BRM Study Material

StudyMaterial byG.
RajaSekhar
AssistantProfessor,SSB,PTY-515134
Business
Research
Methodology
BusinessResearchMethodology
G.RajaSekhar, Assistant Professor, Sanskrithi School of Business, Puttaparthi. 1
g.rajasekhar@live.com
Unit No. 1
RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY:
MEANINGDEFINITIONSOFRESEARCH:
Researchsimplymeansasearchfor facts- Thesearchfor factsmaybemadethrougheither
a. Arbitrary(unscientific) method
b. Scientificmethod
Arbitrarymethod: Arbitrarymethodof seekinganswerstoquestionsisbasedonimagination, opinion,
blind belief or impression. The arbitrary method suffers from serious weakness or drawbacks. It is
subjective, the findings will varyfromperson to person dependingon his impression or imagination. It is
vagueandinaccurate.
Scientificmethod: - Thisisasystematicrational approachtoseekingfacts. It eliminatesthedrawbacks
of thearbitrarymethod. It isobjective, preciseandarrivesat conclusionsonthebasisverifiableevidence.
1. Research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositionsabout thepresumedrelationsamongnatural phenomena
Kerlinger
2. Researchasanyorganizedinquirydesignedandcarriedout toprovideinformationfor solvinga
problem
Emory
3. Researchasthemanipulationof generalizingtoextend, correct or verifyknowledge
Encyclopaediaof social sciences
4. Research as scientific research consists of obtaining information through empirical observation
that can be used for the systematic development of logically related propositions attempting to
establishcausal relationsamongvariables.
BlackandChampion
5. Researchas theprocess of systematicallyobtainingaccurateanswers to significant andpertinent
questionsbytheuseof scientificmethodof gatheringandinterpretinginformation
Clover andBalsley
6. Researchasacareful investigationor inquiryspeciallythroughsearchfor newfactsinanybranch
of knowledge.
TheAdvancedLearnersDictionaryof Current English
7. Ascientificandsystematicsearchfor pertinent informationonaspecifictopic. Systemizedeffect to
gainnewknowledge.
Redman&Mory.
8. Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organisingand evaluatingdata; makingdeductions and reachingconclusions;
and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
CliffordWoody
9. Research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalisingto
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in
thepracticeof anart.
D. Slesinger andM. StephensonintheEncyclopaediaof Social Sciences
10. Researchisthesystematicprocessof design, collection, analysisandreportingof datarelevant toa
specificsituationfacingbyanorganization.
PhilipKotler.
CHARACTERISTICSOFRESEARCH:
1. Researchisasystematicandcritical investigationintoaphenomenon.
2. It is a mere compilation, but a purposive investigation; it aims at describing, interpreting and
explainingaphenomenon.
3. It adoptsscientificmethod.
4. It is objective and logical, applying possible tests to validate the measuring tools and the
conclusionsreached.
5. It isbaseduponobservableexperienceor empirical evidence.
6. Researchisdirectedtowardsfindingsanswerstopertinent questionsandsolutionstoproblems.
7. It emphasizesthedevelopment of generalization, principlesor theories.
8. The purpose of research is not to arrive at an answer, which is personally pleasing to the
researcher, but rather one, whichwill standupthetest of criticism.
OBJECTIVESOFRESEARCH:
The purpose of research is to discover newsolutions to the problems through the applications of
scientificprocedures. Specifically, theobjectivesof researchare;
1. To gain knowledge: Man always tries to gain knowledge over the environment in which he/she is
living. It ishumanbeingsinstinct togainknowledgeandcontrol over theenvironment.
2. Togeneratenewconcept, theories: Theobjectiveof theresearchistotrytofindnewconceptsand
theories that explain the existing ones or add to the existing ones. In this process, the human
endeavour isabletoestablishnewinsightsthat leadtonewtheories.
3. To understand, analyse and explore the phenomena: the exploration to facilitate the new
dimensionsof theexistingandemergingproblems. Searchfacilitatestheenvironment tofamiliarize
thehumanbeingsthat leadtocomfortablelife.
4. To knowthe cause andeffect relationship: Theresearch tries to establish what cause is and what
areeffect anditsrelationships. Thistypeeffortsleadstosatisfactionfor themankind.
5. To enjoy and improve the society: The research aimis always facilitate the society to enjoy the
benefitsof itsobservationsandfindings. Knowingmoreandmorethingswhichgenerallyunknown
will leadtopurposeful efforts.
ROLEOFBUSINESSRESEARCH
Business research is asystematic inquirythat provides information to guide managerial decisions.
Inother word, it isprocessof planning, acquiring, analysinganddisseminatingrelevant data, information,
and insights to decisions makers inways that mobilize theorganizationto take appropriate actions those
resultsinmaximizebusinessperformance.
Businessresearchplaysanimportant roleinthisnewmeasurement environment inchoosingbetter
strategiesandtactics. Several factorsstimulatespeopleto conduct aninquiryof amanagement dilemma,
theproblemor opportunitythat requiresamanagement decision.
1. Increased role of information technology: The explosive growth of company web sites. e-
commerce, and electronic publications brings extensive amounts of new information but its
qualityanditscredibilityareincreasinglysuspect.
2. Activeroleof stakeholders: Customers, workers, shareholders, and the general public demand to
beincludedincompanydecisionsmaking.
3. Cut throat competition: Competition, bothglobal anddomestic, isgrowingandoftencomingfrom
unexpected sources; many organization refocus on primary competencies, while they seek to
improveoperationsbyreducingcostsandconvertingcustomerstoadvocates.
4. Increasedgovernmentsinterventions: Government continuesto showconcernwithall aspectsof
society, be-comingincreasinglyaggressiveinprotectionitsvariouspublicsbyposingrestrictionson
theuseof managerial andbusinessresearchtools.
5. More complex decisions: Managers have more variables to consider in every decision, increasing
themanagersneedfor moreandbetter informationandfor greater insightsfromthat information.
6. Development of management as a group of disciplines: The qualities of theories and models to
explain tactical and strategic results in human resources, marketing, operations, and finance is
improving, providingmanagerswithmoreknowledge.
7. Greater computingpower andspeed.
a. Lower-cost datacollection.
b. Better visualizationtools.
c. Powerful computations.
d. Moreintegrationof data.
e. Highspeedaccesstoinformation.
f. Advancedanalytical toolsfor enhancedinsights.
g. Customizedreporting.
8. New perspectives on established research methodologies: Older tools and methodologies once
limited to exploratory research are gaining wider acceptance in dealing with a broader range of
managerial problems.
QUALITIESOFGOODRESEARCH:
Goodresearchgeneratesdependabledatathat arederivedbyprofessionallyconductedpracticesandthat
canbeusedreliabilityfor decisionsmaking. Goodresearchfollowsthestandardsof thescientificmethod:
systematic, empiricallybasedproceduresfor generatingreplicableresearch.
1. Purpose clearly defined: the purpose of the business research the problem involved or the
decisionto bemadeshouldbeclearlydefinedandsharplydelineatedinterms as unambiguous as
possible. The statement of the problemshould include its scope, its limitations, and the precise
meaningof all wordsandtermssignificant totheresearch.
2. Researchprocessdetailed: Theresearchproceduresusedshouldbedescribedinsufficient detail to
permit another researcher to repeat the research. Except when secrecy is imposed, research
reportsshouldreveal withcandour thesourcesof dataandthemeanswhichtheywereobtained.
3. Research design thoroughly planned: the procedure design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that are as objectives as possible. When a samplingof the population is
involved, thereport shouldincludeevidenceconcerningthedegreeof representativesnessof the
sample.
4. Highethical standardsapplied: Researchersoftenworkindependentlyandhavesignificant latitude
in designingand executingresearchprojects. Aresearcher design that includes safeguards against
causingmental or physical harmto participants and makes dataintegrityafirst priorityshould be
highlyvalued. Watchfor thisiconEthical issuesinresearchreflect important moral concernsabout
thepracticeof throughout thetext responsiblebehaviour insociety.
5. Limitations frankly revealed: The researcher should report, with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effect on the findings. There are very fewperfect research
designs. Someof theimperfectionsmayhavelittleeffect onthevalidityandreliabilityof thedata;
othersmayinvalidatethementirely.
6. Analysisadequatefor decisionsmakersneeds: Analysisof thedatashouldbeextensiveenoughto
reveal its significance, what managers call insights. The methods of analysis used should be
appropriate. The extent to which this criterion is met is frequently a good measure of the
competencefor thenovice. Thevalidityandreliabilityof datashouldbecheckedcarefully.
7. Findingspresentedunambiguously: Someevidenceandintegrityof theresearcher maybefoundin
thereport itself. Generalizationthat outruntheevidenceonwhichtheyarebased, exaggerations,
andunnecessaryverbiagetendtoleaveanunfavourableimpression. Suchreportsarenot valuable
tomanagerswadingthroughtheminefieldsof organizational decisionmaking.
8. Conclusions justified: Conclusions should be limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis. Researcher are often tempted to broaden the basis of induction by including
personal experiences and their interpretations data not subject to the controls under which the
researchdataweregathered.
9. Researchers experience reflected: Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the
researcher is experienced, has agood reputation in research, and is aperson of integrity. Wereit
possiblefor thereader of aresearcher report toobtainsufficient informationabout theresearcher,
thiscriterionperhapswouldbeoneof thebest basesfor judgingthedegreeof confidenceapiece
of researchwarrantsandthevalueof anyabout thequalificationsof theresearcher.
TYPESOFRESEARCH
Thebasictypesof researchareasfollows
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. Themajor purposeof descriptiveresearchisdescriptionof thestateof affairsasit
existsat present. Insocial scienceandbusinessresearchwequiteoftenusethetermExpost facto
research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is
happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of
people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover
causesevenwhentheycannot control thevariables. Themethodsof researchutilizedindescriptive
research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In
analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, andanalysethesetomakeacritical evaluationof thematerial.
2. Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to
basicor pure) research. Appliedresearchaimsat findingasolutionfor animmediateproblemfacing
asocietyor anindustrial/businessorganisation, whereasfundamental researchismainlyconcerned
with generalisations and with the formulation of atheory. Gatheringknowledge for knowledges
sake is termed pure or basic research.4 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human
behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions
(say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problemis an example of applied research.
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or
the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and
understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem, whereas basic research is directed towards findinginformation that has abroad base of
applicationsandthus, addstothealreadyexistingorganizedbodyof scientificknowledge.
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative
research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomenarelating
toor involvingqualityor kind. For instance, whenweareinterestedininvestigatingthereasonsfor
human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of Motivation
Research, animportant typeof qualitativeresearch. This typeof researchaims at discoveringthe
underlyingmotivesanddesires, usingindepthinterviewsfor thepurpose. Other techniquesof such
research are word associationtests, sentence completiontests, storycompletiontests and similar
other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how
peoplefeel or what theythinkabout aparticular subject or institutionis also qualitativeresearch.
Qualitativeresearchisspeciallyimportant inthebehavioural scienceswheretheaimisto discover
the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various
factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or
dislikeaparticular thing. It maybestated, however, that toapplyqualitativeresearchinpracticeis
relatively adifficult job and therefore, while doingsuch research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists.
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual researchisthat relatedto someabstract idea(s) or theory. It
is generallyused byphilosophers and thinkers to develop newconcepts or to reinterpret existing
ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for systemand theory. It is data-based research, comingup with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as
experimental type of research. In such aresearch it is necessaryto get at facts first hand, at their
source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired
information. Insucharesearch, theresearcher must first providehimself withaworkinghypothesis
or guessasto theprobableresults. Hethenworks to get enoughfacts(data) to proveor disprove
his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons
or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus
characterised by the experimenters control over the variables under study and his deliberate
manipulation of one of themto study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is
sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through
experimentsor empirical studiesistodayconsideredtobethemost powerful support possiblefor a
givenhypothesis.
5. Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of the
above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplishresearch, ontheenvironment inwhichresearchisdone, or onthebasisof someother
similar factor. Formthepoint of viewof time, wecanthinkof researcheither asone-timeresearch
or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be
field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or
diagnosticresearch. Suchresearchfollowcase-studymethodsor in-depthapproachesto reachthe
basiccausal relations. Suchstudiesusuallygodeepintothecausesof thingsor eventsthat interest
us, usingvery small samples and very deep probingdata gatheringdevices. The research may be
exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with
substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which
utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past,
includingthephilosophyof persons andgroupsat anyremotepoint of time. Researchcanalso be
classifiedasconclusion-orientedanddecision-oriented. Whiledoingconclusionorientedresearch, a
researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as hewishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of adecision maker
andtheresearcher inthiscaseisnot freetoembarkuponresearchaccordingtohisowninclination.
Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of
providingexecutivedepartmentswithaquantitativebasisfor decisionsregardingoperationsunder
their control.
Unit No. 2
TechnologyandBusinessResearch
InformationNeedsofBusiness
Torunbusiness, useful, timely, accurate, reliable, andvaliddataareneeded.
When data are evaluated, analyzed, and synthesized, useful information becomes available to
manager that helpsthemtomakegoodbusinessdecision.
CommonlyUsedTechnologiesinBusinessResearch
TheInternet: isaglobal networkof interconnectedcomputers, enablingusersto shareinformation
alongmultiplechannels. Thesameconnectionallowsthat computer to sendinformationto servers
on the network; that information is in turn accessedand potentiallymodified byavarietyof other
interconnectedcomputers.
E-Mail: is any method of creating, transmitting, or storing primarily text-based human
communicationswithdigital communicationssystems.
E-mail waswidelyacceptedbythebusinesscommunityasthefirst broadelectroniccommunication
medium and was the first e-revolution in Business communication. E-mail is very simple to
understand and like postal mail, e-mail solves two basic problems of communication: logistics and
synchronization(seebelow). LANbasedemail isalso anemergingformof usagefor business. It not
onlyallowsthebusinessuser todownloadmail whenoffline, it alsoprovidesthesmall businessuser
tohavemultipleusersemail ID'swithjust oneemail connection.
TheIntranet: is a private computer network that uses Internet technologies to securely share any
part of anorganization'sinformationor operational systemswithitsemployees.
Browsers: is asoftware application which enables auser to display and interact with text, images,
videos, music, games and other information typicallylocated on aWeb page at aWeb site on the
WorldWideWebor alocal areanetwork.
WebSites: isacollectionof relatedwebpages, images, videosor other digital assetsthat arehosted
ononewebserver, usuallyaccessibleviatheInternet.
All publiclyaccessiblewebsitesareseencollectivelyasconstitutingthe"WorldWideWeb".
SomeSoftwareUsedinBusinessResearch
Groupware: Collaborativesoftware(alsoreferredtoasgroupwareor workgroupsupportsystems)
is software designed to help people involved in a common task achieve their goals. Collaborative
softwareisthebasisfor computer supportedcooperativework.
Suchsoftwaresystemsasemail, calendaring, text chat andwiki belongto thiscategory. It hasbeen
suggestedthat Metcalfe'slawthemorepeoplewhousesomething, themorevaluableit becomes
appliestosuchsoftware.
Neural Networks: the term neural network had been used to refer to a network or circuit of
biological neurons. The modern usage of the termoften refers to artificial neural networks, which
arecomposedof artificial neuronsor nodes. Thusthetermhastwodistinct usages: Biological neural
networksandartificial neural networks.
Computer-aided Design (CAD): is the use of computer technology to aid in the design and
particularlythedrafting(technical drawingandengineeringdrawing) of apart or product, including
entirebuildings. It isbothavisual (or drawing) andsymbol-basedmethodof communicationwhose
conventionsareparticular toaspecifictechnical field.
Computer-aided Manufacturing (CAM): is the use of computer-based software tools that assist
engineers and machinists in manufacturing or prototyping product components. CAM is a
programming tool that makes it possible to manufacture physical models using computer-aided
design(CAD) programs.
EnterpriseResourcePlanning(ERP): is acompany-widecomputer softwaresystemusedto manage
andcoordinateall theresources, information, andfunctionsof abusinessfromshareddatastores.
Data Analytic Software Programs: is a process of gathering, modeling, and transformingdatawith
thegoal of highlightinguseful information, suggestingconclusions, andsupportingdecisionmaking.
Dataanalysishasmultiplefacetsandapproaches, encompassingdiversetechniquesunder avariety
of names, indifferent business, science, andsocial sciencedomains.
InformationSystemsandManagerial DecisionMaking
Data Warehousing: is a repository of an organization's electronically stored data. Data warehouses are
designedtofacilitatereportingandanalysis.
Thisdefinitionof thedatawarehousefocusesondatastorage. However, themeansto retrieveandanalyze
data, to extract, transformand load data, and to manage the datadictionaryare also considered essential
componentsof adatawarehousingsystem. Manyreferencestodatawarehousingusethisbroader context.
Thus, an expanded definition for data warehousing includes business intelligence tools, tools to extract,
transform, andloaddataintotherepository, andtoolstomanageandretrievemetadata.
Data Mining: is the process of extracting hidden patterns fromlarge amounts of data. As more data is
gathered, with the amount of data doubling every three years, data mining is becoming an increasingly
important tool to transformthis data into information. It is commonly used in a wide range of profiling
practices, suchasmarketing, surveillance, frauddetectionandscientificdiscovery.
While data miningcan be used to uncover hidden patterns in data samples that have been "mined", it is
important tobeawarethat theuseof asampleof thedatamayproduceresultsthat arenot indicativeof the
domain. Dataminingwill not uncover patternsthat arepresent inthedomain, but not inthesample. There
isatendencyfor insufficientlyknowledgeable"consumers" of theresultsto treat thetechniqueasasort of
crystal ball andattribute"magical thinking" toit.
OperationsResearch: is an interdisciplinary branch of applied mathematics and formal science that uses
methods such as mathematical modeling, statistics, and algorithms to arrive at optimal or near optimal
solutions to complexproblems. It is typically concerned with optimizingthe maxima (profit, assembly line
performance, cropyield, bandwidth, etc.) or minima(loss, risk, etc.) of someobjectivefunction. Operations
researchhelpsmanagement achieveitsgoalsusingscientificmethods.
Managerial Advantageof Technological Advancements
SoftwareTechnologyuseintheresearchprocess:
o ProblemIdentification
o TheoryBuilding
o Collectingdatafromrespondents
o Analyzing
o PresentingtheResult
DatabasewithLAN
EthicsinBusinessResearch
Unit No. 3
RESEARCHPROCESS:
TheResearchProcess consists of series of actions or stepsnecessaryto effectivelycarryout researchand
the desired sequencing of these steps. The following order concerning various steps provides a useful
procedural guidelineregardingtheresearchprocess:
1. FormulatingtheResearchproblem
2. ExtensiveLiteraturesurvey
3. Development of workinghypothesis
4. PreparingtheResearchdesign
5. DeterminingtheSampledesign
6. Collectionof data
7. Executionof theproject
8. Analysisof data
9. Hypothesis-testing
10. Generalizationsandinterpretation
11. Preparationof thereport or thethesis
Formulatingtheresearchproblem
Therearetwotypesof researchproblems, viz., thosewhichrelatestostatesof natureandthosewhich
relatetorelationshipsbetweenvariables. At theveryoutset theresearcher must singleout theproblemhe
wantstostudyi.e., hemust decidethegeneral areaof interest or aspect of asubject matter that hewould
liketoinquireinto. Initiallytheproblemmaybestatedinabroadgeneral wayandthentheambiguities, if
any, relatingtotheproblemberesolved. Then, thefeasibilityof aparticular solutionhasto beconsidered
before a working formulation of the problemcan be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a
specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in ascientific enquiry. Essentiallytwo steps are
involvedinformulatingtheresearchproblem, viz., understandingtheproblemthoroughly, andrephrasing
thesameintomeaningful termsfromananalytical point of view.
Thebest wayof understandingtheproblemistodiscussit withonesowncolleaguesor withthose
havingsome expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help froma
guide who is usually an experimented man and has several research problems in mind. Often, the guide
puts forth the problemin general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrowit down and phrase the
problemin operational terms. In private business units or in governmental organizations, the problemis
usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with which the researcher can discuss as to how the
problemoriginallycameabout andwhat considerationsareinvolvedinitspossiblesolutions.
Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that the statement of the objective is of basic
importancebecauseit determinesthedatawhicharetobecollected, thecharacteristicsof thedatawhich
arerelevant, relationswhicharetobeexplored, thechoiceof techniquestobeusedintheseexplorations
and the formof the final report. If there are certain pertinent terms, the same should be clearlydefined
along with the task of formulating the problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a
sequential pattern where a number of formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the
precedingone, eachonephrasedinmoreanalytical terms, andeachmorerealisticintermsof theavailable
dataandresources
Extensiveliteraturesurvey:
Oncetheproblemisformulated, abrief summaryof it shouldbewrittendown. It iscompulsoryfor
aresearchworker writingathesis for aPh.D. degreeto writeasynopsisof thetopicandsubmit it to the
necessaryCommitteeor theResearchBoardfor approval. At thisjuncturetheresearcher shouldundertake
extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing
journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals,
conferenceproceedings, government reports, booksetc., must betappeddependingonthenatureof the
problem. Inthisprocess, it shouldberememberedthat onesourcewill leadtoanother. Theearlier studies,
if any, whicharesimilar tothestudyinhand, shouldbecarefullystudied. Agoodlibrarywill beagreat help
totheresearcher at thisstage.
Developmentofworkinghypothesis:
After extensive literature survey, researcher state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses. Workinghypothesis is tentativeassumptionmadeinorder to drawout andtest its logical or
empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly
important sincetheyprovidethefocal point for research. Theyalsoaffect themanner inwhichtestsmust
beconductedintheanalysisof dataandindirectlythequalityof datawhichisrequiredfor theanalysis. In
most typesof research, thedevelopment of workinghypothesisplaysanimportant role. Hypothesisshould
be veryspecific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the
hypothesisistoguidetheresearcher bydelimitingtheareaof researchandtokeephimontheright track.
It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also
indicatesthetypeof datarequiredandthetypeof methodsof dataanalysistobeused.
Howdoesonegoabout developingworkinghypothesis? Theanswer isbyusingthefollowingapproach:
a) Discussionswithcolleaguesandexpertsabout theproblem, itsoriginandtheobjectivesinseeking
asolution;
b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiaritiesandother clues;
c) Reviewof similar studiesintheareaor of thestudiesonsimilar problems; and
d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with
interestedpartiesandindividualswithaviewtosecuregreater insight into thepractical aspectsof
theproblem.
Thus, workinghypothesis arise as a result of a priori thinkingabout the subject, examination of the
available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
Working hypothesis is more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It may as well be
remembered that occasionallywe mayencounter aproblemwhere we do not need workinghypothesis,
especiallyinthecaseof exploratoryor formulativeresearcheswhichdonot aimat testingthehypothesis.
But as ageneral rule, specificationof workinghypothesis inanother basicstepof theresearchprocess in
most researchproblems.
Preparingtheresearchdesign:
The research problemhavingbeen formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to
preparearesearchdesign, i.e., hewill havetostatetheconceptual structurewithinwhichresearchwould
be conducted. The preparation of such adesign facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant evidencewithminimal expenditureof effort, timeandmoney. But howall thesecanbeachieved
dependsmainlyontheresearchpurpose. Researchpurposesmaybegroupedintofour categories, viz.
a. Exploration
b. Description
c. Diagnosis
d. Experimentation
A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a
problemisconsideredappropriateif thepurposeof theresearchstudyisthat of exploration. But whenthe
purpose happens to bean accurate description of asituation or of an association between variables, the
suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and
analysed. There are several research designs, such as, an experimental and non-experimental hypothesis
testing. Experimental designs can be either informal design (such as completely randomized design,
randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the
researcher must select onefor hisownproject.
Thepreparationof theresearchdesign, appropriatefor aparticular researchproblem, involvesusually
theconsiderationof thefollowing:
1. Themeansof obtainingtheinformation;
2. Theavailabilityandskillsof theresearcher andhisstaff (if any);
3. Explanationof thewayinwhichselectedmeansof obtaininginformationwill beorganizedandthe
reasoningleadingtotheselection;
4. Thetimeavailablefor research; and
5. Thecost factor relatingtoresearch, i.e., thefinanceavailablefor thepurpose.
Determiningsampledesign:
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or population. A
complete enumeration of all items in the population is known as a census enquiry. It can be presumed
that insuchanenquirywhenall theitemsarecoverednoelement of chanceisleft andhighest accuracyis
obtained. But inpracticethismaynot betrue. Eventheslightest element of biasinsuchanenquirywill get
larger and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the
element if biasor itsextent except througharesurveyor useof samplechecks. Besides, thistypeof inquiry
involves agreat deal of time, moneyand energy. Not onlythis, census enquiryis not possible in practice
under manycircumstances. For instance, bloodtestingisdoneonlyonsamplebasis. Hence, quiteoftenwe
select onlyafewitems fromtheuniversefor our studypurposes. Theitems so selected continue what is
technicallycalledasample.
The researcher must decide the way of selectinga sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design. Inother wordsasampledesignisadefiniteplandeterminedbeforeanydataareactuallycollected
for obtainingasamplefromagivenpopulation. Thus, theplanto select 12of acitys 200drugstores ina
certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either probability samples or nonprobability
samples. Withprobabilitysamples eachelement has aknownprobabilityof beingincludedinthesample
but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability
samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling,
cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling,
judgment samplingandquotasamplingtechniques. Abrief mentionof theimportant sampledesignsisas
follows.
1. Deliberate sampling: Deliberate samplingis also known as purposive or nonprobability sampling.
Thissamplingmethodinvolvespurposiveor deliberateselectionof particular unitsof theuniverse
for constitutinga sample which represents the universe. When population elements are selected
for inclusioninthesamplebasedontheeaseof access, it canbecalledconveniencesampling.
2. Simple randomsampling: This type of samplingis also known as chance samplingor probability
sampling where each and every itemin the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sampleandeachoneof thepossiblesamples, incaseof finiteuniverse, hasthesameprobabilityof
beingselected. For example, if wehaveto select asampleof 300itemsfromauniverseof 15,000
items, thenwecanput thenamesor numbersof all the15,000itemsonslipsof paper andconduct
alottery.
3. Systematicsampling: Insomeinstancesthemost practical wayof samplingisto select every15th
nameonalist, every10thhouseononesideof astreet andso on. Samplingof thistypeisknown
assystematicsampling.
4. Stratified sampling: if the population fromwhich a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneousgroup, thenstratifiedsamplingtechniqueisappliedso asto obtainarepresentative
sample. In this technique, the population as stratified into a number of non-overlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected fromeach stratum. If the items selected
fromeachstratumisbasedonsimplerandomsamplingtheentireprocedure, first stratificationand
thensimplerandomsampling, isknownasstratifiedrandomsampling.
5. Quota sampling: Instratifiedsamplingthecost of takingrandomsamplesfromindividual stratais
often so expensive that interviewers are simplygiven quota to be filled fromdifferent strata, the
actual selection of items for sample beingleft to the interviewers judgment. This is called quota
sampling.
6. Cluster sampling and Area sampling: cluster samplinginvolves groupingthe population and then
selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
Supposesomedepartmental storewishestosampleitscredit cardholders. It hasissueditscardsto
15,000customers. Thesamplesizeistobekept say450. For cluster samplethislist of 15,000card
holders could be formed into 100clusters of 150card holders each. Three clusters might then be
selectedfor thesamplerandomly.
7. Multi-stagesampling: Thisisafurther development of theideaof cluster sampling. Thistechnique
ismeanfor bigenquiriesextendingto aconsiderablylargegeographical arealikeanentrycountry.
Under multi-stage samplingthe first stage may be to select large primary samplingunits such as
states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the technique of
random sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage
randomsampling.
8. Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the
sampleisnot fixedinadvancebut isdeterminedaccordingto mathematical decisionsonthebasis
of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under acceptance
samplingplaninthecontext of statistical qualitycontrol.
Collectingthedata:
In dealingwith anyreal life problemit is oftenfound that dataat handare inadequate, and hence, it
becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the
appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the
disposal of theresearcher.
Primarydatacanbecollectedeither throughexperiment or throughsurvey. If theresearcher conducts
an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of asurvey, datacan be collected byany
oneor moreof thefollowingways.
1. Byobservation
2. Throughpersonal interview
3. Throughtelephoneinterviews
4. Bymailingof questionnaires
5. Throughschedulers.
Executionoftheproject:
Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the
project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The
researcher shouldseethat theproject isexecutedinasystematicmanner andintime. If thesurveyistobe
conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a
situation, questionsaswell asthepossibleanswersmaybecoded. If thedataareto becollectedthrough
interviewers, arrangementsshouldmadefor proper selectionandtrainingof theinterviewers. Thetraining
maybegivenwiththehelpof instructionmanualswhichexplainclearlythejobof theinterviewer at each
step. Occasional fieldchecks shouldbemadeto ensurethat theinterviewers aredoingtheir assignedjob
sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the
surveyasmuchrealisticaspossible. This, inother words, meansthat stepsshouldbetakentoensurethat
surveyis under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined
standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be
designedtotacklethisproblem. Onemethodof dealingwiththenon-responseproblemistomakealist of
the non-respondents and take a small sub sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous
effortscanbemadefor securingresponse.
Analysisofdata:
After thedatahavebeencollected, theresearcher turnstothetaskof analysingthem. Theanalysis
of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical
inferences. Theun-widelydatashouldnecessarilybecondensedintoafewmanageablegroupsandtables
for further analysis. Thus researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable
categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that naybe tabulatedand counted. Editingis the procedure that improves the
quality of the data for coding. With codingthe stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the
technical procedurewhereintheclassifieddataareput intheformof tables. Themechanical devices can
be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by
computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables
affectingaproblemsimultaneously.
Hypothesis-testing:
After analysingthe data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if
any, hehadformulatedearlier. Dothefactssupport thehypothesisor theyhappentobecontrary? Thisis
the usual question which should be answered while testinghypothesis. Various tests, such as Chi-square
test, t-test, F-test have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypothesis may be tested
throughtheuseof oneor moreof suchtests, dependinguponthenatureandobject of researchinquiry.
Hypothesis-testingwill result ineither acceptingthehypothesis or inrejectingit. If theresearcher hadno
hypothesistostart with, generalizationsestablishedonthebasisof datamaybestatedashypothesistobe
testedbysubsequent researchesintimestocome.
Generalizationsandinterpretation:
If ahypothesisistestedandupheldseveral times, it maybepossiblefor theresearcher toarriveat
generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to
arriveat certaingeneralizations. If theresearcher hadnohypothesistostart with. Hemight seektoexplain
his findings on the basis of some theory. It is knows as interpretation. The process of interpretation may
quiteoftentrigger off newquestionswhichinturnleadtofurther researches.
Preparationofthereportorthethesis:
Finally, theresearcher hastopreparethereport of what hasbeendonebyhim. Writingof report must
bedonewithgreat carekeepinginviewthefollowing:
1. Thelayoutofreportshouldbeasfollows:
(a) Thepreliminarypages;
(b) Themaintext, and
(c) Theendmatter
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and data followed acknowledgements and
foreword. Thenthereshouldbeatableof contentsfollowedbyalist of tablesandlist of graphsand
charts, if any, giveninthereport.
Themaintext of thereport shouldhavethefollowingparts:
1. Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishingthe research. The scope of the
studyalongwithvariouslimitationsshouldaswell bestatedinthispart.
2. Summary of findings: after introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarized.
3. Main report: the main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-downintoreadilyidentifiablesections.
4. Conclusion: towardstheendof themaintext, researcher shouldagainput downtheresults
of hisresearchclearlyandprecisely. Infact, it isthefinal summingup.
At theendof thereport, appendicesshouldbeenlistedinrespect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Indexshould
alsobegivenspeciallyinapublishedresearchreport.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressionssuchasit seems, theremaybe, andthelike.
3. Chartsandillustrationsinthemainreport shouldbeusedonlyif theypresent theinformationmore
clearlyandforcibly.
4. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conductingresearchoperationsmayaswell bestated.
Unit No. 4
Unit No. 5
DATACOLLECTION:
The task of data collection begins after a research problemhas been defined and research design / plan
chalkedout. Whiledecidingabout themethodof datacollectiontobeusedfor thestudy.
Another important classification of data describes the way it is collected. This is often characterised as
fieldresearch whenyouactuallygoout andcollect datayourself, or asdeskresearch.
ClassificationofResearchdata
SOURCESOFDATACOLLECTIONMETHODS:
Primarydataisnewdatacollectedbyanorganisationitself for aspecificpurpose.
Primarydatahasthebenefitsof fittingtheneedsexactly, beinguptodateandbeingreliable.
Secondarydatamight be publishedbyother organisations, available fromresearch studies, published by
thegovernment, alreadyavailablewithinanorganisationandsoon.
Thishastheadvantagesof beingmuchcheaper, faster andeasier tocollect. It alsohasthebenefit of using
sources that are not generally available, such as governments, international organisations, universities,
industryrepresentatives, tradeunionsandprofessional institutions
PRIMARYSOURCESOFDATACOLLECTIONMETHODS:
Observationmethod,
Interviewmethod,
Throughquestionnaires,
Throughschedules, and
Other methodswhichinclude
Warrantycards;
Distributor audits;
Pantryaudits;
Consumer panels;
Usingmechanical devices;
Throughprojectivetechniques;
Depthinterviews, and
Content analysis.
ObservationMethod
The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to
behavioural sciences. Inawaywe all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not
scientificobservation.
Observationbecomesascientifictool andthemethodof datacollectionfor theresearcher, whenit
serves aformulated research purpose, is systematicallyplanned and recorded and is subjected to
checksandcontrolsonvalidityandreliability.
Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigators own direct
observationwithout askingfromtherespondent.
Theresearcher canplayanovertor covertroleandtheroletheresearcher canadopt inthissituationhas
beensummarisedbyGill &Johnson(1977):
Completeparticipant
Theidentityandpurposeof researcher isnot revealedtoother groupmembers
Theresearcher attemptstobecomeafull covert member of thegroup
Example: studyof leadershipstylesinaction
Completeobserver
Thepurposeof researchactivitynot revealedtothosebeingobserved
Theresearcher doesnot takepart intheactivitiesbeingobserved
Example: adetachedstudyof consumer behaviour inasupermarket
Observer asparticipant
Theresearchersroleisknowntoothersinthegroup
Researchersparticipateinactivities, but their engagement withgroupactivitiesmay
befairlysuperficial or spasmodic, astheir roleistoobservethereal participants.
Example: Observing team-building exercises (taking part, but only in a superficial
way, without real emotional involvement).
Participant asobserver
Theresearchersroleisknowntoall othersinthegroup
The researcher would engage fully in all the activities and experience it totally
themselves, plusobserveandtalktoother participantsabout their experiences
Example: Attendingandfullyparticipatinginanassessment centreselectiondayand
takinganactivepart inall theactivities
Advantages
The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately.
Secondly, theinformationobtainedunder this methodrelatesto what iscurrentlyhappening; it is
not complicatedbyeither thepast behaviour or futureintentionsor attitudes.
Thirdly, thismethodisindependent of respondents willingnesstorespondandassuchisrelatively
lessdemandingof activecooperationonthepart of respondentsashappensto bethecaseinthe
interviewor thequestionnairemethod.
This methodis particularlysuitableinstudies whichdeal withsubjects (i.e., respondents) who are
not capableof givingverbal reportsof their feelingsfor onereasonor theother
It allowstheresearcher toobserveat first handandget belowthesurfaceof aparticular situation
It heightenstheawarenessof aresearcher tosocial processesthat caninfluencebehaviour
It allowstheresearcher toobservetherelationshipof different variables
It can enable a researcher to gain insights into a situation that otherwise would not have been
recognisedor observed
It canallow, inthecaseof overt participation, theresearcher to gainthetrust of thepeoplebeing
observed
Disadvantages
Firstly, it isanexpensivemethod.
Secondly, theinformationprovidedbythismethodisverylimited.
Thirdly, sometimesunforeseenfactorsmayinterferewiththeobservational task.
At times, thefact that somepeoplearerarelyaccessibleto direct observationcreatesobstaclefor
thismethodtocollect dataeffectively.
Accesstoanorganisationfor overt participationmaybeverydifficult
There may be role-conflict. Researchers may lose their objectivity if they become too close
emotionallytothepeopletheyareobserving.
Theresearcher mayencounter suspicionandevenhostilityfrompeople, who suspect themotives
for theresearchandmaybeworriedabout their livelihoods.
The presence of a researcher (overt participation) can have an impact on the behaviour of the
people being observed: the observer effect. They may change the way they behave if they are
awaretheyarebeingobserved.
It isverytime-consumingandcangeneratealargeamount of data/commentarythat will needto
becollated
Recordingandcollatingdatafromobservationscanbedifficult.
Interviewing:
Definition: Interviewingis oneof theprominent methods of datacollection. It maybedefinedasatwo
way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informative, initiated for obtaining
information relevant to a specific study. It involves not only conversation, but also leaning from the
respondentsgestures, facial expressionsandpauses, andhisenvironment.
Interviewingrequires face-to-face contact or contact over telephone and calls for interviewingskills. It is
donebyusingastructuredscheduleor anunstructuredguide.
Importance
Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in studies of persons.
Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or less educated
respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data fromfactual demographic data 10 highly
personal and intimate information relating to a persons opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs, past
experienceandfutureintentions. Whenqualitativeinformationisrequiredor probingisnecessaryIddraw
out fully, then interviewingis required. Where the area covered for the survey is a compact, or when a
sufficient number of qualifiedinterviewersareavailable, personal interviewisfeasible.
Interviewisoftensuperior toother data-gatheringmethods. Peopleareusuallymorewillingtotalkthanto
write. Oncerapport isestablished, evenconfidential informationmaybeobtained. It permitsprobinginto
thecontext andreasonsfor answerstoquestions.
Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the investigator to grasp the behavioural
context of the data furnished by the respondents. It permits the investigator to seek clarifications and
brings to the forefront those questions, that for one reason or another, respondents do not want to
answer.
Evaluationof Interviewing
Advantages:
Thereareseveral real advantagesto personal interviewing. First, thegreatest valueof thismethodisthe
depth and detail of information that can be secured. When used with a well-conceived schedule, an
interviewcanobtainagreat deal of information. It far exceeds mail surveyinamount andqualityof data
that canbesecured.
Second, the interviewer can do more to improve the percentage of responses and the quality of
informationreceivedthanother method. Hecannotetheconditionsof theinterviewsituation, andadopt
appropriate approaches to overcome such problems as the respondents unwillingness, incorrect
understandingof question, suspicion, etc.
Third, theinterviewer cangather other supplemental informationlikeeconomiclevel, livingconditionsetc.
Throughobservationof therespondentsenvironment.
Fourth, the interviewer can use special scoringdevices, visual materials and like in order to improve the
qualityof interviewing.
Fifth, the accuracy and dependability of the answers given by the respondent can be checked by
observationandprobing.
Last, interviewis flexibleand adaptable to individual situations. Even more control can be exercised over
theinterviewsituation.
Limitations:
Interviewingisnot freefromlimitations. Itsgreatest drawbackisthat it iscostlybothinmoneyandtime.
Second, the interviewresults are often adverselyaffected byinterviewers mode of askingquestions and
interactions, and incorrect recording and also be the respondents faulty perception, faulty memory,
inabilitytoarticulateetc.
Third, certaintypesof personal andfinancial informationmayberefusedinface-to-faceinterviews. Such
informationmight besuppliedmorewillinglyonmail questionnaires, especiallyif theyaretobeunsigned.
Fourth, interview poses the problem of recording information obtained from the respondents. No
foolproof system is available. Note taking is invariably distracting to both the respondent and the
interviewer andaffectsthethreadof theconversation.
Last, interview calls for highly skilled interviewers. The availability of such persons is limited and the
trainingof interviewersisoftenalongandcostlyprocess.
Characteristics
Interviewingasamethodof datacollectionhascertaincharacteristics. Theyare:
1. Theparticipants- theinterviewer andtherespondent - arestrangers. Hence, theinvestigator hasto
get himself introducedtotherespondent inanappropriatemanner.
2. The relationship between the participants is a transitory one. It has a fixed beginning and
terminationpoints. Theinterviewproper isafleeting, momentaryexperiencefor them.
3. Interviewisnot amerecasual conversational exchange, but aconversationwithaspecificpurpose,
viz., obtaininginformationrelevant toastudy.
4. Interviewisamodeof obtainingverbal answerstoquestionsput verbally.
5. Theinteractionbetweentheinterviewer andtherespondent neednot necessarilybeonaface-to-
facebasis, becauseinterviewcanbeconductedover thetelephonealso.
6. Althoughinterviewisusuallyaconversationbetweentwopersons, it neednot belimitedtoasingle
respondent. It canalso beconductedwithagroupof persons, suchasfamilymembers, or agroup
of childrenor agroupof customers, dependingontherequirementsof thestudy.
7. Interviewis aninteractional process. Theinteractionbetweentheinterviewer andtherespondent
depends upon how they perceive each other. The respondent reacts to the interviewers
appearance, behaviour, gestures, facial expression and intonation, his perception of the thrust of
thequestionsandhisownpersonal needs.
8. Informationfurnishedbytherespondent intheinterviewisrecordedbytheinvestigator. Thisposes
aproblemof seeingthat recordingdoesnot interferewiththetempoof conversation.
9. Interviewingis not astandardized process like that of achemical technician; it is rather aflexible
psychological process.
The implication of this feature is that the interviewer cannot apply unvarying standardized technique,
because he is dealingwith respondents with varyingmotives and diverse perceptions. The extent of his
successasaninterviewer isverylargelydependent uponhisinsight andskill indealingwithvaryingsocio-
psychological situations.
Requirements
Therequirementsor conditionsnecessaryfor asuccessful intervieware:
1. Dataavailability: The needed information should be available with the respondent. He should be
abletoconceptualizeit intermsuseful tothestudy, andbecapableof communicatingit.
2. Roleperception: Therespondent shouldunderstandhisroleandknowwhat isrequiredof him. He
shouldknowwhat is arelevant answer andhowcompleteit shouldbe. Hecanlearnmuchof this
fromtheinterviewersintroduction, explanationsandquestioningprocedure.
3. The interviewer should also know his role. He should establish a permissive atmosphere and
encourage frank and free conversation. He should not affect the interview situation through
subjectiveattitude, argumentation, etc.
4. Respondentsmotivation: Therespondent shouldbewillingto respondandgiveaccurateanswer.
Thisdependspartlyontheinterviewersapproachandskill. Theinterviewhasinterest init for the
purpose of his research, but the respondent has no personal interest in it. Therefore, the
interviewer should establish a friendly relationship with the respondent, and create in him an
interest inthesubject-matter of thestudy.
The interviewer should try to reduce the effect of demotivatingfactors like desire to get on with other
activities, embarrassment at ignorance, dislikeof theinterviewcontent, suspiciousabout theinterviewer,
and fear of consequences. He should also try to build up the effect of motivating factors like curiosity,
loneliness, politeness, senseof duty, respect of theresearchagencyandlikingfor theinterviewer.
The above requirement reminds that the interview is an interactional process. The investigator should
keep this in mind and take care to see that his appearance and behaviour do not distort the interview
situation
TypesofInterviews
Theinterviewsmaybeclassifiedinto:
(a) Structuredor directiveinterview,
(b) Unstructuredor n-directiveinterview,
(c) Focusedinterview,
(d) Clinical interviewand
(e) Depthinterview.
Structured, Directiveinterview
This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same questions are put to the
respondentsandinthesameorder. Eachquestionisaskedinthesamewayineachinterview, promoting
measurement reliability. Thistypeof interviewisusedfor large-scaleformalizedsurveys.
Advantages:Thisinterviewhascertainadvantages.
1. Datafromoneinterviewtothenext areeasilycomparable.
2. Recordingandcodingdatadonot poseanyproblem, andgreater precisionisachieved.
3. Attentionisnot divertedtoextraneous, irrelevant andtime-consumingconversation.
Limitation:However, thistypeof interviewsuffersfromsomelimitations.
1. It tendstolosethespontaneityof natural conversation.
2. The way in which the interview is structured may be such that the respondents views are
minimized and the investigators own biases regardingthe problemunder studyare inadvertently
introduced.
3. Thescopefor explorationislimited.
Unstructuredor Non-directiveInterview
This is the least structured one. The interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely about a given
topicwithaminimumof promptingor guidance.
Inthistypeof interview, adetailedpre-plannedscheduleisnot used. Onlyabroadinterviewguideisused.
The interviewer avoids channeling the interview directions. Instead, he develops a very permissive
atmosphere. Questionsarenot standardizedandnot orderedinaparticular way.
Thisinterviewingismoreuseful incasestudiesrather thaninsurveys. It isparticularlyuseful inexploratory
researchwherethelinesof investigationarenot clearlydefined. It isalsouseful for gatheringinformation
onsensitivetopicssuchasdivorce, social discrimination, classconflict, generationgap, drug-additionetc. It
providesopportunitytoexplorethevariousaspectsof theprobleminanunrestrictedmanner.
Advantages:Thistypeof interviewhascertainspecial advantages.
(a) It cancloselyapproximatethespontaneityof anatural conversation.
(b) It is less prone to interviewers bias. It provides greater opportunityto explore the problemin an
unrestrictedmanner.
Limitations: Though the unstructured interview is a potent research instrument, it is not free from
limitations.
(a) Oneof its major limitations is that thedataobtainedfromoneinterviewis not comparableto the
datafromthenext. Hence, it isnot suitablefor surveys.
(b) Time maybe wasted in unproductive conversations. Bynot focusingon one or another facet of a
problem, theinvestigator mayruntheriskof beingledupblindally.
(c) As there is no particular order or sequence in this interview, the classification of responses and
codingmayrequiremoretime.
(d) Thistypeof informal interviewingcallsfor greater skill thantheformal surveyinterview.
Focusedinterview
Thisis asemi-structured interviewwhere the investigator attempts to focus the discussion on the actual
effects of a given experience to which the respondents have been exposed. It takes place with the
respondents known to have involved in a particular experience, e.g., seeing a particular film, viewing a
particular programme on T.V., involved in atrain/bus accident, etc. The situation is analyzed prior to the
interview. Aninterviewguidespecifyingtopicsrelatingtotheresearchhypothesisisused. Theinterviewis
focused on the subjective experiences of the respondent, i.e., his attitudes, and emotions responses
regardingthesituationunder study.
The focused interviewpermits the interviewer to obtain details of personal reactions, specific emotions
andthelike.
Merits: Thistypeof interviewisfreefromtheinflexibilityof formal methods, yet givestheinterviewaset
formandinsuresadequatecoverageof all therelevant topics.
Therespondent isaskedfor certaininformation, yet hehasplentyof opportunitytopresent hisviews.
Theinterviewer isalsofreetochoosethesequenceof questionsanddeterminetheextent of probing.
Clinical Interview
This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference. While the focused interview is
concerned with the effects of aspecific experience, clinical interviewis concerned with broad underlying
feelingsor motivationsor withthecourseof theindividualslifeexperiences.
The Personal history interviewused in social case work, prison administration, psychiatric clinics and in
individual life history research is the most common type of clinical interview. The specific aspects of the
individualslifehistorytobecoveredbytheinterviewaredeterminedwithreferencetothepurposeof the
studyandtherespondent isencouragedtotalkfreelyabout them.
DepthInterview
This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the respondents opinion, emotions or
convictionsonthebasisof aninterviewguide. This requires muchmoretraininginter-personal skills than
structuredinterviewing. Thisdeliberatelyaimsto elicit unconsciousaswell asextremelypersonal feelings
andemotions.
This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free expression of affectively charged
information. It requiresprobing.
The interviewer should totally avoid advising or showing disagreement. Of course, he should use
encouraging expressions like uh-huh or I see to motivate the respondent to continue narration.
Sometimes the depth interviewer has to face the problemof affection, i.e., the respondent may hide
expressingaffectivefeelings. Theinterviewer shouldhandlesuchsituationwithgreat care.
Advantages
1. Moreinformationandthat tooingreater depthcanbeobtained.
2. Interviewer byhis ownskill canovercometheresistance, if any, of therespondents; theinterview
methodcanbemadetoyieldanalmost perfect sampleof thegeneral population.
3. Thereis greater flexibilityunder thismethodastheopportunityto restructurequestions is always
there, speciallyincaseof unstructuredinterviews.
4. Observationmethodcanaswell beappliedtorecordingverbal answerstovariousquestions.
5. Personal informationcanaswell beobtainedeasilyunder thismethod.
6. Samplescanbecontrolledmoreeffectivelyastherearisesnodifficultyof themissingreturns; non-
responsegenerallyremainsverylow.
7. The interviewer canusuallycontrol whichperson(s) will answer thequestions. This is not possible
inmailedquestionnaireapproach. If sodesired, groupdiscussionsmayalsobeheld.
8. The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most spontaneous
reactionsthanwouldbethecaseif mailedquestionnaireisused.
9. The language of the interview can be adapted to the ability or educational level of the person
interviewedandassuchmisinterpretationsconcerningquestionscanbeavoided.
10. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondents personal
characteristicsandenvironment whichisoftenof great valueininterpretingresults
Weaknesses
1. It isaveryexpensivemethod, speciallywhenlargeandwidelyspreadgeographical sampleistaken.
2. Thereremainsthepossibilityof thebiasof interviewer aswell asthat of therespondent; therealso
remainstheheadacheof supervisionandcontrol of interviewers.
3. Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high income
groups maynot beeasilyapproachableunder this method andto that extent the datamayprove
inadequate.
4. Thismethodisrelativelymore-time-consuming, speciallywhenthesampleislargeandrecallsupon
therespondentsarenecessary.
5. The presence of the interviewer on the spot mayover-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even
totheextent that hemaygiveimaginaryinformationjust tomaketheinterviewinteresting.
6. Under the interviewmethod the organisation required for selecting, trainingand supervisingthe
field-staff ismorecomplexwithformidableproblems.
7. Interviewingat timesmayalsointroducesystematicerrors.
8. Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free and
frankresponses. Thisisoftenaverydifficult requirement.
Pre-requisitesandbasictenetsofinterviewing
For successful implementationof theinterviewmethod
Interviewers should be carefully selected, trained and briefed. They should be honest, sincere,
hardworking, impartial and must possess the technical competence and necessary practical
experience.
Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that interviewers are neither cheating, nor
deviatingfrominstructionsgiventothemfor performingtheir jobefficiently.
In addition, some provision should also be made in advance so that appropriate action may be
taken if some of the selected respondents refuse to cooperate or are not available when an
interviewer callsuponthem.
TelephoneInterviewing
Telephone interviewingis anon-personal method of datacollection. It maybe used as _ a*Kr method or
supplementarymethod.
Uses:It will beuseful inthefollowingsituations:
1. Whentheuniverseiscomposedof thosepersonswhosenamesarelistedintelephonedirectories,
e.g., businesshouses, businessexecutives, doctors, other professionals.
2. When the study requires responses to five or six simple questions, e.g., Radio or Television
programmesurvey.
3. Whenthesurveymust beconductedinaveryshort periodof time, providedtheunitsof studyare
listedintelephonedirectory.
4. When the subject is interesting or important to respondents, e.g., A survey relating to trade
conducted by a trade association or a chamber of commerce, a survey relating to a profession
conductedbytheconcernedprofessional association.
5. Whentherespondentsarewidelyscatteredandwhentherearemanycall backstomake.
EvaluationAdvantages:
Theadvantagesof telephoneintervieware:
1. The survey can be completed at very lowcost, because telephone survey does not involve travel
timeandcost andall callscanbemadefromasinglelocation.
2. Information can be collected in a short period of time. 5 to 10 interviews can be conducted per
hour.
3. Qualityof responseisgood, becauseinterviewer biasisreducedasthereisnoface-to-facecontact
betweentheinterviewer andtherespondent.
4. Thismethodof interviewingislessdemandingupontheinterviewer.
5. It doesnot involvefieldwork.
6. Individuals who could not be reached or who might not care to be interviewed personallycan be
contactedeasily.
Disadvantages:
Telephoneinterviewhasseveral limitations.
1. It islimitedtopersonswithlistedtelephones. Thesamplewill bedistorted, if theuniverseincludes
persons not on phone. In several countries like India only a fewpersons have phone facility and
that tooinurbanareasonly. Telephonefacilityisveryrareinrural areas. Hence, themethodisnot
useful for studyingthegeneral population.
2. Thereisalimit tothelengthof interview. Usually, acall cannot last over fiveminutes. Only
3. Five or six simple questions can be asked. Hence, telephone cannot be used for a longer
questionnaire.
4. Thetypeof informationtobecollectedislimitedtowhat canbegiveninsimple, short answersof a
few words. Hence telephone is not suitable for complex surveys, and there is no possibility of
obtainingdetailedinformation.
5. If thequestionscover personal matters, most respondentswill not cooperatewiththeinterviewer.
6. Therespondentscharacteristicsandenvironment cannot beobserved.
7. It isnot possibletousevisual aidslikecharts, maps, illustrationsor complexscales.
8. It israther difficult toestablishrapport betweentherespondent andtheinterviewer.
9. Thereisnopossibilitytoensuretheidentityof theinterviewer andtoovercomesuspicions.
GroupInterviews
Meaningandnature: Agroupinterviewmaybedefinedasamethodof collectingprimarydatainwhicha
number of individualswithacommoninterest interact witheachother. Inapersonal interview, theflowof
informationismulti-dimensional.
Thegroupmayconsist of about sixtoeight individualswithacommoninterest. Theinterviewer actsasthe
discussionleader. Freediscussionisencouragedonsomeaspect of thesubject under study. Thediscussion
leader stimulatesthegroupmemberstointeract witheachother.
Thedesiredinformationmaybeobtainedthroughself-administeredquestionnairesor interview, withthe
discussion serving as a guide to ensure consideration of the areas of concern. In particular, the
interviewers look for evidence of common elements of attitudes, beliefs, intentions and opinions among
individuals in the group. At the same time, he must be aware that a single comment by a member can
provideimportant insight.
Samplesfor groupinterviewcanbeobtainedthroughschools, clubsandother organizedgroups.
Uses: The group interviewtechnique can be employed by researchers in studyingpeoples reactions on
publicamenities, publichealthprojects, welfareschemes, etc. It isapopular methodinmarketingresearch
to evaluate new product or service concepts, brand names, packages, promotional, strategies and
attitudes. When an organization needs a great variety of information inasmuch detail as possible at a
relatively lowcost and in a short period of time, the group interviewtechnique is more useful. It can be
usedtogenerateprimarydataintheexploratoryphaseof aproject.
Evaluation:
Advantages:
Theadvantagesof thistechniqueare:
1. Therespondentscomment freelyandindetail.
2. The method is highly flexible. The flexibility helps the research work with newconcepts or topics
whichhavenot beenpreviouslyinvestigated.
3. Visual aidscanbeused.
4. Agroupcanbeinterviewedinthetimerequiredfor onepersonal interview.
5. Theclient canwatchtheinterviewunobserved.
6. Respondentsaremorearticulateinagroupthanintheindividual interview.
Thetechniqueeliminatesthephysical limitationsinherent inindividual interviews.
Disadvantages:
Thismethodisnot freefromdrawbacks.
1. It isdifficult toget arepresentativesample.
2. Thereisthepossibilityof thegroupbeingdominatedbyoneindividual.
3. Therespondentsmayanswer topleasetheinterviewer or theother membersinthegroup
Nevertheless, theadvantagesof thistechniqueoutweighthedisadvantagesandthetechniqueisroundto
beuseful for surveysontopicsof commoninterest.
Unit No. 6
COLLECTIONOFDATATHROUGHQUESTIONNAIRES
Thismethodof datacollectionisquitepopular, particularlyincaseof bigenquiries. It isbeingadoptedby
private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by governments. In this
method aquestionnaire is sent (usually bypost) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the
questionsandreturnthequestionnaire.
Aquestionnaireconsistsof anumber of questionsprintedor typedinadefiniteorder onaformor set of
forms. Thequestionnaireismailedtorespondentswhoareexpectedtoreadandunderstandthequestions
andwritedownthereplyinthespacemeant for thepurposeinthequestionnaireitself. Therespondents
havetoanswer thequestionsontheir own.
Advantages
1. Thereislowcost evenwhentheuniverseislargeandiswidelyspreadgeographically.
2. It isfreefromthebiasof theinterviewer; answersareinrespondents ownwords.
3. Respondentshaveadequatetimetogivewell thought out answers.
4. Respondents, whoarenot easilyapproachable, canalsobereachedconveniently.
5. Largesamplescanbemadeuseof andthustheresultscanbemademoredependableandreliable.
Weaknesses
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
2. It canbeusedonlywhenrespondentsareeducatedandcooperating.
3. Thecontrol over questionnairemaybelost onceit issent.
4. Thereisinbuilt inflexibilitybecauseof thedifficultyof amendingtheapproachoncequestionnaires
havebeendespatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain
questions; interpretationof omissionsisdifficult.
6. It isdifficult toknowwhether willingrespondentsaretrulyrepresentative.
7. Thismethodislikelytobetheslowest of all.
Mainaspectsof aquestionnaire
Quiteoftenquestionnaireisconsideredastheheart of asurveyoperation, it isalwaysadvisabletoconduct
pilot study (Pilot Survey) for testingthequestionnaires. Inabigenquirythesignificanceof pilot surveyis
felt very much. Pilot survey is infact the replica and rehearsal of the main survey. Such a survey, being
conducted by experts, brings to the light the weaknesses (if any) of the questionnaires and also of the
surveytechniques.
Henceit shouldbeverycarefullyconstructed. If it is not properlyset up, thenthesurveyisboundto fail.
Thisfact requiresustostudythemainaspectsof aquestionnaireviz., thegeneral form, questionsequence
andquestionformulationandwording.
Threemainaspectsof aquestionnaire
General form
So far as the general formof a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be structured or
unstructured questionnaire. Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which
there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are presented
withexactlythesamewordingandinthesameorder toall respondents.
The formof the question maybe either closed (i.e., of the type yes or no) or open (i.e.,
inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed during
questioning.
When these characteristics are not present in a questionnaire, it can be termed as
unstructuredor non-structuredquestionnaire.
Questionsequence
Inorder tomakethequestionnaireeffectiveandtoensurequalitytotherepliesreceived, a
researcher shouldpayattentiontothequestion-sequenceinpreparingthequestionnaire.
A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions
beingmisunderstood.
The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that the
relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with
questionsthat areeasiest toanswer beingput inthebeginning.
Questionformulationandwording
Withregardto this aspect of questionnaire, theresearcher shouldnotethat eachquestion
must be very clear for any sort of misunderstandingcan do irreparable harmto a survey.
Question should also be impartial in order not to give abiased picture of the true state of
affairs. Questionsshouldbeconstructedwithaviewtotheir formingalogical part of awell
thought out tabulationplan.
Ingeneral, all questionsshouldmeet thefollowingstandards
shouldbeeasilyunderstood;
shouldbesimplei.e., shouldconveyonlyonethought at atime;
Shouldbeconcreteandshouldconformasmuchaspossibletotherespondentsway
of thinking.
Essentialsof agoodquestionnaire
To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple i.e., the size of the
questionnaireshouldbekept totheminimum.
Questionsshouldproceedinlogical sequencemovingfromeasytomoredifficult questions.
Personal andintimatequestionsshouldbeleft totheend.
Technical terms andvagueexpressions capableof different interpretations shouldbeavoidedina
questionnaire.
Questionsmaybedichotomous(yesor no answers), multiplechoice(alternativeanswerslisted) or
open-ended. Thelatter typeof questionsareoftendifficult toanalyseandhenceshouldbeavoided
inaquestionnairetotheextent possible.
Questionsaffectingthesentimentsof respondentsshouldbeavoided.
Adequatespacefor answersshouldbeprovidedinthequestionnairetohelpeditingandtabulation
Thephysical appearanceof thequestionnaireaffectsthecooperationtheresearcher receivesfrom
therecipients
Thequalityof thepaper, alongwithitscolour, must begoodsothat it mayattract theattentionof
recipients.
Principlesof QuestionnaireDesign
Unit No. 7
Statistical Method
Statistical refersto thewholebodyof analytical toolsthat areusedto collect thefigures, organize
andinterpret themandfinallydrawconclusionsfromthem.
Statistical are numerical statements of facts in anydepartment enquiryplaced in relation to each
other. Bowley
Bystatisticswemeanquantitativedataaffectedtoamarkedextent bymultiplicityof causes.
Tocollect thestatistical datathemanager hastofacefour typesof situations
1. Easygrasping
2. Totest hypothesesanddrawinferences
3. Toestablisharelationshipthroughobserveddata
4. Courseof action
DataAnalysis
The datais collected, then the samplingis done, simultaneouslythe interviewees are carried out.
The collected data then goes for processing. After the data have been processed, it is necessary
that thesedataareanalysed.
Analysis refers to computation of certain indices or measures alongwithsearchingfor patterns of
relationshipthat exist amongthedatagroups.
Statistical methods can be used to summarize or describe a collection of data this is called
descriptivestatistics. Thisisuseful inresearch, whencommunicatingtheresultsof experiments.
In addition, patterns in the data may be modeled in a way that accounts for randomness and
uncertainty in the observation and are then used to draw inferences about the process or
populationbeingstudiedthisiscalledinferential statistics.
If theinferenceholdtrue, thenthedescriptivestatisticsof thenewdataincreasesthesoundnessof
that hypothesis.
STATISTICSINRESEARCH
Theroleof statisticsinresearchistofunctionasatool indesigningresearch, analysingitsdataand
drawingconclusionstherefrom.
To achievetheobjectiveof theresearch, wehaveto go astepfurther anddevelopcertainindices
or measurestosummarisethecollected/classifieddata.
Only after this we can adopt the process of generalisation fromsmall groups (i.e., samples) to
population. If fact, thereare two major areas of statistics viz., descriptivestatistics and inferential
statistics.
descriptivestatisticsandinferential statistics
Descriptive statistics concern the development of certain indices from the raw data, whereas
inferential statisticsconcernwiththeprocessof generalisation.
Inferential statisticsarealsoknownassamplingstatisticsandaremainlyconcernedwithtwomajor
typeof problems:
Theestimationof populationparameters, and
Thetestingof statistical hypotheses.
DescriptiveStatistics
Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show or
summarizedatainameaningful way
Descriptive statistics, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data we have analysed or reach
conclusionsregardinganyhypotheseswemight havemade.
Descriptive statistics are veryimportant because if we simplypresented our rawdatait would be
hardtovisualizewhat thedatawasshowing, especiallyif therewasalot of it.
Descriptive statistics allow us to properly describe data through statistics and graphs is an
important topicanddiscussed.
Typically, therearetwogeneral typesof statisticthat areusedtodescribedata
MeasuresofCentral Tendency
Measuresofspread
MeasuresofCentral Tendency
Measures of central tendency (or statistical averages) tell us the point about which items have a
tendencyto cluster. Suchameasureis consideredasthemost representativefigurefor theentire
massof data. Measureof central tendencyisalsoknownasstatistical average.
The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but under different
conditions, somemeasuresof central tendencybecomemoreappropriatetousethanothers.
Arithmeticmean
Arithmeticmeanisdefinedasthesumof theitemsdividedbythenumber of itemsinaseries.
Arithmetic mean is the most is the widely used and practical method for the measurement of
central tendency. It isfurther dividedinto
Simplearithmeticmean
Weightedarithmeticmean
Simplearithmeticmean
Simple arithmetic mean is defined as the simple mean, i.e., total of all the items by number of
items.
Individual Series:
Direct method: Inindividual series, thefollowingformulaisused

Example: FindthemeanX: 10,15,12,9,6,8

=10
Indirect Method: the indirect method is used when the number of items is very large and to
simplify that data, we take the deviation fromthe assumed mean. The followingformula will be
usedfor it
Where
=arithmeticmean
=frequencies
=variableor midpointsof classinterval frequency

N=Total Number of frequenciesinseries
Unit No. 8
ResearchReport
A research report is a format statement of the research process and its results. It narrates the
problemsstudied, methodsusedfor studyingit andthefindingsandconclusionsof thestudy.
Purposeof theResearchReport
Thepurposeof aresearchreport istocommunicatetointerestedpersonsthemethodologyandthe
results of the study in such a manner as to enable themto understand the research process and to
determinethevalidityof theconclusions
SIGNIFICANCEOFREPORTWRITING
Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task remains
incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. As amatter of fact even the most brilliant
hypothesis, highlywell designedandconductedresearchstudy, andthemost strikinggeneralizations and
findings areof littlevalueunlesstheyareeffectivelycommunicatedto others. Thepurposeof researchis
not well servedunlessthefindings aremadeknownto others. Researchresultsmust invariablyenter the
general store of knowledge. All this explains thesignificance of writingresearch report. There are people
whodonot consider writingof report asanintegral part of theresearchprocess. But thegeneral opinionis
infavour of treatingthepresentationof researchresultsor thewritingof report aspart andparcel of the
researchproject. Writingof report isthelast stepinaresearchstudyandrequiresaset of skillssomewhat
different fromthosecalledfor inrespect of theearlier stagesof research. Thistaskshouldbeaccomplished
bytheresearcher withutmost care; hemayseektheassistanceandguidanceof expertsfor thepurpose.
Typesof ResearchReports
Reports can be classified in anumber of ways based on the function, subject matter, relationship, type of
customers, natureof theorganization, timeandformality
1. Functional classification
a. Informational
b. Examination-it isalsocalledlongtermreport
c. Analytical (problem solving)
2. Classificationbasedonrelationship
a. Administrativereport ( Preparedwithintheorganization)
b. Professional reports( Preparedbytheoutsider totheorganization)
c. Independent report ( Preparedbyorganizationfor thepurposeof thepublic)
3. Classificationbasedonemployment statusof their authors
a. Privatereport ( Preparedinprivateorganization)
b. Publicreport ( PreparedinGovt. or publicinstitutions)
4. Classificationbasedontheformality
a. Formal report
b. Informal report
5. Technical report
a. Themethodsemployed
b. Assumptionsmadeinthecourseof thestudy
Thedetailedpresentationof thefindingsincludingtheir limitationsandsupporting

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Example: FindthemeanX: 10,15,12,9,6,8

=variableor midpointsof classinterval frequency

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