Dharma and Moksa Author(s): Daniel H. H. Ingalls Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr.

- Jul., 1957), pp. 41-48 Published by: University of Hawai'i Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1396833 . Accessed: 10/09/2013 13:23
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DANIEL H. H. INGALLS

andMohsa DAarma
IN WRITING OF dharma and moksa I shalltakeas mypoint of departure thepaperwhichProfessor Taubeshas written on theconflict of virtue in theEuropean and faith tradition.' Taubes'paperis very brief. It makesone point, butit makesit clearly, and it is a crucial one. In the of ethics, a socialethics West,he points out,we have a system originally to a city butonewhich became more andmore desocialized state, appropriate and individualized untilunder theRomanEmpire it becameaboutas egocentric as ethics can become.Thissort wasthen ofethics challenged byvarious systems of irrational belief or faith which reified thestimulus to virtue notin manbutin a powerbeyond him: in Isis,in Demeter, and so on,but in the Christian God. Virtue in its older sense of human-based especially came to be considered a sort of vice. To perfection pride, quoteSt. Paul, "Now we aredelivered from thelaw,... that we should in newness serve of and notin theoldness of theletter."2 Taubesmakes outthatthehisspirit of European ethics sincetheadvent of Christianity has beena contest tory back and forth between thesetwoideals. I daresayhe wouldadmit other in thehistory momenta of European in callingthisa buthe is right ethics, one. primary whether the same conflict occursin Now, it maybe usefulto observe India. Our observation us lead to consider whattheIndians meant may by and moksa, and to understand to someextent how Indianreligion dharma differs from that of Europe. One can certainly in India texts find which remind us of thetextwhich Taubesquotes:thestrictures ofPlotinus theGnostics. "Thisschool," against "is convicted of all mention of virtue For saysPlotinus, byitsneglect .... to say'Lookto God,'is nothelpful without someinstruction as to whatthis looking imports."3 I havebeenmaking a translation of Bhdskara's on the lately commentary a which is and whichconstantly highly argumentative Gilt, commentary in defense of a socialmorality thetheories of Sarhkara, fights which against
'See above, pp. 19-24. 2Romans 7:6. 8Plotinus, Enneads, Stephen MacKennas, trans. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1957), II.9,15.

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in Bhiskara's opinion are quite destructive of morality.I shall quote a few similar to show how sentences the passages ringto thoseof Plotinus. Actually I believethe similarity is superficial, but whyI believe thisI leave untillater. Bhiskara commentson the verse: "He who knows the self to be indeeternal,unborn,unchanging,how should that man cause to be structible, killed anyone or kill anyone.'" Afterglossing each word in order to give the literalmeaning,Bhdskara turnsto refute the religiousenthusiast Sarhikara: whoare too lazyto work forliberation Heresomephilosophers (moksa) explain to theBlessed doctrine: "Forthewiseman theverse One thefollowing byimputing in this The expresall works suchis theBlessed One'sintention areexcluded; passage. in scripture are as an example. Works which areenjoined sion"kills" is usedmerely of theBlessed on theignorant. This is thejudgment enjoined only One."5 to theprethat This explanation of theBlessed One's intention paysno attention on to battle of thetext willnotdo. Why? Because it is to urgeArjuna words ceding of the self is heredescribed. thatthe nature fight, Havingtoldhim,"Therefore, of thiswiththewords God setsout to establish therightness "It is not Bh7rata,"6 it of all work, of thisverse weretherenouncing etc.' If theintention born," surely thattheBlessed One had stated nothavebeentoldto Arjuna.Just should suppose that theselfis voidof the that forthewisemanwhoknows works wereimpossible in which alterations. The samemight six organic justas well holdtrueof Arjuna, wouldbe improper. all thefollowing verses casehe wouldceaseto act. Furthermore, to a vainhope,norlet one'smindbe tempted notcherish one should Accordingly, and "Letus justsit herecomfortably forsake one'smoral duty(dharma),thinking, receive liberation (moksa)." Again: fits of goodand evil,of boundand released, The distinction onlywithourview.8 Or: from A justbattle, thatis, one whichdoes notdepart (dharma),than morality to their code makes forgreater thisnothing too,adherence proper good. Forothers, and works as of morals makesforgood. In thiswaythetextcombines knowledge forgood.9 bothmaking exists between Bhdskara'sattitude One will admit that some similarity which and thatof Plotinus. Both men are incensedat a religiousenthusiasm existsbetweenthe sets aside the morality of everyday life. What difference can best be seen by examiningthe history Indian and the European attitude of Indian ethics. To me, at least,it can best be seen in this way, for I can contextunless one out of historical see no use in comparingtwo statements
BGitd 2.19 = Gild 2.18 (amrikara). 4Gitd 2.22 (Bhiskara, = 2.21 Samrkara). 'Bhiskara quotes the view of his opponents here almost word for word from gamkara. "Gitd 2.13 = Gild 2.12 (amrikara). 7Gtld 2.21 = Gild 2.20 (amrhkara). 9Gitd 2.32 = Gild 2.31 (arihkara).

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true.Formyself, I haveno such that one ofthem maybe eternally suspects Bhiskara or Plotinus. concerning suspicion Ancient Indianconcepts of morality, and by thisI meanthe concepts seenin mostoftheVedic, Buddhist theliterature, epic,and early literature, thatis,composed before thetime of Christ, as anthropocentric werefully as theGreekconcepts. of firmness, The virtues forbearance, courage, discipline within themanhimself; are notgivenhimbyGod. Such growfrom they as we find to a god are requests thathe intercede in thematerial prayers from or a long lifein snakebite world, wealth, cattle, granting protection as is shownwitha divineprinciple-with heaven.Suchconcern sat (the or brahma--indicates a desire Existent), (wisdom, consciousness), viji-~anam in one'smorallife. forrevelation, fora statement of a fact, notfor guidance who write on Indianreligion and philosophy underEuropeans greatly Indianconcern withindividual, In estimate thisancient practical morality. thisconcern is omnipresent. Take theRiithe Sanskrit forexample, epics, at Oudh,andobserve with theevents how theSecond Bookdealing m.ayana, We haveKaikeyi's is concerned with moral decisions. much ofall this poetry and thatof forherownadvantage decision to holdthekingto hispromise ofhimto thedetriment to keephispromise herson,andtheking's decision rather thanbreakhisword.WithRdmathedecision selfand hiskingdom of Kauwiththegrief is concerned is immediate, after butchapter chapter her orto expose status herpurdah to maintain Siti'sproblem: salyiandwith intoexile. faceto common menand thesun and followherhusband To speakof thisconcern with moraljudgment as it appears in theMahifora foliovolume.I shall sparethe wouldsoon furnish material bhMrta thatis reader of the Mah~bharata this,but pointout justone peculiarity to Indian The valueof theMahabharata overlooked often by non-Indians. itsencyclopedic charin it,derives thejoythey havetaken notfrom readers, and metaphysics accounts of politics and notmuchfrom thegarbled acter, to which there a series are in the 12thBook,butfrom of moralproblems of whichis theanswer of Bhima, three answers given:theanswer usually whichis the of Yudhisthira, brute force;the answer materialism, egoism, of Arjuna, and the answer and tradition; of socialvirtue answer of piety, the two,and so reveals whichfallsbetween moralqualitiesof the finest a crisisarisesthe Whenever man: courage, energy, pity, self-discipline.10 their brothers theinsult to Draudeliver three match, parts:at thegambling
1It might be suggested that Bhima, Arjuna, and Yudhisthira are the types respectivelyof timasa, rijasa, and sittvika man. It is true that Bhima has a considerable infusion of rajas and Arjuna of sattvam, but the Gitd calls a man rijasa if only rajas predominates among his strands. This is well

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of the war, whenplanning thewar,in the incidents padi, in banishment, be a mewouldreally The Mahabharata and finally at thetimeof victory. to dogrun verses if not for this. The it were diocre constantly production be found more that cannot is its or of there none science clearly theory gerel; and thehuman texts.But themoralsituations in other response expressed areunique. to them in theSanskrit call discipline. The virtue ofvirtues epicis whatonemight a perunder is yoga, a putting ofoneself theyoke, Sanskrit word The favorite themindbythejudgment, thesenses by judgment bythemind, disciplines alsoareused:apramada, thevery self.Other words dhirata, non-carelessness; and wisdom.One of firmness whichhave the doublemeaning dhairyam, In Jainism must do one on must be the lookout; nothing carelessly. always a man ofenormust be a true is The favorite one. thisterm Jaina apramtda never his for a return attention To to the mousenergy, moment. relaxing has to be a man who so himself that this comes carefulness epic, disciplined call second to himis calledatmavin, a whatone might nature literally man is usedlikeother witha self.The term idiomatic forexample, expressions, that a hand:itis saidofa perfect bowman he handles hastavan-a manwith a self man with a of him. The as it his weapon were naturally, though part a manis capable.It hasbecome with ofwhich actsalways thehighest virtue his nature thatis,he is great. so to act. He is a mah,tma, this this within comes from the man himself Now, discipline, training, in ancient and from else. This notion is universal nowhere India. It is as in Buddhism as in theepics."Byourselves common we do evil;byourselves we do good. The Buddha Buddhism theway."" Early onlyshows actually theimplications thantheepic;itinsists on free will. Buteven carries further in theepicfree will has tneupperhand. Onlywhena man'seffort is frusa predestinarian. or whenhe is overcome withgrief doeshe become trated time The blindDhrtardstra, defeat, persistent foreseeing maysay,"I think norcan I moreescapeit thantherimcan leavethe mustmakeits round, as they are withDhrtaristra,l3 are frequent remarks and similar wheel,"12 somegrievous withothers who are facedwithdeathor who lament loss."4 of freewill. Yu man or womanis alwaysan upholder But the successful notthe mother saysto him,"Kingsare thecause of thetimes, dhisthira's
enough. But if we accept the typology, we must say that the hierarchy of types as it appears in the action of the epic is very differentfrom that of the reflectivechapters of the Mahibhdrata. Arjuna, not Yudhisthira, is the hero of the epic. 1 Dhammapada XII. 9; XX. 4. '3E.g., Mahdbhdrata 5.32.12; 6.3.44. '2Mfahibhdrata (Poona ed.) 5.50.58. "'E.g. Mahdbhdrata 1.34.3; Rdmayana, Bombay ed., 6. 10.23.25.

One Taubesrefers. to which sonaltraining liketheStoicaskisis very

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timesthe cause of kings."5 This associationof successwith the doctrineof freewill or "human effort" (purusakara) was feltso clearlythatamong the a of about ways bringing king's downfall is given the following simple advice: "Belittlefreewill to him, and emphasizedestiny."'1 In the foregoingremarksI have considereddharma only on the human plane, as an ideal or goal of human morality.The word has a much broader as well as human. meaning and can be applied to cosmological regularity Since this aspect of the termis well treatedin Dr. van Buitenen'spaper,'7 thereis no need forme to discussit at thispoint. The notionof moksa is a much laterone in the history of Indian thought than the notionof dharma. If one looks at the variousschematawhich the Indians have made of life and experience, moksa comes as one of the Hindu fourths thatwere added on to Vedic triads.There werethe threeVedic stages of life: studentship, and retirement.Hinduism added a householdership, fourth:complete abandonment. There were threeVedic modes of experience: waking,dream,and deep sleep. Hinduismadded the tur-yam, the stage beyonddeep sleep. There were threephonemesof om: a,u, and m. Hinduism added the fourth, the sound which is not heard. So also to the three of man: kama, artha,and dharma,moksa was added as a fourth. goals The notion is first expressedverbally. One is mucyate: freed,released. The noun moksa comes later. A rival termis apavarga: removal,separation. In the Vedic-Hindu traditionwe do not meet these nouns until the late Upanisads (Svetavatara, Maitri) and the second layer of the epic. What is more,therewere orthodoxschools which refusedto recognizemoksa for denied the goal of moksa untilwell into the manycenturies.The Mimihmsd medievalperiod,untilthe eighthcentury withthe comingof The Kumi.rila. centralconcernof the Mimirhs~ was the Vedic ritual. If they thoughtof what lay beyond this world, the concept of heaven was enough to satisfy theircuriosity and desire. means liberation. Freedomfromwhat? From suffering, freedom, Moksa fromthe frustrations of desire,fromchange. Characteristically moksa has been conceivedas a goal, not an attitude, from althoughthereare digressions the main trendof Indian religiousdevelopment where the latterinterpretation is offered.To those who acceptedthe goal of moksa it was a goal beyond dharma. In the epic texts,however,and in most orthodoxliterature, means or moksa was not thoughtto be gained by any radicallydifferent from that which one one dharma. technique by gained By self-discipline attainsdharma: a just, firm, unwavering positionwith regardto the world and society. By moksa one becomes even more firm.There is now no pos15Mahabhdrata 5.130.15; cf. 12.70.25; 12.92.6. "1See above, pp. 25-32. 6lIbid., Mahbhbdrala 12.106.20.

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in thisrespect. of Sfikhya is instructive of alteration. The history sibility hissattvam disis urged In theoldest texts thereader to magnify (altruism, his is with He should off and until he instinct slough passion folly passion). sattvam.This is the oldestSiimkhya. The GJta The goes a stepfarther. all three He must off evensattvam, strands. slough getbeyond pupilshould forthattoo can bindhimto worldly life. How is he to do this?The Gita the old method of disis precisely offers evidence enough.The method goes a stepfurther. cipline;it simply harmonious ofmoksa had remained there Now,ifthis unchanged concept could have been no real conflict dharmaand moksa. Dharma between Butthetwocould wouldstillenvisage wouldbe irrefragable. moksa society; theviaticum for which as a a be regarded points along single journey,journey was discipline and self-training. I havespoken as it appears within ortheepic and other hereof moksa in There is good evidence thodoxliterature. thatthe concept originated farremoved circles from this oftrance andecstasy, area,among practitioners thewordin its thatis, amongsorcerers, medicine men,and yogis, taking aretreated thanitsliterary-philosophical sense.Theseorigins rather popular theliterature, oneseeswithin in vanBuitenen's in somedetail paper.Again, within themaintraditions of Hinduism of andBuddhism, theharmony that dharma and moksahas beenchallenged morethanonce. Or, if I wereto makeuse of van Buitenen's I might framework, saythatmorethanoncein the greattraditions dharma and moksahave beenpulledapartto resume their Forpurposes one mayspeakof three of simplicity, original antinomy. of challenge. types there is thechallenge ofNdgdrjuna A.D.). Nigirjuna (2nd century, First, between the worldin whichwe live and the pointsout the discrepancies thatthere are so different we wishto attain.The twothings nirvana really to whichNican be no relation them.The area of discrepancy between most often refers is an intellectual one. The wayin which we train garjuna ourselves to think within theworkaday us world cannot simply help toattain in There is no no fiatfrom new, Ndgdrjuna unworldly morality, nirvana. God to supersede of virtue.In fact, theold categories school, N4igirjuna's the Sainyav~da, was very of applying itsdialectic thevirtues. against wary someofthe! ofBuddhist most Actually appealing expressions appear morality within thisschool, in theSiksasamuccaya ofgdntias, forexample, precisely deva. The dialectic rather thelawsofpre-moksa is directed thought. against has in The steady to been broken two,butthecleavageis not path moksa there. thatofPhiloor St.Paul: individual hereanddivine morality morality

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hereand unThe cleavageis in respect to understanding: thought worldly there. worldly understanding After in other Nigarjuna'stimethe ideal of thesteady path continued in theVedintaexcept foroccaIndianschools.It seemsto havecontinued also sionaldoubts untilthetimeof Sarikara(8th century, A.D.). Sarmikara thanNigdrjuna's, thepathin two,in a wayrather different butstill broke not after themanner of Philoor St. Paul. like out thediscrepancy between theworld points arihkara, Ndgdrjuna, in which which we live and moksa, we hopeto attain.Incidentally, moksa can in no sensebe calledan attitude. to Sariakara He is very on this specific is as unalterable aboutit as is a post. point.Brahma byourwayofthinking It is a goal,notsomething one which one can do or notdo,or aboutwhich that the area think this or To of though: discrepway might way.'8 return, includes thisworldand brahma out between ancywhich arihkara points is perhaps evenmoreon the area his emphasis actionas well as thought; as he calls it,implies in worldly of action.Everything in life, vyavah?ra, is theother, One objectworks action and plurality. changes uponanother, where no can be is a there Moksa where the state other. change, by changed action.Thismeans excludes can be no plurality. there Accordingly, moksa thefirst three we attain thatthetechniques goals of mancan be bywhich and lastgoal. One must of thisfourth of no use in theattainment getrid is also. This but of notonlyof immorality (dharma) (adharma) morality at the in thepassages criticizes whichBhiskara theposition beginquoted to resemblance borea superficial thepassages ningofthis paper.I saidthat simithe in is This Gnostics. the Plotinus' why myopinion against charge thattheir and Bhiskara BothPlotinus is superficial. opponents object larity have the But overboard. have thrown don'etwo really opponents morality for set of virtues one Gnostics The another, different exchanged things. quite out the has thrown set. Sarihkara set fora theocentric an anthropocentric as anand he remains of virtues without virtues just anysort,19 substituting the from was the as beginning. thropocentric Vedanta and moksaappears of dharma theconflict times recent in fairly Finally, it is my form. closeto itsEuropean in Indiain something Incidentally, very or philosof European no ingredient is almost thatthere conviction religion also holds Indiaand thatthisproposition from absent ophythatis entirely on times laid from true theother emphasis great early way. The Vaisnavas
comments on the Brahmasitra I.i.1-4. 'Cf. ?arimkara's "His philosophy preserves its orthodoxy and what one might call its respectability by the admission that ordinary morality is binding on those who are not yet ready for moksa. The respectable householder may solace himself with the thought that this includes the great majority of mankind.

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hisname, hisimage, ofGod,on him theworship annointing singing keeping that one comes to feel in mind as Rdmdnuja constantly: putsit,so constantly live without thisloving When thepriests thatone cannot of the presence. the orthodox texts to rationalize their religion, they accepted Vaisnava began in those texts thatwerecompatible of Vedintabutemphasized theelements withtheir own religious love and adoration experience. Theyemphasized rather thanworks theGraceof and knowledge. Theyemphasized prasada, In fact, virtues. to thedocthantheanthropocentric God, rather according to virtue thegrace one can attain trine of these onlythrough philosophers, of God. Here we find theChristian almost Accordingly, precisely position. in thenineteenth whenEuropean Sanskritists forthemost century, partwere it was theVaisnavaphilosophers on thewholewhomthey stillChristians, Max Miiller, and others. Thibaut, Grierson, preferred-so I shallnottrace thehistory ofthis inthesteady third break pathto moksa. The arguments werecarried on bymany authors whomI knowonlyat secin Bengal, ond hand:byVallabha, bytheGosvdmis bythecatsectand the I shouldliketo conclude with sectin theextreme south.Rather, monkey a fewgeneralities and a caveat. If one views thewholeextent ofIndianreligious andphilosophical literaone seesthattheconflict of dharma and moksa is theexception rather ture, thantherule;furthermore, thatwhere it has occurred it is moreoften than notdifferent of virtue from theEuropean and faith.One mayadd conflict thatthebreakin thesteady beenmadebymonks, pathin Indiahas always thatis, by members of a religious order who had withdrawn from society, who withheld from themselves and and so caste duties, marriage, family, hadalready broken with thepathofdharma within their ownlife-experience. Someof these monastic disharmonizers are important, are amongthegreatestthinkers artists which Indiahas produced, and their and literary writings deserve closestudy. Butone must and here be careful, comes not mycaveat, to jumpto conclusions aboutIndianphilosophy from and religion a perusal works.20 of their
" Dr. van Buitenen and I have used an historical and textual method in papers which bear the same title. And yet we come to differentconclusions. Van Buitenen finds dharma and moksa to be the other I them have On find to essentially incompatible goals. hand, been usually harmonized within a single religious path. In the discussion which followed our hearing of each other's papers it appeared that we were in agreement as to the following facts. The ideals of dharma and moksa arose in very different in the ways of life of their early adherents. milieus, and these ideals produced sharp differences Moksa, however, became "respectable" at a fairly,early period, that is, it was accepted into the Vedic tradition. From this time onward the majority of Hindu society attempted to harmonize the older and younger goals. Always there were some men, and a few of them among India's greatest religious leaders, who insistedon the contradiction between dharma and moksa. It would seem, therefore,that the differencebetween van Buitenen's paper and mine is a difference in what we select to typify a long religious tradition. He has selected the innovators, the professionals, so to speak. I have selected the great mass of believers, or, perhaps one might better say, acquiescers. Which selection is preferable depends on one's purpose. The first is useful for the history of the psychological phenomena of religion, Lhe second for its social phenomena. The history of religion, if unqualified, should include both.

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