ac motor speed drive has been separated into two sub circuitries, low power circuit and high power circuit. Each of these modules has been described below:

2.1 Low Power Circuit:

Low power circuit consist of following components

2.1.1 Isolation Supplies:

In order to resolve the issue of floating ground, isolation supplies are required to provide gate to source voltage for the MOSFETs of H-bridge. There are 4 isolation supplies in this circuit two for upper MOSFETs (one for each) and one supply for lower two MOSFETs. Fourth isolation supply is used for Microcontroller and related circuitry. For this purpose isolation transformer (220/7 V r.m.s) was designed. It has 4 secondaries. These are then rectified and applied to regulators. For Microcontroller it is regulated using LM7805 to provide 5V regulated DC power.

Figure 2-1: Isolation Supply for Microcontroller

For gate pulses it is applied to LM7806 to get 6V regulated DC power supply which is applied at the output of opto-coupler. One of isolation supply is shown in Fig. 2-1. There are four similar circuits.

2.1.2 Regulator
The LM78XX gives positive voltage while LM79XX gives negative voltage both are discussed below. 2.1.2.1 Fixed Positive linear Voltage Regulators Although many types of IC regulators are available, the 78XX series of lC regulators is representative of three-terminal devices that provide a fixed positive output voltage. The three terminals are input, output, and ground as indicated in the standard fixed voltage configuration in figure. The last two digits in the part number designate the output voltage, for example 7805 is a + 5.0 V regulator. Capacitors, although not always necessary, are sometimes used on the input and output. The output capacitor acts basically as a line filter to improve transient response. The input capacitor is used to prevent unwanted oscillations when the regulator is at some distance from the power supply filter such that the line has a significant inductance. The 78XX series can produce output currents up to in excess of 1A when used with an adequate heat sink. The input voltage must be at least 2V above the output voltage in order to maintain regulation. The circuits have internal thermal overload protection and short circuit current-limiting features. Thermal overload occurs when the internal power dissipation becomes excessive and the temperature of the device exceeds a certain value. Almost all applications of regulators require that the device be secured to a heat sink to prevent thermal overload.

2.1.3 Microcontroller
In this project we used pic18f458 due to its in built feature of dead band delay found in ECCP module. ECCP module is discussed along with code description.

Figure 2-2: Microcontroller and its interfacing

2.1.4 Dead Time

The time required for turning off of a switch is usually greater than time required turning on it. Therefore if two switches are such that one is turning on while other is turning off there will be a short time for which both switches will be in turn on state. If these switches are connected in series and a high voltage is applied across the as is in case of one leg of H bridge or hex bridge a short circuit will occur. This case occurs in bipolar PWM switching technique which is used in this project. Therefore a dead time should be introduced so that the turning on pulse is applied after some delay usually 10 sec is sufficient time for it. Fortunately it is found in ECCP module of PIC 18f458 therefore it is selected for this purpose. In the Half-Bridge Output mode, two pins are used as outputs to drive pushpull loads. The RD4/PSP4/ ECCP1/P1A pin has the PWM output signal, while the RD5/PSP5/P1B pin has the complementary PWM output signal. This mode can be used for half-bridge applications, as shown in Figure or for full-bridge applications where four power switches are being modulated with two PWM signals. In HalfBridge Output mode, the programmable dead band delay can be used to prevent shoot-through current in bridge power devices. The value of register ECCP1DEL

7 dictates the number of clock cycles before the output is driven active. If the value is greater than the duty cycle, the corresponding output remains inactive during the entire cycle. Since the P1A and P1B outputs are multiplexed with the PORTD<4> and PORTD<5> data latches, theTRISD<4> and TRISD<5> bits must be cleared toconfigure P1A and P1B as outputs.

Figure 2-3: Driving H-Bridge using ECCP module with dead band delay

2.1.5 Prevention of Micro Controller and Opto Coupler from Loading

In order to prevent microcontroller and opto-coupler from loading CMOS buffers are used. 4050 is used after microcontroller. As isolation supplies is not applied yet a single package which contains six buffers (here we require only four) is sufficient. Care must be taken for buffers at output of opto-coupler as ground is isolated now so 3 buffers are required each for respective supply. Also in this case buffers are inverting as there is inversion in opto-coupler output as signal is taken from the emitter of output transistor.

GND4 2 C26 C27 0.1uF 5 1.5uF 6 8 1 04 2 1 8 U11B 5 1 4 GND4 2

HCC4050BF2

1 4502-4 4 3 AD741LN 7 2 R11 200 GND1 1 1 C25 0.1uF 2 GND1 VDD1

HCC4049BF3

R12 Res1 5K

8 GND1 U15D 10 9 HCC4050BF3

VDD4

Figure 2-4: Optical Isolation Sceheme

2.1.6 Isolation:
Opto-coupler provides optical isolation and here it is used in isolation supplies. The opto-coupler selected is HCPL 4502 which is a high speed opto-coupler. As switching frequency is greater than 2 kHz therefore use of such high speed opto-coupler is necessary. Maximum value of turn on and turn off time is 1 sec. while for another common opto-couple CNY-17 it may be as high as 42.5 sec.

2.2 Drive Circuit:

Due to high voltage and currents involved drive circuit is fabricated on separate PCB so as to isolate it from Low Power Control Circuit. Drive circuit consists of: Full bridge rectifier in which 10A06 diodes are used whose rating is 10A/800V. DC link is provided using 3900 F /400V capacitor.

9 IRF 740 MOSFETs are used as switching device in H-bridge. It has rating of 10A/400V. Switching time is in order of nano seconds. Turn on time is 15-21 ns while turn off time is 42 ns.

Figure 2-5: High power circuit block diagram

All the above mentioned components are assembled together to get the two pcbs of low power circuits and high power circuit as shown in figure 2.10a and 2.10b respectively.

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(a)

(b)
Figure 2-6: PCBs. (a) Low power circuit, (b) High power circuit

Chapter 3. Coding and Flow Chart

11 In this code when code starts first of all two arrays are initialized. In first array named angle 51 values of angle from 0 to 2 are stored in equal steps. In second array named sin_table corresponding duty cycles are placed (duty cycle can be in between 0-255). After that settings of analog to digital converter (ADC) are performed by setting the ADCON0 and ADCON1 registers to the desired value. This code will involve timer interrupt for changing the duty cycle according to frequency settings (voltage will also be changed according to V/f rule along with changing of frequency) dictated by ADC. Therefore timer (Timer 0) and interrupt settings are performed next involving setting of global interrupt enable (GIE bit in INTCON register). Analog to Digital Interrupt enable (ADIE bit in PIE1 register) timer 0 interrupt is enabled (TMR0IE bit in INTCON register) Timer 0 Interrupt flag is cleared. After that PWM is enabled. Following register are involved in PWM settings

3.1 PWM Control Register (ECCP1CON):

This is ECCP1 control registers. From here we can select whether to use ECCP module as capture, compare or PWM module. Here in this code we are using it as PWM module. In PWM mode we can select one of following four configurations Single output Full Bridge Half Bridge Full Bridge Reverse.

These settings are also performed using ECCP1CON register. Here we are using it as Half Bridge due to its in built feature of dead band delay. The use of ECCP module in half bridge PWM with dead band delay will be further explained under PIC 18f458 microcontroller.

3.2 Period Registor (PR2):

PR2 stands for timer 2 Period register. From here we can set the switching frequency for PWM.

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3.3 Duty Cycle Registor (ECCPR1L):

It is an eight bit register which is used in PWM mode for setting of duty cycle. When 0 is placed in ECCPR1L duty cycle is 0%. When 255 are placed in ECCPR1L duty cycle is 100%. When x is placed in ECCPR1L duty cycle is ((x/255) x100) %.

3.4 Dead-band delay Registor (ECCP1DEL):

This register is used for the setting of dead band delay in half bridge mode. Its operation is discussed while discussing Dead Time in inverters. After enabling PWM duty cycle is set continuously is while 1 loop and it repeats forever until microcontroller is turned off. Now up to here we have discussed firmware flow chart now we will discuss main firmware of code now we will discuss interrupt service routine. The timer settings are such that interrupt service routine occurs every 0.4ms. In this service routine duty cycle is changed in such a manner that when these PWM pulses will be applied to inverter due to filtering effect of high inductance of motors current will be sinusoidal. When interrupt occurs timer (timer 0) is disabled so that another interrupt does not occur during this period. Timer 0 flag is cleared (as it is set after interrupt occurs so it is cleared so it may be set during next interrupt). As (=*t) so t is incremented in each interrupt and corresponding value of theta is calculated. If this value equals 2 t is reset to 0. And then corresponding angle is sorted from angle array initialized at beginning. After sorting corresponding duty cycle is taken from sin_table array and is manipulated according to V/f rule and is updated in ECCPR1L register. Care should be taken that this duty cycle should not be near 0 or 100 %. For this purpose if duty cycle is less than 20 (<7.8%) the value of duty cycle is set to 20 and when it is more than 235 (>92%) it is set to 235. Otherwise operation of half bridge and dead band delay will not be as desired. Also a counter is incremented inside the service routine if it equals 1000 ADC is read. As reading ADC is time consuming process therefore it is not done in each service routine. After reading ADC frequency is calculated. As =2f so now sin table will be read in faster way hence frequency of output will be increased.

13 At the end of Interrupt Service Routine Timer is enabled so that next interrupt can occur. The flow chart of the Code is given below while code is provided in the Appendix of the report.

Start

No

ISR

Yes Initialize angle [ ] Disable Timer 0

Calculate duty cycle according to V/f rule

if duty cycle < 20

Sin_table [ ] Enable ADC Timer Settings

Clear Timer 0 Flag t = t + 0.0016

Yes No duty cycle = 20

if duty cycle > 235

Calculate,theta=wt
If (theta > 2*pi)

duty cycle ==235 No Yes count++

Interrupt Settings
No

Yes
t = 0.0 theta = 0.0

Timer Start
j >0, j<50 i++

if count == 1000 Yes

While 1

Set Duty Cycle

ADC read (0)

No

Yes
if angle [i] >= theta

Calculat frequency

Yes

temp = sin_table [i] Break

No

Calculate omega

count == 0

Enable timer

Figure 3-7 Flow chart representing flow of implemented algorithm

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Chapter 4. Results and Simulations

The code developed for microcontroller using Mikro C pro was simulated using Proteus. The dead time was judged and was found satisfactory. When sinusoidal wave is compare with triangular wave the waveforms obtained are shown in figure 4.1.

Figure 4-8: Comparison of sinusoidal wave with triangular wave

Simulation gives exactly same pattern as shown in figure 4.2

Figure 4-9: Bipolar Pulses

Figure 4.3 shows the 10 sec dead time introduced in between the gate signals of higher and the lower switches.

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Figure 4-10: 10 sec dead time introduced in between the gate signals of higher and the lower switches

It can be seen easily that there is exactly 10 micro seconds dead time between two wave forms. In order to judge that whether sinusoidal is correctly modulated in the above wave forms an RC filter of 50 Hz is designed with R=330 and C=10F. the fundamental component of the above waveform was obtained as shown in figure 4.4.

Figure 4-11: Fundamental component of pulses

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Conclusion
Controlling induction motor speed by SCR has limited range and cause harmonic problems as well. So PWM based speed control strategy is used in this project using high speed solid state switches (MOSFET IRF740 which has very low ON-OFF delyas in order of 117ns). For this, bipolar switching technique was used. Isuues of dead time was tackled using ECCP module of PIC18F458. Another isuue of floating ground was solved using isolation supplies.

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Future Recommendations
Improvement in pulse shapes can be made. Apart from that dead time can be lessend. Another aspect is that it can be used in feedback scheme. Communcation with computer can be done to achieve more accurate and sophisticated speed control.

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Appendix
float angle[51]= {0.0000,0.1257,0.2513,0.3770,0.5027,0.6283,0.7540,0.8796,1.0053,1.1310,1.2566, 1.3823,1.5080,1.6336,1.7593,1.8850,2.0106,2.1363,2.2619,2.3876,2.5133,2.6389, 2.7646,2.8903,3.0159,3.1416,3.2673,3.3929,3.5186,3.6442,3.7699,3.8956,4.0212, 4.1469,4.2726,4.3982,4.5239,4.6496,4.7752,4.9009,5.0265,5.1522,5.2779,5.4035, 5.5292,5.6549,5.7805,5.9062,6.0319,6.1575,6.2838}; int sin_table[51]= {128,144,160,175,189,203,215,226,235,243,249,253,255,255,253,249,243,235,226,2 15 ,203,189,175,160,144,128,112,96,81,67,53,41,30,21,13,7,3,1,1,3,7,13,21,30,41,53, 67,81,96,112,128}; void timer0_isr(void); void interrupt() { if(TMR0IF) timer0_isr(); } unsigned int count=0; float t; float theta; float freq=25; unsigned int i; float temp; float temp1; float freq_temp; unsigned int temp2=3; float omega; float frequency; unsigned int adc_output; unsigned int adc_out; void main(void) { omega=6.283*freq;

19 ADCON0=0x81; ADCON1=0xCE; ADRESH=0x00; ADRESL=0x00; T0CON=0x88; TRISA=0xFF; T0CON.TMR0ON=0; INTCON.GIE=1; PIE1.ADIE=1; INTCON.TMR0IE=1; INTCON.TMR0IF=0; TMR0L=0xAD; TMR0H=0xFB; T0CON.TMR0ON=1; TRISD=0xFF; ECCP1CON=0; PR2=249; ECCPR1L=127; ECCP1DEL=0x14; T2CON=0x01; ECCP1CON=0X8C; TRISD=0; TMR2=0; T2CON.TMR2ON=1; while(1) { ECCPR1L=temp2; } } void timer0_isr(void) { T0CON.TMR0ON=0; INTCON.TMR0IF=0;

20 TMR0L=0xAD; TMR0H=0xFB; t=t+0.0016; theta=omega*t; if (theta>6.283) { t=0.0; theta=0.0; } for(i=0;i<=50;i++) { if(angle[i]>=theta) { temp=sin_table[i]; break; } } temp1=(0.01*freq*temp); temp2=temp1; if (temp2<=10) temp2=10; else if (temp2>=245) temp2=245; ECCPR1L=temp2; count++; if (count==1000) { adc_output=ADC_Read(0); PIR1.ADIF==0; ADCON0.GO=1; ADCON0=0x81; freq_temp=adc_output; frequency=freq_temp*(0.0977);

21 freq=frequency; omega=6.283*freq; count=0; } T0CON.TMR0ON=1; }