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U uF

BEING A T H I R D EDITION

" D Y E I N G I N G E R M A N Y AND A M E R I C A "

S. H . HIC4GIXS, M.Se. I A T EG A R T S I D ES C H O L A I i ..F T H EU M V C r .s : i VA N T1 M . 1 1 .N r .T . :_ \ 7 M A S .C H E S T E RC O L L n o i :O FT E C H > i 'M C n v ;D V I T . S^ C .M I W N V .:. . _ Z . R E S E A R C H , 1913; TlXIiN U\\'.. ClirXlJT v^:- VV.-.RK:M.^

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PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER No. CVIII

First Edition 1907 Second Edition. October 1916 Third Edition September 1919 AU Right* Reserved.

PREFACE I HAVE seized the opportunity presented by the need for a new edition of this book to add a new chapter on recent progress -?i the Industry, founded on my articles in Annual Ik^ori? ch ^j-';>a Chemistry issued by the Society of Chemical Industry, 1917-191S. These reports have also been utilised to provide some of ihe information given in the new chapter on Colour Production. Since tiicboolc now deals as substantially with the Industry in Great Britain as it does with the Industry in other countries, it seems logical to change the title which it bore in previous editions, "Dyeing in Germany and America," into the one which is now used. It U gratifying to find that the book has been deemed worthy of translation and that an edition in French will soon make its appearance. S. H. H.
MANCHESTER,

Septernbtr 1919.

PREFACE "DYEING

TO T H E

SECOND E D I T I O N

OF

IN GERMANY AND

AMERICA"

THE first edition of this book was issued in 1907 as "a Report to the Electors of the Gartside Scholarship of the University of Manchester on the Results of a Tour in the United States of America and G-ermany in 1905-1906," and was intended to give a general survey of the dyeing and allied industries of these countries. The very favourable reception awarded to the book has exhausted the supply of copies and necessitated the issue of this new edition. Although no further visit has been paid to either of the countries, I have been able to add considerably to what appeared in the first edition, chiefly as the result of experience gained during the past nine years, firstly as a demonstrator in the Dyehouse of the Manchester College of Technology, and secondly, as a works chemist and manager. Naturally, this experience is most in evidence in those parts of the book dealing with the branches of the industry with which I am the most familiar. I have also taken the liberty of including certain material -which I have published in various journals since the issue of the first edition. It is hoped that this edition will be useful to the student requiring a general knowledge of the industry, to the publicist seeking a comparison between the industrial conditions in this and other countries, to the general reader, and also to the practical dyer, who may find in these pages some things of value and interest to him. In the preparation of this edition I have received much assistance from the many helpful suggestions made by reviewers when the book was first published. I am also indebted to these gentlemen for the rectification of several errors which appeared therein. I wish to place on record my appreciation of the care taken in the publication of the present edition by H. M. McKechnie, Esq., Secretary of the Manchester University Press; also to repeat my thanks to Arthur Jones, Esq., M.A., for the help he gave me with the first edition. S. H. HIGGINS.
LUNOAKTY, PERTH, N.B.,

July 1916.

CONTENTS
PREFACE . . . . .
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

vi

CHAPTER I
GENERAL . . . . . . . . I

The art of dyeingInfluence of chemistryOpposition to progress Hank-dyeing and washingCloth-dyeing. C H A P T E E II

COP-DYEING . . . . . . . 6

Its objectSelection of coloursThe difficulties involvedMachines of two classesComparison of these machinesThree important machines Perfection not attained. C H A P T E E III
SULPHUR COLOURS AND INDIGO . . . . . 1 2

Fastness of sulphur coloursImportance as cotton dyesTheir tendering action on cottonUse for wool dyeingMachines used for dyeing sulphur coloursNatural and synthetic indigoSubstitutes for indigo Sulphur blues and indigo. C H A P T E E IV
MERCERISING . . . . . . . 20

Invention of the processHank-mercerising machinesPiece mercerisingCooling of the lyeRecovery of the caustic sodaRecent scientific work on mercerising. CHAPTER V
BLEACHING . . . . . . . 3 1

Development of the industryEffect of chemistryEfficient scouring Continuous scouring Open-width scouring Electrolytic bleaching Steeping of goodsThe waxes of vegetablefibresBleachingwithout boiling. C H A P T E E VI
GERMAN AND ENGLISH FLANNELETTES . . . . 4 3

Use of raisingCotton blanketsGerman productionLarge-scale productionGerman and English methods comparedExternal and internal specialisationInflammability of flannelettes. CHAPTEE VII
THE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . 4 9

American conditionsScarcity of labourLarge-scale production Uncertainty of their industryLack of specialisationEffect of the tariff.

viii

THE DYEING INDUSTRY CHAPTEK VIII P A G E

LOWELL, LAWRENCE, AND FALL RIVER, MASS.

LowellThe town and its industryMerrimack Manufacturing CompanyHours and conditionsTurning to finer workProduction of machinesEmployer and employedHamilton Manufacturing Company Arrangement of worksAmerican workerLawrence and its industry Peniberton Works Pacific and Arlington MillsFall RiverWater supplyFall River BleacheryThe drying of clothBaruaby Works Bridgeport, Conn. Salts Manufacturing Company Klatider - Weldon dyeing machines. CHAPTEE IX
. . .

. 5 3

CONDITIONS OF LIFE IN THE INDUSTRY

. 6 5

Injurious conditions in dyeingEngland, Germany and America comparedThe power of the workmen in GermanyThe development in AmericaWages in the three countriesAmerica's high wagesShort hoursThe German workman and the American. CHAPTEE X
EFFICIENCY IN THE INDUSTRY . . . . . 7 1

Dyeing in GermanyApplication of science to the artThe position in AmericaEnglish workmen in AmericaEmpiricism and science Arrangement of the worksUsing up of wastesAids to manufacture Specialisation in the industryDye-works and machine shopsHigh specialisation in EnglandBritish pessimism. CHAPTER XI
INSTRUCTION IN DYEING . . . . . . 80

The dyeing industry subject to changeBritish pessimism regarding educationAppointments for technical studentsGerman technical schools Education of the German workman American schoolsSuggested reforms. CHAPTEK XII
PROGRESS IN THE INDUSTRY DURING THE WAR PERIOD . . 94

Research workBleachingDyeingRe-dyeingMercerisingPrintingFinishing. CHAPTER

COLOUR PRODUCTION . .

XIII
.. . . .127

The German worksPast, present and futureCombination and its possible effectsOur position Possible remediesProtectionPatent legislationOrganisation of the industry in Germany. CHAPTER XIV
COLOUR PRODUCTION (continued) . . . . .148

CHAPTER XV
COLOUR PRODUCTION (continued) . . . . . 16$>
188

INDEX

CHAPTER GENERAL

The art of dyeingInfluence of chemistryOpposition to progressHankdyeing and washingCloth-dyeing. T H E art of dyeing is v e r y old, as t h e following q u o t a t i o n from Pliny shows : " Garments are p a i n t e d in E g y p t in a wonderful manner, t h e white cloths being first smeared, not with colours, b u t w i t h drugs which absorb colours. These applications do n o t appear on t h e cloths, b u t when the cloths are immersed in a cauldron of h o t dyeing liquor they are t a k e n o u t p a i n t e d t h e m o m e n t afterwards. I t is wonderful t h a t , although t h e dyeing liquor is only of one colour, t h e g a r m e n t is dyed b y i t of several colours, according to t h e different properties of t h e drugs which have been applied to t h e different p a r t s : nor can this dye be washed out. Thus t h e v a t , which would doubtless have confused all t h e colours if t h e cloth h a d been immersed in a p a i n t e d state, produces a diversity of colours out of one, and at t h e same time fixes t h e m i m m o v a b l y . " Thus we have evidence t h a t a t an early period t h e practice of what is now k n o w n as polygenetic colour-dyeing was carried out. Since such knowledge of dyeing existed in these early times it is surprising t h a t i t is only during t h e last few centuries t h a t m a r k e d progress has been m a d e . The discovery of America influenced t h e a r t of dyeing so materially t h a t its real development dates from t h a t event. Mexico furnished cochineal, and, later, t h e b e a u t i ful tropical indigo displaced t o a large e x t e n t t h e ancient woad of England. W e find t h a t t h e law restricted t h e dyeing industry i n all countries : sometimes t h e m e t h o d s of dyeing were strictly defined a n d no others were permitted ; at other times t h e districts i n which dyeing was

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

a]io-*\?d were s t a t e d ; a n d in some periods a d u t y w a s ^ a e e d on all dyed cloth. Fox instance, a t one t i m e logwood was n o t allowed t o be used for dyeing blues, a s t h e eo!o-ir> thus produced weie said t o b e fugitive. A n A c t of Parliament of 1552 limited t h e n u m b e r of coloirrs w h i c h illicit be used ; William I I I . a d d e d t o t h e l i s t ; a n d l a t e i legislation allowed t h e free use of d y e - s t u S s . T h e s e obstacles hindered, t o some e x t e n t , t h e progress of t h e dyeing industry, b u t it is only in quite r e c e n t t i m e s t h a t wcz&i advances have been made. The introduction of chemistry i n t o t h e i n d u s t r y h a s indefinitely enlarged its resources b y showing h o w t o produce varieties of colours extending t h r o u g h t h e whole ranee of t h e prismatic spectrum, a n d h a s e n a b l e d t h e d y e r TO lix and render durable m a n y of t h o s e b e a u t i f u l vegetable dyes t h e ephemeral n a t u r e of whose b r i g h t n e s s formerly d e t r a c t e d from their u t i l i t y . Along w i t h t h e s e improvements t h e nature of t h e s u b s t a n c e t o be d y e d has received careful scientific c o n s i d e r a t i o n ; t h e processes have been adapted t o suit t i e fibres b e i n g d y e d , a n d niordants have been introduced b y m e a n s of w h i c t p e c u l i a r shades have been produced, the m o s t diverse fabrics d y e d together and perfect fixity given t o t h e colours. Yet, during its rapid development, t h e d y e i n g i n d u s t r y h a d t o combat m a n y prejudices, t h e greatest of w h i c h "was the reluctance of t h e dyers themselves t o a d o p t t h e n e w methods when introduced. The u t i l i t y of colours d y e d without m o r d a n t s was n o t a t first recognised, a n d i t w a s a long time before t i e substantive c o t t o n colours could get a footing. T h e general adoption of metallic m o r d a n t s was opposed; b u t t h e discovery of alizarine r e d a n d , l a t e r , of alizarine blue brought in t h i s m e t h o d , a n d i t h a s g r a d u ally grown in use u n t i l now i t is one of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t methods of dyeing. I t m u s t be r e m e m b e r e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t every i m p r o v e m e n t i n every t r a d e is received "with opposition of some kind, a n d t h e h i s t o r y of d y e i n g shoTvs the industry t o l a v e been n o exception t o t h e r u l e . T h e preliminary difficulties m a y be great, a n d unwillingness t o discard t i e old methods m a y exist, b u t t h e f a c t t h a t the new methods gain acceptance in o t h e r q u a r t e r s s h o w their utility, and ought t o urge ail b e y o n d initial ohstacles.

GENEEAL

As to t i e location of t h e dyeing i n d u s t r y , we h a v e i n Germany : 1. North-West Germany, including R h i n e l a n d a n d W e s t phalia, l a this district the principal centres are Crefeld for silk, Miinchen-Gi-ladbach for cotton,, and ElberfeldBarraen for general manufacture, especially dyeing. 2. Middle Germany, containing w h a t is usually called " the Saxony I n d u s t r y " and spread over a large a r e a . The industry in this district is very old. Chemnitz a n d Zwickau are i m p o r t a n t centres. 3. South-West Germany, where t h e i n d u s t r y is connected with t h e Trench a n d Swiss industries. Mulhausen. is the principal town. M u l t a u s e n is a n i m p o r t a n t fine cotton centre, a n d m u c h fine printing is done i n t h i s district for English a n d F r e n c h firms. The w o r t is t o t a l l y different from t h a t of other p a r t s o i Germany. The jMiinchenGladbach industry is largely devoted t o t h e production of cotton blankets. I n Chemnitz t h e dyeing is of a varied nature. The machines used in t h e textile districts m e n tioned are in m a n y cases of British manufacture, or copies of the same, and e Yen i n t h e t r a d e schools British m a c h i n e r y is used. Yet the Germans are now producing a large number of textile a n d dyeing machines, a n d even e x p o r t ing them to Britain. I n America t h e dyeing industry is scattered. I n t h e Philadelphia district t h e dyeing of carpets a n d coarse goods is t h e principal business. I n t h e S o u t h e r n S t a t e s , where "bleaching and dyeing are c o m p a r a t i v e l y n e w industries, there are some fine w o r k s ; "but t h e works of t h e New England States are the most i m p o r t a n t for t h e present review. Nearly everything t h a t is m a n u f a c t u r e d anywhere in the U n i t e d S t a t e s is made in New York S t a t e . I t has a population, of over 7,000,000, a, foreign commerce only exceeded h y four countries, a n d is t h e leading S t a t e of t h e United States in. m a n y i m p o r t a n t industries. Y e t , turning, farther north, we find New E n g l a n d contains twot l i r d s of all t h e cotton, spindles and three-quarters of all t h e looms of t h e U n i t e d States, while Fall R i v e r m a k e s tliree-quarters of t h e print cloth produced in. t h a t c o u n t r y . Dyeing in E u r o p e was first effected in the y a m form, and this method is still l&Tgely used. HmTc-Hyeing l a s

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

not changed much of recent times, a n d in dye-houses in all countries men can be seen s t a n d i n g over w o o d e n v a t s changing periodically the wooden sticks, from w h i c h t h e hanks hang into t h e dye liquor. T h e h a n k s a r e lifted, turned, and dropped back again, while t o i m p r o v e t h e evenness of the dyeing t h e positions of t h e sticks are changed regularly so t h a t all experience t h e s a m e concentration of dye-stuff. Machines have been devised t o i m i t a t e t h i s m o v e m e n t , but few of these have been adopted t o a n y large e x t e n t . Such machines are really only s u i t a b l e for d y e i n g large quantities of y a r n t h e same colour. T h e a u t h o r did n o t see any such machines a t work in G e r m a n y , b u t in America the Klauder-Weldon machine for t h i s p u r p o s e w a s often seen (see p . 63). I n t h e United S t a t e s , h o w e v e r , h a n k dyeing is not so i m p o r t a n t as it used t o be. T h e y m a k e so many cloths where the warp is t h e s a m e c o u n t as t h e weft, t h a t both warp a n d weft are receiving t h e same treatment before weaving. Both a r e d y e d t o g e t h e r in the warp-dyeing machine, and t h e n t a k e n , p a r t t o be quilled and p a r t t o be beamed. This is said t o be a cheaper process t h a n separately t r e a t i n g t h e w a r p a n d weft y a r n s in the more usual way. As regards h a n k - d y e i n g m a c h i n e s , it is evident t h a t t h e y c a n never wholly replace h a n k dyeing by hand, for certain colours require special care, and it is useless t o a t t e m p t t o design m a c h i n e s t o m e e t each special operation. After dyeing, t h e hanks m u s t be w a s h e d , t h i s o p e r a t i o n being of importance. Machines h a v e b e e n devised for t h i s purpose. The simplest m e t h o d is t o p a s s t h e h a n k alternately through water a n d between a p a i r of squeezing rollers. The w a s h i n g - m a c h i n e s are again designed t o imitate washing b y h a n d . Thus, i n one m a c h i n e t h e h a n k is lifted out of t h e water, plunged r a p i d l y i n again, a n d a t t h e same time turned. Haubold'sa large machine firm i n C h e m n i t z , S a x o n y build a machine which is v e r y economical a n d h a s a large production. I t consists of a circular v a t w i t h a p a r t i t i o n fixed radially at one p a r t of t h e r i m of t h e v a t . F r e s h water is conducted in a t one side of t h i s p a r t i t i o n a n d t h e dirty water flows away a t t h e other side, t h a t is, after

GENERAL

h a v i n g traversed r o u n d t h e v a t and washed t h e h a n k s w h i c h are suspended from copper rods placed radially on t h e v a t . E a c h of these rods is covered w i t h a s q u a r e porcelain p a r t on which t h e hanks hang. The porcelain p a r t s revolve, t h u s moving the hanks in t h e water, while t h e whole wheel carrying t h e h a n k s moves r o u n d w i t h a j e r k y motion. During t h e revolution of t h e wheel, t h e h a n k s first meet d i r t y water t h e n cleaner w a t e r as t h e y revolve, until finally t h e y meet clean w a t e r a n d are t a k e n o u t . The hanks are well and rapidly washed, a n d as t h e washing is on t h e counter-current system, t h e w a t e r is economically used. The machine is supplied in three sizes, w i t h 12, 18, a n d 27 copper radii, a n d is suitable for all classes of yarn. Hank-dyeing a n d washing are still principally done b y h a n d , a n d a t Chemnitz workmen are seen standing on low bridges crossing t h e river a n d washing h a n k s in t h e r u n n i n g w a t e r . This peculiar sight m a y be witnessed all along t h e w i n d i n g river. I n t h e Barmen district such a p r a c t i c e is p r e v e n t e d b y t h e b a d state of t h e river, for only on a v e r y w e t S u n d a y , and w h e n t h e factories h a v e been closed some h o u r s , c a n t h e W u p p e r be considered w o r t h y of such u s a g e . Cloth-dyeing is done on t h e jigger or on t h e rope form, a n d big works a b r o a d were seen using b o t h m e t h o d s . T h e d y e i n g of m o r d a n t e d cloth was done in t h e rope-dyeing machines, as t h e m o r d a n t i n g assured even dyeing a n d m a d e t h e use of t h e jigger unnecessary. I t was a frequent occurrence t o see a line of rope-dyeing machines a t work in G e r m a n works. These machines require little a t t e n t i o n , b u t because of t h e difficulty of washing i t is almost necessary t o have different machines for different colours before good results c a n be obtained. This r e m a r k also applies t o t h e use of jiggers for dyeing. I n G e r m a n y some of t h e jiggers h a d e x t r a rollers so as t o increase t h e t i m e of i m m e r s i o n of t h e cloth in t h e dye l i q u o r ; b u t since dyeing is really done more in t h e b a t c h t h a n while in t h e liquor, t h e a d v a n t a g e of these rollers is questionable. A t Miilhausen, as a t Chemnitz, t h e river is used directly for washing, and washing-machines are directly b u i l t over b r a n c h e s of it. Most of t h e works congregate a b o u t t h e rivers a n d streams.

CHAPTER COP-DYEING

II

Its objectSelection of colours-The difficulties involvedMachines of two classes Comparison of these machinesThree important machines Perfection not attained. U N T I L comparatively recently, c o t t o n y a r n h a d t o be dyed i n the h a n k f o r m : t h e c o p p r o d u c e d b y t h e spinningmachine was unwound, t h e y a r n m a d e into t h e h a n k form, dyed, t h e n rewound t o t h e cop form a n d placed in t h e s h u t t l e . During tMs operation of u n w i n d i n g a n d rewinding, cotton was lost owing t o t h e e n t a n g l i n g of t h e t h r e a d s , a n d cop-dyeing arose t o s a v e t h e t r o u b l e m e n t i o n e d a n d t h u s to economise b o t h labour a n d m a t e r i a l . Cop-dyeing originated in t h e Manchester district a b o u t t h i r t y years ago, and has now assumed considerable dimensions in Germany. Many machines are i n use for cop-dyeing, b u t t h e success of t h e operation seems t o d e p e n d n o t so m u c h o n the machinery used as o n t h e p r o p e r selection of t h e dye-stuffs a n d on t h e careful h a n d l i n g of t h e machines. During t h e dyeing operation t h e d y e l i q u o r h a s t o b e forced t h r o u g h t h e cop, a n d in t h i s w a y t h e material of t h e cop acts as a kind of filter for t h e dye-stuff. I t is therefore evident t h a t success i n cop-dyeing can best be a t t a i n e d b y using perfectly soluble colours, w h i c h leave no residue in the d y e - b a t h ; otherwise t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s uneven dyeing, a n d t o c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e d y e stuff: on t h e outside of t h e cop. T h i s is p a r t l y counteracted i n some machines b y periodically reversing t h e direction of flow of t h e dye liquor t h r o u g h t h e c o p . Consideration shows us t h a t m a n y colours, as aniline black, t u r k e y red, etc., c a n n o t b e d y e d w i t h success on
6

COP-DYEING

cops ; others, such as indigo, are difficult t o m a n a g e . T h e dyeing w i t h sulphur colours is also difficult because of t h e i r t e n d e n c y t o oxidise on t h e outside of t h e cops, t h u s p r o ducing unevenness. I n using these colours, t h e cops m u s t be k e p t immersed in t h e d y e liquor d u r i n g t h e d y e i n g operation. Those colours which are slowly t a k e n u p b y t h e fibres are tlie best t o use in cop-dyeing, as e v e n p e n e t r a tion is o b t a i n e d ; dyeing w i t h basic colours, w h i c h a c t quickly, is difficult. To overcome t h e difficulties m e n tioned, various precautions are t a k e n , a n d t h e colour firms give every assistance in t h a t direction b y t h e i r carefully p r e p a r e d recipes. Moreover, i n cop-dyeing t h e difficulties are accentuated b y t h e fact t h a t a n y m i s t a k e s a r e n o t revealed t o t h e dyer, who c a n n o t tell if h e is sending b l a c k cops w i t h white cores t o t h e weaver. If t h e l a t t e r is n o t a n observant person, pieces of cloth m a y t h u s be spoiled. T h e machines for cop-dyeing are of t w o classes : (1) those in which t h e cops have solid spindles, a n d (2) t h o s e in which t h e spindles of t h e cops are p e r f o r a t e d . I n t h e first class t h e cops containing t h e solid spindles, which serve t o keep t h e cops from b e c o m i n g d a m a g e d , are p a c k e d together into a s uniform a m a s s as possible b y means of c o t t o n waste a n d other s u c h m a t e r i a l . S t e a m is first sent t h r o u g h t h e mass a n d t h e n t h e d y e liquor. T h e success of t h e operation d e p e n d s o n good p a c k i n g , for, if t h e dye liquor passes along c e r t a i n channels only, t h e dyeing of t h e cops is n o t uniform. One of t h e oldest of these machines a n d t h e simplest is t h e M o m m e r m a c h i n e , in which t h e cops are t i g h t l y p a c k e d i n a s q u a r e b o x w h i c h h a s t w o of its opposite sides perforated. T h e d y e liquor is p u m p e d between t h e s e perforations a n d through, t h e m a s s i n t h e box. B y reversing t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e d y e liquor more even p e n e t r a t i o n is o b t a i n e d , for, if c e r t a i n channels are produced d u r i n g t h e p a s s a g e of t h e d y e liquor in one direction, i t is n o t likely t h a t channels will b e formed i n t h e same places w h e n t h e p u m p is r e v e r s e d a n d t h e d y e liquor travels in t h e o t h e r direction. I n Cohnen's machine t h e cops c a n be h y d r o - e x t r a c t e d i m mediately after dyeing, b y merely revolving t h e b o x in which, t i e cops are packed. T h e m a c h i n e a c t s in t h e same w a y as t h e one previously described, b u t t h e a r r a n g e m e n t

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

for hydro-extracting is very convenient. T h e cops ca t h u s be dyed, washed, and hydro-extracted w i t h o u t takin out of t h e machine. The machine is specially suitable fc dyeing basic colours on cops, for in this case i t is necessar t o hydro-extract after each operation if u n e v e n dyeing i t o be avoided. The Obermaier machine, s u c h as is use for dyeing loose fibres, can also be used for dyeing cop with solid spindles. Interest in t h e solid spindle machines, however, i rapidly decreasing, and attention is being g i v e n t o machine of t h e second class. Some machines can, however, b adapted t o dye b y b o t h systems. For i n s t a n c e , t h author saw a machine m a d e b y Schirp of B a r m e n bein used for dyeing cops with solid spindles, w h e r e a s thi machine is usually employed for dyeing a c c o r d i n g to th other system. The penetration of t h e dye liquor in t h e machine using perforated spindles is more uniform, a n d this facto has decided in their favour. F u r t h e r , t h e p o w e r t o driv t h e dye liquor t h r o u g h t h e cops is m u c h less t h a n in t h first system. I n t h e second system, t h e d y e liquor i forced into t h e perforated spindle on which each cop i placed, through t h e perforations of t h e s p i n d l e , throug] the cop surrounding t h e spindle, and back i n t o t h e dye b a t h . I n this way each cop receives i n d i v i d u a l treatment instead of being p e n e t r a t e d by t h e dye liquox in a mas as in the first system. Formerly there was a difficulty ii transferring t h e cops t o and from t h e m e t a l l i c spindle used in these machines, b u t , later, perforated p a p e r spindle were introduced, which remain inside t h e c o p s during t b operations and keep t h e t h r e a d s in position. T h e metallic spindles of t h e dyeing machines fit inside t h e p a p e r spindles After dyeing, t h e cop along with t h e paper s p i n d l e is take] to the hydro-erfcractor. One case of uneven cop-dyeing, which h a d l e e n causec by t h e paper spindle, came t o t h e author's n o t i c e whil< in Germany. The inside of t h e cop, i m m e d i a t e l y next t< where t h e paper spindle h a d been, was more d e e p l y dyec t h a n the remainder of t h e cop. Investigation s h o w e d thathe alum used in t h e manufacture of t h e p a p e r h a d actec as acid to t h e dye liquor, d r a w n t h e dye-stuff f r o m solution

COP-DYEING

a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d it on t h e p a r t of t h e cop i m m e d i a t e l y next to the paper. I n t h e case of t h e perforated spindle m a c h i n e s t h e direction of m o t i o n of t h e d y e liquor is altered from t i m e t o t i m e b y reversing t h e p u m p , i n order again t o ensure uniformity of d y e i n g . A n y i m p u r i t i e s or solid particles of a n y kind in t h e d y e - b a t h , which rise t o t h e t o p of t h e d y e - b a t h , t e n d t o fill u p t h e t o p holes of t h e perforated spindles a n d t o t h u s p r o d u c e u n e v e n dyeing. Modern p e r f o r a t e d spindle m a c h i n e s : (1) Gramiger's. (2) H a u b o l d ' s , (3) Schirp's, a n d (4) P o r n i t z ' s . Gramiger's, o n e of t h e first of t h i s t y p e , h a s been i m p r o v e d in E n g l a n d , a n d is used for d y e i n g indigo o n cops. H a u b o l d ' s m a c h i n e w a s seen a t w o r k b y t h e a u t h o r i n t h e dye-works of H e r r H a a s e , its i n v e n t o r . This w o r k s is s i t u a t e d a t Neukirchen, a few miles over t h e hills from Chemnitz, a n d is principally concerned w i t h t h e dyeing of cops a n d stockings. Chemn i t z h a s a large business i n t h e d y e i n g of stockings. The cop-dyeing m a c h i n e consists of t w o p a r t s , a d y e - b a t h of t u n - d i s h s h a p e a n d a receptacle for t h e d y e liquor. The b o t t o m of t h e d y e - b a t h is perforated, a n d i n these perforat i o n s t h e spindles carrying t h e cops are screwed. The d y e - b a t h is c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h a p u m p w i t h t h e dye-vessel. T h e p u m p d r a w s t h e liquor from t h e dye-vessel, forces it t h r o u g h t h e cops i n t o t h e d y e - b a t h u n t i l t h e liquor fills t h e d y e - b a t h , a n d t h e n d r a w s s o m e of t h e liquor b a c k a g a i n t h r o u g h t h e cops i n t o t h e dye-vessel. T h e cops a r e k e p t wholly i m m e r s e d i n t h e d y e liquor d u r i n g t h e process, a n d m a n y a l t e r n a t i o n s of t h e p u m p ensure even d y e i n g . T h e passages of t h e d y e liquor, first in one direct i o n and' t h e n in t h e other, t a k e p l a c e a b o u t t w e n t y t i m e s d u r i n g a n h o u r , according t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e dyeing. If four m a c h i n e s are r u n t o g e t h e r , a s w a s t h e case a t t h i s works, one engine suffices for all, b u t w i t h single m a c h i n e s t h e cost of d r i v i n g becomes r e l a t i v e l y higher. The m a c h i n e , which was first b u i l t i n 1892, costs a b o u t 600. I t is suitable for c o t t o n a n d wool cops, a n d t h e p r o d u c t s , t h e a u t h o r found, stood m i n u t e e x a m i n a t i o n . After d y e ing, t h e cops were p u t i n small b a s k e t s a n d a r r a n g e d in a circle inside a h y d r o - e x t r a c t o r . After h y d r o - e x t r a c t i n g t h e y were d r i e d i n a c h a m b e r t h r o u g h which a strong

10

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

current of h o t air was passed. If t h e cops d r y too slowly, there is a tendency for t h e u p p e r side of the cop t o dry first, to extract t h e dye liquor from t h e lower p a r t , and t h u s produce uneven dyeing. The ScHrp machine consists of a s t o u t square box with removable sides. I n t h e middle of t h i s b o x is another box, which might be considered a longitudinal section of t h e larger one. On b o t h faces of t h e smaller b o x . t h e perforated spindles carrying t h e cops are placed, so t h a t t h e spindles project into t h e space of t h e larger box. The smaller box is fitted w i t h t h e cops, wheeled into position, a n d t h e n t h e dye liquor is forced i n t o t h e small box, through the cops into t h e larger box, a n d round again in circulation. As in t h e other cases, t h e direction of t h e dye liquor is reversed from time t o t i m e . I n t h e P o r n i t z machine t h e cop carrier is a perforated cylinder, t h e cops t a k i n g u p the whole of t h e round surface. W h e n t h e cops h a v e been fitted into position, this cylinder is lowered by m e a n s of a chain into t h e dye-bath, which is a cylindrical vessel big enough t o a d m i t t h e cops. B y means of compression a n d suction t h e dye liquor is m a d e t o pass from t h e d y e - b a t h t h r o u g h t h e cops into t h e dye reservoir. F r e s h dye-stuff can be a d d e d to t h e liquor while in t h e reservoir, a n d in t h i s w a y slow a n d even dyeing assured. The suction a n d compression are performed b y m e a n s of a double-acting air-pump. The machine can also be used for dyeing w a r p s ; for this purpose t h e warps are wrapped r o u n d t h e cylinder of t h e machine over t h e perforations, which usually carry the cop spindles. T h e dye reservoir is usually placed undern e a t h the d y e - b a t h so as to save space. I n all these machines t h e cops h a v e first t o be steamed a n d h o t water sent t h r o u g h t h e m before dyeing, in order t o ensure" even penetration. P e n e t r a t i o n is of course assisted b y " boiling o u t " t h e cops on a kier before dyeing, or b y adding t u r k e y r e d oil t o t h e water used for " wetting o u t " t h e cops. At one works cops were seen being d y e d in a foam dyeing-machine. The cops were t i g h t l y packed in t h e t o p of a n u p r i g h t cylinder, while a t t h e b o t t o m of t h e cylinder t h e d y e liquor, containing soap, was m a d e t o

COP-DYEING

11

froth u p by m e a n s of s t e a m . W h e n t h e b u b b l e s burst, t h e air r o u n d t h e fibres is d r i v e n a w a y a n d t h e dye-stuff a t t r a c t e d . T h i s m e t h o d is said t o b e successful in* dyeing certain shades on cheeses. T h e a u t h o r saw n o cop-dyeing m a c h i n e s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ; cop-dyeing is too delicate a process for t h e American class of t r a d e . N e a r l y all t h e cop-dyeing m a c h i n e s i n use i n G e r m a n y are v e r y similar t o each o t h e r , different forms being merely modifications of t h e s a m e principal idea. The production of m a c h i n e s for sale is a s y e t little developed. Mommer of B a r m e n informed t h e a u t h o r t h a t t h e y no longer build t h e i r m a c h i n e , b e c a u s e t h e r e is n o d e m a n d for it. Of recent years t h e d y e i n g of cops h a s n o t b e e n m u c h developed, a n d in spite of careful a t t e n t i o n t o t h e difficulties a t t e n d a n t u p o n t h e o p e r a t i o n , perfect p e n e t r a t i o n h a s not been a t t a i n e d . T h e O b e r m a i e r m a c h i n e is successful for t h e d y e i n g of loose wool, b u t i t h a s n o t been so successful i n t h e dyeing of c o p s . T h e Theis a p p a r a t u s is m u c h used i n W e s t p h a l i a a n d H o l l a n d for t h e bleaching of c o p s ; i t is also said t o b e satisfactory for dyeing. T h e m a c h i n e s used for c o p - d y e i n g d o n o t v a r y m u c h , a n d from t i m e t o t i m e old t y p e s a r e i m p r o v e d .

CHAPTER

III

SULPHUR COLOURS AND INDIGO Fastness of sulphur coloursImportance as cotton dyesTheir tendering action on cottonUse for wool dyeingMachines used for dyeing sulphur coloursNatural and synthetic indigoSubstitutes for indigoSulphur blues and indigo. T H E first sulphur dye-stuff was Cachou de Laval. Vidal black was afterwards produced b y Vidal, a n d was t h e first real member of this i m p o r t a n t class of dye-stuffs, for it was b y imitating Vidal's m e t h o d of production t h a t other sulphur colours were produced. These dye-stuffs were a t one time known as " t h e colours of t h e f u t u r e / ' and nowadays t h e y are recognised as v e r y i m p o r t a n t cotton dyes. Their brilliancy, deepness of shade, fastness, and cheapness have created quite a revolution in t h e dyeing industry. Cassella's sulphur blues are well-known colours, a n d t h e Hoechst thiogen violets are bright, clear shades. The l a t t e r firm claim t h a t their t h i o g e n p u r p u r was t h e first red sulphur dye-stuff t o be p u t on t h e m a r k e t . I t has been stated, however, t h a t other firms h a d previously h a d products of a similar n a t u r e which t h e y did n o t d e e m w o r t h y of being placed on t h e i r lists. Of recent years a large n u m b e r of sulphur colours h a v e been placed on t h e market, a n d among these t h e b r a n d s of sulphur blacks have been of special importance. All t h e colour firms h a v e b r o u g h t out sulphur blacks of great p u r i t y a n d concentration. Their b e a u t y of shade is beyond dispute, and only in fastness t o bleaching powder solution do t h e y fail t o compare w i t h aniline black. The fact t h a t sulphur colours are a p t t o cause t h e tendering of t h e c o t t o n fibre on which t h e y are dyed, has 12

SULPHUR COLOURS AND INDIGO

13

p r e v e n t e d t h e m from b e c o m i n g of still g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e dyeing i n d u s t r y . T h e t e n d e r i n g does n o t t a k e p l a c e for some t i m e after t h e d y e i n g , b u t i n s o m e cases c o t t o n goods, w h i c h h a d b e e n d y e d a y e a r previously, h a d become q u i t e r o t t e n . T h e cause of t h e t e n d e r i n g seems t o be d u e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of sulphuric acid b v t h e o x i d a t i o n of t h e s u l p h u r c o n t a i n e d in t h e dye-stuffs. A f t e r - t r e a t m e n t w i t h c o p p e r salts accelerates t h i s action a n d should n o t b e p e r f o r m e d . C h r o m i n g is r e c o m m e n d e d , b u t m a n y d y e r s object t o t h i s e x t r a t r e a t m e n t , s a y i n g i t is costly a n d t h e s h a d e is a l t e r e d t h e r e b y . T h e r e is n o d o u b t , however, t h a t c h r o m i n g , or t r e a t m e n t w i t h some o t h e r oxidising a g e n t , as h y d r o g e n p e r o x i d e , b r i n g s a b o u t t h e full o x i d a t i o n of t h e r e d u c e d s u l p h u r dye-stuff, a n d t h u s p r o d u c e s t h e fullest s h a d e i m m e d i a t e l y . T o overc o m e t h e t e n d e r i n g c a u s e d b y t h e s e dye-stuffs small a m o u n t s of c e r t a i n chemicals, w h i c h n e u t r a l i s e t h e sulp h u r i c acid as i t is p r o d u c e d , a r e s o m e t i m e s left in t h e c l o t h . F o r i n s t a n c e , s o d i u m a c e t a t e is e m p l o y e d for t h i s p u r p o s e , a n d also several p a t e n t s u b s t a n c e s . S u l p h u r colours are r e d u c e d b y s o d i u m sulphide solut i o n , a n d t h e solution t h u s p r o d u c e d used for i m p r e g n a t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l t o be d y e d . T h e colour is developed b y t h e g r a d u a l o x i d a t i o n of t h e r e d u c e d solution in t h e air, a n d i n m o s t cases a change of colour of t h e m a t e r i a l d u r i n g t h e o x i d a t i o n is n o t i c e a b l e . A s r e g a r d s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t which d y e i n g t a k e s p l a c e , t h i s varies for different b r a n d s . M a n y s u l p h u r b l a c k s d y e best j u s t b e l o w boiling p o i n t , b u t 60 C. is s o m e t i m e s h i g h e n o u g h . A low t e m p e r a t u r e is preferable in m a n y cases, since slow o x i d a t i o n results a n d t h e dyeings a r e m o r e uniform. A slightly faster r e s u l t is o b t a i n e d a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s , b u t a t l o w t e m p e r a t u r e t h e c o t t o n is b e t t e r preserved. F o r l i g h t shades 30 C. is often h i g h e n o u g h , while s o m e of t h e indigo b r a n d s m a y be d y e d cold w i t h a d v a n t a g e . T h e a m o u n t of s o d i u m sulphide t o b e a d d e d t o t h e b a t h is also of i m p o r t a n c e , as a q u a n t i t y w h i c h is sufficient t o r e d u c e t h e dye-stuff is n o t a l w a y s e n o u g h t o fix t h e dye-stuff o n t h e fibre. Since ^ o d i i ^ ^ ^ l ^ h i d e solution a t t a c k s t h e wool fitoe^sul^^ nTthe~ d y e i n g o F f a b r i c s o o n t a i a i n g wool. B y using o t h e r

14

THE DYEING INDUSTKY

reducing agents however, such as hydrosulphites, sulphites, etc., in place of t h e sodium sulphide, this objection has been somewhat overcome. B u t it has been found t h a t on using these reducing agents t h e results are n o t exactly t h e same as those produced b y sodium sulphide. For dyeing cloth w i t h sulphur colours t h e ordinary jigger is m u c h used, b u t t h e a u t h o r also saw jiggers a t work in which t h e cloth was k e p t wholly immersed in t h e dye liquor during t h e dyeing operation. E x p o s u r e t o t h e air during dyeing is said t o cause bronzy precipitates on t h e cloth. The addition of a little glue t o t h e d y e - b a t h is said t o p r e v e n t these b r o n z y patches, a n d t h u s t o assist t h e dyeing on t h e jigger. I n dyeing h a n k s with these colours, exposure t o air during t h e dyeing operation is also avoided. The Klauder-Weldon machine is used for this operation (see p . 63) in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The a u t h o r found t h a t slop p a d d i n g was t a k i n g t h e place of dyeing for some classes of colours. E v e r y dyer knows t h e difficulty of dyeing evenly, a n d in cases of m o r d a n t i n g a n d developing dye-stuffs on t h e fibre t h e difficulties are increased. Tannic acid divides itself fairly evenly over t h e fibres, so t h a t impregnation in this case is easily accomplished; b u t in dealing with some of t h e chromium m o r d a n t s a n d other compounds, difficulties arise. Moreover, t a n n i c acid c a n be fixed in t h e wet s t a t e , whereas some agents m u s t b e dried evenly on t h e cloth before proceeding t o t h e other operations. Difficulties of this kind h a v e led t o t h e introduction of p a d d i n g . T h u s , in G e r m a n y a n d America, m o r d a n t s were often padded, a n d t h e n t h e dyeing done in t h e s t r a n d dyeing machines. I n p a d d i n g , t h e cloth passes t h r o u g h t h e liquor t o be padded, a n d is t h e n squeezed evenly b y a p a i r of rollers. One of these rollers is usually of brass a n d t h e other rubber covered. P a d d i n g w i t h sulphur colours is difficult, because t o ensure a uniform result t h e dye-stuff should be completely dissolved in t h e p a d d i n g liquor. I n Germany t h e a u t h o r found glucose was used as a reducing agent in preparing sulphur colours for p a d d i n g . T h e brass roller of t h e p a d d i n g mangle was replaced b y a n iron one, since brass a n d copper p a r t s are a t t a c k e d b y sulphur colour solutions.

S U L P H U R COLOURS AKD INDIGO

15

_ P r i n t i n g w i t h s u l p h u r colours is n o w p e r f o r m e d b y u s i n g special r e d u c i n g a g e n t s for p r e p a r i n g t h e p r i n t i n g p a s t e s . Cassella's first u s e d c a u s t i c s o d a a n d glycerine. S u l p h u r colours a r e m u c h u s e d i n t h e U n i t e d States. F o r i n s t a n c e , o n e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a G e r m a n colour works t o l d t h e a u t h o r t h a t h e h a d sold a million p o u n d s of colour i n a v e r y s h o r t t i m e . S u l p h u r b l a c k s were i n g r e a t d e m a n d . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e s e colours h a s led t o changes in t h e m a c h i n e r y i n u s e ; c o p p e r p a r t s h a v e b e e n replaced. S o m e firms i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c l a i m t o h a v e t h e best m a c h i n e r y for d y e i n g s u l p h u r c o l o u r s , b u t w h e t h e r t h i s is t h e case or n o t c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d because t h e s e firms r e s o l u t e l y refuse t o p l a c e t h e i r m a c h i n e s o n view. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e colour m a k e r s w e r e n o t allowed t o see t h e m a c h i n e s , a n d t h e s e g e n t l e m e n f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s in t h e p e c u l i a r p o s i t i o n of giving i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d seeing t h e firm's s e r v a n t s oscillating b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e dye-house. S u l p h u r dye-stuffs h a v e n o w a d a y s b e c o m e so i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e y h a v e challenged t h e p o s i t i o n of some of t h e older f a s t colours. As p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , s u l p h u r blacks are u s e d i n p l a c e of aniline black, a n d w e also find t h a t some s u l p h u r b l u e s h a v e r e p l a c e d t h e u s e of indigo t o some extent. I n d i g o , o n e of t h e oldest a n d still t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t dye-stuff, h a s a h i s t o r y full of i n t e r e s t . N o t o n l y has t h e n a t u r a l a r t i c l e h a d t o o v e r c o m e t h e o p p o s i t i o n of subs t i t u t e s ; t h i s o p p o s i t i o n i t c o u n t e r a c t e d v e r y well, u n t i l t h e p r o d u c t i o n of s y n t h e t i c i n d i g o c a u s e d t h e n a t u r a l article t o b e c o m e of less a n d less i m p o r t a n c e . I n d e e d , i t is only t h e p r e s e n t w a r w h i c h h a s c a u s e d a r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t in t h i s colour. I n 1880 t h e c h e m i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n of indigo w a s d e c l a r e d , a n e v e n t w h i c h l e d l a t e r t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n of s y n t h e t i c i n d i g o on. a c o m m e r c i a l scale. A large i n d u s t r y h a s a r i s e n t h e r e f r o m , as t h e following figures s h o w : from 1896 t o 1904 G e r m a n y ' s e x p o r t of s y n t h e t i c indigo inc r e a s e d i n v a l u e f r o m 6'4 t o 2 5 million m a r k s , a n d t h e l a t e s t r e t u r n s p u b l i s h e d (for t h e y e a r 1913) s h o w t h e s e t o h a v e i n c r e a s e d t o 40 million m a r k s . As a r e s u l t , during t h e y e a r s 1899 t o 1903 t h e price of indigo fell 50 per cent. I n 1900, D r . B r u n c k of t h e B a d i s c h e Anilin u n d Soda

16

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

F a b r i k s t a t e d t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y of indigo produced annually in their factory would require t h e cultivation of more t h a n a quarter of a million acres of land in t h e home of t h e indigo p l a n t . I t h a s been prophesied t h a t n a t u r a l indigo will be as d e a d as m a d d e r in a few years' time, y e t we find it has t o some e x t e n t held its position in the E a s t , and various Commissions h a v e tried t o improve t h e cultivation in order t o increase t h e production. B u t there is obviously a limit t o which t h e production can be improved, for p l a n t life does n o t a d m i t of the t h o r o u g h comprehension t h a t operations in a colour works do, a n d the producers of synthetic indigo h a v e the price of indigo a n d production very m u c h in their own h a n d s . The crippling of t h e synthetic indigo industry b y t h e war has been t u r n e d t o account b y t h e British and Indian press as an occasion t o revive interest in t h e restoration of t h e n a t u r a l production. The m o v e m e n t t o break t h e German synthetic indigo monopoly was started in London three years ago, b u t despite all efforts t h e vegetable dye failed t o m a k e h e a d w a y . Many dyers a n d consumers would h a v e lent t h e i r support t o t h e restoration of t h e natural industry, b u t the crop season was t o o far advanced t o secure a n increased o u t p u t in t h e near future. I n fact, t h e area u n d e r cultivation in I n d i a in 1914 was 20 per cent less t h a n t h e previous year. I n 1895-96 exports reached their m a x i m u m a t 187,337 c w t . ; in 1902-3, a period following t h e establishment of t h e synthetic industry in E u r o p e , t h e exports fell t o 65,337 c w t . ; while in. 1912-13 t h e y only reached 11,857 cwt. The United Kingdom h a s been m o s t faithful among t h e principal consuming countries t o r e t a i n t h e n a t u r a l dye, although t h e country's r e q u i r e m e n t s h a v e been steadily curtailed. Among t h e strongest merits of t h e artificial dye were its more uniform c h a r a c t e r a n d t h e easier methods of using it. Moreover, t h e percentage of indigotin in t h e n a t u r a l article was found difficult t o determine. Wool takes more readily t o t h e n a t u r a l dye, b u t while t h e artificial article does n o t yield quite so bright a n effect, its colour is cons t a n t . T o encourage t h e development of the n a t u r a l industry t w o proposals h a v e been m a d e : (1) t o subsidise t h e industry i n I n d i a , a n d (2) t o restore t h e obligatory

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17

n a t u r a l indigo clause i n all G o v e r n m e n t c o n t r a c t s . This clause is said t o have been deleted u n d e r pressure of t h e G e r m a n monopoly, combined w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s on the p a r t of English dyers. The British G o v e r n m e n t b o u g h t u p t h e I n d i a n crop a t t h e beginning of t h e war. The a u t h o r thinks t h a t any a t t e m p t t o p e r m a n e n t l y bolster u p t h e n a t u r a l indigo i n d u s t r y will n o t m e e t w i t h success. The only w a y of fighting t h e G e r m a n s in t h i s i n d u s t r y will b e by t a k i n g u p t h e production of s y n t h e t i c indigo. J a p a n a n d China h a v e also renewed t h e i r interest in t h e n a t u r a l article. L a t t e r l y these countries h a d depended almost entirely on G e r m a n s y n t h e t i c indigo. N a t u r a l indigo production is one of t h e oldest industries of b o t h China and J a p a n . Their own needs being g r e a t , t h e y do n o t expect t o be able t o export a n y of t h e n a t u r a l article. Besides t h e competition of t h e s y n t h e t i c article, indigo has h a d other rivals t o face. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e direct cotton colours h a d little m o r e t h a n a n initial effect on t h e consumption of indigo, because t h e direct blues of this class of dye-stufis were n o t f o u n d t o be n e a r l y so fast as indigo. I t is t r u e t h a t some direct blues are faster t o light t h a n indigo, a n d t h a t some d a r k shades h a v e t h e coppery appearance of t h a t dye-stuff, b u t none h a v e been found really fast t o washing. A t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n m a d e to increase t h e fastness of these dye-stufis. T h e fastness t o l i g h t was improved b y a n after t r e a t m e n t w i t h coppers u l p h a t e solution, a n d i n some cases t h e fastness t o washing was improved b y t r e a t i n g t h e d y e d m a t e r i a l w i t h a w e a k solution of potassium b i c h r o m a t e ; b u t still t h e fastness t o chlorine was i n few cases good. This fault was also evident in t h e case of indigo-blue dye-stufis belonging t o t h e basic class. Metaphenylene b l u e , I n d a m i n e blue, J a n u s blue, Indoine blue, a n d D i p h e n e blue h a d certain good features, b u t were found w a n t i n g w h e n s u b m i t t e d t o t h e action of weak bleaching-powder solution. Napht h i n d o n e blue resembles indigo v e r y m u c h i n aspect, reflex, a n d i n being exceedingly fast t o light, washing, a n d acids, b u t again t h e fastness t o chlorine is n o t good. I n order t o increase t h e fastness of t h e direct c o t t o n dye-stuffs, diazotising a n d developing o n t h e fibre was introduced, a n d in t h i s way m a n y good imitations of indigo were produced.

18

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

Diamine blacks a n d blues, N a p h t h y l a m i n e black, a n d certain Benzo blues diazotised a n d developed with b e t a n a p h t h o l a n d other developers h a v e been much used for producing indigo shades, b u t again t h e fastness to chlorine was n o t found as good as t h a t of indigo. Alizarine blues a n d t h e alizarine cyanines h a v e also substituted indigo i n m a n y cases. As regards t h e newer v a t blues, there is n o d o u b t t h a t these colours are used for purposes for which indigo was formerly u s e d ; b u t t h e high price of t h e s e colours restricts their application. Moreover, these d y e stuffs are found t o " bleed " i n t o white cloth (and more so t h a n indigo itself) w h e n boiled in caustic-soda solutions. This defect is particularly noticeable when the caustic-soda solution contains m a t t e r which h a s a reducing action. B u t of all t h e colours which h a v e been used as substitutes for indigo from t i m e t o t i m e , sulphur colours are t h e most i m p o r t a n t . Sulphur blues, which are exceedingly fast t o light a n d washing, are now supplied b y t h e different colour firms ; in some cases t h e fastness t o chlorine is fairly good, b u t this defect is their g r e a t disadvantage. The first sulphur blue was introduced b y t h e Society of Chemical I n d u s t r y , Basle, a n d was soon followed by Cassella's Immedial blue C ; t h e p a t e n t s for t h e two colours were owned conjointly b y t h e t w o firms. Other sulphur blues were soon p u t on t h e m a r k e t b y t h e other colour firms. I n America, sulphur blues are m u c h used for warp-dyeing a n d for piece-goods. I t is found, however, t h a t these colours are n o t usually v e r y fast t o alkaline boiling. I n spite of t h e contentions of t h e makers of sulphur blues, there is n o d o u b t t h a t for producing indigo-blue shades indigo itself is t h e cheapest and t h e fastest d y e stuff t o use. A t one t i m e t h e firm of F . Bayer supplied p a t t e r n s of cloth d y e d w i t h (1) indigo and (2) sulphur indigo blue, saying, " Please t e s t t h e comparative fastness t o washing a n d boiling." B u t t h e fastness of incligo depends largely on t h e m e t h o d of dyeing, for if a s t r o n g v a t be used a n d few " dips " given, t h e result is n o t so good as in t h e case of t h e e m p l o y m e n t of a weaker v a t a n d giving more " d i p s . " This r e m a r k also applies t o Cassella's s t a t e m e n t in their b o o k on cotton-dyeing, t h a t indigo loses in d e p t h of shade every t i m e the material is

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19

washed, w h e r e a s s o m e sulphur colours do n o t . If pieces of cotton d y e d w i t h indigo a n d w i t h s u l p h u r b l u e are exposed t o t h e l i g h t , i t is found t h a t t h e former f a d e s m o r e rapidly t h a n t h e l a t t e r ; i n fact, some s u l p h u r colours improve i n s h a d e a f t e r a s h o r t e x p o s u r e t o t h e a i r . On further e x p o s u r e , however, t h e c o n d i t i o n s are r e v e r s e d , a n d this d i s t i n c t i o n is a p p a r e n t after a few d a y s i n s u m m e r or a few w e e k s i n w i n t e r . Moreover, i t is n o t i c e d t h a t , although t h e i n d i g o becomes l i g h t e r i n colour, i t r e m a i n s the original t o n e , whereas t h e s u l p h u r b l u e , w h e t h e r i t b e after t r e a t e d o r n o t , fades t o a g r e y i s h s h a d e . Sulphur colours, u n l i k e i n d i g o , are n o t definite chemical c o m p o u n d s whose c o n s t i t u t i o n s a r e k n o w n t o c h e m i s t s ; a n d a s m o s t of t h e m a r e p r o b a b l y m i x t u r e s , i t c a n n o t b e e x p e c t e d t h a t , as t h e y a r e g r a d u a l l y decomposed b y s u n l i g h t , t h e r e s i d u a l unaffected c o l o u r will be t h e s a m e b l u e s u b s t a n c e a s c o m posed t h e original dye-stuff. I n o r d e r t o e m p h a s i s e t h e marked difference b e t w e e n indigo a n d s u l p h u r b l u e s u n d e r t h e action of l i g h t , t h e B a y e r p a t t e r n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e were exposed. A f t e r fourteen d a y s b o t h were still good in shade, b u t a f t e r forty d a y s t h e r e w a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e distinction i n f a v o u r of t h e indigo ; t h e indigo h a d r e mained a l i g h t b l u e , whereas t h e s u l p h u r colour h a d b e c o m e a dirty r e d - g r e y s h a d e . T h e s u p p o r t e r s of s u l p h u r colours assert t h a t t h e t e s t s m e n t i o n e d a r e t o o s e a r c h i n g a n d t h a t the fastness is g o o d e n o u g h ; b u t s u c h s t a t e m e n t s d o n o t satisfy t h e d y e r , since for blouses, s h i r t s , a n d o t h e r articles, colours a r e r e q u i r e d which fade i n a n agreeable m a n n e r . Indigo alone d o e s t h i s , a n d m a n y G e r m a n d y e - w o r k s h a v e found t h i s o u t t o t h e i r cost, a r e t u r n t o t h e i n d i g o v a t being t h e c o n s e q u e n c e . Vat dye-stuffs, which h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d i n large variety of r e c e n t y e a r s , are e x t r e m e l y fast a n d m u c h u s e d for woven g o o d s . Thioindigo r e d w a s p u t on t h e m a r k e t b y Kalle & Co. i n 1905, a n d since t h a t t i m e t h e C i b a a n d Algol colours h a v e p r o v i d e d m a n y o t h e r s h a d e s . These colours, a l o n g w i t h t h e I n d a n t h r e n e series, a r e d y e d like indigo a n d a r e v e r y fast, b u t b e c a u s e of t h e i r e x p e n s e are not usually u s e d for h e a v y s h a d e s .

CHAPTEE

IV

MERCERISING Invention of the processHank-niercerising machinesPiece mercerising Cooling of the lyeRecovery of the caustic sodaRecent scientific work on mercerising. MERCERISING is a process of t r e a t i n g c o t t o n with conc e n t r a t e d caustic-soda solution in order t o give i t a silky lustre a n d feel. T h e effect is n o t merely produced b y the action of t h e caustic soda on t h e cotton, b u t either (1) t h e cotton m u s t be k e p t stretched during t h e action or (2) it m u s t be s t r e t c h e d t o t h e original dimensions after the action. The soda causes t h e c o t t o n t o become t r a n s p a r e n t , t o swell, a n d t o shrink c o n s i d e r a b l y ; b y resisting the shrinkage t h e lustre is produced, and, b y washing t h e soda o u t of t h e cloth while t h e cloth is stretched, t h e cloth does n o t afterwards shrink w h e n t h e stretching force is removed. Mercer in 1844 noticed t h a t caustic-soda solution caused cotton fibres t o become t r a n s p a r e n t , t o swell, a n d t o s h r i n k ; h e made use of his observation i n t h e production of " c r i m p e d " cloth b y printing caustic soda on cotton cloth. Lowe in 1889 discovered t h a t cotton in t h e stretched s t a t e became more lustrous w h e n t r e a t e d with caustic soda a n d washed while still stretched. He p a t e n t e d t h i s m e t h o d of lustring, b u t allowed his p a t e n t t o lapse. I n 1895 T h o m a s & P r e v o s t r e p a t e n t e d Lowe's idea, b u t t h e p a t e n t was d i s p u t e d a n d became void. Experience h a s shown t h a t for all classes of mercerising, caustic soda of s t r e n g t h n o t less t h a n 55 Tw. should be used, t h a t is, in t h e mercerising m a n g l e , a n d the caustic soda should be k e p t as cool as possible during its action on t h e c o t t o n . Numerous p a t e n t s h a v e been t a k e n o u t
20

MERCERISING

21

for a d d i n g different s u b s t a n c e s t o t h e caustic soda t o increase t h e shrinkage p r o d u c e d in t h e c o t t o n , b u t all t h e s e h a v e p r o v e d worse t h a n useless. P r o g r e s s in t h e a r t of mercerising h a s t u r n e d t o t h e m e c h a n i c a l r a t h e r t h a n t h e chemical side. I n all mercerising machines t h e q u e s t i o n is t h e opposing of t h e force w h i c h t e n d s t o m a k e t h e c o t t o n shrink, for if shrinkage t a k e s place t h e l u s t r e suffers. Cotton c a n b e mercerised as (1) loose, (2) h a n k , (3) w a r p , a n d (4) piece. T h e mercerising of loose c o t t o n does n o t seem t o h a v e y e t a d v a n c e d from t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a g e . Different m e a n s h a v e been suggested for g r i p p i n g t h e fibres a n d t h u s p r e v e n t i n g t h e m from s h r i n k i n g , b u t t h i s h a s b e e n found a difficult m a t t e r . F o r y a r n mercerising t h e r e a r e m a n y m a c h i n e s . T h e principal G-erman machines w h i c h t h e a u t h o r s a w a t w o r k were : (1) Kleinewefer's, (2) H a u b o l d ' s , a n d (3) B e m b e r g ' s . T h e Kleinewefer mercerising e s t a b l i s h m e n t is said t o b e t h e largest of its k i n d in t h e w o r l d . T h e i r h a n k - m e r c e r i s i n g m a c h i n e w o r k s on t h e centrifugal principle. T h e h a n k s are p u t over a p e r f o r a t e d d r u m a n d enclosed b y a n o t h e r d r u m . This d r u m is c o n n e c t e d b y a shaft t o a n e x a c t l y similar d r u m a t t h e o t h e r side of t h e m a c h i n e . T h r e e h u n d r e d kilos of h a n k s a r e p l a c e d over e a c h perfora t e d d r u m , t h e o u t e r d r u m s a r e fixed over t h e h a n k s , caustic soda is a d m i t t e d t o t h e i n n e r p e r f o r a t e d d r u m s , and then these drums carrying t h e h a n k s are made t o revolve b y m e a n s of t h e shaft. Centrifugal force causes t h e caustic soda t o pass t h r o u g h t h e perforations of t h e inner drums, through the hanks a n d into the other drums. F r o m these i t passes b a c k t o t h e s t o r a g e cisterns. T h e i n n e r d r u m s , being s t o u t l y b u i l t , resist t h e shrinkage of t h e h a n k s , a n d i n t h i s w a y l u s t r e is p r o d u c e d . T h e p i p e is t h e n disconnected from t h e caustic-soda cisterns, a n d w a t e r is let i n t o t h e i n n e r d r u m s t o w a s h (again b y centrifugal action) t h e h a n k s . T h e h a n k s after b e i n g t a k e n o u t of t h e d r u m s are furtheT w a s h e d i n v a t s b y h a n d . T h e caustic soda after being u s e d i n t h e m a c h i n e s , of w h i c h t h e r e are m a n y in t h e s a m e r o o m , p a s s e s i n t o a t r o u g h in t h e middle of t h e r o o m a n d thence t o a resexvoix, w h e r e i t is k e p t u p t o s t r e n g t h - T h e w a s h - w a t e r is u s e d for

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THE DYEING

INDUSTRY

dissolving t h e solid caustic soda used for making up t h e solution in t h e reservoir. The t i m e allowed for the action of t h e caustic s o d a on tlxe c o t t o n was iive minutes, a n d t h e lustre p r o d u c e d w a s seen t o be v e r y good. I t is imp o r t a n t t o note t h a t t h e economy of t h e caustic soda was also said t o be good. Most of t h e i r mercerising was clone in t h e grey s t a t e . Messrs. Kleinewefer informed t h e a u t h o r t h a t t h e y were not allowed t o sell their machine in England, as t h e i r p a t e n t r i g h t s were bought by an English association of m a n u f a c t u r e r s . The H a u b o l d h a n k mereeriser is very much used in Germany. I t consists of two sets of heavy stretching rollers arranged in p a i r s , one over t h e other, and over each pair t h e h a n k s are placed. The distance, between each pair is regulated so as t o give t h e hanks a slight stretch, and t h e n t h e rollers are caused to revolve. I n this way t h e h a n k s are made t o move round and round. The lower Toller is t h e n placed in a t r o u g h containing t.he caustic-soda solution, so that- t h e h a n k s pass in and o u t of this solution m a n y times. Shrinkage is prevented by t h e heavy rollers. After the h a n k s are thoroughly impregnated by t h e caustic solution, the. cau.stic-.soda trough is removed, and t h e h a n k s washed by jets of cold w a t e r while still stretched over t h e rollers. T o economise t h e caustic lye, t h e u p p e r roller is provided with a squeezing roller which, pressing against the h a n k s , causes as much caustic lye as possible, t o flow back i n t o the, trough. T h e machine is m a d e very strong in o r d e r t o withstand t h e great shrinking force exerted by t h e h a n k s when treated with t h e caustic s o d a . A t t h e back of t h e machine there is a similar set of rollers which hav t h e name position a n d are continuations of those a t the, front. The, machines are made generally with twelve pairs of rollers, and h a v e a capacity of from 500 t o 1800 p o u n d s of y a r n . Bemberg'n h a v e supplied their h a n k mercerixer t o Germany, F r a n c e , a n d I t a l y . I t i.s m u c h like H a u b o i d ' s in principle, t h e h a n k s being scratched over heavy revolving r o l l e r s ; b u t t h e r e are four t a n k * o r trough;*, e a c h containing t w o p a i r s of rollers. Them* tank* are joined together b y pipes, a n o t h e r net of pipes connecting t h e m with t h e supply of c a u s t i c soda-

MERCERISING

23

I n a v e r y efficient A m e r i c a n h a n k merceriser t h e principle is t h e same as t h a t of the. l i a u b o l d , b u t in t h i s case t h e rollers move along longitudinal p a t h s , t h e u p p e r and lower rollers describing endless p a t h s while c a r r y i n g the hanks. T h e h a n k s are p u t on t h e rollers a t one end of t h e machine, s p u r t e d with caustic, s o d a while passing through t h e machine, a n d washed t o w a r d s t h e end of l-lie passage while still s t r e t c h e d . At t h e farther end of t h e machine t h e h a n k s are r e m o v e d , so t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n is a continuous one. The m a c h i n e is t h e s a m e a t t h e back as a t t h e front, a n d its removable, glass sides .show w h a t is t a k i n g place within. T h e d r i v i n g is very powerful. This machine is v e r y suitable for large p r o d u c t i o n and is used b y one of t h e associations of m a n u f a c t u r e r s in this country. I n t h e Cohnen machine, t h e h a n k s a r e a r r a n g e d radially on a revolving frame, in a s o m e w h a t similar manner t o t h e m e t h o d applied in the, Klauder-VVVldon machine. I t was t h o u g h t t h a t t h e lustre would be increased b y a l t e r n a t e l y s t r e t c h i n g a n d releasing the. h a n k s while s a t u r a t e d w i t h t h e caustic-soda solution, b u t it wus found t h a t no b e t t e r lustre resulted. W i t h all these h a n k mercerising machines it is found t h a t .some h a n k s have, been less affected by t h e process t h a n o t h e r s , a n d in this case t h e h a n k s w i t h t h e poor lustre are t r e a t e d aguin in t h e machine. W i t h high perfection in mercerising m a c h i n e s , inventive skill h a s t u r n e d t o t h e s a v i n g of t h e c a u s t i c sodu. The h a n k s are well squeezed b y a u x i l i a r y rollers a n d t h e n washed on t h e c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t principle,. T h e washwaters are sometimes used in t h e blo-ach-hou.se, a n d in other cases t h e y are e v a p o r a t e d a n d t h e c a u s t i c .soda used again. Sometimes t h e first w a s h - w a t e r s are re-eaunticiHed and e v a p o r a t e d a n d t h e weaker w a s h - w a t e m used for boiling purposes. H o t water arid direct s t e a m are Hometimes employed t o r e m o v e the. l a s t t r a c e s of c a u s t i c MKIH from t h e material, b u t it is said t h a t b y .such a p r o c e d u r e special effects are produced. T h e swelling of t h e iibrtw in said t o be less t h a n w h e n cold w a t e r alone in used for w a s h i n g ; c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e t h r e a d s o c c u p y less apace, a n d t h e material h a s a h a r s h e r feel. The mercerising of c o t t o n w a r p s is performed on t h e

24

THE DYEING

INDUSTRY

w a r p s l a s l e r or w a r p - d y e i n g m a c h i n e , tension b e i n g produced b y allowing t h e rollers t o t r a v e l a t different speeds. _ . . . . . j mm MacMn.es for piece mercerising m a y be divided i n t o t w o classes : (1) t h o s e in which p e n e t r a t i o n is carried o u t on one machine, t h e cloth, m a d e i n t o a b a t c h a n d s t r e t c h e d on another m a c h i n e ; and (2) t h o s e in which p e n e t r a t i o n is carried o u t on o n e machine, a n d t h e cloth stretched o n t i e same m a c h i n e . A t one time m a n y machines worked b y m e t h o d (1), b u t nowadays m o s t mercerising is d o n e b y t h e second m e t h o d . M a n y different w a y s h a r e been t r i e d for gripping t h e cloth a n d p r e v e n t i n g i t from shrinking u n d e r t h e action of t h e caustic s o d a , b u t in m o s t cases i t has been found t h a t t h e s t e n t e r h a s t o be finally u s e d i n order t o bring t h e cloth, o u t t o t h e desired w i d t h . I t h a s , therefore, become evident t h a t t h e stenter is. t i e best machine t o u s e to keep t i e c l o t l s t r e t c h e d while u n d e r t h e action of t h e caustic soda. Cloth has t o be t u r n e d o u t b y t h e merceriser a t t h e original w i d t h or a t some definite w i d t h , a n d t h i s necessity l a s led t o t h e a l m o s t universal a d o p t i o n of t h e stenter for p i e c e mercerising. At one -works i n t i e U n i t e d S t a t e s t i e a u t h o r found c o t t o n pieces "being ran i n t h e r o p e form t h r o u g h s t r o n g caustic-soda solution, t l e n washed a n d bleached in t i e u s u a l m a n n e r . As a final operation t h e goods were stentered, a n d in t h i s way a fair gloss w a s obtained, although t h e w i d t h w a s n o t fully recovered. One m a n a t t e n d e d t o six m a n g l e s i n w l i c h t h e cloth, w a s s a t u r a t e d with t h e caustic l y e , so t h a t t h e labour cost "was n o t high. T i e m o s t n o t e w o r t h y machines n o t using t h e s t e n t e r for stretching p u r p o s e s are S c h w a b e ' s a n d Jeanm&ire's. I n t h e former, t h e c l o t l is p a s s e d t h r o u g h caustic-soda solution c o n t a i n e d i n a t r o u g h , t h e n between a pair of squeezing rollers, a n d finally o n t o a series of large a n d small r u b b e i - c o v e r e d cylinders. These cylinders are so arranged t l a t t i e clofch is continuously i n contact with one of t h e i r n u m b e r , e a c h cylinder t i g h t l y pressing against t h o s e adjacent. T h e c l o t h l a s t h u s little chance of s l r i n k i n g , and t h e s u c t i o n of t h e cloth a g a i n s t t h e m b b e x acts

MERCEEISING

25

the same direction. T h e cloth is washed while, .si.ilI etched b y passing t h r o u g h t r o u g h s c o n t a i n i n g w a t e r , :hat t h e washing is simpler t h a n on t h e s t e n t e r . T h i s shine gives a good lustre, a n d t h e s h r i n k a g e is said to Dnly half a n inch i n a 27-inch cloth. T h e r e is no d a n g e r selvedge d a m a g e s as on t h e s t e n t e r , a n d no d a n g e r oi ducing a r a g g y cloth b y o v e r s t r e t c h i n g . Sehwalx^s 3hine h a s t u r n e d o u t high-class goods for m a n y y e a r s , . has sometimes been worked n i g h t a n d d a y . Judging n its s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e n u m b e r of rollers its initial 5 m u s t h a v e b e e n h e a v y . The, m a c h i n e s of Keob . Hasslacher are similar in a c t i o n t o t h e one jiwf. bribed. When using t h e s t e n t e r for mercerising, t h e g r e a t .nkage force, resulting from t h e action of ilie* can: tic a on t h e cloth, necessitates caution, when fine cloths treated. I n Schwabe's m a c h i n e , when*, the tension is ributed over t h e whole of t h e cloth, t h e r e is no d a n g e r rearing, b u t on t h e s t e n t e r t h e cloth, is liable t o give r a t a n y w e a k p a r t . I n the, m a c h i n e for which J e a n re took o u t his first p a t e n t , t h e cloth w a s held by ITS, his device being similar in t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t o wabe's machine ; b u t afterwards pins were, used t o hold cloth. T h e a u t h o r saw a J e a n r n a i r e m a c h i n e a t work 1 t h e firm of Koechlin F r e r e s of Miiihausen. Its o u t of fine cloth was five miles p e r d a y . T h e d o t h puweH mgh t h e caustic lye on t o t h e r o u n d surfaces of c y l i n d e r s >se surfaces are covered with a large n u m b e r of pin:., se pins hold t h e cloth and p r e v e n t it/ from .shrinking, ee cylinders are used for this p u r p o s e , t h e d o t h paasing r each. These m a c h i n e s are a t work in G e r m a n y a n d erica, a n d are v e r y s u i t a b l e for t h e mercerising of fine hs. A n e w F r e n c h m a c h i n e s t r e t c h e s t h e c l o t h b y ,ns of a series of c u r b e d b a r e x p a n d e r s T h e ringing l w a t e r t a k e s place directly t h e d o t h leaves tin* irnjnating mangle. T h e e x p a n d e r s are placed b o t h a b o v e below t h e cloth, a n d t h e w a s h i n g is o n t h e c o u n t e r *ent principle. T h e cloth is squeezed in panning from wash-box t o a n o t h e r . The piece mercerising, done a t Bemberg'H of B a r m e n , a t one t i m e s u c h a r e p u t a t i o n t h a t English rnanu-

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THE DYEING INDUSTRY

facturers were anxious t o ascertain their methods of production. They use the method of " batching " after impregnating with t h e caustic lye. A tight b a t c h is made which after standing some time is t a k e n t o a stenter close by, passed through a n d at t h e same t i m e washed, t r e a t e d with acid, a n d again washed. The machines are m a d e in various sizes, a n d with 6 H . P . t h e y claim t o mercerise 16,000 yards of cloth in ten hours. There was a large plant attached for cooling t h e caustic soda, b u t at t h e time of t h e author's visit it was not in use. I n fact, icecooling plants, which were at one t i m e used, are now seldom seen. Impregnating troughs, however, are made with a double jacket, so t h a t if necessary t h e lye in t h e trough can be cooled b y passing cold water t h r o u g h t h e jacket. I n order t o produce uniform mercerising i t is necessary t o keep t h e caustic soda at a fairly even temperature and not above 65 F . I t is impossible t o obtain a good regular lustre on cloth which has not been thoroughly " boiled o u t " before mercerising. During t h e short time t h e material is in t h e cold caustic lye, unboiled cloth does n o t soak u p t h e lye very well, and uneven mercerising results. This defect is usually shown u p if the cloth is afterwards dyed or bleached, for the properly mercerised p a r t s t a k e u p more dye-stuff and are more affected b y the bleaching liquor t h a n t h e parts which have n o t been thoroughly impregnated by t h e caustic-soda solution. B a d mercerising can be corrected to some extent b y remercerising as previously mentioned in the case of yarn mercerising. When one has experience of mercerising a certain class of goods on t h e stenter, one continually alters t h e machine until the best results are achieved, and it is only after m a n y trials t h a t perfect results are obtained. I n this connection, it is interesting t o recall the observation of Hiibner a n d Pope t h a t t h e greatest shrinkage takes place w i t h caustic soda a t 45 Tw. If lye of 55 Tw. be used, t h e n on washing, t h a t is a t t h e first spirt pipe, sudden shrinkage takes place, or a t least t h e tension is so great t h a t careful w a t c h must be kept. The author came across a machine in t h e United States which h a d been altered after repeated trials made by the managers. After impregnation in t h e ordinary

MERCERISING

27

mangle, t h e cloth passed on t o t h e stentex in the usual way. After a short passage, a n d when still far from stretched t o its full width, t h e cloth was sprayed with t h e strong caustic lye used in the mangle. This arrangement was apparently to dispense with t h e use of two impregnating mangles, a n d t h e idea was t o give t h e cloth another t r e a t m e n t with t h e caustic soda after t h e first dose h a d h a d time t o penetrate t h e cloth. After this t r e a t m e n t t h e stenter gradually widened, and w h e n t h e cloth was a t its full width there was a break in t h e stenter. The cloth t h e n passed between two squeezing rollers, a n d again on to t h e stenter, where it was washed. The manager s t a t e d t h a t this arrangement was t h e best t h e y h a d used, a n d t h e y h a d tried m a n y others. The cloth was certainly a long t i m e in contact with the caustic lye, so t h a t p e n e t r a tion was evidently good. The a u t h o r t h i n k s , however, t h a t t w o mangles, as often used, would h a v e h a d a similar effect. Some works in the United States claim t o have mercerising machines which are b e t t e r t h a n those generally known. Unfortunately these are n o t placed on view. I t m a y be t h a t t h e y have some special devices for overcoming mechanical difficulties, b u t t h e merits of t h e s e machines are probably exaggerated. A t one American works t h e author was shown everything b u t a new mercerising machine and a machine for dyeing sulphur colours. Both these were regarded as being of special importance, b u t t h e partial mobility of labour has probably revealed their " secrets " b y now. I n the Gruschwitz machine for piece mercerising, t h e space t a k e n u p b y t h e stenter is**srf ~ ^ 1 b y arranging g g ^S ^ Jft o f t h he s t e n t e r p a r t of it over t h e lye mang]3. i M y ^ passes wholly t h r o u g h w a r m water t o wasn o u t t h e caustic soda. The space required for t h e horizontal stenter is reduced in t h e Weisbach machine b y adopting a vertical arrangement, t h e cloth being stretched on a circular c h a i n stenter t h e two side-wheels of which have axles which are not parallel. The cloth after impregnation enters t h e clips where t h e y are nearest together, a n d as t h e wheels revolve t h e cloth is carried r o u n d a n d stretched. T h e r e t u r n s for Crefeld a n d district, a t t h e t i m e of t h e a u t h o r ' s

28

THE DYEING INDUSTEY

visit, showed t h a t the business of mercerising was n o t increasing and t h a t t h e y were losing some of their m a r k e t s . The export t o t h e United States h a d fallen ofl, as t h e Americans are now mercerising their own yarns, often buying t h e m from England. At t h e same time, S o u t h America and E a s t Asia h a d b y increased d e m a n d partially made u p t h e deficiency. Competition from all quarters is lowering t h e profits in this branch of the t r a d e . On t h e scientific side of t h e subject, work has been done b y Hiibner in contradiction of t h e early work of J . H . Gladstone on t h e action of caustic soda on c o t t o n . Gladstone maintained t h a t cotton combined with caustic soda, when immersed in a strong solution of t h a t substance, t o form definite compounds called " soda celluloses," while in weak solutions t h e caustic soda h a d no such action. Since t h a t time t h e t e r m " soda cellulose " h a s h a d a recognised m e a n i n g ; b u t further work has t e n d e d t o show t h a t such compounds do not exist, a n d practical experience also points in t h e same direction. I t has been shown t h a t cotton absorbs caustic soda from all strengths of solution of t h a t substance in water, a n d t h a t t h e r e is no dividing line as suggested b y Gladstone. Great interest was t a k e n in t h e statement, which e m a n a t e d from Germany, t h a t cotton takes u p considerably more caustic soda from a soda lye which has been saturated w i t h c o m m o n salt t h a n from a lye of t h e same concentration containing no salt. I t was stated t h a t 100 grms. of cotton w h e n immersed in a soda lye containing 12 p e r cent sodium hydroxide absorbed 8*4 grms. of t h e hydroxide, whereas from a 12 per cent solution which h a d been s a t u r a t e d with salt, as much a s " | f e ^ ^ i r w , were t a k e n u p . I t was t h u s t h o u g h t t h a t s a f e s a ^ ' d supplant some of t h e caustic soda used in mercerising, and t h u s economise this expensive chemical. These statements V e r e tested b o t h on t h e large a n d small scale, wiien it was found t h a t t h e effect of a d d i n g common salt t o a 12 per cent soda lye was t o decrease its mercerising power instead of increasing it. W h e n t h e lye was saturated with salt, t h e mercerised cotton p r o d u c e d h a d n o t t h e same lustre or t h e same a t t r a c t i o n for substantive cotton dye-stuffs as cotton mercerised u n d e r t h e ordinary conditions. Moreover, on allowing t h e c o t t o n

MERCEEISING

29

to shrink while i n t h e lye, it w a s noticed t h a t t h e shrinkage p r o d u c e d was n o t so g r e a t w h e n t h e lye was s a t u r a t e d with salt. L a r g e - s c a l e mercerising showed t h a t t h e addition of s a l t t o t h e lye h a d n o p r a c t i c a l v a l u e . I t is k n o w n t h a t mercerised c o t t o n absorbs more subs t a n t i v e dye-stuff a n d m o r e m o i s t u r e from t h e air t h a n ordinary c o t t o n does. T h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r further showed (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind*, 1909, xxviii. 188) t h a t t h e moisture absorbed from t h e air b y mercerised c o t t o n increased as t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e lye u s e d i n mercerising increased, a n d was a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o p o r t i o n e d t o t h e a m o u n t of s u b s t a n t i v e c o t t o n dye-stuff a n d of iodine t a k e n u p from solutions of t h e s e substances b y t h e samples of c o t t o n mercerised w i t h different s t r e n g t h s of caustic soda. As r e g a r d s t h e t e s t i n g of c o t t o n for mercerisation, t w o m e t h o d s were described b y J . H t i b n e r (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1908, xxvii. 105) while t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r was his assistant a n d d e m o n s t r a t o r i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t of D y e i n g , Manchester Municipal School of Technology. Of t h e s e m e t h o d s t h e a u t h o r h a s found t h e following v e r y serviceable in p r a c t i c e . T h e p a t t e r n t o b e t e s t e d is first freed from finishing m a t e r i a l a n d t h e n immersed, for a b o u t one m i n u t e , i n a solution of 20 g r m s . of iodine in s a t u r a t e d p o t a s s i u m iodide solution. I t is t h e n t a k e n o u t a n d washed in a t e s t - t u b e w i t h cold w a t e r . Mercerised c o t t o n retains t h e iodine for a long t i m e d u r i n g t h e washing, a n d remains of a blue-black colour, w h e r e a s o r d i n a r y c o t t o n is soon w a s h e d w h i t e . T h e a u t h o r uses t h e iodine solution over a n d over again, merely p o u r i n g i t b a c k i n t o t h e b o t t l e after use, so t h a t t h e m e t h o d is a quick one. I n c o m p a r ing degrees of mercerisatic \, b y t h i s t e s t , i t is necessary t o h a v e t h e samples i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e physical s t a t e before t e s t i n g . F o r instance, care h a s t o be exercised in c o m p a r i n g t w o p a t t e r n s one of w h i c h h a s b e e n calendared m a n y t i m e s a n d t h e o t h e r n o t calendared a t all, for t h e form of t h e fibre h a s some effect on t h e a b s o r p t i o n of t h e iodine, a n d also o n t h e s u r r e n d e r of t h e iodine t o t h e wash-water. After some experience, however, t h e t e s t is a v a l u a b l e one t o u s e as a guidance. C o t t o n cloth is sometimes given t h e o p e n - w i d t h bleach, t h e boiling being c o n d u c t e d withCcaustic soda T of a b o u t 5 T w . a n d after

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T H E DYEING INDUSTRY

schreinering t h e goods are sent out as mercerised cloth. The a b o v e t e s t serves to d e t e c t such goods. I t also shows a n y u n e v e n action d u e t o b a d penetration and, w h e n carefully performed, gives some indication of t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e caustic soda used for t h e mercerising.

CHAPTER BLEACHING

Development of fclie industryEffect of chemistryEfficient scouring Continuous scouringOpen-width scouringElectrolytic "bleaching Steeping of goodsThe waxes of vegetablefibresBleachingwithout boiling. BLEACHING is now a very different process from w h a t i t was In t h e eighteenth century. A t t h a t time a period of several months was required t o "bleach a piece of cloth, a n d in some cases cloth w a s sent from this c o u n t r y t o Holland t o b e "bleached on t h e grassy plains of t h a t c o u n t r y . F o r instance, our linen manufactures were sent i n t h e spring t o Holland, where t h e y were steeped i n p o t a s h lye, washed, steeped i n b u t t e r m i l k , laid on t h e grass for several m o n t h s , and finally r e t u r n e d in t h e a u t u m n . Afterwards a very similar process became established in this c o u n t r y , a n d t h e goods were no longer sent t o Holland. The i n t r o d u c t i o n of sulphuric acid to replace butter-milk reduced t h e period of bleacMng considerably, and t h e g r a d u a l a d o p t i o n of chlorine compounds eliminated t h e long process of " g r a s s i n g " for m o s t classes of goods. T h e discovery of t h e "bleaching properties of chlorine gas led t o Berthollet in 17S0 practically applying this gas t o t h e "bleaching of textiles. The m e t h o d was introduced i n t o E n g l a n d a n d Scotlaad, b u t it was n o t until Tennant used slaked lime for absorbing t h e chlorine, a n d t h u s m a n u factured bleaching powder, t h a t chlorine compounds became extensively used OT bleaching. B y t h e introduction of chemicals t h e l e n g t h of t i m e occupied in t h e bleaching process for c o t t o n goods was reduced from seveial m o n t h s t o a few d a y s , 31

32

THE DYEING INDUSTKY

T h e i n d u s t r i a l s y s t e m of bleaching h a s really developed from t h e domestic system, t h a t is in imitation of t h e actions of t h e housewife in boiling t h e clothes w i t h alkali, washing t h e m well with water, a n d spreading t h e m in t h e s u n t o d r y a n d bleach. Moreover, m o d e r n bleaching m a c h i n e r y h a s gradually been evolved from t h e domestic articles. F o r instance, t h e copper has produced t h e kier, a n d t h e domestic dolly t u b , after itself being used in largescale operations for a considerable time, was replaced b y t h e wash-mills $nd, later, b y m o d e r n washing-machines. J u s t as t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of chemicals shortened t h e period required for bleaching, so h a s t h e introduction of improved m a c h i n e r y caused a similar c u r t a i l m e n t ; b u t it is r e m a r k able t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e t i m e required for t h e different operations has b e e n v e r y m u c h reduced, t h e old process of bleaching h a s undergone little change. Details h a v e received a t t e n t i o n and some i m p r o v e m e n t s h a v e been m a d e , y e t t h e operations of liming, grey souring, ash boiling, chemicking, scalding, chemicking, souring, a n d washing r e m a i n substantially t h e same. A t t e m p t s h a v e been m a d e t o curtail t h e long scouring operations, b u t these h a v e seldom been successful. L a t t e r l y chemistry h a s been applied t o t h e process itself, b u t it is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t science h a s caused little change in t h e old process. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e caustic soda and resin boil h a s certainly replaced lime boiling for some classes of goods, b u t still t h e p r o d u c t i o n of m a r k e t whites is m o s t often performed b y t h e series of operations j u s t described. M a n y good bleachers are i g n o r a n t of t h e science of chemistry, a n d as this science h a s affected t h e m v e r y little t h e y are a p t t o belittle i t a n d appeal t o their empiricism. O n t h e other h a n d , chemists are a p t t o ridicule empirical m e t h o d s . B u t i t m u s t be remembered t h a t a knowledge of chemistry c a n n o t replace experience in t h e bleaching i n d u s t r y ; t h e r e are m a n y observations in practice which t h e chemist c a n n o t explain, a n d he m u s t proceed cautiously while p a y i n g d u e regard t o t h e teaching of experience, i n s t e a d of u n d e r r a t i n g t h e value of t h a t experience. Textile fibres are complex bodies which are n o t t h o r o u g h l y u n d e r s t o o d b y chemists. E v e n p u r e cellulose, t h e basis of vegetable fibres, m a y be considered

BLEACHING

33

as one of t h e enigmas of t h e chemical world, in spite OY t h e large a m o u n t of work which has been performed on that substance. Nowadays, if a n y t h i n g goes wron^ in t h e b l e a c h - h o u s e resulting in " t e n d e r " goods, t h e c r v is " o x y c e l l u l o s e . " The chemist knows t h a t oxygen and cellulose h a v e been present during t h e tendering action, a n d he i n v e n t s a word t o explain t h e phenomenon, or r a t h e r t o s c r e e n his own ignorance. The same m a y be said of t h e u s e of t h e t e r m " hydroeellulose." The employm e n t of s u c h t e r m s is an indication t h a t chemists know little c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e of cellulose. P r o g r e s s i n bleaching has recently been principally on t h e m e c h a n i c a l side. Proper scouring is essential t o good bleaching, a n d this is probably t h e m o s t difficult of" the operations o f t h e craft. All bleachers know t h e difficulty of o b t a i n i n g a really effective and thorough circulation of t h e lye t h r o u g h t h e mass of t h e fabric in t h e kier. E v e n in t h e b e s t c o n s t r u c t e d closed kiers t h e liquor endeavours t o force i t s e l f along t h e walls of t h e vessel, where the cloth is l e s s t i g h t l y compressed a n d consequently offers less r e s i s t a n c e . The remainder of t h e mass is not so well t r e a t e d , a n d t h e result is t h a t t h e bleach is lacking in uniformity. I t is obvious t h a t those p a r t s lying in t h e d i r e c t p a t h of t h e circulating lye will be bleached first, while t h o s e lying v e r y remote will s t a n d a poor chance. If, t h e r e f o r e , t h e boiling of t h e charge be interrupted after a h a l f or one quarter t h e normal time for t h e operat i o n , i n s t e a d of t h e whole q u a n t i t y of cloth being in a uniformly c l e a n s e d condition, some p a r t s will be perfectly cleansed, o t h e r s less so, a n d finally, there will be p a r t s w h i c h a r e only superficially attacked b y t h e lye. F o r this r e a s o n i t is necessary n o t oiily t o employ a higher t e m p e r a t u r e in order t o o b t a i n uniform bleaching, b u t also t o p r o l o n g t h e time of boiling for several hours, whereas f o r t h e complete transformation of t h e impurities of t h e c o t t o n only a s h o r t t i m e is really required. V a r i o u s kiers h a v e been introduced t o ensure evenness i n t h e t r e a t m e n t , a n d some of these h a v e m e t with success. One t y p e l i a s a perforated pipe down t h e middle and a p e r f o r a t e d cylinder lining t h e kier and a t a s h o r t distance from its w a l l . Between t h e perforations of t h e inner and D

34

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

o u t e r cylinders t h e lye circulates instead of being injected t h r o u g h t h e u s u a l non-perforated puffer pipe a n d showered over t h e t o p of t h e cloth. Kiers of this t y p e t h e a u t h o r saw u n d e r construction a t t h e machine works of H a u b o l d , Chemnitz a n d Gebauer, Berlin. I n t h e W a l s h - J a c k s o n kier circulation is p r o d u c e d b y means of a powerful centrifugal p u m p . T h e lye passes from t h e b o t t o m of t h e kier into t h e p u m p , a n d t h e n t o a cylinder containing a coil supplied with high-pressure s t e a m ; t h e lye is t h u s h e a t e d while in t h e cylinder a n d is t h e n forced b y t h e p u m p b a c k into t h e kier. I n all boiling operations t h e principal danger, as before stated, is t h a t of u n e v e n penetration, for in a kier containing t w o t o n s of cloth, t h e lye h a s t o t r a v e l t h r o u g h m a n y layers of fabric. This consideration h a s led t o t h e introduction of scouring a n d bleaching in t h e open w i d t h . I n t h i s s y s t e m t h e cloth is never m a d e into t h e s t r a n d or rope form, b u t is t r e a t e d t h e whole t i m e a t full w i d t h . I t c a n be readily u n d e r s t o o d t h a t this system gives uniform results a n d t h e d a m a g e t o t h e cloth is less, since t h e r e is less chance of t h e cloth rubbing against objects in t h e way during t h e t r e a t m e n t . The J a c k s o n - H u n t kier for o p e n - w i d t h bleaching consists of a cylinder w i t h a horizontal axis and open a t one end. T h e cloth in t h e form of a large " b a t c h " is placed on a special a p p a r a t u s a n d wheeled into t h e kier. The m e c h a n i s m is so arranged t h a t t h e b a t c h can be u n wound, passed over a perforated d r u m , a n d r e w o u n d into a n o t h e r b a t c h . The cloth is, in fact, wound b a c k w a r d s a n d forwards i n t h i s w a y over t h e perforated d r u m during t h e scouring operation, ap.d while passing over t h e perforated d r u m it is subjected t o t h e action of a s p r a y of caustic-soda solution, which is p u m p e d from t h e b o t t o m of t h e kier a n d t h u s t h r o u g h t h e cloth. There is a specially arranged driving geaT t o reverse t h e direction of winding of t h e cloth w h e n each b a t c h has been u n w o u n d . The contents of t h e kier are supplied with s t e a m a t a pressure of 60 lb. p e r s q u a r e inch during t h e operation, a n d i t can be readily u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e caustic soda, at t h e t e m p e r a t u r e indicated b y such a pressure, produces a t h o r o u g h a n d v e r y uniform scouring of t h e cloth. Before placing

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35

i t i n t h e kier t h e cloth is passed through a special .-an^a*-i n g machine. This machine consists of a large perforated d r u m placed in a t a n k of caustic soda solution. "Tne oloih p a s s e s over this drum, and t h e soda is forced into it Lv m e a n s of steam which is blown against its surface. The c l o t h is t h e n wound into t h e tight batch for placing in t h e Mer. Gebauer's of Berlin also build a machine ol this kind, i a which t h e cloth is s a t u r a t e d with caustic soda and w o u n d backwards and forwards under steam pressure. T h e Tagliani-Rigamonti p a t e n t continuous kier was i n v e n t e d b y two Milan chemists, and t h e p a t e n t rights were s e c u r e d b y Bemberg's of Barmen, at whose works t h e a u t h o r saw it in operation. Steam of low pressure is a d m i t t e d t o t h e chamber of the machine, which stands o v e r t h e scouring solution, and at one side of the machine a n d outside t h e chamber a head of lye is t h u s created. w i n c h produces a kind of seal for t h e apparatus. The c l o t h passes t h r o u g h this seal, t h a t is, through the head of l y e between t h e pressure chamber and t h e wall of t h e v e s s e l containing t h e lye, and is plaited down between two e n d l e s s chains, which travel continuously over rollers. B e t w e e n these chains t h e cloth is carried along, being a t o n e time immersed in t h e scouring solution, and at another s t e a m e d b y exposure t o t h e pressure steam in t h e chamber. T l i e complete operations consist of (1) immersion in h o t s o d a lye, (2) steaming, (3) reimmersion in t h e lye, (4) r e s t r a i n i n g , and finally, t h e cloth passes through t h e soda l y e in t h e seal a n d o u t of t h e apparatus. The working of t h e chains mentioned suggests complications, b u t devices h a v e been introduced t o ensure against mishaps. The a p p a r a t u s takes u p little space, and for its size has a large c a p a c i t y - T h e scouring liquor is k e p t thoroughly circul a t e d b y means of a p u m p , being drawn from the b o t t o m o f t h e kier a n d showered over t h e cloth, while it is passing t h r o u g h t h e kier. I t is claimed t h a t t h e apparatus can t a k e u p from 2000 t o 8000 y a r d s of cloth, a n d as t h e cloth, a c c o r d i n g t o its n a t u r e , remains in the kier from one t o o n e a n d a half hours, the machine can scour from 20,000 t o 50,000 y a r d s of cloth in t e n hours. I t is also claimed t h a t t h e kier is more economical t h a n the ordinary boiling

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THE DYEING INDUSTRY

process. The machine t h e a u t h o r saw a n d a few in I t a l y are t h e only ones known t o be in use. I n t h e Welter (Miilhausen) continuous kier t h e inlet and outlet of t h e steam chamber are hydraulic t r a p s , t h e former containing the scouring lye, while t h e other acts as a washing-box. I t has, however, a small capacity for its size, even though the capacity has been doubled b y r u n n i n g two pieces of cloth in together, t h a t is, one u p o n t h e other. Moreover, the apparatus being large, it is necessary to keep the steam pressure low, a n d this is a g r e a t disadvantage. The question of bleaching in t h e w i d t h is as i m p o r t a n t as ever, b u t t h e cost is higher t h a n for t h e ordinary process of bleaching. The apparatus of Welter, Tagliani a n d Muntadas (Paris) give good results, the high cost being their principal disadvantage. The Jackson kier is excellent for heavy goods, b u t here again t h e cost of t h e a p p a r a t u s is high. I n considering t h e merits of these kiers i t m u s t be remembered, however, t h a t t h e J a c k s o n a p p a r a t u s is different from t h e others in t h e sense t h a t it does n o t work on t h e continuous principle, a n d t h a t , unlike t h e other kiers, a high steam-pressure is used. The J a c k s o n Mer undoubtedly produces a perfect scouring of t h e cloth. The Edmeston is another continuous kier. I t w a s t h e first of its kind. I t consists of one large t a n k open a t t h e top, into which another t a n k is placed open a t t h e bottom. Steam is a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e inner t a n k a n d causes a head of lye in t h e space between this t a n k a n d t h e outer one, t h e outer t a n k containing t h e scouring lye. The cloth is passed t h r o u g h this seal of lye b e t w e e n t h e two tanks, into t h e lye of t h e inner t a n k , a n d t h e n , b y means of rollers, i t passes alternately into t h e s t e a m of t h e inner t a n k a n d into t h e lye. Finally, it passes o u t through the other seal of lye. The Tagliani kier is a similar machine, except t h a t it has one seal i n s t e a d of two, and t h e cloth is passed along b y means of c h a i n s instead of by means of rollers* The alternate s t e a m i n g and lye boiling in t h e E d m e s t o n kier is very effective i n bringing about t h e scouring^of t h e cloth. The cloth p a s s e s a t a rate of from 30 t o 50 yards per minute, according t o the nature of t h e cloth. The pressure of t h e s t e a m is of

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37

course low, b u t high, pressures and temperatures ar^ n o : essential for good scouring. I n fact, high pre-st;r-> are used in practice in order t o overcome the main defects of closed kiers, viz. want of movement. Nevertheless it is obvious t h a t a kier of this kind is not suitable for all classes of cloth, but for some purposes the scoiirks produced is quite sufficient. Of new methods of bleaching which have been introduced from time t o time, t h a t of Pick and E r b a n has received a t t e n t i o n . They work the material in a 2-percent solution of turkey-red oil containing chlor-soda, and find this m e t h o d successful for cops and spools. Turkeyred oil a n d castor-oil soaps have also been added t o t h e scouring lyes t o produce more uniform scouring. Other bleaching agents besides bleaehing-powder solution h a v e been tried from time to time, b u t few have n:et with success, a n d bleaching powder still remains the only decolorising agent used t o a n y great extent. Hydrogen peroxide gives an excellent bleach on cotton, but its cost is prohibitive. Sodium peroxide is used for special work. Sodium hypochlorite, made from bleaching-powdex solution b y adding soda ash a n d running off the clear solution, is a commercial article a n d is used in some works. I t has t h e a d v a n t a g e over bleaching powder of being perfectly soluble, so t h a t there is no danger of suspended undissolved particles i n t h e solution. The present author maintains, however, t h a t this danger does not exist in the case of bleaching-powder solution, if this solution be properly prepared, a n d if t h e steeping system of " chemicking r? be used. Bleaching powder is made in large quantities nowadays from chlorine gas, which is made from common salt solution b y electrolytic decomposition: chlorine gas is given off a n d caustic soda solution is left behind. B u t if t h e chlorine gas be not allowed t o escape, b u t is mixed with t h e caustic soda, a solution of sodium hypochlorite containing m u c h common salt is produced. Special electrolysers h a v e been devised t o produce hypochlorite solution in this w a y . I n one of these t h e electrodes aTe placed in a shallow trough, t h e space between t h e m being t a k e n u p b y a series of glass plates covered with platinum-iridium

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T H E DYEING INDUSTRY

wire a n d s t a n d i n g vertically a n d parallel in t h e t r o u g h . The salt passes i n t o t h e trough from a cooled coil, a n d b y t h e a c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t it is electrolysed t o give a solut i o n c o n t a i n i n g 3 t o 5 grms. of active chlorine per litre. A n o t h e r electrolyser uses carbon electrodes instead of t h e expensive p l a t i n u m ones, and produces a hypochlorite solution containing as m u c h as 15 grms. of active chlorine per litre. T h e a u t h o r was at one time m u c h impressed w i t h t h e idea of m a k i n g bleaching solution b y t h e electrolysis of c o m m o n s a l t solution, a n d even t h e failure of a bleaching c o m p a n y using this m e t h o d did n o t shake his confidence. L a t e r , however, he h a d a n o p p o r t u n i t y of testing t h e s y s t e m o n a large scale. A n electrolyser of t h e best t y p e w a s o b t a i n e d and worked for m a n y m o n t h s , so as t o give i t a fair trial. The result has been t h a t t h e electrolyser is now idle, several experiments h a v i n g p r o v e d unsuccessful. F r o m time t o t i m e there was trouble in working it, a n d t h e a t t e n t i o n required was far greater t h a n in t h e case of dissolving bleaching powder. I t has often been s t a t e d t h a t electrolytic bleaching liquor is not alkaline, b u t t h e a u t h o r found t h a t in all cases it was. B y t h e decomposition of t h e salt, ions of sodium a n d chlorine are p r o d u c e d : t h e s o d i u m ions r e a c t with t h e w a t e r t o produce caustic soda a n d hydrogen, which escapes, a n d t h e chlorine reacting w i t h this caustic soda produces t h e h y p o chlorite. This is t h e simplest explanation of t h e electrolysis ; a n d chemical equations show t h a t if all t h e chlorine unites w i t h all t h e caustic soda produced t h e solution remains n e u t r a l , as i t originally was. This complete union, however, d e p e n d s on perfect circulation in t h e electrolyser. B u t in a n y case t h e caustic soda c a n n o t g e t out of t h e electrolyser, and, as in practice it is found t h a t some chlorine escapes, t h e result is t h a t t h e caustic soda p r e d o m i n a t e s , t h a t is, t h e solution is alkaline. Donizelli s t a t e d t h a t electrolytic liquor often contained so m u c h caustic soda t h a t certain stains were produced on some cloths, b u t i n s u c h a case as t h i s t h e circulation i n t h e a p p a r a t u s w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e electrolytic liquor m u s t h a v e b e e n v e r y deficient. Roscoe a n d L u n t , on m a k i n g hypochlorite solution b y t h e electrolysis of s e a - w a t e r , found, on slightly electrolysing it and allowing i t t o s t a n d ,

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t h e liquor decomposed xapidly. T H s decomposition was obviously caused b y t k e weak solution oxidising t h e impurities of the s e a - w a t e r , fox stronger solutions did n o t decompose so rapidly, n o r did weak solutions m a d e b y t h e dilution of stronger ones with distilled water. Ou t h e large scale t h e a u t h o r used bleaching-powder solution of 17 Tw. ? a n d such a strong solution contained a relatively small a m o u n t of lime. I t was found t h a t t h e bleaching properties of such a solution were identically t h e same as those of t i e solution prepared "by t h e electrolyser. Moreover, on using sodium hypochlorite (obtained from "bleaching-powdex solution b y adding soda-ash solution, t h e "bleaching powdex being in slight excess) it w a s found t h a t t h i s solution h a d t h e same efficiency as t h e bleaching-powder solution from which it was m a d e , a n d also t h e same as t h a t of t h e electrolytic liquor. A large n u m b e r of bleaching tests proved this (Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1911, xxx. 185), a n d also their rates of decomposition i n air were found t o be t h e same. Among t h e a d v a n t a g e s claimed for electrolytic bleaching liquor axe (1) t h e bleached material is s t r o n g e r ; (2) t h e white produced is more perm a n e n t ; (3) there is a saving of acid i n t h e subsequent souring o p e r a t i o n ; and (4) t h e r e is less loss in weight. As regards these contentions, t h e author has shown [Journ-. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1911, xxx. 1295) t h a t , no m a t t e r w h a t agent b e used for decolorising, t h e cloth m u s t be well scoured, a n d t h a t i t is in the boiling operations a n d n o t in the bleaching pxopeT t h a t t h e principal drop in weight takes place. The tests of t h e author (Joum. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1911, x x x . 185) showed t h a t t h e cloth was not stronger or heavier when bleached b y electrolytic liquor t h a n when bleaching-powder solution was used. As regards cost of production, it was shown (bo. cvt.) t h a t with salt a t 23s. a t o n t h e cost of t h e salt alone was as high as t h e t o t a l cost of t h e bleaching powder, which t h e electxolysex seeks to displace. Similarly w i t h current at f d . a unit, t h e cost of t i e electricity was equal t o t h e t o t a l cost of t h e bleaching powder. B u t m t h cheap salt a n d cheap current, it might p a y t o produce bleaching liquor b y the electrolytic m e t h o d . Electrolytic liquor is very suitable for bleaching

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T H E DYEING INDUSTRY

wood p u l p , r a w cotton, cops a n d artificial silk, b u t for o r d i n a r y m a c h i n e chemicking, t h e trouble is t h a t no electrolyser p r o d u c e s liquor strong enough for this p u r p o s e (Higgins, Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1912, 254). A n o t h e r i t e m of interest t o bleachers is t h e effect which n e u t r a l salts have in retarding t h e action of t h e lyes d u r i n g boiling. I t has also been recently shown t h a t dextrose r e t a r d s t h e saponifying action of caustic soda. These facts p o i n t t o the advantage of giving t h e " rotten, steep " before boiling, in order t o remove a n y mineral a n d other m a t t e r used in t h e sizing of t h e cloth {Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1912, 254). The work of K n e c h t (Journ. Text In$t.91911, ii. 22-29) on t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s of raw cotton is of great interest t o bleachers. I n t h e first place he showed t h a t cotton y a r n , from which t h e w a x h a d been e x t r a c t e d was stronger t h a n t h e u n e x t r a c t e d y a r n . Since lye boiling t a k e s away m u c h of this w a x , i t is probably on this account t h a t lye boiling is often found to increase t h e tensile s t r e n g t h of c o t t o n goods. T h e present a u t h o r further showed (Journ. ^oc.(77^3m./ncZ.,1914,xxxiii.902)the efficacy of t h e lime boil, followed b y a soda-ash boil, in eliminating t h e waxes from textile fibres. T h e lime boil is n o t a mere survival of the d a y s of empiricism ; it is t h e best t r e a t m e n t for t h e bleaching of certain classes of goods. I t was noticed, on plunging lime-boiled a n d soured cloth into h o t s o d a - a s h solution, t h a t a large a m o u n t of m a t t e r was separated from the cloth, a n d its w a x contents were considerably r e d u c e d ; t h i s fact is p r o b a b l y due t o unsaponifiable a n d saponifiable (now p r e s e n t as f a t t y acid after t h e lime boil a n d sour) c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e w a x existing together, t h e alkali producing a soap w i t h t h e latter and at t h e same t i m e removing some of t h e unsaponifiable m a t t e r , b y disturbing it and producing a n emulsion. The soap is produced quickly as t h e f a t t y acid is free (unlike t h e w a x i n t h e case of clotli n o t previously lime boiled), and a concentration of the soap in t h e neighbourhood of t h e unsaponifiable w a x is produced. I n s u p p o r t of this explanation, it is interesting t o recall a n e x p e r i m e n t b y Shorter (Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col., 1915, 3), i n which he showed t h a t on adding a

BLEACHING

41

solution^ of a n alkali t o a mixture of a mineral oil and a f a t t y acid, t h e emulsification was practically spontaneous. H e explained this observation as being due to (1) t h e r a p i d i t y of t h e formation of the soap layer, and (2) t h e plasticity of t h e layer. W e have these conditions reproduced in t h e case of t h e lime-boiled and soured cloth p l u n g e d into t h e alkali solution. H e r e t h e wax of the cloth consists of a fatty acid and a n unsaponifiable wax, which for this purpose is similar t o t h e mineral oil. Many m e t h o d s of bleaching without boiling have from time t o t i m e b e e n proposed, b u t t h e present a u t h o r (loc. cit) gives experiments in support of t h e contention t h a t only b y t h o r o u g h scouring can good bleaching be p r o d u c e d / I n fact, if t h e boiling operations be curtailed, t h e n t h e impurities of t h e cloth, which are usually eliminated during t h e scouring, have t o be decomposed b y oxidising agents* a n d figures show t h a t this is a m u c h more expensive m e t h o d of removal. At one American work cotton goods, principally crash and towels, were found to t u r n yellow a n d become " tender " in stock, a n d a n explanation of t h e t r o u b l e was found after a consideration of the method of bleaching. The pieces in t h e d r y state were steeped in bleaching-powder solution of 5 Tw. for one hour, allowed t o d r a i n for a short time, and t h e n washed twice through a n ordinary roller w a s h i n g - m a c h i n e . They were t h e n m a n g l e d and dried. As t o t h e actual cause of t h e " tenderi n g " of these goods opinions m a y differchloramines m a y be suggested b y some chemists as t h e cause,but certain it is t h a t t h e trouble arose because t h e goods h a d n o t been scoured before t h e application of t h e bleachingpowder solution. R e c e n t l y a n u m b e r of substances have been introduced for use in t h e scouring lyes, in order t o remove t h e w a x y m a t t e r s of t h e cloth. I n some cases carbon tetrachloride, n a p h t h a , a n d other volatile organic solvents are mixed w i t h t u r k e y - r e d oil, so as t o form a n emulsion which does n o t readily separate into its constituents. These preparations a c t very well in extracting t h e w a x y m a t t e r s from t h e cloth, b u t their high cost does n o t admit of extensive a d o p t i o n . As a result of some tests performed b y t h e a u t h o r on t h e effect of hypochlorite solutions on these

42

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

waxes, it was found t h a t t h e y were partially decomposed and chlorine substitution products were formed, which yielded more readily t o saponification t h a n t h e original waxes. This observation explained t h e fact t h a t on scalding after " c h e m i c k i n g / ' a large a m o u n t of m a t t e r is r e m o v e d from t h e cloth.

CHAPTER

VI

GERMAN AND ENGLISH FLANNELETTES Use of raisingCotton blanketsGerman productionLarge-scale production German and English methods compared External and internal specialisationInflammability of flannelettes. COTTON, unlike wool, does not grow on t i e back of an animal, a n d therefore cannot have the value of wool as a clothing material. Wool is a b a d conductor of heat, whereas cotton is a fairly good conductor. B u t air is also a b a d conductor of heat, so t h a t in a " raised " fabric where a m i x t u r e of cotton a n d air is presented to t h e body t h e h e a t conducted away is less t h a n when unraised cotton cloth is used. I n short, raising greatly improves cotton as a clothing material. Very soon after arriving i n G e r m a n y one encounters cotton blankets. These are made in beautiful designs, b y raising heavy cotton cloths, a n d are found on most German beds. The demand for t h e m is therefore great, and a special industry has arisen t o supply t h e m . Miinchen-Gladbach, t h e centre of this industry, is a severely industrial Ehineland town, which resembles our cotton city only in so far as it is principally engaged in a n industry which deals with t h e cotton fibre. I n and about this t o w n are 400 textile factories employing 42,000 operatives, a n d also 111 engineering works w i t h 4000 hands. Since there are only 62,000 people engaged in industry in this district, and as no other industry employs more t h a n 2500 hands, it is manifest t h a t textiles are t h e chief concern of the people of this town. The author visited factories engaged in t h e production of cotton blankets, and found t h e m distinguished for their economic working. Water-softening plants were often used because

44

T H E DYEING INDUSTRY

of t h e h a r d n e s s of t h e water of t h e district, a n d were of p r i v e d economy. I n t h e preparing-room of one works, I n d i a n c o t t o n a n d cotton-waste from D a r w e n a n d other L a n c a s h i r e t o w n s were seen being t r e a t e d , i n t h e first place, b y m a c h i n e r y of a Manchester maker. Mule-spinning was u s e d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e weft-yarns, a n d only slight t w i s t w a s given, because of t h e subsequent use t o which t h e y a r n was p u t . T h e cotton used for m a k i n g t h e weft-yarns w a s d y e d i n t h e loose state, for if d y e d in t h e cop t h e soft feel so essential for blanket-making is lost. The chief considerat i o n is t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a good soft oozy weft, and no pains were spared in t h e manufacture. A f-inch staple is used a n d s p u n b y t h e condenser system. As m a n y as six machines are used in t h e preparing, so as t o produce a uniform y a r n a n d in t h i s w a y a uniform n a p when t h e cloth passes t o t h e raising m a c h i n e . The consequence is t h a t , on examining a G e r m a n cloth, little u n e v e n n e s s i n t h e y a r n is apparent, whereas t h e irregular n a t u r e of some English cloths places t h e finishers a t a disadvantage in a t t e m p t i n g t o produce a good raised article. At t h e Gladbach works mentioned above w a r p - y a r n s were bought from other manufacturers in Gladbach a n d R h e y d t , and m a n y coloured y a r n s from which grandrelle y a r n s were m a d e were o b t a i n e d from Saxony. I n t h e weaving-sheds t h e J a c q u a r d looms were seen p r o d u c i n g a v a r i e t y of p a t t e r n s on a coarse, apparently h a r d , cloth. I n t h e raising operation, t h e machines have t o be carefully w a t c h e d in order t o produce a cloth of the r i g h t " f e e l " a n d weight. A t t h e t i m e of t h e a u t h o r ' s visit, operatives for this class of work were difficult t o get, a n d a l t h o u g h t h e i n d u s t r y was in a flourishing s t a t e there w a s a scarcity of skilled workers. Belgians, a n d workers of o t h e r nationaUties, a t one t i m e paid p r e m i u m s in order t o l e a r n t h e business of such a works as described. The cloth, before t h e a c t u a l raising, is s u b m i t t e d t o a felting o p e r a t i o n i n a special machine, so as t o m a k e t h e cloth m o r e solid a n d t o improve t h e feel; a brushing and s t e a m i n g m a c M n e is also used t o improve t h e finish. B y t h e s e processes q u i t e a different article is produced t h a n b y merely passing t h e cloth t h r o u g h t h e raising machine. T h e superior finish of t h e Gladbach goods h a s been attrib u t e d t o t h e good quality of t h e cotton u s e d ; b u t as this

G E R M A N AND ENGLISH FLANNELETTES

io

is a m i x t u r e of E g y p t i a n and Sea Island waste vdth special short staple I n d i a n cotton, success seems to be due to more careful preparation of t h e weft-yarns. A uniform yarn is^ produced from c l e a p material a n d a uniform nap is obtained on t h e raised c l o t l . T h e nap obtained being short a n d uniform, t h e p a t t e r n is clear and the danger o: firing is small. I n England t h e cheaper flannelettes are raised quickly, a long fihrous n a p heing produced. T.iueisimply covers t h e interstices between t h e t l r e a d s and causes a flame t o ran quickly over t h e surface of the fabric. The ^ o r k s described above h a d little t r a d e with England, t h e h o m e m a r k e t being particularly catered for. "Some shipping was done, and t h a t t h r o u g l H a m b u r g . I t vras noticed t h a t a Manchester firm of colour printers l a d been enterprising enough to supply their calendars to \roiks in this district. T i e specialised factories t h a t h a v e arisen in MiinclenG l a d l a c h were originally intended for t i e supply of t h e large h o m e d e m a n d . Large-scale production., however, led t o economic working, a n d after t h e home market h a d been supplied a t t e n t i o n was t u r n e d to t h e building u p of an e x p o r t trade, which soon assumed large proportions. Before t h e o u t b r e a k of war, t r a d e -with England w a s increasing, a n d exports were being made t o other E u r o p e a n countries, as well as to South Africa, British India, Dutch. E a s t Indies, Siam, China, Australia, S o u t l a n d Central America, Mexico, Canada, a n d t h e U n i t e d States. I n m o s t cases a large h o m e consumption leads t o specialisation a n d t o export. Sometimes t h e export t r a d e is v e i y profitable a n d temporarily raises the price at home, b u t i n t h e long xun t h e o u t p u t increases, further economies are introduced, and t h e home price is in consequence reduced. A splendid "blanket can "be bought for four shillings at Munchen-Gladfcack. I n comparing English a n d German flannelettes t h e s t a t e m e n t w a s m a d e t o t h e a u t h o r t h a t , with t i e improved i n a c l i i i e i y used by t h e G e r m a n firms, i t w a s possible to obtain a finish which could n o t b e produced in England. I t was also stated t h a t during t i e last ten years the Germ a n machine had been protected by p a t e n t s in England, wheieas n o s u c l protection existed in CTermany; t l i a t

46

T H E DYEING INDUSTRY

high prices h a d "been charged for t h e English machines and few i m p r o v e m e n t s m a d e ; t h a t German m a k e r s h a v e been d e b a r r e d from exporting their machines t o this country, a n d as a consequence t h e English flannelette t r a d e has r e m a i n e d s t a g n a n t . These statements, m a d e b y different persons, are certainly not a t r u e representation of t h e situation, for t w o of the m o s t p r o m i n e n t of G e r m a n makers of raising machines have been shipping their machines t o t h i s c o u n t r y for m a n y years. I t is t r u e t h a t these firms h a d a d i s p u t e a t one time over certain p a t e n t rights in t h i s country, b u t when this m a t t e r was settled b o t h firms exported t h e i r machines t o us. German textile engineers h a v e a h a b i t of sending their sons t o this c o u n t r y t o receive some e d u c a t i o n a n d incidentally to exploit their m a c h i n e s ; in t h i s w a y a son of one of t h e machine-makers mentioned booked m a n y orders in this country in 1906. I n c o m p a r i n g t h e flannelette t r a d e in E n g l a n d and G e r m a n y i t m u s t be remembered, a t t h e outset, t h a t t h e i n d u s t r y h a s developed in different ways in t h e two countries. T h e German producers of flannelettes spin, weave, a n d raise their own material, b u t i n E n g l a n d t h e m a n u f a c t u r e is principally in t h e h a n d s of t h r e e specialised businesses,spinners, weavers, a n d finishers. Moreover, in G e r m a n y t h e spinning a n d weaving operations are specially a d a p t e d t o ensure good raising, whereas in E n g l a n d t h e different agents for flannelettes on receiving orders for these goods often also receive stipulations as t o whose y a r n or cloth is t o be supplied, a n d whose finish is t o b e given t o t h e cloth. Certain English manufacturers produce cloths of world-wide r e p u t a t i o n ; customers will h a v e t h e s e cloths a n d no others. Similarly, certain works h a v e a r e p u t a t i o n for their finishes, a n d these productions are likewise i n demand. I t is therefore manifest t h a t t h e a g e n t h a s seldom a free h a n d in t h e m a t t e r , a n d cons e q u e n t l y t h e spinning a n d weaving of t h e cloth used for producing English flannelettes are n o t specially a d a p t e d t o suit t h e raising operation, as t h e y are in t h e specialised G e r m a n factories devoted t o this class of work. Moreover, were a n English firm t o a d o p t t h e G e r m a n m e t h o d a n d u n d e r t a k e all branches of t h e manufacture, t h e y would h a v e difficulty in finding customers unless t h e agents

G E R M A N AND

ENGLISH

FLAXNELETTEs

received no stipulation as t o t i e m a k e of the d o t h t h e finish t o be used for t h e production. Bu t i e organisation of t i e English industry has d i s k d v a : : r ^ such as those mentioned, it m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t certain a d v a n t a g e s accrue from t h i s development. Tlie faer :.* t l a t specialisation i n this i n d u s t r y has become I n t e n u l instead of external i n this country. Specialised nriishins: w o r t s devoted t o raising liave arisen, a n d it is "because of fckis development t h a t t h e English finishers liave Leen able t o keep m a n y branches of t i e flannelette t r a d e entirely in their own l a n d s . Clotks of all kinds pass t h r o u g h t h e h a n d s of t h e English finishers, a n d consequently a* large a m o u n t of machinery is required, since different cloths require different t r e a t m e n t i n t h e raising operation. These machines h a v e "been constantly improved. T h e Germans t r e a t fewer classes of goods, a n d therefore do not require such a v a r i e t y of machinery. The upright English-made mac-line h a s been adopted for certain classes of goods in this country, a n d i t is said t o give a closer a n d less inflammable nap t h a n the usual machines. The 36-roller machine, which was first m a d e in Germany, is now m u c h used in E n g l a n d : a 38-rolIer m a c h i n e lias "been m a d e in F r a n c e . R e t u r n i n g t o a comparison of t h e English, a n d G-erman i n d u s t r y we find t h a t some Lancashire works haye adopted t h e G e r m a n m e t h o d of p u t t i n g t h e cotton t h r o u g h all t i e processes from t i e raw c o t t o n t o t h e finished cloth, b u t t h i s is n o t general. Internal specialisation l a s become t h e practice of t h e English textile industry, because of t h e growth a n d v a r i e t y of t h a t industry. Manufacturers prefer t o send their goods t o outside finishers t h a n t o p u t d o w n machines which they themselves could only r u n intermittently, whereas t h e specialised finishers, b y keeping their machines constantly running, secure t h e m o s t economic production. I n s u m m a r y , we find tlie w o r t s at Miinchen-Gladbact using our machinery a n d o u r cotton-waste t o produce an article which is in great d e m a n d all ever t h e world. They p r o d u c e this article cheaply, because of t h e large scale^ of production, a n d because t h e y have specialised production for one class of article. I n England we also specialise

48

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

in t h e production of flannelettes, b u t our specialisation has developed internally instead of externally. W e h a v e specialised in t h e production of a variety of flannelettes which no other country can excel. B u t it is because of t h e very nature of the development of our industry t h a t we find it difficult to compete w i t h t h e Germans in t h e one class of article which t h e y m a k e well. There is no doubt, however, t h a t we could produce cotton blankets as well as t h e Germans, b u t we would h a v e to do it in t h e same way, namely, b y producing a good low condenser-weft (about 8?s) and following up t h e manufacture carefully as t h e y do. I n t h e past, however, t h e Germans were not our only competitors, for Dutch, Italian, a n d Spanish flannelettes have been sold in this country. As regards t h e inflammability of flannelette, it m u s t be remembered t h a t i t is only t h e low cloths with long irregular naps which are very d a n g e r o u s ; goods which are well raised and have a regular surface are very little more inflammable t h a n t h e unfinished article. Soaking the cloth in certain chemicals decreases t h e inflammability, and this process has been gradually improved, b u t unfortunately those people who have n o t t h e sense t o exercise care when their children are wearing flannelette articles, have also not t h e sense t o p a y a little more for t h e material which has been treated t o m a k e it non-inflammable. Hence t h e complaints of coroners. Moreover, t h e cost of t h e extra t r e a t m e n t required t o m a k e low flannelettes fire-proof, brings t h e price of t h e t r e a t e d material very near to t h a t of well-raised goods which, as before stated, are not dangerous t o wear.

CHAPTER

VII

THE INDUSTRY IN" THE UNITED STATES American conditionsScarcity of la/bourlarge-scale production"Uncertainty of their industryLack of specialisationEffect of the tariff. W E h e a r so m u c k nowadays a b o u t American progressiveness a n d a b o u t m a n u f a c t u r e r s " s c r a p p i n g 5 ' old machinery to m a k e w a y for new, t h a t any information concerning industrial conditions in. America is welcome. The author's experience is t h a t America l a s not much, t o teach us as regards t h e dyeing industry. Some machines were seen which are worthy of m e n t i o n ; a few of these have "been devised because of t h e scarcity of labour, since some of t h e mills of isTew England could not, a t t h e t i m e of t h e a u t h o r ' s visit, be r u n a t fclieir full capacity, because hands could n o t b e obtained. Moreover, t h e enormous influx of foreigners does n o t supply all demands, fOT t h e poorest classes of l a b o u r are difficult t o obtain, and in t h e summer m o n t h s colour strainers a n d mixers are missing from t h e print-works because of t i e objectionable smells of acetie acid a n d other chemicals. I n the manufacturing t o w n of Passaic, N e w Jersey, which has a population of 35,000* every race of people is said t o be represented, a n d costumes of all nationalities are seen in the streets, while i n t h e N e w E n g l a n d cotton mills t h e Irish work-people are being gradually displaced b y Hungarians, Greeks, a n d French Canadians. The American cotton and woollen industries, and particularly t h e dyeing branches of these industries, are so different from ouis t h a t often different conditions a n d m a c h i n e r y are necessary. T h e American home demand is so large t h a t t h e manufacturers a i e n o t so particular a s 49 E

50

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

we a r e as t o t h e material t h e y t u r n out. American people all desire t o be well dressed, a n d as different seasons of t h e y e a r d e m a n d entirely different clothes, a huge d e m a n d arises. T h e calico-printing done is essentially t h a t of t h e million, a n d t h e very best stuff is either i m p o r t e d or m a d e b y a few concerns. F o r instance, t h e h e a d of one of t h e largest firms in N e w E n g l a n d s a i d : " H e r e w e p r i n t or d y e a whole lot, p u t it on a train, a n d send i t in the direction of California; i t soon sells. I n America there is a h u g e m a r k e t , whereas in E n g l a n d y o u h a v e different designs for different m a r k e t s . Y e t t h e English business is surer. A manufacturer knows how m u c h t h e grey takes for bleaching, how m u c h for mercerising, dyeing, printing, or finishing, a n d if h e w a n t s a t u r k e y - r e d he knows how m u c h h e has t o p a y t h e dyer. R e c k o n i n g in t h i s way he can arrive a t t h e cost of placing t h e goods in his customer's hands, and b e assured of his profit. B u t in our case, where we perform t h e whole of t h e operations from spinning t o finishing, we h a v e t o wait u n t i l some period of t h e year when t h e a u d i t tell us our fate. I n America we aim a t t u r n i n g out t h e stuff cheaply and q u i c k l y / ' Most mills u n d e r t a k e t h e whole of t h e operations from t h e r a w material t o t h e finished article, nor does t h e i n d u s t r y show m u c h sign of modification in this respect. I n s t e a d of specialising internally we find t h e mills extending their scale of operations. F o r example, t h e Gera Mills, Passaic, N e w Jersey, h a v e begun t o spin their own y a r n s for t h e m a k i n g of woollen piece-goods for which t h e y have already a reputation. I n New E n g l a n d some specialised works are arising, owing t o t h e r a t h e r highly developed state of t h e i n d u s t r y i n this p a r t , a n d managers are hoping for a t i m e w h e n goods will be d y e d on commission, as is done i n this country. Specialised bleach-works a n d dye-works h a v e been installed a t Fall River, Lawrence, a n d other places, a n d English conditions h a v e ensued a t N e w Bedford in t h e separation of t h e spinning a n d weaving branches of t h e i n d u s t r y . Moreover, t h e e x t e n t a n d homogeneity of t h e American m a r k e t h a s led t o t h e production of large quantities of t h e same material, a n d h a s t h u s b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e economies incident t o large-scale production, a n d a t t h e

T H E I N D U S T R Y IN T H E U N I T E D STATES

51

s a m e t i m e m a d e t h e i r i n d u s t r y of a p a r t i c u l a r a n d u n i q u e c h a r a c t e r . A m e r i c a is too occupied w i t h t h e developm e n t of h e r o w n m a r k e t for textiles t o give m u c h a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e x p o r t t r a d e ; b u t t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t is b o u n d t o t a k e place, a n d a l r e a d y s o m e of t h e N e w E n g l a n d p r i n t w o r k s ship some v e r y fine p r i n t s . W i t h t h e change a n d increase i n t h e v a r i e t y of h u m a n t a s t e s e v e r y b o d y lias s o u g h t t h e b e s t m a t e r i a l , a n d t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e h a s led t o t h e c r e a t i o n of a large class of good i m i t a t i o n s i n order t o m e e t all p u r c h a s e r s . I t is said t h a t i n t h i s class of w o r k w e a r e b e h i n d h a n d , a n d p o i n t i n g t o t h e foreigner we a r e u r g e d t o a d a p t ourselves t o t h e c h a n g e of circums t a n c e s . T h i s s u p p o s e d b a c k w a r d n e s s i n t h e a r t of i m i t a t i o n h a s n o t , however, a l w a y s been one of o u r failings, for, t o t h e former possession of this t r a i t in o u r characters, A m e r i c a owes m u c h of t h e f a m e of h e r c o t t o n goods i n E a s t e r n m a r k e t s . I n t h e "sixties we used t o send c o t t o n goods t o China, which c o n t a i n e d m o r e filling t h a n t h e y d i d c o t t o n , a n d i n some cases t h e y were k n o w n e v e n t o crack. China clay a n d o t h e r fillings were e m p l o y e d t o c a t e r for a p p e a r a n c e s a n d also t o s a v e c o t t o n , a n d so m u c h filling w a s d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e finishers complained t h a t t h e t r e a t m e n t w a s r u i n i n g t h e i r m a c h i n e r y . Moreover, m i l d e w w a s a frequent occurrence in t h e s e goods, as a t t h a t t i m e a n antiseptic w a s n o t used i n t h e finishing m i x i n g s . After t h e Civil W a r , A m e r i c a n m a n u f a c t u r e r s s e n t o u t goods w h i c h c o n t a i n e d v e r y little finishing material, a n d v e r y soon A m e r i c a n drills a n d sheetings b e c a m e of w o r l d - w i d e fame. N o w a d a y s we send similar goods a n d n o t h e a v i l y filled cloths t o c o m p e t e i n t h e s a m e markets. T h e h i g h A m e r i c a n tariff h a s in m a n y cases caused foreign m a n u f a c t u r e r s t o establish b r a n c h e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d often t h e m a c h i n e r y a n d h a n d s t o o p e r a t e i t h a v e b e e n i m p o r t e d . B u t after a t i m e some of t h e s e b r a n c h e s h a v e b e c o m e Americanised a n d changed i n c h a r a c t e r . T h e G e r a woollen mills is a b r a n c h of t h e firm a t Gera, G e r m a n y , t h e employees, machines, a n d m e t h o d s h a v i n g b e e n b r o u g h t over from t h e p a r e n t works. T i t u s S a l t ' s of Saltaire h a v e a b r a n c h i n B r i d g e p o r t / Conn., which is in a f u r t h e r s t a t e of d e v e l o p m e n t , h a v i n g b e c o m e

52

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

an A m e r i c a n concern. Originally i t h a d English, employees, b u t n o w only t h e principals are English b y birth. Linen t h r e a d mills h a v e also been established, which import t h e i r m a t e r i a l from t h e p a r e n t works a n d t h u s escape the tariff.

CHAPTER

VIII

LOWELL, LAWHENCE, AND PALL RIVER, MASS. LowellThe town and its industryMerrimack Manufacturing Company Hours and conditionsTurning to finer workProduction of machines Employer and employedHamilton Manufacturing CompanyArrangement of worksAmerican workerLawrence and its industryPemberton. WorksPacific and Arlington MillsFall RiverWater supply Fall River BleacheryThe drying of clothBarnaby WorksBridgeport, Conn.Salts Manufacturing CompanyKlauder-Weldon dyeing machines. T H E t o w n of Lowell is b r i g h t e r t h a n m o s t English m a n u facturing t o w n s ; i t is nicely s i t u a t e d i n t h e c o u n t r y , and a b o u n d s i n a m u s e m e n t s of t h e best k i n d . T h e r e is also a splendid l i b r a r y a n d a technical i n s t i t u t e . T h e p o p u l a t i o n is 100,000, a n d t h e r e a r e forty mills engaged in different b r a n c h e s of t h e textile i n d u s t r y . Bleaching, dyeing, a n d finishing are usually performed b y t h e big works themselves, b u t t h e r e is one specialised bleachery. Lowell is well served b y t w o railroads. T h e M e r r i m a c k Manufacturing C o m p a n y h a v e t h e largest mill i n Lowell. T h e y m a n u f a c t u r e plain a n d fancy c o t t o n goods, linens, towels, a n d corduroys. T h e capital of t h e c o m p a n y is $4,400,000, a n d 140,000 spindles, 7200 looms, a n d 21 p r i n t i n g - m a c h i n e s a r e used in t h e works. T h e m a n a g e r of t h e p r i n t i n g d e p a r t m e n t c a m e from Manchester, E n g l a n d , a n d t h u s was able t o c o m p a r e English a n d American conditions in t h e d y e i n g a n d p r i n t i n g i n d u s t r y . T h e firm willingly allowed visitors to go over t h e i r works. T h e r e w a s a c o m b i n a t i o n of m a n u f a c t u r e r s allowing s e r v a n t s of t h e different w o r k s t o visit other w o r k s i n t h e combination, a n d t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t w a s found t o b e t o t h e m u t u a l benefit of t h e w o r k s 53

54

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

themselves. A m a n might get a n idea from visiting a neighbouring works, a n d he m i g h t use t h i s idea a d v a n tageously, without in a n y w a y hindering t h e works from which he obtained t h e idea. This combination was really a pool of knowledge, a n d t h e m a n a g e r of t h e Merrimack W o r k s t h o u g h t it was t h e best w a y of conducting i n d u s t r y , since it was useless t o a t t e m p t t o keep secrets. B u t all t h e works do n o t grant t h e same concession t o strangers, as regards looking over their p l a n t , a n d some firms are becoming very strict a n d exclusive. F o r instance, t h e r e are two print-works in N o r t h A d a m s , Mass., where rivalry is so bitter t h a t t h e operatives from one works are n o t allowed t o discuss business m a t t e r s with t h e operatives from t h e other. This behaviour, however, w a s n o t approved b y other employers i n t h e i n d u s t r y . I n t h e Merrimack W o r k s n o secrets are allowed. All t h e mixings used in t h e different d e p a r t m e n t s are k n o w n t o t h e principals, since t h e y consider t h a t t h e y know more a b o u t t h e dyeing, printing, a n d finishing of their own cloth than, say, a foreman newly introduced from a b r o a d . Some time ago t h e y h a d a case of a n indigo-dyer who refused to give full particulars of his mixings a n d m e t h o d s . This m a n h a d t o be discharged. I t is essential t h a t t h e managers of a works should h a v e full information regarding all t h e separate processes of t h e w o r k s so as t o t r a c e b a c k a n y faults which might occur, a n d also t o see t h a t as little waste as possible takes place. A t t h e Merrimack W o r k s a book in each d e p a r t m e n t records w h a t is going on therein. T h e colour-mixing is of course a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e industry, and n o dyer is allowed t o m i x his own colour. Moreover, t h e dyer is n o t allowed t o t a k e a n y p a r t i n t h e buying of t h e dye-stuffs, a n d on receiving his dye-stuffs he is often ignorant as t o t h e firms which h a v e supplied t h e m . The manager said h e h a d never m e t a dyer who could mix colour; t h e y usually a d d e d t h e dye-stuff t o t h e b a t h in pinches instead' of t a k i n g t h e greatest precautions t o ensure perfect solution. I n t h e colour-mixing room t h e r e w a s a strong smell of acetic acid, and, as s t a t e d before (p. 49), i t is because of this unpleasantness t h a t t h e m a n a g e m e n t h a v e t h e g r e a t e s t difficulty in t h e summer m o n t h s of getting m e n t o w o r k

LOWELL

55

in t h i s d e p a r t m e n t . I n fact, t h e scarcity of labour does n o t only a p p l y t o such low-grade labour, b u t is evident in all b r a n c h e s of t h e i n d u s t r y . F o r instance, p a r t of t h e weaving-shed a t t h e Merrimack W o r k s was s h u t down a t t h e t i m e of t h e a u t h o r ' s visit because of t h e lack of operatives, a n d a n A m e r i c a n professor t o l d t h e a u t h o r t h a t , for t h e s a m e reason, h e could n o t get a fence p u t r o u n d p a r t of his garden. Y e t in all t h e open spaces of N e w E n g l a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g t o w n s , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y in Lawrence, m e n are seen lounging a b o u t a n d a p p a r e n t l y escaping t h e work. A t t h e Merrimack W o r k s t h e w o r k i n g h o u r s a r e 10 a d a y , a n d a stoppage is m a d e a t n o o n on S a t u r d a y s . T h e m a n a g e r said t h a t t h e m o s t successful w o r k s were those which employed t h e highest-paid h a n d s , h a d t h e works scientifically m a n a g e d , a n d used t h e latest m a c h i n ery. T h e A r n o l d W o r k s a t N o r t h A d a m s , Mass., is t h e best p r i n t - w o r k s in t h e country, a n d their fine p r i n t s c o m m a n d a foreign m a r k e t . T h e y a r e a n old-established works, which h a v e specialised in fine p r i n t s , a n d h a v e been v e r y successful. Their success, h e said, was d u e t o specialisation, t h e e m p l o y m e n t of t h e b e s t h a n d s i n t h e c o u n t r y , good m a n a g e m e n t , a n d t h e u s e of t h e l a t e s t m a c h i n e r y . Only t h e firm w i t h t h e l a t e s t m a c h i n e r y could survive i n t h e long r u n , a n d if a firm m a k e s big profits, these should n o t b e all paid a w a y in dividends, b u t a p o r t i o n p u t t o reserve, i n order t o ensure even g r e a t e r profits in t h e future. T h e b e s t i n v e s t m e n t is t h e " s c r a p p i n g " of inefficient m a c h i n e r y t o m a k e w a y for l a t e r i n v e n t i o n s . T h e m a n a g e r t h e n spoke of t h e a d v a n t a g e s of specialisation, a n d t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t h e regarded as t h e t r u e road t o success. Schoenhof, i n his Economy of High Wages, s t a t e s : " A n E n g l i s h paper-mill b o a s t s of m a k i n g one h u n d r e d a n d s i x t y varieties, whereas a n A m e r i c a n mill confines itself t o one, a n d whereas a Salford mill weaves m a n y k i n d s of cloth t h e y (Americans) t r e a t of few." T h e r e is t h u s a certain k i n d of specialisation in A m e r i c a ; b u t t h e m a n a g e r of t h e M e r r i m a c k referred t o t h e English k i n d of specialisation, namely, t h a t i n which a works d e v o t e s itself t o one class of operations only. A t t h e Merrimack W o r k s t h e y recognise t h a t t h e y a r e t r e a t i n g t o o m a n y k i n d s of cloth. T h e y h a v e a r e p u t a t i o n

56

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

for their coarse goods, having m a d e these since 1823, b u t they have found t h a t treating these goods and their fine goods with t h e same machinery did n o t p a y . T h e y are consequently going in more and more for t h e finer goods. This trade was t h e more profitable, a n d t h e price of cotton had not so much influence as it h a d on t h e cost of production of the coarser goods. A t one time the Southern growers combined, and would only supply a certain a m o u n t of cotton. The manufacture of their coarse cloths was thereby severely affected, a n d t h e y h a d t o s h u t down p a r t of their mills. I t is thus seen t h a t American i n d u s t r y is affected as ours is by speculators i n cotton. Moreover, wMle at Chemnitz t h e author found t h e Germans m u c h interested in t h e presidential election i n t h e United States, as they considered this event decided t o a large e x t e n t t h e stability of t h e cotton market. As regards his own department, t h e manager a t t h e Merrimack said, t h a t if t h e y took other people's cloth and printed it a t so m u c h per piece t h e y m i g h t be more prosperous and more certain of some profit. A t present t h e y were making a n effort t o t u r n out finer counts, a n d t h u s t o lead to fine prints. Although E n g l a n d h a s m a n y more spindles t h a n America, yet t h e l a t t e r country consumes more cotton, a state of affairs due t o t h e fact t h a t English yarn has grown finer and finer. Long training and heredit a r y skill, among other things, accounted for this a d v a n tage of t h e English, a n d he t h o u g h t t i m e would bring England and other countries nearer together, certainly E n g l a n d and America closer, and, he hoped, Bolton a n d Lowell. At this works there is a mercerising-machine (described on p . 26), and also a machine for giving a slight mercerised finish (p. 24). These machines were built in their own shop, where t h e y employ m a n y m e n a n d make m o s t of their own machinery. This system of a t t a c h i n g machineshops t o t h e works was also found in Germany, and serves to show how m u c h more specialised t h e textile industry has become in England. Those exploiting industries in new countries can speak of t h e annoyance caused b y t h e lack of machine a n d other subsidiary industries, and, in order t o ensure success, these subsidiary industries h a v e t o be built u p along with t h e p r i m a i y ones. B u t specialised

LOWELL

57

m a c h i n e - s l o p s are a o w arising i n all districts of t h e United S t a t e s , a n d gradually t i e conditions are coniin^- t o resemble t h o s e existing in this country. They l a v e a B i r d (English) soaper and also m a n.V y c o p i e s of t h i s machine, a M a t t e r a n d P l a t t ager. and some o f t h e same firm's printing maclinexy. T h e y a r e gradually I n t r o d u c i n g t h e i r own machines in place of t i e imported a r t i c l e s . Beetling w a s done at one time, b u t was found t o o expensive a finishing process for t i e class of goods s o l d in t l e i r markets. Some of their stentering raaeMnes 'were enclosed in glass a n d wood frames. These enclosures confine the heat, t u t a t t h e same time t h e y d o n o t allow t h e moisture to escape freely from t i e cloth which is drying o n t i e stenter. B u t a n i m p o r t a n t point is t h a t t h e y prot e c t t i e operatives from t h e t e a t , and t h u s ensure t l e i i x e g n l a r a t t e n d a n c e . In other stenter d r y i n g machines s t e a m - p i p e s ^ e r e placed directly undex t h e travelling cloth, a n d t i e moisture driven o S t h e cloth was allowed to escape freely. The pipes were enclosed in order t o confine tleix h e a t , b u t t h e cloth w a s freely exposed. T i e l o t - a i r diving a r r a n g e m e n t was also in operation, b u t t h e second system m e n t i o n e d , namely enclosed steam-pipes and exposed cloth, "was found t o "be t i e l e s t . F e w jiggers were used i n t h e dyeing department, most of t h e dyeing being done b y padding. A large a m o u n t of p a r a - n i t a n i l i n e l e d and naphthylamine claret l a d been d o n e by t l e m , b u t t l e r e was little demand for these goods a t t h e t i m e of t i e author's visit. Turkey r e d Tvras too e x p e n s i v e for t i e ijtneriean market. I n t i e p a s t t h e Meiximack Company have h a d much t r o u b l e w i t l t h e i r operatives, "but manufacturers have c o m b i n e d a n d t a k e n a firm stand o n some occasions. T i e m a n a g e r said t h a t if they once yielded, t h e y would have l i t t l e peace afterwards. B y agreement they s l u t down all t h e mills immediately one radii's hands strike, and t h u s a l l Lowell is idle. Then t h e operatives soon, surrender, a n d resume o n t h e old conditions. There was a strike of e n g r a v e r s a t one time, a n d t h e Merrrmaek Company, i n s t e a d of submitting, sent all their rollers t o England t o b e engraved. This action cost t h e m 300,000, h u t they g a i n e d i n t h e long run.

tf 5

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

Beierring to engraving, lie said t h e y were forced t o keep a large n u m b e r of rollers i n stock, b u t , owing to t h e high price of copper, t h e y took risks a n d t u r n e d rollers down even when there was a possible chance of a r e p e a t order. English firms, having more designs, h a v e t o keep a bigger stock of rollers. The M e r r i m a c k C o m p a n y , like other similar firms, makes its own p a t t e r n - c a r d s a n d does its own m a k i n g - u p and packing, b a t t h e y h a v e outside selling agents. At one time t h e operatives were m o s t l y English and Irish, b u t now t h e y a r e of m a n y nationalities, Greeks a n d Armenians predominating. The operatives are encouraged t o work u p t o t h e i r utmost capacity. A t one time, if a w o r k m a n r e t u r n e d more t h a n t h e usual a m o u n t of work, t h e foreman u s e d t o stop t i e excess; b u t this procedure h a s been stopped, a n d the men are allowed t o t u r n out as much, w o r k a s t h e y can. The machines are r u n a t a high speed, because it would not p a y t o r u n t h e m slower. T h u s , i n t h e p r i n t i n g d e p a r t ment the machines never stop r u n n i n g from 6 A.M:. t o 5.30 P.M. ; t h e printer stays b y t h e m a c h i n e all d a y , n o t even leading it for meals, which are t a k e n a t irregular intervals. The American workmen r u n their m a c h i n e s a t t h e greatest capacity, and endeavour t o get t h r o u g h as m u c h work as possible; whereas in England, so t i e m a n a g e r said, t h e Trade Unions restrict o u t p u t a n d l i n d e x development. H e said t i e m e n were too m u d . i n league in E n g l a n d , while in America t h e slightest united m o v e m e n t is detected, and, whenever possible, prevented. Yet it is difficult t o strike a h a p p y m e d i u m between t h e cause of labour and t i a t of industrial development. I t must b e remembered t h a t other c o u n t r i e s are developing towards our position as regards t i e power of labour, a n d in the near future i t will b e found i n America t h a t t u r n i n g a whole t o w n idle from t i m e t o t i m e "will n o t solve all t k e employers' troubles. F r o m t i m e t o t i m e we h a v e h a d instances i n this c o u n t r y of t h e t e n d e n c y of l a b o u r to hinder t h e introduction of new machinery. This policy is of course a "bad one for all concerned, for if we a r e t o k e e p our industrial position t h e efficacy of n e w machinery m u s t be recognised. Tlte development a n d progress of our industries during t i e last h u n d r e d y e a i s i a v e been t r u l y

LOWELL

maryellous, surpassing b y far the progress ira-le ^ ^ ^ previous history of tlie v o i l d , but the rarrld ^ v ^ . - - 7 " t i e U n i t e d States a n d of Germany in rec-n: : : : ^ L.> perhaps "been even more phenomenal. These auvar.r<?s h a v e b e e n d u e for tlie most p a r t t o new inventions on l o : : . sides of t h e Atlantic, for in countries v l e r e labour-s.vrl-. m a c h i n e r y h a s n o t been developed, man. lias been found in fche lowest a n d t h e m o s t humiliating state of degrada:k.-n. a n d s u c h would still have been his condition tSrougliout tlie ^ world w i t h o u t i t s introduction. As regards oui^ovm position i n i n d u s t r y , t l e r e is some t r u t h in the words or t k e l a t e Sir R . Giffen t h a t t l e i e is enough indolence a n d r o u t i n e m i s m a n a g e m e n t in English manufacture to malie i t desirable in e v e r y w a y t o i a v e t h e stimulus of foreign c o m p e t i t i o n applied. R e t u r n i n g t o Lowell, we find t h a t textile inaniiiaet u r b g c o m p a n i e s are g r a n t e d land a t reduced rates in order t o e n c o u r a g e i n d u s t r y . As regards t i e arrangement of t i e buildings, a t t h e l l e i r i m a c k Works it ^ras noticed in t i e "bleaching and finishing d e p a r t m e n t t h a t it v a s t h e system t o d e v o t e each floor of a building t o a definite set of operations. T h e a c t u a l hleaching was of course carried out on t h e g r o u n d floor, t h e n t h e cloth, passed to t i e iiist story. w h e r e i t "was dried a n d finished, a n d finally passed t o a t h i r d i o o r , where i t was lapped and packed. This system is e v i d e n t l y a goad one, and is also adopted b y a number of Oexrnan works. At one American works t h e transference from one floor t o another was facilitated b y a series of elevators. T i e H a m i l t o n W o r k s a t Lowell is one of t h e taggest concerns in t h e town. Tlie company has a capital of $1,800,000, a n d has 110,000 spindles a n d 3000 looms d e v o t e d to t h e manufacture of prints, ticks, flannels, stripes, a n d shirtings. I n t i e dyeing department mordants were seen "being padded, a n d t h e clotli afterwards dyed on tlie rope-dyeing machines. Jiggers are very seldom used in t h e U n i t e d States, a s t h e dyeing is principally that of laxgfc l o t s , for ^ h i c h purpose continuous machines are m o r e a d a p t e d . Moreover, t h i s class of production is economical of labour, as t i e machines do not require t o b e continually reset. F o r instance, in printing a large number

60

T H E D Y E I N G IOT3USTEY

of pieces of one p a t t e r n t h e same time is occupied in setting the machine as in printing only a few pieces of t h e same design. The hours are the same as a t t h e M e r r i m a c k W o r k s , b u t they stop their spinning a n d weaving d e p a r t m e n t s from 12 t o 1 each day. On Saturdays all work ceases a t 12 A.M. The printer t h o u g h t t h a t t h e American w o r k e r did n o t actually work as hard as t h e Englishman, a n d as h e h a d worked for a long period in a print-works n e a r Manchester, he was capable of forming a judgment. H e said t h e y h a d few disputes with their hands. T h e foremen were often English, b u t t h e lower classes of labour w e r e principally recruited from new immigrants, a n d consisted for t h e most p a r t of Southern Europeans. F r e n c h p e o p l e worked in the spinning and weaving departments, b u t n o t i n t h e dye-works. At this works automatic counters w e r e noticed in the lapping and packing rooms ; girls s a t a t these machines, and recorded t h e lengths as t h e y were called out to them. The machine recorded t h e a d d i t i o n of these numbers, and gave other information r e g a r d i n g t h e m . Lawrence, situated like Lowell on t h e Merrimac River, is engaged principally in t h e woollen a n d worsted industry, b u t some cotton is treated, j u s t as is t h e case in Yorkshire. The Merrimac E i v e r has a fine fall a t t h i s point, and provides p a r t of t h e electric power r e q u i r e d b y a splendid double line of mills on its banks. T h e s e mills are said t o be t h e largest in t h e world, and c e r t a i n l y n o place has as great a concentration of factories a s exists along the sides of the Merrimac a t this point. L a w r e n c e h a s a population of 63,000, a n d over t w e n t y mills engaged in textile manufacture. There is one specialised bleachery and one dye-works for woollen and w o r s t e d y a r n s , t h a t is, one works devoted only t o dyeing. A t t h e Pemberton W o r k s warps a n d r a w c o t t o n were seen in process of dyeing. The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t said h a n k dyeing was declining, as i t was too expensive a process. Warp-dyeing is more rapid a n d requires less l a b o u r t h a n dyeing in t h e h a n k form. W a r p s were b e i n g d y e d w i t h logwood a n d with iron buff a t t h e t i m e of t h e a u t h o r ' s visit. The machine used was of t h e o r d i n a r y t y p e , t h e warps passing over rollers t h r o u g h t h e solution a n d t h e n between rollers before going into t h e n e x t b o x . T h e s a m e

L A W R E N C E AND FALL E I Y E R

oi

m a c h i n e was used for dyeing with sulphur colours, and a s u l p h u r indigo-blue was seen giving a bronzy indigo sb J i e . The m a n a g e r said t h e y used very few difierenr* colovl-s! b u t l a r g e quantities of each. There were t w o machines in use for dyeing ra,w cotton* I n one, t h e r a w cotton and t h e d y e - s o l u t i o n were fed into a t a n k , which overflowed into a long cistern. B y m e a n s of a series of big rakes, which w e r e driven "by machinery., t h e c o t t o n was d i a l e d t h r o u g h t h e d y e liquor, a n d filially drawn between "two q u i d d y - d r i v e n rollers. The speed of t k e rollers sent t i e c o t t o n into a "basket, from which it -was taken and treated p r e p a r a t o r y t o spinning. The raw cotton was thus fed in a t o n e e n d of t h e machine and carne out dyed a t t h e other. T i e a r r a n g e m e n t is similar t o a machine often used for wool scouring. T i e Klander-Weldon raw-stock dyeing m a c h i n e w a s also in use. I n t h i s machine t i e cotton is placed in a perforated cylinder, which xevolves on another c o n c e n t r i c cylinder containing t i e d y e liquor. By tliis m e t l i o d it is manifest t l a t better dyeing could be produced, b u t , unlike t i e o t l e r machine, t h e process is not a c o n t i n u o u s one. T h e Pacific Mills and t h e Arlington Mills in another q u a r t e r of Lawrence weie visited, and found to have l a b o r a t o r i e s directed b y trained c h e m i s t s ; t i e chemist at t i e former works l a d lectured on printing a t t i e Massac h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e of Technology at Boston. 'Fall River, well situated a t t i e n i o u t l of the river of t l a t n a m e , is t h e most i m p o r t a n t cotton town of t h e U n i t e d States, and contains a large proportion of t h a t c o u n t r y ' s spindles and looms. The river is so named b e c a u s e of i t s rapid fall, a n d power obtained from this fall is u t i l i s e d in t h e -mills. The population is over 100,000, a n d s i x t y mills are engaged in textile manufacture. Of t h e s e , t w o are print-works, one a bleach-works, another a d y e - w o r k s , a n d one works does "both bleaching a n d d y e i n g for t h e trade. Of t h e remainder of t i e works, s o m e d y e and bleach for themselves. T l e r e are more w o r k s i n Fall Kiver, which h a v e devoted themselves, as s t a t e d , t o particular t r a n c h e s of textile manufacture, t h a a in a n j other district, this development having r e s u l t e d from t h e growth of t h e industry in t h i s town. I t

62

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

is seen t h a t as t h e industry has developed, specialised works have arisen just as thev have arisen in this country. The capital of the mills varies from $2,000,000 a t t h e Fall River Ironworks (a textile manufacturing concern with a peculiar name) t o as low as $20,000. W a t e r for t h e mills is obtained in this district from small lakes, a n d it requires no treatment before use. The Fall River Bleachery, which specialises in t h e bleaching and finishing of cotton piece goods, obtains its water from one of these lakes. T h e capital of t h e Company is 600,000, and the daily output 35 t o n s . Only lowpressure kiers were used for all classes of cloth. Gas or plate-singeing machines were used according t o t h e n a t u r e of the cloth. F o r instance, a cloth, which w a s t o be afterwards coated with varnish for m a k i n g insulating material, was singed on both sides by means of a n arrangement of four singeing cylinders. Blue dye-stuffs were used for tinting, and in one case a mixture of a basic blue a n d saffranine was used for the goods of a m a k e r of cheap collars. As regards drying cylinders, t h e manager t h o u g h t t h e best arrangement was to have t h e first cans arranged horizontally and the last vertically. If all were horizontal, too much space was taken u p ; a n d if all were vertically arranged, the steam escaping t o r n t h e d a m p cloth below affected t h e dry cloth above. I n order t o save more space t h e " cell dryer " had been introduced. This machine is on the same principle as a make used a t one t i m e i n printworks in this country. I t consists of a big box, which contains a large number (about fifty) of small copper boxes or cells. These cells contain high-pressure steam (about 15 lb. per square inch), a n d b y m e a n s of rollers driven by a motor the cloth is m a d e t o pass over t h e cells. The machine is small and compact, so t h a t n o t so m u c h heat is lost by radiation as in t h e case of t h e m u c h larger drying cylinders. The cells m a y also b e fitted t o printingmachines in order t o d r y t h e cloth a n d t h e blanket simultaneously ; in this case they are arranged a t a n y convenient place, and do not take u p m u c h space. During t h e passage of t h e cloth through t h e " cell d r y e r / 3 which is used for drying bleached or dyed cloth, t h e r e is so m u c h friction between t h e cloth and t h e cells t h a t , on p u t t i n g

FALL EIVER

l3

one's finger t o t h e cloth as it emerges from the niachi:.:, a n electric s p a r k passes. The machine is suitable for the American i n d u s t r y , where large lots are treated, b u t fee smaller q u a n t i t i e s of dyed goods it might be necessary to clean t h e m a c h i n e after different colours are run. Yarn c a n also be d r i e d on it. Englishmen employed a t the F a l l River B l e a c h e r y said t h e y r a n their machines much faster t h a n w e r u n ours. At t h e B a r n a b y Works, Fall Kiver, w e a r i n g , d y e i n g bleaching, a n d ftaishing are performed, cotton and siik goods being p r o d u c e d . Yarns were bleached and dyed before weaving, a n d were always t r e a t e d in the warp form. Warp-dyeing w i t h indigo was done in t h e usual w a y and " chemicking " i n vats, t h e bleaching liquor being circulated b y p u m p s . D y e i n g a n d bleaching were only performed for their own w e a v i n g sheds, which were adjacent t o t h e dye-house. A t t h e S a l t s Manufacturing Company a t Bridgeport, Conn., t h e p r i n c i p a l objects of interest were t h e KlauderW e l d o n d y e i n g machines for h a n k s . This machine is found in a g r e a t m a n y dye-works in t h e United States, a n d is very s u i t a b l e for their industry. I t consists of a cylindrical v e s s e l , containing t h e dye liquor, a n d a d r u m , which carries t l i e h a n k s a n d revolves i n t h e dye liquor. O n t h e outer r i m a n d a t t h e centre of t h e d r u m are a series of sticks, which, carry t h e hanks so t h a t t h e y are radially situated t o t h e d r u m . During t h e revolution of t h e drum, t h e sticks, o n w h i c h t h e h a n k s are placed, consecutively come into c o n t a c t w i t h a metal strip a t t a c h e d t o t h e outside of t h e m a c h i n e , a n d b y certain mechanism t h e h a n k is caused t o m o v e r o u n d on t h e sticks. I n t h i s w a y all p a r t s of t h e d i f f e r e n t h a n k s come into similar positions consecutively, a n d t h u s even dyeing is ensured. The machine is enclosed, s o t h a t when t h e h a n k s are out of t h e dye liquor during t h e movement, t h e y move i n an atmosphere of steam. T t e d y e liquor is first used cold, a n d then gradually h e a t e d u p while t h e d r u m slowly revolves. W h e n dyeing t o shade, t h e r e is a n arrangement for lifting t h e whole d r u m o u t of t h e dye liquor so as t o t e s t a portion of t h e dyed g o o d s . Dyeing t o shade is difficult with this machine, b u t i s s a i d t o become m u c h easier after experience.

-'.1

T i l l : PYKIXG INDUSTRY

1: <iv-r at xls Silt> Works said the machine lasted until :., ::[>\,] viv.(r^ away, and that it saved a considerable - : r / , ; L,k.;,i\ When onre started it required little ../*':.:',.. ]':;- Iv!ai3;it'T-WoltK>n machine is of course >ir -v >.,::;,> : . T u i ^ e than small lots, and is for this :r.j.s ;, Af,.; a-i.trt^I to" the needs of the American industry. Y > ? '.;. * :: i--.*tih^ of from 100 t o 400 1b. of yarn, a n d > *:,. ; / j v a-.ivted fur certain classes of dyeing, as all , ;...'-:* .-.. ^ J . P : w'ith ud vantage be dyed in it. For instance, / > ,.^:':i. .;it to *h*e basic colours, as there is a tendency . -w\ir > ^:a venneis: and for iiist-ckiss vork, as self shades, <.;\.-;:. i-v luibi ha=s t o be resorted to. Another dis. j . ; - ^ . : . : . * ^ i> that the machine is difficult to clean, so t h a t .* * . i;,i:',ir*.: :Vi:i cne colour t o another is troublesome. I t i- ?;;'.! r;.:!.*mically used when large quantities h a v e t o 4 v -ivol i^:e hhdile. * Developed blacks were being d y e d a t TLV iirr.v ' tht author's visit. Many of these machines :-.r>T iii]:TKT 3iriiig>, and this dreumstance h a s prevented ri; ;r u-i' Ii-T the dyeing of sulphur colours. To remedy r!,>. niatlines have now been constructed with iron walls. In th< >e The liquor is tilled t o t h e top of the machine, so tii.it the \ \ i m i> immersed in t h e dye liquor the whole tune. The pumping of the liquor is troublesome, b u t otherwise the machines are said t o work well. The Salts Company's works h a v e also a warp-dyeing machine, which is used for dyeing developed blacks ; also a rive-colour printing-machine. There is a small laboratory attiit'litsl to the dye-house, in charge of a qualified chemist, who had been at Yale University, and had also spent some time at a German colour-works. In the United States the print-works a n d even the spinning and weaving mills sometimes close down during the hottest period of t h e year. Because their chief m a r k e t is their home trade, and a s there is little buying during t i e summer months, the manufacturers sometimes find it better to cease producing and sell their accumulated stocks. The work-people are given a compulsory holiday, a n d find some temporary employment during t h e time t h e mills are idle. In this country, because the bulk of our trade is for export, our print-works are better employed t h a n those of other countries.

CHAPTER

IX

COKDITIONS OP LIPE IX THE Kf Injurious conditions in dyeingEngland, Germany and America compared The power of the workmen in GermanyTl:o development In America Wages in the three countriesAmerica's lihh wagesShort hours The German workman and the American. I N some branches of tlie dyeing Industry t h e conditions are injurious t o health. F o r instance, during t i e polishing of y a r a a n d when y a r n d y e d with elixome colours is shaken, t h e fine particles of dye-stuff, which are sent into t h e air, axe harmful t o people breathing t h a t air. T h e aniline v a p o u r produced in some operations is also v e r y harmful, as are t h e vapours given off during Prussian-blue dyeing. Again, t i e action of " c l i r o m e " on t h e skin during chrome-dyeing might "be mentioned. The operatives in all countries are protected to some extent, a n d i n this country t h e regulations are t h e m o s t stringent of all. Precautions m u s t he t a k e n by our dyers w l e n engaged in some of t i e operations above m e n t i o n e d ; rubber gloves m u s t be worn during chrome-dyeing, a n d good ventilation must b e ensured during aniline-black dyeing. I n America, l i g h wages are apparently some consolation for evil conditions; b u t to enforce restrictions seems a safer policy, since " whitewash a n d machinery fences cannot be spent o n drink or wasted i n betting." Cleanliness is of t h e greatest importance in t i e industry under consideration. A large firm of engineers l a v e t h e i r machines painted white a n d t h e walls of t h e workshop wlitewashed continually. T h e y say i t pays t h e m , because of t h e good effect on t h e workpeople. Much h a s b e e n said against modern works having inside walls of white 65 F

tV,

T H E DYE1XG I N D U S T R Y

::!-. l o t pinbaMv the initial expense is justified w h e n all the i i . ' i v j m . ] ^ sro considered. Some American works i-rnvV y \vi;th> to so continually round t h e d e p a r t m e n t s h\ tLv Lrser araf newer works t i e conditions u n d e r which xl-o 'vjrkpeople toil are much better t h a n those prevailing hi okiVork*. In some p a r t s of Germany dyemz i* v/ariiil on in tLe most wretched places, w h e r e a s i n - t h t i part- tho conditions are much Letter. A t Chemnitz a::J Eii errelii tLe dye-works are arranged along t i e ro>pei.t:ve rivers, a n d ' a t r i p along these is a revelation. At the fon:ie-r p a r e some of the w o r t s h a v e been t r a n s formed irora old houses; the office and drying d e p a r t m e n t s are ii: the hou<e parr, while the backyard is cohered in ,\\id u-ed as tLe dyeing department. Tke latter section i- very dirty and full or steam ; dye-baths, l a n k mercerIMT'S and 1;leaching apparatus all seem t l r o w n together, a n d t i e -mall space presents nothing b u t a mass of disorder. The manufacturing towns of Germany s t a n d in vivid contrast t o those in which manufacture is n o t so Tigoxous, When tb ' industry is a new one, some a t t e m p t is m a d e t o organise it with regard to sanitation and b e a u t y ; "but i n old industrial towns the conditions are far from pleasant. At Barmen and iliilhausen visits to works showed entirely different conditions from those a b o v e described. At one works t h e absence of steam from t h e dye-house was noticed; it was driven through ventilators in t h e roof b y means of a current of warm air rising from grids i n t h e floox. The works were well ventilated, a n d h a d p l e n t y of space and light. I n the particulars given above, t h e subsidiary dyeing industry has developed in somewhat t h e same manner as the primary textile industries. " The safety, the cleanliness, t h e ventilation in all t h e factories show t h a t agitation and legislation, supported b y t h e humanity of employers, as well as the self-interest of workmen., have raised t h e sanitary conditions t o a higher level in t i e factories than, in the homes of even our modern workmen.' 5 T i e above has been said of t h e cotton industry, h u t even in this industry we l a v e some stirvivals of t h e old conditions. Similarly, in the dyeing b r a n c h t h e first

CONDITIONS OF L I F E IX T H E INDUSTRY

67

examples given m a y be taken as corresponding odious survivals. Similarly in America, in. t h e oldest industrial districts t h e conditions are t h e least pleasant. I n some cases t h e dye-liouse w a s considered as a mere slied out of which t h e steam escaping from t h e dye-baths h a d t o find its OTCTL w a y ; i n other cases machines were crowded together a n d surrounded h y pools of water. B u t again, t i e more modern factories are well built and well kept. A comparison "between English a n d American industrial conditions is difficult: a n Englishman visiting America in t h e summer m o n t h s finds t i e conditions disagreeable "because t h e intense h e a t of a n American summer accentuates t h e defects. B u t t i e fact t h a t America has, in some cases, s u c l good conditions is a b a d thing for t h i s country, i n t h e sense t l a t some of our best workmen are being a t t r a c t e d b y t i e higher wages and better conditions, a n d their skill used against u s . There is., lowever, little to cloose between t h e conditions prevailing in t h e works of E n g l a n d a n d of New E n g l a n d , for t h e simple reason t h a t t h e Americans are following i n our footsteps a s regards t h e i n d u s t r y a n d as regards t i e legislation affecting it. I n fact, all t h e countries are learning t l a t t l e i r wealth is t o be found in t h e quality of t l e i r citizens, and t h a t improving industrial conditions is a most rational form of patriotism. Nevertheless, a l t l o u g h all t l r e e countries mentioned possess b o t l b a d a n d good industrial conditions, yet G e r m a n y in t h e instances mentioned possesses t i e worst conditions ofaU. As regards industrial organisations, it is well kno"\ra t h a t t i e t r a d e unions in Germany a n d America are n o t so powerful a s t h o s e in England, yet t l e y are growing a t a rate which is alarming t o m a n y people i n those countries. I n Germany t i e workmen t a k e more interest in political effort t l a n in carrying on strikes. T h e people are overawed b y t h e police, w l o h a v e t h e right t o close their meetings a n d interfere i n other ways. Strikes are n o t of frequent occurrence, for t h e employers a r e so strong t l a t t i e w o r k m e n perceive t h e futility of s t a n d i n g out. Occasionally, however, strikes occur. F o r instance, t l e r e was a dispute, lasting a few days, at the Badische Anilin

6S

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

und Soda Fabrik (the largest colour-works in Germany), a t the time of the author's visit there. T h e m e n won and gained a substantial increase in wages. I n t h e United States agitation is more in t h e w a y of spasmodic outbursts t h a n of a continued a n d organised effort on the p a r t of the workpeople t o assert their rights. The mixture of races militates against t h e union of labour, and owing to the scarcity of hands employers are generally ready to make individual bargains with workmen. There was *a strike at Passaic, New Jersey, during t h e a u t h o r ' s visit. Instead of being a stubborn resistance, i t merely lasted one day. and was distinguished b y its intensity. The rioters paraded the streets, and a t t e m p t e d t o p r e v e n t other workpeople from resuming work. This action resulted in disorder, which prevailed long enough for all the police and m a n y civilians in t h e t o w n t o receive injury before the firemen restored order w i t h hose-pipes. In this case the rioters were Italians. B u t t h e people are seeing t h e folly of such outbreaks, a n d more systematic methods, in opposition t o the fruitless strike, a r e being introduced. The employers have strong combinations, as mentioned in Chapter VIII., and t a k e every o p p o r t u n i t y of engaging French Canadians or other non-union labour. A comparison of wages paid in t h e dyeing i n d u s t r y of the three countries under review is v e r y difficult t o make, for the purchasing power of m o n e y has also t o be considered. I t was generally acknowledged t h a t G e r m a n wages were lower t h a n English, a n d t h a t t h e American rates were the highest of t h e three, b o t h actually and relatively to t h e price of commodities. Calico printers, who had experience of industry in t h e three countries, gave the following figures for a calico printer : for Germany 2 : 5s., for England 3 and for America 6 per week. English calico printers living in New E n g l a n d s t a t e d t h a t the conditions were much better in their new sphere t h a n in the old c o u n t r y ; wages were m u c h higher, while necessaries did n o t cost much more t h a n i n E n g l a n d . Clothes, rents, luxuries and amusements were dearer, b u t for a quiet life t h e cost of living was similar t o t h a t of the old country. B u t in considering these opinions it must be remembered t h a t an English calico printer is

CONDITIONS OF L I F E I N T H E INDUSTRY

69

offered high wages t o cross t h e A t l a n t i c , n o t because of a n y special q u a l i t y of his work, b u t b e c a u s e of t h e information concerning English m e t h o d s which h e brings w i t h him. Moreover, t o simply c o m p a r e w o r k m a n a n d workman, as regards r a t e of wages, is of l i t t l e use, unless we know how m u c h e m p l o y m e n t is furnished a t t h e different rates. Wages i n t h e G e r m a n dyeing i n d u s t r y show a n u p w a r d tendency. I t is said t h a t in G e r m a n y t h e r e are n o t t h e extremes of r e m u n e r a t i o n which one finds i n this country, t h e G e r m a n wages being m o r e e v e n l y divided. This latter d e v e l o p m e n t , however, is still m o r e a p p a r e n t in America, w h e r e a m a n is given a n y salary, n o m a t t e r how big, in p r o p o r t i o n t o his v a l u e t o his employers. I n t h e United S t a t e s , if a n employer wishes t o economise labour he does so a t t h e expense of t h e lowest-paid h a n d s ; he does n o t begin b y discharging t h o s e receiving t h e highest salaries, a n d for this r e a s o n t h e influx of unskilled labour d u e t o i m m i g r a t i o n does n o t affect t h e higher salaried posts. F r o m t i m e t o t i m e we are t o l d t h a t some E u r o p e a n countries a r e b e a t i n g us i n some special line of i n d u s t r y because t h e y h a v e lower wages t o p a y . G e r m a n y ' s low wages a n d longer h o u r s a r e said t o b e d r i v i n g us o u t of m a n y m a r k e t s . This m a y be t r u e t o s o m e extent, b u t it is also t r u e t h a t low r a t e s of wages are hindering t h e progress of t h e G e r m a n w o r k m a n . H e is forced i n t o t h e rudiments of education, b u t class d i s t i n c t i o n s are so rigid in G e r m a n y t h a t h e finds i t e x t r e m e l y difficult t o rise t o higher spheres of life. H i s wages are so low t h a t his movem e n t s are r e s t r i c t e d t o n a r r o w limits. O n t h e other h a n d , in E n g l a n d one finds h u n d r e d s of " self-made m e n " who now occupy t h e highest positions, a n d a large proportion of t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s engaged i n t h e t e x t i l e industries a n d their b r a n c h e s s t a r t e d as w o r k m e n . This class of men is practically u n k n o w n in G e r m a n y . T h e o p p o r t u n i ties presented t o children of p o o r p a r e n t s i n this c o u n t r y a n d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m a k e i t possible for a child t o forge ahead, a n d in t h i s w a y t h e g r o w t h of a purely labouring class is impossible. G e r m a n y is r e g a r d e d as t h e h o m e of education, b u t one m u s t h a v e m e a n s before being

70

THE DYEING INDUSTEY

allowed to enter a university, a n d for t h i s reason t h e larger p a r t of the people are debarred from p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the " splendid educational facilities " of t h e c o u n t r y . A shorter working day has been introduced i n t o some industries, particularly engineering, in this c o u n t r y ; Germany is following us in this m a t t e r a t a distance, and in some parts of t h e United States t h e people are awakening to t h e fact t h a t short hours are i n t h e long-run the most economical. A few of t h e large G e r m a n works (for example, t h e colour-works) are introducing t h e eighthours day and stopping at midday on S a t u r d a y . I t is said t h a t the United States have t h e eight-hours d a y in many industries, b u t this is not t h e case in t h e textile and dyeing industries.

CHAPTER

EFFICIENCY IN THE INDUSTRY Dyoing in GermanyApplication of science to the artThe position in AmericaEnglish workmen in AmericaEmpiricism and scionco Arrangement of the worksUsing up of wastesAids to manufacture Specialisation in the industryDye-works and machine shopsHigh specialisation in EnglandBritish pessimism. A s previously mentioned, G e r m a n y h a s s o m e p o o r specimens of dye-houses, b u t t h e t e n d e n c y is t o w a r d s t h e extinction of such places, a n d larger a n d b e t t e r w o r k s are arising. T h u s from 1880 t o 1890 t h e n u m b e r of sheds in G e r m a n y weaving cotton decreased from 56,000 t o 32,000, whereas t h e o u t p u t increased e n o r m o u s l y . T h e d y e i n g i n d u s t r y shows a similar t e n d e n c y . Y e t i t c a n n o t be said t h a t their largest works c o m p a r e f a v o u r a b l y i n a n y w a y with t h e h u g e bleaching, dyeing, a n d p r i n t i n g w o r k s of this country. As t o t h e s t a t e of t h e i n d u s t r y i n G e r m a n y a t t h e t i m e of t h e a u t h o r ' s visit, t h e r e p o r t s from t h e i n d u s t r i a l districts s t a t e d t h a t t h e prices of dye-stuffs were falling, as were also t h e prices p a i d for dyeing. A t C h e m n i t z t h e prices paid for dyeing silk, wool, c o t t o n a n d linen showed a s t e a d y decline, a n d a t t h e s a m e p e r i o d t h e business of dyeing b o t h silk a n d c o t t o n w a s b y n o m e a n s good in Crefeld. TMs was t h e case for b o t h b l a c k a n d colour dyeing, while as regards t u r k e y r e d t h e d e m a n d w a s becoming less a n d less, cheaper s u b s t i t u t e s b e i n g s o u g h t . We have heard much in t h e past a b o u t t h e application of chemistry t o i n d u s t r y i n G e r m a n y , b u t t h e a u t h o r did n o t find t h a t t h e G e r m a n s e m p l o y m o r e scientific skill in their dye-works t h a n we d o . I n fact, t h e wages p a i d 71

72

THE DYEING IKDUSTKY

by dye-works are too small t o a t t r a c t t h e best skill; chemists prefer to enter t h e colour-works, which employ m a n y chemists in all d e p a r t m e n t s . I n dyeing, as in all scientific arts, countries approach more a n d more t o t h e same s t a t e of efficiency. Secrets in dyeing a n d scouring existed more in t h e past, and if one country is m u c h ahead in t h i s industry, t h e circulation of technical periodicals all over t h e world, a n d the partial mobility of l a b o u r between countries, tends t o equalise m a t t e r s . This process of diffusion is, of course, slow, and t h e progressive countries gain certain advantages during t h e diffusion, b u t let us consider w h a t t h e position would be if such a fictitious s t a t e of equality were arrived at. New discoveries would be m a d e a n d inventions p a t e n t e d ; success would t h e n lie i n t h e judicious use of these inventions. As regards our own industry, there is no d o u b t we derive some benefit from climate a n d heredit a r y skill, b u t these a d v a n t a g e s will n o t avail us much if we fail t o keep u p t o d a t e a n d m a k e judicious use of modern inventions. I n t h e dyeing i n d u s t r y t h e Americans do n o t shine. They t r e a t larger lots t h a n we do, a n d for t h a t reason use some different m e t h o d s ; b u t in other respects t h e y seem to be just following us a t a distance and, b y capturing as m u c h of our t a l e n t as possible, m a k i n g t h a t distance as small as t h e y can. E v i d e n c e before t h e I n d u s t r i a l Commission of t h e U n i t e d States, 1900, showed t h a t England was practically supplying t h e d e m a n d for t r a i n e d workmen in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . M a n y Germans are employed in t h e calico-printing works, b u t t h e responsible positions are generally filled b y Englishmen. I n fact, t h e author, got quite used t o m a n a g e r s saying t h e y used t o work a t certain Lancashire works. Englishmen are also employed as teachers in t h e t e x t i l e schools. English machinery is largely used, b u t m o r e a n d more American is being introduced as machine shops are being established. America is exceedingly rich i n r a w materials. She has splendid supplies of coal, w a t e r power, iron ores near t h e surface a n d close t o coal a n d limestone, g r e a t stores of copper, lead, zinc, corundum, quicksilver, asbestos, asphaltum, nickel, cobalt a n d kaoline, besides n a t i v e wood

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of great v a r i e t y a n d excellently a d o p t e d for manufacture, building s t o n e s , slate and marble, besides c o t t o n a n d wool These r e s o u r c e s m u s t always be considered in accounting for A m e r i c a ' s position in a n y industry. The differential a d v a n t a g e p r o d u c e d b y these resources is often accounted for in o t h e r ways, a n d in some cases t h e high quality of h e r l a b o u r h a s wrongly been given as a cause. For, as regards t l i e t e x t i l e industries, t h e labour is supplied b y a collection of nationalities directed, as before stated, b y British i m m i g r a n t s . E m p i r i c a l m e t h o d s are prevalent in America as t h e y a r e in t h i s c o u n t r y . F o r instance, at one American works a m a n w h o h a d no scientific training was seen giving direct i o n s t o t l i e d y e r s a n d dispensing dye-stufis in a most c r u d e m a n n e r . T h e workmen b r o u g h t p o t s a n d received dye-stuff, b y t h e a i d of a spoon, from one or m o r e of a dozen c a n s . B y l o n g experience t h e m a n could tell how m u c h he t o o k o n t h e spoon, b u t he a d m i t t e d t h a t weighing w a s t h e b e t t e r m e t h o d . T h e workmen passed t o a n d fro b e t w e e n t l i e i r m a c h i n e s a n d this m a n , bringing p a t t e r n s a n d their p o t s t o receive more dye-stuff, until t h e right s h a d e w a s o b t a i n e d . Weighing o u t t h e colour was stated t o be t o o slow for t h e m . The dye-stuff was invariably i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e b a t h in t h e solid s t a t e ; either t h e imp o r t a n c e o f perfect solution was n o t recognised or t h e time t a k e n for such an operation was held of m o r e consequence. B u t s o m e of t h e American dye-works are conducted o n scientific lines. A t t h e Arnold P r i n t W o r k s , N o r t h A d a m s , M a s s . , success is largely a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e s y s t e m a t i c a n d scientific working of t h e mill, while t h e M e r r i m a c k a n d A r l i n g t o n Mills, two of t h e foremost mills i n M a s s a c h u s e t t s , a r e thoroughly u p t o d a t e . T h e Arlingt o n W o r k s a t L a w r e n c e h a s a fine laboratory, a n d t h e chemist l i a s a n a s s i s t a n t w h o was educated a t Lowell Textile S c h o o l . T h e y t e s t ail t h e materials which come i n t o t h e w o r k s , a n d do washing and other tests of t h e dye-stuffs. T h e y h a v e a Bradford machine fox determini n g t h e m o i s t u r e i n textiles. A t t h e Merrimack W o r k s all m a t e r i a l s c o m i n g i n t o t h e works are tested, n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e i r source, a n d t h e manager said t h e events of

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t h e week previous t o t h e a u t h o r ' s visit h a d p r o v e d t h e wisdom of their p l a n . During t h e whole t i m e t h e y h a d received dye-stuffs from one of t h e largest G e r m a n colourworks t h e y h a d found no errors until this occasion, w h e n a keg of rhodamine was found t o be d e c i d e d l y u n d e r strength. Previous testing h a d i n this case s a v e d a g r e a t a m o u n t of trouble. At the present t i m e one of t h e principal r o a d s t o success lies in using u p wastes. Lord M a s h a m said lie maintained his house o u t of his sewer; a n d so m a n y tilings are now recovered which formerly were allowed t o pass into t h e sewers t h a t m a n u f a c t u r e has a s s u m e d q u i t e a different aspect. This is u n d o u b t e d l y t h e d e p a r t m e n t where science can be of use, a n d where, in fact, i t is certainly being of use. I n America t h e t r e a t m e n t of w a s t e p r o d u c t s h a s as y e t received little consideration, a n d wastefulness is an element of weakness in their m a n u f a c t u r e . Owing t o their huge resources t h e genius for p e t t y economics lias n o t been d e v e l o p e d ; t h e artisan is h a b i t u a l l y indifferent t o economy of material, a n d t h e employer is m o r e concerned with economising labour. On t h e other h a n d , i n G e r m a n y , t h e success of m a n y of t h e business concerns h a s been due t o a t t e n t i o n t o details a n d t h e p r a c t i s i n g of small economies. I n Germany a n d America one notices t h a t i n d u s t r y receives every consideration. I n G e r m a n y t h e S t a t e railways assist i n d u s t r y in all possible ways, a n d i n t h e United States t h e authorities even allow t r a i n s t o r u n d o w n i m p o r t a n t streets r a t h e r t h a n p u t t h e railway c o m p a n i e s t o th< expense of laying special t r a c k s . America seems t o proclaim t h a t railway d e v e l o p m e n t a n d industrial d e v e l o p m e n t m u s t t a k e place together. F o r instance, coal is found in Massachusetts, b u t being m i x e d w i t h e a r t h it is of littl value, so t h a t t h e coal for t h e factories in t h a t i m p o r t a n t S t a t e has t o be b r o u g h t b y rail from neighbouring S t a t e s . One hears little in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a b o u t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of waterways. T h e E r i e Canal, so m u c h used i n t h e p a s t for developing N e w Y o r k S t a t e , is only now used for l u m b e r , salt, and c o a l ; m o s t of t h e large businesses use t h e r a i l w a y entirely for t r a n s p o r t . I n G e r m a n y t h e principal use of canals is t o connect t h e big rivers.

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I n connection with, t h e aid afforded t o m a n u f a c t u r e in America, i t w a s noticed t h a t a m a n u f a c t u r e r was n o t summoned if b l a c k s m o k e a p p e a r e d from his chimneystack, for a t one t i m e black smoke a n d e v e n n i t r o u s fumes were seen issuing from chimneys a t P a s s a i c , N e w Jersey. They are n o t so s t r i c t a s we are in t h i s respect, b u t t h e n t h e y h a v e n o t t h e congestion of w o r k s t h a t exists i n t h i s country. As m e n t i o n e d in a n o t h e r p a r t , g r a n t s of l a n d a t reduced r a t e s a r e m a d e a t Lowell a n d o t h e r American cities. As regards t h e s t a t e of specialisation in t h e d y e i n g i n d u s t r y of t h e t h r e e countries u n d e r review, i t h a s b e e n previously s t a t e d t h a t t h e lack of specialisation in G e r m a n y is due t o t h e fact t h a t their p r i m a r y t e x t i l e industries and, consequently, t h e i r subsidiary d y e i n g i n d u s t r y a r e n o t so large as o u r s . W h o l e works d o n o t d e v o t e t h e m s e l v e s t o special b r a n c h e s of i n d u s t r y , a n d u s u a l l y a dye-works u n d e r t a k e s a large v a r i e t y of o p e r a t i o n s . I n America we find spinning, w e a v i n g , a n d d y e i n g p e r f o r m e d b y t h e s a m e works, b u t i n G e r m a n y this is s e l d o m t h e a r r a n g e m e n t ; t h e subsidiary i n d u s t r y w a s founded as a s e p a r a t e i n d u s t r y a t t h e same t i m e a s t h e textile i n d u s t r y itself was e s t a b lished, so t h a t s e p a r a t e dyeing e s t a b l i s h m e n t s resulted. I n G e r m a n y o n e finds, however, t h a t frequently t e x t i l e machine shops are a t t a c h e d t o d y e - w o r k s . I n these engineering d e p a r t m e n t s t h e d y e i n g m a c h i n e s , which a r e used in t h e d y e - w o r k s , are m a d e a n d p l a c e d o n t h e m a r k e t . F o r example, H a u b o l d ' s of Chemnitz, G e b a u e r ' s of Berlin, Kleinewefer's of Crefeld, a n d B e m b e r g ' s of B a r m e n , t h e large textile m a c h i n e works i n G e r m a n y , were originally a n d solely d y e - w o r k s . I n course of t i m e m a c h i n e s were i n v e n t e d i n t h e s e dye-works t o facilitate t h e d y e i n g operations, a n d t h e n t h e s e m a c h i n e s were m a d e in q u a n t i t y in a special b r a n c h of t h e works. I n some cases general engineering w o r k s i n t h e district w e r e t a k e n over, for t h e engineering b r a n c h of t h e business w a s found m o r e profitable t h a n t h e original occupation. E x p e r i e n c e i n t h e working of t h e m a c h i n e s resulted i n t h e i m p r o v e m e n t of these m a c h i n e s ; b u t t h e works m e n t i o n e d n o w m a k e n o t only their o w n i m p r o v e d a n d p a t e n t e d m a c h i n e r y , b u t machinery of all k i n d s .

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H a u b o l d ' s of Chemnitz is a b o u t t h e largest textile machine works in G e r m a n y , a n d a dye-works is r u n under t h e same direction. Gebauer's of Berlin h a v e a large engineering works, which gradually developed from a dyeworks. Seeing t h e i m p o r t a n c e of good machines, a n d knowing t h e requirements of t h e i n d u s t r y , t h e y began t o build machines. Later, t h e y b o u g h t a works for m a k i n g woollen machinery. T h e y export machines t o all parts, b u t few t o England. Kleinewefer's of Crefeld h a v e a large mercerising d e p a r t m e n t , a n d a bleach- a n d dye-works alongside a machine shop, where silk-finishing a n d o t h e r machines are made. Bemberg's of B a r m e n , a large dyeing and finishing works for piece-goods, absorbed t h e engineering works of Mommer, a n d developed it along w i t h t h e dyeing branch. They also held t h e Schreiner calendar p a t e n t . They m a k e a hank-merceriser, calendars, presses, etc., a n d used t o m a k e a cop-dyeing m a c h i n e until competition became too keen. I n America a few cases were seen where t h e dyeing a n d engineering industries were connected, b u t this was n o t general. Some works, from necessity, m a d e some of their own special machines, b u t i n few cases were these m a d e for sale. T h e Cocheco Manufacturing Company of Dover, N e w H a m p s h i r e , however, m a k e t h e " cell-dryer," a n d have p u t i t on t h e m a r k e t , b u t t h e i r principal business is t h e making, bleaching, dyeing, a n d p r i n t i n g of cotton goods, velvets, a n d velveteens. I n England, engineering of t h e l a n d mentioned is u n d e r t a k e n b y specialised engineering works, a n d is seldom connected with dye-works. As our i n d u s t r y h a s developed, certain engineering w o r k s h a v e specialised in t h e production of bleaching, printing, dyeing, a n d finishing machinery. As previously m e n t i o n e d , m o s t of t h e dyeing in t h e United S t a t e s is d o n e i n t h e s a m e establishment as the spinning a n d w e a v i n g of t h e material, a n d even great developments h a v e n o t resulted i n t h e dyeing operations breaking a w a y as a s e p a r a t e b r a n c h of i n d u s t r y . The tendency in America is r a t h e r in t h e o t h e r direction, t h a t is, t h e works are increasing i n size i n t h e direction of selfsustenance. F o r instance, t h e Gera Mills a t Passaic, New Jersey, h a v e h i t h e r t o been k n o w n for t h e i r woven woollen

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goods, b u t t h e y h a v e n o w begun t o s p i n t h e i r own y a r n s in order t o ensure a good s u p p l y . T h e different works specialise in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of c e r t a i n classes of goods, a n d t h e y perform m o s t of or all tlie o p e r a t i o n s required t o t u r n t h e goods from t h e r a w m a t e r i a l i n t o t h e finished products. I n t h e s a m e w a y t h e G e r m a n s m a k e flannelettes as described in C h a p t e r V I . This class of specialisation m a y be t e r m e d e x t e r n a l specialisation. I n t h e E n g l i s h textile a n d d y e i n g i n d u s t r i e s , however, a n o t h e r form of specialisation h a s developed, a n d t h i s is of a n i n t e r n a l n a t u r e . T h e d y e i n g i n d u s t r y is m o r e specialised i n E n g l a n d t h a n in a n y o t h e r c o u n t r y , a n d t o t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t success in our v a r i o u s foreign m a r k e t s is d u e . I t h a s b r o u g h t a b o u t g r e a t economies, so t h a t o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a r e striving t o i m i t a t e o u r organisation. W e h a v e specialisation so developed t h a t one district is k n o w n for fine spinning, another for weaving, while in dyeing, one w o r k s , or a combination of works, is n o t e d for its t u r k e y red, a n d a n o t h e r for its blacks. These s e p a r a t e b r a n c h e s of t h e i n d u s t r y h a v e b e e n developed t o such a s t a t e of perfection t h a t their productions c a n n o t be equalled b y a n y o t h e r c o u n t r y , a n d it is because of t h i s high s t a t e of perfection t h a t o u r export t r a d e is so great. Specialisation h a s led t o special training i n p a r t i c u l a r b r a n c h e s of i n d u s t r y , a n d t h i s m o d e of organisation is absolutely essential t o B r i t i s h success. Similarly in t h e worsted i n d u s t r y we h a v e t h e wool m e r c h a n t , t h e comber, t h e spinner, t h e w e a v e r , t h e piece m e r c h a n t , t h e dyer, a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t e r . T h e s e o p e r a t i o n s are often carried o n separately i n t h i s c o u n t r y , b u t in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s mills are seen spinning, w e a v i n g , dyeing, finishing, a n d d e s p a t c h i n g their own woollen goods. I n this c o u n t r y t h e d y e i n g is a r r a n g e d for b y t h e m e r c h a n t s , who send t h e goods t o t h e d y e - w o r k s w h i c h is k n o w n t o h a v e specialised i n c e r t a i n classes, w h e r e a s i n t h e U n i t e d States t h e d y e i n g is a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y d o n e on t h e s a m e premises as t h e w e a v i n g a n d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s . I n t h i s country we h a v e realised t h a t i n specialisation lies t h e strength of oux industries, because a m a n c o n c e n t r a t i n g his energies on one p a r t i c u l a r k i n d of w o r k does t h a t w o r k as economically a n d as perfectly as possible. Moreover, specialisation of l a b o u r c h e a p e n s p r o d u c t i o n , because a

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h a b i t is slowly formed, and we learn t h e s h o r t e s t a n d best w a y of doing a thing only gradually. I t can be safely said t h a t , as far as t h e d y e i n g i n d u s t r y is concerned, t h e exhortations sometimes addressed t o us t o reform our methods do not call for u r g e n t consideration. W e have been told from time t o t i m e t h a t goods h a v e gone from this country t o Germany t o be d y e d aiid r e t u r n e d to us, and this fact has been often cited as evidence of t h e eminence of German dyeing. A t t h e s a m e time, however, no mention was made of t h e works i n this c o u n t r y which have been continually approached b y G e r m a n s and others to undertake work of t h e kind m e n t i o n e d . I n t h e case of one particular works, t h e a u t h o r k n o w s t h a t German and Belgian goods were t r e a t e d u n t i l t h e troubles of transportation made t h e works give u p t h e b u s i n e s s ; t h a t an Austrian firm had goods t r e a t e d a n d was anxious to gain information as t o t h e m e t h o d of p r o d u c t i o n ; a n d t h a t a Russian firm, after seeing some of t h e goods which had been t r e a t e d a t t h e works mentioned, offered p a y m e n t for a knowledge of t h e m e t h o d of t r e a t m e n t . And this was not a case of a special p a t e n t e d process, b u t only one example (and there are m a n y others of t h e same nature) of a works having, b y careful work a n d technical excellence, produced goods which no o t h e r establishment in t h e world could improve upon. Again, the mere fact t h a t t h e G e r m a n s issue a large a m o u n t of research work in t h e technical j o u r n a l s is regarded as a sign of great a c t i v i t y ; i t m u s t b e remembered, however, t h a t m u c h of this work is of little v a l u e . If, during research on industrial m a t t e r s , a n y t h i n g of real value is found out i t is n o t published b u t p r o t e c t e d ; t h e m a t t e r which filters t h r o u g h is generally of p u r e l y scientific interest only. Moreover, m a n y of t h e m e t h o d s which are published in technical treatises are t h o s e which h a v e served a previous period, for new a n d i m p o r t a n t m e t h o d s are n o t usually advertised b y those who use t h e m . Most of t h e German technical publications c o n t a i n h a r d l y a n y facts t o add t o industrial experience. I n d e e d , so m u c h has been written on technical subjects t h a t t h e r e is h a r d l y any justification for new literature, unless it c o n t a i n s some real addition t o our knowledge of t h e subject t r e a t e d .

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I n English works a good deal of research w o r k is carried out, although few of t h e results get i n t o p r i n t . Those of a practical n a t u r e a r e used, a n d t h e rest of t h e material is generally filed for future reference. F o r instance, a t t h e t i m e of t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of mercerising, or i t m i g h t be said t h e revival of t h a t process, i t is k n o w n t h a t m u c h research work was d o n e o n t h e subject a t large works in this country. Some of t h e results were used i n industry, and some were of scientific interest only. I n l a t e r years, m a n y of t h e s a m e results were found b y o t h e r experimenters a n d p u b l i s h e d for t h e first t i m e . T o those engaged in industrial research t h e r e is little gain t o be obtained from t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of results. W h a t t h e a u t h o r wishes t o point o u t is t h a t , a l t h o u g h the fact is n o t a d v e r t i s e d b y t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of papers before learned societies, a large a m o u n t of research work takes place i n our d y e - a n d similar works, a n d a s a result of this work processes a r e improved, economies a r e m a d e , a n d modern m e t h o d s used. Mr. Hooper, Secretary of Bradford Chamber of Commerce, said t h a t " tlie v e r y existence of t h e Yorkshire m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d m e r c h a n t s d e p e n d s on t h e m keeping a b r e a s t w i t h t h e t i m e s . N o i n d u s t r y in t h e world h a s b e e n subjected t o so m a n y changes or suffered so m u c h from t h e vagaries of fashion as h a s t h e worsted i n d u s t r y ; n o o t h e r i n d u s t r y h a s s h o w n m o r e readiness t o throw o u t obsolete m a c h i n e r y a n d instal new p l a n t in order t o m e e t t h e ever-changing r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e days, a n d so long as t h e Yorkshire m a n u f a c t u r e r s , dyers, a n d merchants m a i n t a i n t h e i r present enterprise, inventiveness, a n d vigour, t h e y h a v e n o t h i n g t o fear from foreign c o m p e t i t i o n / ' a n d similarly Lancashire c a n h o p e for t h e same fate so long as she h a s her " energetic, self-reliant, a n d i n v e n t i v e people, a n d her excellent i n d u s t r i a l a n d commercial o r g a n i s a t i o n ? > (the l a t e Elijah H e l m ) . " T h e n a t u r a l life seems as vigorous as ever, b u t t h e u t m o s t energy a n d resource m u s t be applied in every direction if we are t o hold o u r o w n " (Sir E . Giffen).

CHAPTER

XI

INSTRUCTION IN DYEING The dyeing industry subject to changeBritish pessimism regarding educationAppointments for technical studentsGerman technical schools Education of the German workman American schools Suggested reforms. T H E dyeing i n d u s t r y is p r o b a b l y more subject t o change t h a n any other b r a n c h of m a n u f a c t u r e . I n t h e first place, we have t h e changes b r o u g h t a b o u t b y reason of t h e large n u m b e r of new dye-stuffs a n d of n e w classes of dye-stuffs which are continually being i n t r o d u c e d ; we h a v e changes in t h e m e t h o d s of d y e i n g w i t h t h e old d y e - s t u f f s ; we h a v e progress in m a n u f a c t u r i n g chemistry, leading t o t h e cheapening of t h e p r o d u c t i o n of some chemical, which thereby finds its w a y i n t o t h e i n d u s t r y a n d causes a change of m e t h o d s ; a n d we h a v e changes in t h e n a t u r e of t h e fibres themselves. W h e n these facts are considered, along with t h e vagaries of fashion a n d t h e peculiar n a t u r e of t h e d e m a n d which t h e d y e r h a s t o meet, one concludes t h a t only t h e m o s t enterprising a n d progressive dyers can survive. P e r h a p s t h e r e is n o i n d u s t r y i n which technical training plays so i m p o r t a n t a p a r t , a n d n o i n d u s t r y which in future will depend so m u c h on technical skill as t h e dyeing industry. I t is becoming s y s t e m a t i c ; i t is settling i n t o scientific order ; t h e v a l u e of rule of t h u m b is decreasing ; a n d looking a h e a d o n e c a n conceive of a t i m e w h e n dyeing will be performed b y labourers u n d e r scientific direction. I n t h e fight of t h e s e facts i t is interesting t o record t h e steps which different countries a r e t a k i n g t o supply technical instruction in t h i s subject in order t o ensure t h e survival
an

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of their d y e i n g industries. If t h e books a n d p a p e r s which h a v e been w r i t t e n on technical education are consulted, t h e definite conclusions t h a t can b e g a t h e r e d are in reality f e w ; t h e only s u b s t a n t i a l inference t h e a u t h o r can d r a w from t h e m is t h a t t h e people of this c o u n t r y are v e r y pessimistic. If b l u e - b o o k s a n d t h e r e p o r t s of commissions are consulted t h e reader is confused b y conflicting s t a t e m e n t s . For instance, in t h e E i g h t h A n n u a l R e p o r t of t h e Commission of L a b o u r of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i t is s t a t e d t h a t England is a h e a d of America i n th&t t h e English employer recognises t h e superiority of t h e technically educated apprentice in m a n y mechanical operations, n o t as regards manual d e x t e r i t y , b u t i n t h e comprehension of general principles a n d in t h e p o w e r of reducing theoretical knowledge t o t a n g i b l e results. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e R e p o r t of t h e Moseley Commission called a t t e n t i o n t o t h e deplorable a p a t h y of English m a n u f a c t u r e r s t o w a r d s technical education, a n d s t a t e d t h a t t h e American m a n u f a c t u r e r was ready " t o p o u r o u t his m o n e y " t o assist t h e progress of technical instruction. F r o m a n o t h e r a u t h o r i t y we hear t h a t our shortcomings h a v e received universal assent, b u t also practical n e g l e c t ; a R o y a l Commission, it is said, has roused a feeling of consternation, b u t h a s b e e n soon forgotten in t h a t f a t a l optimism which is t h e n o r m a l s t a t e of t h e public m i n d . I n t h e s a m e direction a D e p a r t m e n t a l C o m m i t t e e of t h e B o a r d of E d u c a t i o n reported t h a t in technical i n s t r u c t i o n G e r m a n y a n d other continental countries w e r e m u c h a h e a d of this c o u n t r y . And yet we found, a short t i m e ago, a G e r m a n professor deploring t h e b a c k w a r d n e s s of his c o u n t r y in certain b r a n c h e s of chemistry, a n d holding u p t o his c o u n t r y m e n t h e examples of E n g l a n d a n d P a r i s as pioneers in these b r a n c h e s of t h e science. F r o m t h e s e conflicting opinions i t is difficult t o arrive a t a t r u e conception of t h e position. The a u t h o r t h i n k s , however, t h a t a n entirely w r o n g impression exists as t o t h e s t a t e of technical i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h i s c o u n t r y . D e p u t a tions going t o G e r m a n y t o s t u d y t h e G e r m a n s y s t e m of education d o n o t g e t a clear view of t h e case. They s t a r t out w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t G e r m a n i n s t i t u t i o n s are far G

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better t h a n ours, and, moreover, while there, only note those things which are actually b r o u g h t t o their notice. F u r t h e r investigation, however, proves t h a t a wrong impression has been created. Sir William W h i t e , in a speech before t h e Institute of Metals, called a t t e n t i o n t o t h e fact t h a t certain Englishmen were belittling our industries and creating a bad impression i n t h e eyes of t h e world. Truly t h e national pessimism extends t o educational affairs. Whether a c o u n t r y is b e s t u r g e d on by the assumption of an optimistic or a pessimistic outlook is not t o be argued here, b u t certain i t is t h a t , as regards educational affairs, most countries p u t forth a show of pessimism. The author, having h a d a university training, having been on t h e staff of a technical institute, having made a tour of t h e principal industrial centres of Germany and America, besides examining t h e technical schools in these countries, and having had some industrial experience, is prepared t o a t t e m p t to t u r n a spirit of pessimism t o one of optimism. We have been told b y one class of critic t h a t English manufacturers are apathetic, a n d do n o t appreciate technical skill. B u t t h e fact t h a t E n g l a n d holds such a commanding industrial position seems t o p o i n t o u t t h a t any fault does n o t he with t h e manufacturers. W h e n t h e right article is presented, our manufacturers are as ready t o snap it u p as those of a n y o t h e r c o u n t r y , although naturally few manufacturers are prepared, considering t h e mobility of labour, to train a m a n w i t h o u t a n assured prospect of profit from t h e transaction. I n educational matters it must be remembered t h a t t h e direction of instruction is determined b y t h e opportunities available for scientifically trained students in t h e commercial world. W e have here t h e operation of supply a n d d e m a n d as in industry itself. Professor Ashley h a s pointed o u t t h a t this is true of all branches of knowledge. F o r instance, he thinks t h a t economics will never flourish as a university subject until i t is m a d e a subject for e x a m i n a t i o n for some professional career, or connected w i t h business life in some way, as is being done b y t h e founding of t h e Faculties of Commerce a t t h e universities. Considerable numbers of people might be d r a w n t o universities and

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technical schools b y a passing interest, a n d mere h a b i t might keep m a n y of t h e s t u d e n t s t h e r e after t h e interest h a s flagged; b u t certain i t is t h a t n o s t u d y can flourish unless pursued w i t h a professional object. F e w students will be found t o a t t e n d merely for t h e love of t h e different branches of knowledge. So i t is with technical e d u c a t i o n ; as it becomes more a n d m o r e a " b r e a d a n d b u t t e r " requirement, so will it flourish in all communities. F o r instance, in G e r m a n y t h e polytechnics g r a n t degrees, a n d on this account h a v e u n d o u b t e d l y g r o w n in popularity. I n Prussia no examinations t a k e place unless certain specified rights, conferring privileges either for future s t u d y or for a d m i t t a n c e t o a certain career, result therefrom. I t is a case of n o rights, n o examinations. A n E n g l i s h m a n entering Germ a n y for t h e first t i m e is surprised t o find t h a t so m a n y people u n d e r s t a n d English. The reason is t h a t English is so necessary for their t r a d e w i t h E n g l a n d a n d America t h a t t h e r e is a certain profit t o be obtained from acquiring a knowledge of t h e language. Again, t h e exemption from a portion of military service of those who h a v e a certain s t a n d a r d of education is of g r e a t benefit i n urging m a n y t o s t u d y . P e r h a p s i t is well for all t o remember t h a t examinations are n o t pleasant experiences, a n d a s t u d e n t h a s little inclination t o w a r d s t h e m if h e sees nothing beyond. If i n this country m o r e public a p p o i n t m e n t s were offered t o university a n d technical school m e n possessing certain qualifications, t h e n t h e r e would be a v e r y great i m p e t u s t o s t u d y . B u t a t t h e same time i t m u s t b e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e ladder b y m e a n s of which a poor child can climb from t h e elementary school t o t h e university is m u c h more complete in t h i s c o u n t r y t h a n i t is i n Germany, since big scholarships are practically u n k n o w n in t h e l a t t e r country, a n d education divides t h e people i n t o t w o rigid classes. This question of t h e p u r s u i t of education for profit is well b r o u g h t o u t i n t h e q u o t a t i o n previously mentioned of a G e r m a n professor deploring t h e fact t h a t E n g l a n d and P a r i s were foremost in certain branches of chemistry. T h e branches, h e specified, were inorganic a n d analytical chemistry. This is, no d o u b t , d u e t o t h e large absorption

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of t h e German chemical graduates b y t h e colour-works of t h a t country having inclined t h e s t u d y of chemistry t o t h e organic s i d e ; t h e demand for organic chemists h a s influenced t h e direction of t h e study of t h e science. I n d e e d , i t might be said t h a t t h e excellence of these colour-works is t h e cause of much of t h e talk a b o u t superior G e r m a n methods and systematic German chemical e d u c a t i o n ; these concerns are continually held u p t o our notice. If Germany were suddenly t o lose these works we would h e a r little more about t h e excellent business ability a n d t e c h n i c a l education of our rivals. I t must also be remembered in considering all e d u c a tion t h a t m a n y individuals are incapable of seeing t h e gain to be obtained from submitting themselves t o a c o u r s e of instruction, a n d t h a t m a n y rate-payers are unable t o s e e the necessity of t h e high education r a t e ; such s h o r t sighted individuals exist in all communities, a n d no d o u b t hinder the progress of t h o u g h t and instruction. A l t h o u g h in Germany t h e supply of graduates is determined m o r e or less by t h e demands of different occupations, it is f o u n d t h a t there are m a n y graduates who find difficulty i n entering industry, and others who work for small salaries ; this of course is t h e state of affairs in this country, a n d , in t h e nature of things, unavoidable. English chemists are found t o wander abroad just as G e r m a n chemists axe found within our shores, for some of Germany's b e s t chemists come from Zurich and England, while m a n y more have benefited from a long s t a y w i t h us. Of the German schools which are devoted t o t e a c h i n g the practice of neighbouring industries, t h e one a t M u n c h e n Gladbach, which is t h e centre of t h e cotton i n d u s t r y of Ehineland, is among t h e newest. This school is s o m e w h a t like our smaller technical schools. The equipment a n d maintenance are provided b y local manufacturers, a i d e d b y a small grant from t h e Prussian Government. I t i s under Government control. The building contains a boiler and engine-house, spinning, weaving, a n d d y e i n g departments, a chemical laboratory a n d lecture r o o m s . The spinning and weaving apparatus is mostly of a s m a l l size. The dye-house contains p o t s for sample d y e i n g , besides a few jiggers and small a p p a r a t u s for d y e i n g .

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M u c h of t h e machinery in t h e school was m a d e in Lancashire, and it is w o r t h y of note t h a t m a n y of t h e machines u s e d in t h e cotton industry of t h e neighbourhood were supplied b y us. T h e complete course of instruction a t t h e school extends over two years, or four semestres, each of t w e n t y - o n e weeks of forty-four hours. S t u d e n t s m u s t b e over sixteen, a n d possess a satisfactory general educat i o n . Special instruction is given in t h e production of c o t t o n waste cloths, which are a speciality of t h e district. T h e school is designed t o assist t h e local industry, a n d foreigners a r e only a d m i t t e d a t t h e discretion of t h e d i r e c t o r ; t h e y are charged a t t h e r a t e of 40 a year. S t u d e n t s from other p a r t s of Germany p a y 15 a year. A t t h e time of t h e a u t h o r ' s visit t h e r e were 32 d a y students, 8 of w h o m were foreigners, a n d 143 evening s t u d e n t s . O n e noticed t h a t the school was advertised i n m a n y of t h e works of t h e district. The Crefeld Fachschule is one of t h e oldest schools of its kind, a n d since its establishment in 1896 h a s u n d o u b t e d l y h a d m u c h effect on t h e G e r m a n textile industries, a n d at t h e same t i m e gained a good r e p u t a t i o n . This school is really a combination of a t r a d e s school a n d a school of chemistry, because it was recognised a t its inception t h a t a knowledge of p u r e chemistry is essential t o t h e s t u d y of t h e dyeing a n d other branches of t h e t e x t i l e industries. Lectures on physics, inorganic, organic, a n d physical chemistry, a n d p a t e n t legislation a r e given. S o m e of t h e chemical laboratories are used for research connected with t h e textile industry, and other rooms a r e fitted u p for t h e usual chemical requirements ; i n a small experimental dye-house trials are m a d e on a small scale. T h e large-scale a p p a r a t u s includes hank-dyeing becks, r a w c o t t o n dyeing a p p a r a t u s , centrifuges, sill^-finisMng machine r y , a n d printing-machines, driven b y h a n d a n d power. T h e director of t h e school receives a salary from t h e t o w n of Crefeld, a n d he is allowed t o do p r i v a t e work. A t t h e Chemistry School of Mxilhausen, instruction is given i n p u r e a n d applied chemistry, b u t no large-scale a p p a r a t u s i s used. The school aims a t giving special chemical instruct i o n t o those entering t h e dyeing industry. Chemnitz, usually called t h e " Manchester of S a x o n y / '

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because it is t h e centre of the cotton i n d u s t r y of t h a t country, has a department of technological cliemistry a t the Staat-Lehranstalt. Here t h e teaching i s of a theoretical kind ; instruction is given in dyeing, b u t n o large-scale apparatus has been installed. A t t h e C h a r l o t t e n b u x g Technical High School there are a large n u m b e r of special chemical courses. The chemical d e p a r t m e n t t a k e s u p a great portion of a large, handsome b u i l d i n g . T h e r e are many research laboratories. Yet t h e a u t h o r t h i n k s t h a t there is no justification for t h e e x a g g e r a t e d s t a t e m e n t s which have been m a d e concerning this s c h o o l . A m i x t u r e of an art and a technical school, i t suffers b y comparison with the Schools of Art and Technology in M a n c h e s t e r . Karlsruhe has one of t h e finest of G e r m a n technical high schools. Here pure and applied s c i e n c e is t a u g h t and degrees are granted. There is some d y e i n g in t h e district, and this industry is catered for a t t h e school. Thus a research on t h e fading of colours u n d e r t h e light of the Cooper-Hewitt lamp was being carried o u t , a t t h e t i m e of the author's visit, b y Professor F . H a b e r , a n d a new dyeing laboratory was projected. I n Austria one finds t h a t instruction i n d y e i n g is not well provided for, so t h a t m a n y A u s t r i a n s visit other countries for their instruction. T h e K o n i g l i c h e s Osterreichisches Gewerbe Museum, Vienna, is a h i g h e r grade technical school which is supported b y Austrian m a n u f a c t u r e r s and receives a Government grant. I t is m a i n l y used for t h e teaching of dyeing a n d printing from a t h e o r e t i c a l standpoint. There are various testing d e p a r t m e n t s . The only school in Austria devoted t o t h e t e a c h i n g of practical industrial methods is t h e Heichenberg S t a a t s Gewerbeschule, which has been designed on t h e Crefeld p a t t e r n and contains a school of dyeing. Very low f e e s are charged and sometimes free tuition is given. From t h e above short description of a f e w continental schools it m u s t be evident to those who are f a m i l i a r with t h e English schools of t h e same kind t h a t a t least, as far as equipment is concerned, England does n o t occupy a second place. I t is t r u e t h a t m a n y of t h e G e r m a n technical high schools a t t r a c t large numbers of s t u d e n t s , b u t this is n o t t h e case w i t h schools of t h e Crefeld t y p e . The

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Crefeld school itself had, in 1906, seventy s t u d e n t s , which number, however, dropped to forty-five i n t h e following year when t h e fees charged t o foreigners were raised. T h e Munchen-G-ladbach school was for some t i m e w i t h o u t a n y students at all. Sorau, a town in B r a n d e n b u r g near t h e borders of Silesia a n d Saxony, a n d therefore q u i t e n e a r t h e dyeing industry of this p a r t of Germany, b u i l t a school of t h e Crefeld t y p e a t a cost of a million m a r k s a n d equipped it like a university, with a fine laboratory a n d m a c h i n e r y for bleaching, dyeing, printing, a n d finishing. A t one time there were t h r e e instructors a n d six s t u d e n t s , some of t h e students being foreigners. F u r t h e r , we find t h a t in Germany t h e schools are not very particular as t o t h e quality of t h e s t u d e n t t h e y a d m i t ; t h e y m a k e a n effort to get as m a n y as possible. I t has been said t h a t s t u d e n t s from t h e high schools pass t h r o u g h t h e schools of t h e Crefeld t y p e before entering i n d u s t r y ; b u t t h e a u t h o r found t h a t such cases are exceptional, as these m e n h a v e other outlets for t h e i r training. However, a s t u d e n t from a technical high school does sometimes find his w a y i n t o a t r a d e school, a n d t h e n t h e authorities show t h e i r d e l i g h t ; t h e y m a k e no mention of men of inferior t r a i n i n g t h a t t h e y accept. The technical high schools themselves a r e known t o receive in their specialised technical chemical laboratories, students who have h a d little previous chemical training. F u r t h e r , t h e author recalls t h e case of a H u n g a r i a n who h a d passed t h r o u g h one of t h e b e s t schools of dyeing i n Germany taking t h e full course, a n d who y e t lacked even t h e m o s t elementary knowledge of chemistry. H e could n o t h a v e known very m u c h w h e n h e w a s accepted. The volunteer d e p a r t m e n t s of t h e G e r m a n colour-works are now m u c h patronised in place of t h e schools m e n t i o n e d , b u t it m u s t be remembered t h a t t h e training o b t a i n e d i n these departments, although good, cannot become a s u b stitute for a t t e n d a n c e a t technical schools : t h e experience is of a different n a t u r e , a n d can only be s u p p l e m e n t a r y t o technical instruction. As regards t h e training a n d education of t h e workpeople engaged in t h e German textile a n d allied industries, t h e situation, t h e a u t h o r found, is very similar t o t h e s t a t e

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of affairs in this country. The employers are inducing the people t o attend technical classes, and t h e law is applying as much force as it can in t h e same direction, y e t few, other t h a n manufacturers' sons, are t a k i n g much interest in the special technical schools described. The a u t h o r found sons of English manufacturers in all p a r t s of Germany picking up whatever knowledge t h e y could. T h u s one of these gentlemen was a chemist with one of t h e largest and most famous of Miilhausen dye-works, a n o t h e r was a kind of an apprentice in a Miinchen-Gladbach works where cotton blankets and other raised goods were m a n u factured, and m a n y were being entertained b y t h e colour manufacturers. Turning to the United States, we find t h a t schools of the class above described are springing u p in m o s t textile centres. The Fall River Textile School contains a small chemical laboratory and a dye-house containing v a t s for hank-dyeing, a machine for warp-dyeing, drying cylinders for warps, and other yarn-dyeing apparatus. T h e dyehouse is designed to supply t h e weaving department, a n d contains no piece-dyeing machines. The instructor t h o u g h t t h a t the schools of this class ought merely t o supply theii own needs, but admitted t h a t such a procedure did n o t give scope for instruction in piece-dyeing, printing, etc., and therefore did not encourage research in these branches of the industry. Some people in t h e t o w n of Fall River consider the school a valuable institution, whereas others laugh a t it and say a lad can learn as m u c h in t h e works in a month as he can learn i n t h e school in a year. These facts serve t o show t h a t technical education has h a d t o fight against a good deal of prejudice in America as well as in England, and t h a t t h e American is n o t so eager for technical education as some people in this country are a p t to think. Lowell, Massachusetts, has a fine-looking school, which was built very capacious t o allow for future demands. The author was informed t h a t t h e intention of t h e school was to train engineers t o become managers. All s t u d e n t s were expected t o go through t h e whole course; there were a few special students, b u t these are n o t encouraged, as a general all-round training in t h e engineering, electrical,

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chemical, a n d textile d e p a r t m e n t s was aimed a t . P r o m t i e cheinical d e p a r t m e n t , which is fairly large, m a n y chemists obtain positions l a t h e local works. T h e department foi woollen manufacture is particularly good ; some Yorkshire b u t mainly Massachusetts machines are installed. F o r cotton-dyeing, t h e equipment consists of t w o jiggers, a Klauder-Weldon dyeing machine, drying cylinders, a n d a few other machines. Trials were mostly done on a n experimental scale : t h u s some mercerising trials were being performed a t t h e time of t h e a u t h o r ' s visit. B o t h h e i e a n d a t Fall R i v e r t i e machinery was driven electrically. As regards t h e staff of t h e school, one noticed t h a t one dyeing instructor hailed from Manchester, t h e head of t h e weaving d e p a r t m e n t from Preston, while m o s t of t h e other professors a n d instructors were educated a t t h e Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e of Technology or a t t h e other technological i n s t i t u t i o n s in America. Some of t h e people of Lowell l o o t u p o n t h e school w i t h favour, others with amused contempt. The textile school a t New Bedford is very similar t o t h e one at Lowell. T h e school at Philadelphia, t h e oldest of its kind in t h e U n i t e d States, also requires little further description. The dye-house at t h e l a t t e r school contains t i e usual small-scale a p p a r a t u s for dyeing, y a r n - d y e i n g becks, a hydro-extractor, a small warp-dyeing machine, and a small printing-machine. Professor W a l k e r of t h e Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e of Technology describes industrial chemistry a s t h e introduction of t h e dollar i n t o t h e chemical equation, so t h a t i n his applied chemistry d e p a r t m e n t he tries t o bring t h e s t u d e n t into t o u c h with chemical industry. Thus one finds t h e s t u d e n t separating p u r e from crude salt, and "barium n i t r a t e from common salt b y means of a consideration of t h e respective solubility curves of these salts, m a k i n g G-lauber's salt, a n d afterwards designing a p l a n t for i t s manufacture. A n a t t e m p t is m a d e t o get t h e s t u d e n t t o think, a n d t h e element of cost is introduced d u r i n g t h e instruction. The principles of bleaching; a n d dyeing are t a u g h t , a a d t h e lectures a r e supplemented b y practical work. Special lectures, for example, on. calico p r i n t i n g a r e given from t i m e t o t i m e b y men. actually engaged in t h e industry. Very little

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instruction in dyeing is attempted. The director of applied chemistry said t h a t t h e students from his charge never went t o the textile schools, although he a d m i t t e d t h a t probably this was t h e best way for t h e m t o become of use. Yet he thought t h e chemist soon got into t h e work of t h e mill. Their idea was to train engineers, a n d t h e institute was really of the nature of a university. Their work overlapped t h a t of H a r v a r d University in t h e same city, b u t the University drew a different class of student. The number of their students h a d j u s t been reduced because the standard of t h e entrance examination h a d b e e n raised. At the primary schools, he t h o u g h t , t h e scholars were taught obscure unnecessary subjects, a n d w h e n t h e y wish to enter for higher education t h e y find t h a t t h e entrance examination is too difficult: if t h e y reduced t h e s t a n d a r d of this examination t h e duties of t h e s t u d e n t s of t h e school were then too heavy. I t is therefore evident t h a t t h e same difficulty exists in America as has troubled our educationists for some considerable time. At Columbia University, New York, a good feature of the chemical lectures is t h e inspection after t h e lecture of a large museum which contains m a n y interesting objects connected with t h e subject which has b e e n discussed. Visits t o works are paid, and memoirs h a v e t o be written giving an account of t h e observations m a d e . A little hankdyeing is done, being p a r t of a practical course connected with lectures on industrial chemistry given t o t h i r d and fourth year students. As may be gathered from t h e author's remarks, he is of the opinion t h a t t h e dyeing schools of other countries do not compare with those at, say, Manchester, Bradford, Glasgow, a n d Leeds, and even with m a n y others of lesser importance in these islands. J u s t as we lead in t h e production, preparation, dyeing, bleaching, p r i n t i n g and finishing of textiles, so also is this lead m a i n t a i n e d as far as the technical instruction applied t o these industries is concerned. Also it m u s t be said t h a t t h e r e is little difference between t h e positions of England, Germany, and America as regards t h e appreciation which m a n u facturers show of t h e training received a t these institutions. B u t although England is foremost i n this class of

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instruction, it m u s t be p a t e n t t o those knowing t h e conditions prevalent, t h a t there are m a n y respects in which our schools can be m a d e more useful, a n d in this way gain more recognition from commercial men. T h e technical school should be t h e centre from which t h e manufacturers obtain t h e latest t h o u g h t s a n d progress in their industries. F o r instance, a t t h e German colour-works, periodical conferences are held b y t h e technical staffs, when a n y progress in colour manufacture is discussed a n d opinions on t h e products of rival works are given. I n this w a y m u c h valuable information is propagated. The publication of a n abstract of these records would be exceedingly valuable t o t h e dyeing world, and, although t h e issue of such a volume is improbable, one can conceive of such a publication being compiled b y t h e staffs a n d s t u d e n t s of o u r technical institutes. Manchester could report on innovations in t h e dyeing of cotton goods, a n d Bradford a n d Leeds on t h e t r e a t m e n t of wool. I n this w a y m u c h valuable information could b e supplied t o t h e industry, a n d such a n action would meet with a response from t h e m a n u facturers. I n connection with t h e recently formed Textile I n s t i t u t e there is t h e intention of supplying information t o t h e t r a d e , b u t surely m u c h of this work ought t o b e performed b y our textile schools. I t is t o b e hoped, however, t h a t this institute will be i n s t r u m e n t a l i n acting as an intermediary between manufacture a n d t h e schools. Besides information concerning t h e properties of dye-stuffs, t h a t concerning machinery might also b e included in t h e report. Again, our technical schools might advantageously adopt lectures on economics, e.g. banking, t r a d e unionism, wages, organisation of i n d u s t r y a n d commerce, p a t e n t legislation, etc. Such lectures are given in some American institutions, a n d i t is evident t h a t instruction in t h e rudiments of these subjects, besides being interesting, would be extremely useful t o those entering i n d u s t r y . Another point in which t h e writer thinks our schools a r e lacking is t h a t concerning t h e prices of materials. T h e question of price should be held prominently before those evening students who are employed in works. W e k n o w t h a t t h e uses of dye-stuffs are constantly being altered

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because of cheaper substitutes being introduced, and a consideration of t h e prices of these substitutes along with their other a d v a n t a g e s a n d disadvantages is essential. I t is t r u e t h a t t h e price of a n artificial dye-stuff is a vague q u a n t i t y , v a r y i n g from district t o district a n d depending on competition a n d other factors, b u t a n idea of their a p p r o x i m a t e cost would b e very useful t o those students already engaged in or a b o u t t o enter t h e industry. One finds in a works t h a t such questions as cost of power, cost of damaged goods, a n d depreciation are factors which largely determine profits, whereas in t h e school one never gave such t h i n g s consideration. Of course, one soon becomes aware of t h e s e losses after entering t h e works, b u t a slight previous knowledge of works conditions would be extremely useful. I n t h e case of a s t u d e n t entering a dye-works direct from a university w i t h o u t previously passing t h r o u g h a technical school, t h e position is extremely a w k w a r d a n d discouraging. T h e employer is anxious t h a t his profit should b e increased, a n d expects t o be t a u g h t something. T h e chemist is in a m a z e : he is paralysed b y u n u s u a l circumstances, a n d sometimes is n o t allowed t i m e t o recover from his embarrassment. This period of e m b a r r a s s m e n t a n d consequent inactivity would h a v e b e e n m u c h s h o r t e r if t h e chemist h a d previously a t t e n d e d a technical school. Such institutions exist t o place h i m i n t o u c h w i t h i n d u s t r y . Chemists are thinkers, a n d as i n d u s t r y t h r i v e s in consequence of t h e t h o u g h t s of t h o s e engaged in it, it is necessary t h a t it should d r a w t h e g r e a t e s t t h i n k e r s . As regards t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t some British manufacturers h a v e little t r u s t in technical education, i t m u s t be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t a large n u m b e r of our manufacturers were originally w o r k i n g m e n , who b y v i r t u e of their ability a n d their thrift w o r k e d themselves into their present positions. 1 These m e n do n o t u n d e r s t a n d w h a t technical education really signifies, a n d therefore t h e y c a n n o t be expected t o b e v e r y enthusiastic i n its praise. B u t t h e danger arises w h e n t h e s e m a n u f a c t u r e r s communicate
1 See Prof. S. J. Chapman and F. J. Marquis, "The Recruiting of the Employing Classes from the Ranks of the Wage-Earners in the Cotton Industry," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society9 vol. lxv. pp. 293-313.

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their ideas t o their sons, who in consequence are quite content with t h e education supplied b y t h e local g r a m m a r school, a n d begin work under their father's care at t h e age of a b o u t fifteen years. I t is t r u e t h a t this age is t h r e e or more years later t h a n t h a t a t which t h e father m a d e a start, b u t considering m o d e r n developments it is far too soon. W h a t was sufficient for t h e father is b y no means satisfactory for t h e son, if we are t o t r a i n a new generation of scientific employers ; a n d every manufacturer should give his sons a chance of a scientific education a n d some technical training. I t will be found t h a t four or five years spent i n such training before entering t h e works will yield ample returns, a n d will be far m o r e valuable t h a n m a n y years of industrial experience, for i t will b e found t h a t problems arising in t h e works will b e far more easily grappled with. E a c h year of experience in t h e works is a p t t o follow a law of diminishing r e t u r n s , in t h e sense t h a t during t h e first few years m u c h is learned, while in subsequent years fresh knowledge is acquired a t a much less rapid r a t e . I t is for this reason t h a t works experience can be advantageously deferred until a system of mind training h a s been undergone. B u t i t is impossible t o obtain this mind training after one has entered t h e works, t h a t is, when one is o l d e r ; t h e scientific t r a i n i n g m u s t be obtained while young, a n d m u s t follow t h e ordinary school training.

CHAPTEE

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PROGRESS Itf THE INDUSTRY DURING THE WAR PERIOD Research WorkBleachingDyeingRe-dyeingMercerisingPrinting Finishing. T H I S branch of chemical industry has, like other b r a n c h e s , been affected b y t h e war. The n a t u r e of t h e p r o d u c t i o n s of m a n y works has been entirely c h a n g e d ; t h e s c a r c i t y of certain chemicals has caused rigid economy i n t h e employment of s u b s t i t u t e s ; a n d t h e interference w i t h the dye-stuff supply h a s caused m a n y difficulties. I n fact, it is remarkable t h a t t h e industry h a s been k e p t going in spite of all t h e difficulties. Various new machines have been described, b u t , in the cases where full details h a v e been given, t h e r e does n o t seem t o have been a n y revolutionary change. M a n y of the inventions h a v e been devised for special classes of work. As in most other industries, n o t engaged d i r e c t l y in t h e production of munitions of war, less research t h a n usual has t a k e n p l a c e ; owing t o t h e scarcity of l a b o u r and other troubles, t h e managers a n d technical m e n h a v e required all t h e i r energies t o keep t h e works going, and have found little time for e x p e r i m e n t a n d t h e development of new processes. I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , however, a large a m o u n t of research in textile c h e m i s t r y has been performed in recent y e a r s ; in t h e c o u n t r i e s which entered t h e w a r a t a n early stage t h e best b r a i n s were devoted t o research connected with m u n i t i o n s , chemists being d r a w n from other industries. This branch of applied chemistry h a s always a t t r a c t e d a number of chemists, p e r h a p s m o r e t h a n m o s t o t h e r branches of chemical industry. W h e t h e r these c h e m i s t s h a v e been of t h e first r a n k m a y b e disputed in s o m e 94

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q u a r t e r s , b u t c e r t a i n i t is t h a t , in a n u n o s t e n t a t i o u s w a y , t h e y h a v e b r o u g h t t h e i n d u s t r y t o a h i g h degree of scientific d e v e l o p m e n t . This d e v e l o p m e n t h a s also been assisted b y t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i n d u s t r y a n d t h e aniline dye-stuff i n d u s t r y , w h i c h is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t highly developed, in a scientific sense, of all industries. Y e t it m u s t b e a d m i t t e d t h a t a m o n g m a n a g e r s a n d technical m e n e m p l o y e d i n t h e i n d u s t r y t h e r e is u s u a l l y a r e t i c e n t feeling, a feeling w h i c h k e e p s t h e m from discussing t h e i r successes a n d t r o u b l e s w i t h o t h e r s outside t h e works. T h e y a l w a y s a p p e a r e x t r e m e l y a n x i o u s n o t t o divulge a n y t h i n g of v a l u e , a n d in some cases a r e given s t r i c t i n j u n c t i o n s b y t h e i r superiors t o t h a t effect. " S e c r e t s , " however, leak o u t , a n d i t is i n t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e i n d u s t r y as a whole t h a t discussions o n scientific a n d technical p o i n t s should t a k e p l a c e . I t is gratifying t o n o t e t h a t r e s e a r c h i n t h e i n d u s t r y has r e c e n t l y received official recognition a n d s u p p o r t . Committees h a v e b e e n formed b y t h e S o c i e t y of D y e r s a n d Colourists, p r o b l e m s selected a n d g r a n t s in aid of research m a d e ; a n u m b e r of p r o b l e m s h a v e b e e n considered b y c o m m i t t e e s a p p o i n t e d b y t h e T e x t i l e I n s t i t u t e a n d a n i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r i n v e s t i g a t e d ; a n d t h e Society of Chemical I n d u s t r y h a s received g r a n t s in a i d of a research b e a r i n g o n t h e t e c h n i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e i n d u s t r y u n d e r review. Some progress h a s b e e n m a d e t o w a r d s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a C o t t o n R e s e a r c h Association, t o b e d e v o t e d t o research in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h industries using t h e c o t t o n fibre, a n d also t o t h e e d u c a tion, p a r t i c u l a r l y t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n , of t h o s e engaged in t h e i n d u s t r y . A W o o l R e s e a r c h Association h a s b e e n formed a n d a d i r e c t o r a p p o i n t e d . P r e l i m i n a r y s t e p s h a v e been t a k e n b y t h e Silk Association t o form a Silk R e s e a r c h Association, a n d a l r e a d y researches h a v e b e e n i n s t i t u t e d . The D e p a r t m e n t of Scientific a n d I n d u s t r i a l R e s e a r c h h a s a r r a n g e d w i t h t h e I r i s h linen m a n u f a c t u r e r s for t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a R e s e a r c h Association, a n d t h i s b o d y has also m a d e a g r a n t t o t h e T e x t i l e I n s t i t u t e t o assist in t h e cost of i t s j o u r n a l , t h a t is, t o ensure t h e a b s t r a c t ing of m a t t e r of i n t e r e s t t o t e x t i l e w o r k e r s . Of t h e a c t u a l research p e r f o r m e d a n u m b e r of p a p e r s

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have been published b y t h e Society of D y e r s a n d Colourists a n d grants in aid have been m a d e . The list of proposed investigations is long, b u t difficulty h a s b e e n experienced in getting suitable workers t o c a r r y o u t t h e researches. There seems t o be a public a w a k e n i n g t o t h e necessity for the application of research t o i n d u s t r y ^ A large amount of work is awaiting execution, b u t i t will be necessary to see t h a t i t is b e g u n on a r i g h t basis if t h e industries are to obtain t h e full benefit. Moreover, i t is well t o remember t h a t such work will d e p e n d for its success upon t h e progress of p u r e c h e m i s t r y . G r e a t efforts will require t o be made t o keep u p this e n t h u s i a s m for research. I t has already been p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t is a great mistake t o state t h a t t h e G e r m a n d y e i n g i n d u s t r y is in advance of ours. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , j u s t as t h i s country is foremost in textile m a n u f a c t u r e , so also is this lead k e p t as regards t h e subsidiary i n d u s t r i e s of bleaching, dyeing, printing, and finishing. B u t this p o s i t i o n should n o t suffice. Now t h a t we h a v e t h e lead, i t b e h o v e s u s t o keep it, a n d research will be one m e a n s t o t h a t end. Notable papers have recently a p p e a r e d o n t h e application of physics to textiles, a n d s u c h p a p e r s , b y inducing entirely new t h o u g h t s on these m a t t e r s , a r e b o u n d t o lead to results of industrial i m p o r t a n c e , a l t h o u g h i t m u s t be admitted t h a t chemical investigations i n t h i s field apparently offer more chance of i m m e d i a t e r e t u r n s . Leeds has of late become p r o m i n e n t in t h e application of physical science t o t h e textile i n d u s t r y , a n d a n u m b e r of industrial concerns, which h a v e t a k e n u p research in textiles, have catered for t h e physical side. F e w of t h e results obtained b y these concerns, h o w e v e r , a r e likely to see print. This is a s t a t e of affairs u n p l e a s a n t t o contemplate. Certainly, results of scientific i n t e r e s t o n l y could be published without a n y indication being given of how the results have been applied to i n d u s t r y . T h e publication of such results if it does nothing else m a k e s a w o r k e r t a k e more interest in scientific journals t h a n he otherwise would. A recent r e p o r t 1 states t h a t t h e offer of 150 a y e a r Report of the Committee appointed by the Prime Minister to inquire into the position of natural science in the educational system of Great Britain, 1918, p. 73.
1

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(as a pre-war s t a n d a r d ) is n o t sufficient t o entice good m e n i n t o i n d u s t r y ; b u t t h e present writer t h i n k s t h a t t h i s initial remuneration, provided good prospects and a d d i t i o n a l rewards for successful results are offered, will b e sufficient t o a t t r a c t students t o this particular i n d u s t r y . T h e n u m b e r of university graduates a t present engaged in t h e i n d u s t r y is n o t large. I n the p a s t s t u d e n t s h a v e been w a r n e d n o t t o t a k e u p this profession, because t h e outlook w a s p o o r and t h e chances of promotion small. B u t t h e i n d u s t r y requires these m e n if it is t o m a k e progress. I t is a remarkable fact t h a t a t different works similar r e s u l t s are achieved b y different processes. N o b o d y seems t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y t h e variety of processes a r e used. e x c e p t t h a t t h e y h a v e been found successful for years. One p r i n t works uses lime boiling for preparing t h e cloth, a n d a n o t h e r works, n o t m a n y h u n d r e d y a r d s a w a y , uses c a u s t i c soda boiling. Because b o t h m e t h o d s give satisf a c t o r y results no further a t t e n t i o n is paid t o t h e m a t t e r ; in i n d u s t r y results, n o t methods, are considered, p r o v i d e d e c o n o m y is achieved. The processes mentioned are n o t y e t fully understood, a n d i t is in m a t t e r s of t h i s kind t h a t research is required. I t m u s t n o t be t h o u g h t , however, t h a t a scientific chemist entering t h e i n d u s t r y can solve all t h e difficulties encountered. Textile c h e m i s t r y is o n e of t h e m o s t difficult branches of technical science, a n d long a n d painstaking research is required before a n y conclusions whatever can be arrived a t . T h e reason t h a t textile chemistry is so difficult a n d d e p e n d s so m u c h on experience, is because t h e chemist is d e a l i n g w i t h substances or mixtures of substances, t h e chemical constitutions of which are u n k n o w n . For i n s t a n c e r a w vegetable fibres c o n t a i n : (1) cellulose, on w h i c h a large a m o u n t of research h a s been performed, b u t n o definite ideas gained as t o its c o n s t i t u t i o n ; (2) waxes, t h e t h o r o u g h investigation of which h a s only r e c e n t l y been commenced ; (3) proteins, t h e chemistry of w h i c h is extremely complex, a n d t h e constitution u n d e t e r m i n e d ; (4) pectic matter, a b o u t which little is k n o w n ; (5) colouring matters of undetermined constitution; and (6) mineral matter} This collection of s u b s t a n c e s of 1 Barnes has recently shomi that raw cotton gives as much as 1% of ash H

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unknown chemical constitution serves t o i n d i c a t e w h y t h e industry was founded on empiricism r a t h e r t h a n on a scientific basis. The bleacher, dyer, a n d p r i n t e r of textiles first aims a t separating t h e non-cellulose c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e fibre from the cellulose: t h e bleacher's d u t y is t o merely make this separation i n t h e best a n d m o s t economical way he can and with t h e least possible i n j u r y t o t h e fibre. The methods used are t h e m e t h o d s of accumulated experience, b u t chemical knowledge is being found of assistance. A t t h e present time a large a m o u n t of w o r k is being done ? all over t h e world, on t h e constituents of v e g e t a b l e products, and this work will affect m a n y i n d u s t r i e s . F o r instance, work on t h e constituents of textile fibres will have a marked influence on t h e textile i n d u s t r i e s a n d their subsidiary industries, for progress i n t e x t i l e m a n u facture will depend on our knowledge of t h e w a x e s , p r o teins, a n d pectins of p l a n t fibres. E e c e n t w o r k on t h e action of chlorine on proteins is of interest, a n d serves t o show t h e connection of a n i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r y w i t h a branch of biological chemistry. Much work h a s already been done on t h e constituents of t h e c o t t o n fibre, b u t t h e subject is a very large one. P e r h a p s t h e p r o p o s e d Cotton Research I n s t i t u t e could n o t m a k e a b e t t e r s t a r t t h a n the investigation of this subject. F u r t h e r , t h i s I n s t i t u t e in the first place ought t o get t h e s u p p o r t of c h e m i s t s a n d others engaged in t h e different branches of t h e i n d u s t r y . B y discussions between chemists engaged i n k i n d r e d industries m u t u a l benefit would b e derived a n d m u c h duplication of labour .avoided. Moreover, t h e work of t h e proposed Cotton Research I n s t i t u t e would b e greatly assisted b y t h e co-operation of t h e chemists m e n t i o n e d , for these men, w i t h a thorough knowledge of t h e chemical and other sides of their industries, would b e of g r e a t use in organising this research work. Careful organisation would be of far more use t h a n financial assistance from t h e Government. The sooner i n d u s t r y l e a r n s t h a t research p a y s t h e b e t t e r i t will b e for industryI t is not o u t of place here t o q u o t e t h e following on incineration, and the variable mineral content af ects the properties of the fibre daring dyeing and other operations (Jour. 8oc. Chem. Med.,l19l6, 1191).

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r e m a r k s b y B . J o h n s o n a n d R . W . H o v e y (J. Soc. Cliem. Ind., 1918, 136 T ) : " Cross a n d B e v a n claim t h a t t h e cellulose residues obtained from wood are n o t t r u e celluloses of t h e same t y p e as cotton cellulose, b u t t h a t t h e y are^ i n properties, t r u e oxycelluloses, giving furfurol as a t y p i c a l reaction. I t must, however, b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t t h e furfurol reaction is b y n o means a characteristic rea c t i o n for oxycellulose, since, for instance, t h e typical oxycellulose o b t a i n e d b y t r e a t i n g cotton w i t h bleaching p o w d e r solution does n o t give t h e reaction. Moreover, t h e s e cellulose residues do n o t show t h e m o s t t y p i c a l oxycellulose reaction, namely, t h e high reducing power ( c o p p e r n u m b e r ) . " T h e n M. Cunningham (CJiem. Soc. Trans., 1918, 113, 173-181) states t h a t t h e whole question of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e cellulose complex remains open, a n d Cross a n d B e v a n (ibid. 182-187) t h r o w d o u b t o n t h e u s u a l l y accepted furfuroid-pentosan relationship. T h e p r e s e n t writer also t h i n k s t h a t t h e celluloses should b e r e g r o u p e d , or a t least some definite distinction should b e d r a w n between t h e groups suitable for p l a n t physiologists a n d t h o s e suitable for chemists. W i t h t h e a d v a n c e i n our knowledge of t h e constituents of fibres, these fibres s h o u l d now be classed according t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e cellulose t h e y yield on t r e a t m e n t . F o r instance, c o t t o n a n d flax fibres contain similar non-cellulose constituents, a l t h o u g h t h e proportions of these constituents a r e q u i t e different in t h e t w o cases, a n d t h e celluloses, which are i s o l a t e d from these fibres b y t h e bleaching process, are chemically indistinguishable. These fibres ought, therefore, t o be classed i n t h e same chemical group, i n spite of t h e fact t h a t one is a seed hair a n d t h e o t h e r a b a s t fibre.1 T h e use of such t e r m s as p u r e , pecto- or adipocelluloses are n o t required t o distinguish these fibres. I t is t r u e t h a t flax contains a small q u a n t i t y of woody m a t t e r , b u t this is of little importance in t h e n u m e r o u s o p e r a t i o n s t h r o u g h which t h e fibre is p u t , a n d t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t flax cellulose is more easily hydrolysed t h a n c o t t o n cellulose is n o t supported b y t h e observation of
1 It has been shown (E. Heuser and A. Haug, Z. angew. Chem., 1918, 31, 166, 172; /., 1918, 650 A) that the cellulose separated from straw is indistinguishable from cotton cellulose.

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t h e p r e s e n t writer t h a t forty hours 5 boiling of scoured linen y a r n s , u n d e r pressure w i t h alkalis, h a d n o a p p a r e n t weakening effect. If, after isolating t h e cellulose from a fibre, this cellulose is found t o be different chemically from t h e cellulose of cotton, t h e r e is justification for p u t t i n g i t in a n o t h e r chemical g r o u p ; b u t if i t is n o t chemically different t h e n i t should b e grouped with cotton. Grouping i n this m a n n e r will t e n d t o simplify m a t t e r s a n d enable some order t o b e introduced into t h e present chaos of cellulose c h e m i s t r y . I n t h e case of a n o t h e r c a r b o h y d r a t e , viz. sugar, existing in p l a n t s , sucrose is given t h a t designation, w h e t h e r i t b e isolated from t h e sugar-cane, beet, or t h e m a p l e t r e e . If, however, t h e sugar isolated is n o t identical w i t h sucrose, i t is p u t in a n o t h e r class. I t is t r u e t h a t i n t h e case of sugar, which is crystallisable, t h e g r o u p i n g is simpler t h a n in t h e case of different forms of cellulose, b u t t h e case of starch in t h e vegetable k i n g d o m forms a b e t t e r analogy. I t is k n o w n t h a t all forms of s t a r c h occurring in t h e vegetable k i n g d o m a r e n o t precisely t h e same, 1 a n d all samples, like t h e celluloses, yield a small a m o u n t of ash on incineration, showing t h a t t h e y a r e complex s u b s t a n c e s ; y e t it m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t collecting all t h e forms of starch t o g e t h e r a n d calling t h e m " s t a r c h " h a s simplified m a t t e r s a n d assisted progress in o p e r a t i o n s i n which starch takes part. A n i m p o r t a n t m e t h o d of bleaching h a s b e e n outlined b y Levine (J. Ind. Eng. Chew., 1916, 8, 298-302), who showed t h a t t h e ether-soluble a n d nitrogenous constituents of cotton cloth c a n b e r e m o v e d b y t h e action of certain bacteria in a n u t r i e n t solution c o n t a i n i n g certain inorganic s a l t s ; t h e cloth is m e r e l y i m m e r s e d in t h e solution instead of being scoured w i t h lime or caustic soda. R o h m (Eng. P a t . 100224, 1916) t r e a t s r a w c o t t o n with a 0 - 1 % solution of p a n c r e a t i n a t 20-40 C. for some hours a n d t h e n bleaches i n t h e u s u a l w a y . H e l a t e r (ibid. 107191, 1916) p r o t e c t s t h e use of t h i s solution for t h e cleansing of o t h e r articles t h a n textiles, a n d K w a i s h a (ibid. 106503, 1917) uses t h e p r o t e o l y t i c enzymes in 4 t h e juice e x t r a c t e d from t h e bodies or cocoons of insects 1 See A. R. Ling, Annual Reports, 1917, 406.

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or silkworms i n o r d e r t o dissolve t h e sericin a n d loosen the fibres of silk. T h e u s e of e n z y m e s i n t h e bleaching of cotton is of i n t e r e s t ; p r e v i o u s l y t h e y h a d b e e n used extensively t o r e m o v e t h e size from c o t t o n c l o t h before scouring, b u t in t h i s n e w d e v e l o p m e n t t h e action of t h e enzyme is t a k e n further, n a m e l y , t o e l i m i n a t e t h e f a t t y m a t t e r a n d t h e p r o t e i n s from t h e fibre. T h e following questions, however, a r i s e : (1) Can all t h e i m p u r i t i e s be removed w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o o r d i n a r y s c o u r i n g ; (2) H o w does t h e cost of t h e e n z y m e a n d n u t r i e n t solutions c o m p a r e w i t h t h a t of o r d i n a r y scouring solutions ; a n d (3) If lime salts are p r e s e n t i n t h e n u t r i e n t solution is i t necessary t o t r e a t w i t h acid after t h e a c t i o n of t h e e n z y m e s in order t o e l i m i n a t e t h e lime ? I t m u s t n o t b e f o r g o t t e n t h a t some e n z y m e s a t t a c k cellulose, a n d unless t h i s a c t i o n be p r e v e n t e d t h e m e t h o d s of cleansing m e n t i o n e d m a y h a v e an effect o n t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e fibre, j u s t as overr e t t i n g r o t s linen. I t m i g h t b e difficult t o s t o p t h e action when t h e non-cellulose c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e fibre h a v e been r e m o v e d a n d t h e cellulose itself n o t a t t a c k e d . Caustic soda boiling is found t o h a v e n o deleterious a c t i o n on cellulose, e v e n o n boiling w i t h t h a t solution for 40 h o u r s u n d e r pressure. Moreover, w e a k c a u s t i c s o d a s o l u t i o n is a n ideal cleansing a g e n t for textiles, since i t r e m o v e s t h e waxes b y saponification ; i t is t h e b e s t h y d r o l y s i n g a g e n t for proteins, a n d i t eliminates t h e pectic m a t t e r from t h e fibre. P e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i n bleaching is t o h a v e a safe m e t h o d of s e p a r a t i n g t h e cellulose. O n l y safe m e t h o d s c a n s u r v i v e . A method might be very scientific a n d economical, b u t if i t results i n a n occasional lot of goods b e i n g " t e n d e r e d / ' t h e n t h e e c o n o m y of t h e method disappears a n d t h e method cannot survive. I n fact, m e t h o d s w h i c h r e q u i r e careful scientific c o n t r o l i n order t o s a v e t e n d e r i n g d o n o t c o m m e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o bleachers; methods which are n o t risky a n d can be e n t r u s t e d t o w o r k m e n n o t scientifically t r a i n e d a r e p r e ferred. S o m e t i m e ago a m e t h o d of b l e a c h i n g c o t t o n in one o p e r a t i o n w a s described. T h e c o t t o n w a s h e a t e d in t h e kier a l o n g w i t h t h e scouring liquor, t o w h i c h w a s added a c e r t a i n q u a n t i t y of a m a n g a n e s e salt, a n d air was passed t h r o u g h t h e goods while i n t h e kier. T h e

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idea was t o oxidise t h e m a n g a n o u s s a l t b y t h e air, t h e oxidised salt being reduced t o its original s t a t e b y o x i d i s ing the non-cellulose constituents of t h e fibre, a n d t h u s b y a cycle of operations oxidising, a n d therefore b l e a c h ing, t h e cotton during t h e scouring operation. The m e t h o d is ideal from the chemical s t a n d p o i n t . T h e w r i t e r h a s n o t heard if this process of b l e a c h i n g h a s s u r v i v e d , b u t thinks t h e point mentioned a b o v e , n a m e l y , risk of tendering, would sooner or later cause i t s d i s c o n t i n u a n c e . The cause of the yellowing of bleached c o t t o n on s t e a m ing and storing has lately been discussed. Levine (Journ. Ind.Eng.Chem., 1916 3 8,298-302) confirms U e b d e n ' s (Journ, Soc. Chew, hid., 1914, 959) conclusion t h a t t h e t u r n i n g yellow is p a r t l y due to n i t r o g e n o u s i m p u r i t i e s ; b u t h e also finds t h a t the ether-soluble i m p u r i t i e s h a v e s o m e a c t i o n . Freiberger (Z. angew. Chem., 191G, 29,397) s t a t e s t h a t clot h bleached with cold hypochlorite solution a n d t h e n s c o u r e d did n o t keep so well on storing a s t h e s a m e cloth b l e a c h e d in a warm alkaline a n d t h e n a w a r m acid bleaching b a t h . The present writer (p. 103) found that* a n y of t h e residua] non-cellulose constituents of fibre h a d t h e effect of c a u s i n g yellowing on storing, a n d t h a t t h e o n l y m e t h o d of p r e venting this fault was by p r o p e r scouring before1, b l e a c h i n g . The present writer r e m e m b e r s a case of c o t t o n p i e c e goods being bleached b y wotting o u t , Maturating w i t h bleaching powder solution, allowing t o lie for some t i m e , washing, scouring, and again w a s h i n g . Goods b k w h e d in this way were a fair white b u t would probably d e teriorate on storage. T h e y would c e r t a i n l y lose t h e i r whiteness on steaming, because t h e non-cdlulo.se c o n stituents of t h e cloth had merely been oxidised on t h e fibre and only partially r e m o v e d . T h e fats and w a x e s are n o t destroyed b y t h e hypochlorite, a n d on s t e a m i n g t h e y melt, t h u s causing the cloth t o become d a r k e r in colour. Linen which h a d been given n t h r e e - q u a r t e r bleach was found t o t u r n yellow o n s t e a m i n g , a n d t h e only w a y t o p r e v e n t this c h a n g e of colour wan b y bringing t h e bleach from a t h r e e - q u a r t e r t o a full w h i t e (S. H . Higgins, J. 8oc. Dyers and Col, IMS, 34, 3 5 ) , M. Freiberger (Father-ZciL, J 9 1 7 , 28, 2 2 1 , 235, 24$)) concludes t h a t fats p l a y no a p p r e c i a b l e p a r t in t h e

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\m

yellowing of goods d u r i n g s t e a m i n g , whereas y q u i n s ' 1 cause yellowing d u r i n g b o t h d r y h e a t i n g ami s t e a m i n g He states t h a t t h e yellowing is d u e t o /*-oxynlIulow<>.. 1Ic. cm phasises t h e a d v a n t a g e of u s i n g w a r m .sodium h y p o e h l o n t c containing a n excess of s o d a , s i n c e . #>o<!s rheiin<vc| in t h e o r d i n a r y w a y show a m u c h s t r o n g e r discoioraiion. The a u t h o r w o u l d r e q u i r e t o s t a t e more fully wiiai lie m e a n s b y t h e " g u m s " of c o t t o n , a n d perliups sonic further i n f o r m a t i o n m i g h t b e d e s i r e d c o n c e r n i n g wlial. he designates a s /3-oxycellulose. As r e g a r d s t h e t e n d e r i n g oi: b l e a c h i n g vegetable yam;-; during s t o r a g e , t h i s f a u l t h a s b e e n shown by I l u p i n s (he; ait.) t o b e d u e t o m i n e r a l a c i d s which h a v e not, heen completely w a s h e d o u t of t h e g o o d s . If. was shown fh;i.(. acid was v e r y difficult t o w a s h , o u t - of vc^vinblc lil>rc;;. I n t h e " c r e a m i n g " of linen y a r n s t h e n 1 , is a *n*.a.l <i; n^y.v o!' leaving acid i n t h e y a r n s a f t e r t h e hist washinir process, a n d this acid m i g h t s u b s e q u e n t l y c u u w t-rcul)l<. " (-nNuni n g " could h e p r o d u c e d w i t h lesti risk by using wxliuni hypochlorite a n d d i s p e n s i n g w i t h tin*. ncn\ trwiiun%ii\> altogether. B o t h a s r e g a r d s l i n e n a m ! c o t t o n the: writer was u n a b l e t o agree w i t h C r o s s , H e v a n , a n d Brig&s (Joum. Sod. Chem. Ind., 1908, 2 6 0 ) t h a t chlonuniiics have* imp o r t a n t functions i n b l e a c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s . In U\ci, his experiments pointed t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n tlml rhlonuninrs were of no i n t e r e s t t o t h e b l e a c h e r . ('. I*1. <!r<ss r^.f>1 I<MI b y l e t t e r t o t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d conclusions, and lufrr J . F . Briggs t o o k u p t h e s u b j e c t . R(a<l<>rs arc refctnvd t o those l e t t e r s a n d also t o t w o b y Mm pmswil, writer in t h e same j o u r n a l ( J . Soc. Dyers and doL, I1>1 s, 34, 70, 127, 176 ? 302). T h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r c a n n o t he expected t o give a n i m p a r t i a l view of t h i n c o n t r o v e r s y ; h u t p e r h a p s i t is sufficient t o s a y t h a t h i s f u r t h e r work has shown t h a t , after t h e scouring o p e r a t i o n s generally used in t h e bleaching of c o t t o n a n d l i n e n g o o d s , thene fihreH c o n t a i n practically n o p r o t e i n s . A l k a l i s a re, excellent Holvenfn for proteins, a n d in t h e long b o i l i n g w i t h alkalis in eorninereml bleaching o p e r a t i o n s t h e p r o t e i n * * a n : effectively r e m o v e d . As a consequence, w h e n t h e s e f i b r e s e n t e r t h e bleaching powder solution for t h e first t i m e t h e y c o n t a i n practically n o p r o t e i n s . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f o r m i n g c h l o r a m i n e s is

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therefore small, e x c e p t of course from a n y proteins present in t h e w a t e r u s e d i n m a k i n g u p t h e hypochlorite b a t h s . I n this connection i t is interesting t o n o t e t h e claim (C. B e n n e r t , Ger. P a t . 304003 ; ^ J., 1918, 412 A) t h a t p r o t e m s on hydrolysis w i t h caustic alkalis yield products which, on t r e a t i n g w i t h calcium or m a g n e s i u m hydroxide, give substances useful as detergents a n d employed in dyeing a n d p r i n t i n g . T h a t scouring increases t h e s t r e n g t h a n d elasticity of cotton y a r n h a s been confirmed ( F . J . Jecusco, J. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1917, 33, 34-38). If, however, t h e y a r n was n o t properly scoured before t r e a t m e n t w i t h t h e hypochlorite solution, t h e r e w a s a n a c t u a l loss in strength. (See also Higgins, / . Text Ins., 1916, 38.) Seel and Sander (Z. angew. Chem,., 1916, 20, 261) found n o struct u r a l modification of c o t t o n a n d linen, w h e n viewed under t h e microscope, after t r e a t i n g w i t h acids, alkalis, a n d oxidising a g e n t s . W o o l , however, w a s affected b y alkaline boiling, a n d soap i n s t e a d of soda ash w a s recomm e n d e d for t h i s work. Korselt (Ger. P a t . 287240, 1913) claims t h e use of hypochlorite solutions of gradually increasing, instead of decreasing, c o n c e n t r a t i o n . This m e t h o d m a y produce a good white b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t a c h e a p one, considering t h e a m o u n t of s t r o n g h y p o c h l o r i t e w h i c h is retained b y the cloth, a n d lost in t h e s u b s e q u e n t w a s h i n g process. Briggs ( / . Soc. Chem. Ind., 1916, 799) discusses t h e economy of hypochlorites in bleaching operations. T h e t h e o r y of t h e bleaching action of hypochlorites h a s been t h e subject of m u c h c o n t r o v e r s y (Higgins, ibid., 1913, 350, 359, 1064, 1 1 5 3 ; 785, 1152 ; Taylor, ibid. 38), b u t it now seems t o b e established t h a t t h e i r bleaching action is due t o (1) t h e d i r e c t p r o d u c t i o n of n a s c e n t oxygen b y t h e hypochlorites, a n d (2) t h e p r o d u c t i o n of nascent chlorine b y t h e a c t i o n of t h e h y p o c h l o r o u s acid present in solution on t h e chlorides also p r e s e n t . A n u m b e r of observations b e a r i n g o n t h i s discussion h a v e recently been m a d e . I t was f o u n d (C. Vallery, Comptes Rend., 1916, 326) t h a t very dilute solutions of hypochlorites decompose slowly, t h e velocity of decomposition being a p p a r e n t l y represented b y a portion of a rectangular hyperbola. It

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h a d previously b e e n s h o w n (Higgins, J . Chem. Soc, 1913, 1816) t h a t t h e velocity of t h e bleaching a c t i o n of such solutions could b e r e p r e s e n t e d in a similar m a n n e r . Pdcci ( J . Soc. Chem. Ind., 1915, 714) s t a t e s t h a t t h e addition of chlorides, as a rule, h a s little effect on t h e stability of hypochlorites, a l t h o u g h u n d e r some c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e addition h a s a n a p p r e c i a b l e effect on t h e s t a b i l i t y a n d bleaching efficiency of t h e solutions (Higgins, ibid., 1911, 185). A. S m i t h (ibid., 1916, 185) s u p p o r t s previous work (Higgins, loo. cit.), showing t h a t b l e a c h i n g powder solution a n d s o d i u m h y p o c h l o r i t e solution p r o d u c e d b y t h e electrolysis of c o m m o n salt solution give identical results i n b l e a c h i n g processes. T h e p i n k colour of h y p o chlorite solutions, s o m e t i m e s n o t i c e d in l a b o r a t o r y experiments, b u t seldom n o w a d a y s in c o m m e r c i a l liquors, h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e presence of f e r r a t e s ; b u t further w o r k h a s s h o w n (Elledge, / . Ind. Eng. Chem., 1916, 780) t h a t i t is d u e t o p e r m a n g a n a t e s , t h e m a n g a n e s e being d e r i v e d from t h e b l e a c h i n g p o w d e r . T h e p r e s e n t writer h a d n o t i c e d t h i s p i n k colour in h y p o c h l o r i t e solutions i n c o n t a c t w i t h m a n g a n e s e c o m p o u n d s , such as m a n g a n e s e dioxide ( J . Soc. Chem. Ind., 1913, 359). I t is interesting t o n o t e t h e u s e of a m i x t u r e of bleaching powder a n d boric acid a s a powerful a n t i s e p t i c in s u r g e r y . This m i x t u r e h a d p r e v i o u s l y been u s e d b y chemists t o p r e p a r e h y p o c h l o r o u s acid b y distillation, a n d t h e p r e s e n t writer showed (ibid., 1914, 1152), b y a d d i n g boric acid t o hypochlorite solutions, t h a t a n e x t r e m e l y a c t i v e bleaching solution was p r o d u c e d . The c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n bleaching solutions a n d antiseptics u s e d i n s u r g e r y h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t (Higgins, J. Soc. Dyers and Col., 1918, 33, 189), since all t h e h y p o chlorites w h i c h h a v e b e e n u s e d i n different forms during t h e w a r h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n u s e d as b l e a c h i n g agents, t h u s strikingly showing t h e r e l a t i o n w h i c h exists between different b r a n c h e s of e x p e r i m e n t a l science. S o d i u m h y p o chlorite p r o d u c e d b y electrolysing a solution of c o m m o n salt c o n t a i n s a large a m o u n t of u n a l t e r e d s a l t ; b y adding boric acid t o t h i s solution a n ideal a n t i s e p t i c for surgical purposes would be produced. R e g a r d i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s of h y p o c h l o r i t e s t h e r e m a r k s

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of R . L. Taylor (J. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1917, 33, 2 4 6 ; / . , 1918, 86 A) on t h e effect of exposure t o light are of i n t e r e s t t o bleachers. H e had previously (Chem: Soc. Trans., 1910, 97, 2541) suggested exposing hypochlorite solutions t o air before use in order to increase t h e i r bleaching efficiency, b u t Hoggins {Clem. Soc. Trans., 1911, 99, 858) showed t h a t b y t h e time the hypochlorites h a d increased in bleaching efficiency t h e y had lost a large p r o p o r t i o n of t h e i r available chloride. Taylor now suggests t h a t h y p o c h l o r i t e s be p r e served from t h e action of light. (See also W h i t e , J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1903,132-134). T. R e t t i e , J . L. S m i t h , a n d J . R i t c h i e (ibid., 1918, 311 T) suggest mixing freshly ignited quicklime with bleaching powder intended for e x p o r t t o h o t countries, since in this w a y t h e loss of a v a i l a b l e chlorine is largely avoided and t h e formation of calcium chlorate inhibited. I t is known t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n of h y d r o x i d e s t o hypochlorites increases their stability, a n d , in t h e case of bleaching powder, this fact is also e x p e c t e d t o hold, since t h e powder is hygroscopic; b u t it m u s t also b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t t h e addition of hydroxides, while increasing t h e stability, also decreases t h e bleaching p r o p e r t i e s of h y p o chlorites, a n d also, from w h a t h a s been s t a t e d a b o v e , t h e addition decreases t h e antiseptic p r o p e r t i e s . T h e lime which is added t o t h e bleaching p o w d e r could n o t b e separated when it h a s served its p u r p o s e , a n d t h e solution produced would have weaker bleaching a n d a n t i s e p t i c p r o perties because of t h e presence of t h e lime. I n connection with hypochlorites used for bleaching, t h e claim (Dcutsch Solvay-Werke Act.-Ges., Ger. P a t . 306193) for p r o d u c i n g a dilute bleaching liquor b y passing chlorine i n t o s o d i u m carb o n a t e solution, t h e n adding m o r e s o d i u m c a r b o n a t e , is of interest, a n d also (K. P . McElroy, U . S . P a t . 1201572) t h e production of a high s t r e n g t h bleach b y t h e reaction of steam a n d chlorine a t a b o u t 100 C. t o give h y d r o c h l o r i c acid a n d hypochlorous acid, t h e former b e i n g r e m o v e d b y condensation a n d t h e l a t t e r b y a b s o r p t i o n in c a u s t i c alkali. A process which h a s recently been discussed a n d tried b y some bleachers ( J . E . Macilwaine, B n g . P a t s . 29811 (1913) a n d 6317 (1914)) depends o n t h e s t i m u l a t i n g eifect produced b y adding sodium b i c a r b o n a t e t o bleaching powder solution. This effect h a s been described b y

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Higgins (J. Soc. Dyers and Col., 1912 5 28, 30) a n d used b y H . D . D a k i n i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of antiseptics. I n t h e p a r t i c u l a r process u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e cloth is i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h a solution of s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e a n d t h e n r u n i n t o t h e b l e a c h i n g p o w d e r solution. T h e result is a n a c t i v e bleaching a g e n t a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of some calcium c a r b o n a t e . T h i s calcium c a r b o n a t e h a s t o b e s u b s e q u e n t l y r e m o v e d from t h e m a t e r i a l b y t r e a t m e n t with h y d r o c h l o r i c acid. N o w s u p p o s e t h e c l o t h b e t r e a t e d with w e a k h y d r o c h l o r i c acid i n s t e a d of b i c a r b o n a t e w h e n entering t h e bleaching p o w d e r solution. T h e r e s u l t will be e x a c t l y t h e s a m e , w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e t h a t n o insoluble calcium c a r b o n a t e will b e p r o d u c e d . T h i s is a n old m e t h o d of p r o c e d u r e a m o n g b l e a c h e r s , a n d , carefully p e r f o r m e d , i t is a far b e t t e r m e t h o d t h a n t h e more r e c e n t l y p r o p o s e d one. A. P o u l s e n ( E n g . P a t . 104048) bleaches loose fibres a n d o t h e r m a t e r i a l s b y boiling in a m i x t u r e of s o d i u m carbonate and bicarbonate and t h e n treating with sodium hypochlorite solution, while H . R . A n d e r s ( U . S . P a t . 1251614) uses lime for t h e boiling, a n d lime a n d a " s u b stance c a r r y i n g o x y g e n " for t h e b l e a c h i n g . T h e injurious effects of p e r b o r a t e soaps a n d similar peroxide b l e a c h i n g a g e n t s is p o i n t e d o u t b y P . H e e r m a n n (Chem. Zeit., 1918, 42, 85). Metallic salts, e.g., of c o p p e r a n d iron s t i m u l a t e this d e s t r u c t i v e action, a n d t h e s e salts are often p r e s e n t in small q u a n t i t i e s i n s t a i n s o n linen a n d c o t t o n goods. (See also J . F . Briggs, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1916, 8 0 ; S. H . Higgins, / . Soc. Chem. Ind., 1 9 1 1 , 188.) I n r e p l y t o a t t a c k s on his p a p e r , H e e r m a n n (Chem. Zeit., 1918, 42, 337, 342) s u p p o r t s his p r e v i o u s s t a t e m e n t and contends t h a t washing powders containing available oxygen will p r o d u c e i n some cases local d e s t r u c t i o n a n d perforation of fabrics. T h i s fact h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n proved ( / . Soc. Dyers and Col, 1912, 28, 30). S o d i u m silicate h a s b e e n found t o h a v e a n injurious a c t i o n o n c o t t o n textiles in t h e presence of soft w a t e r ; after w a s h ing w i t h t h e silicate t h e goods a r e dull a n d c h a l k y . T h e use of h a r d w a t e r c a u s e d t h e t e x t i l e fabrics t o h a v e a higher s t r e n g t h after w a s h i n g w i t h soap, soda, e t c . (A. Griin a n d J . J u n g m a n n , Z. angew. Chem., 1918, 3 1 , Ref., 146).

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INDUSTRY of Cellulose

Degree of Bleaching

M a n y m e t h o d s of determining w h a t is called the degree of bleaching of cellulose fibres h a v e b e e n described from t i m e t o t i m e , b u t this work h a s been of little interest t o t h e practical b l e a c h e r ; h e contents himself with the u s u a l s t r e n g t h t e s t s , a n d only examines t h e m a t e r i a l for t h e so-called oxy- a n d hydro-cellulose in cases of decided weakness of t h e fibre. T h e " copper value " of Schwalbe h a s been m u c h discussed, b u t Freiberger (Z. angew. Chem., 1917, 30, 121-122) s t a t e s t h a t certain precautions are necessary in a p p l y i n g t h i s m e t h o d . F u r t h e r , h e (FarberZeit., 1915,319; 1916,26) a t t e m p t s t o classify t h e whites of bleached goods b y observing t h e stains t h e y produce with waste bowking liquors. H a l l e r (ibid., 1916, 6-8), however, p o i n t s o u t t h a t such a m e t h o d of distinction is only applicable t o goods bleached b y t h e same s y s t e m of bowking a n d bleaching. H e o u g h t t o h a v e further a d d e d t h a t such a m e t h o d of comparison could only possibly b e of use when t h e s a m e cloth w a s used in all t h e t e s t s . The b e h a v i o u r of t h e waxes of t e x t i l e fibres during t h e bleaching process is discussed b y t h e writer (J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1914, 902), a n d t h e efficacy of t h e lime boil explained. (See also Higgins, J. Text Inst., 1916, 7.) Because of t h e difficulty of removing t h e n a t u r a l waxes during bleaching, J a m e s Burt-Marshall, L t d . , a n d S. H . Higgins ( E n g . P a t . 1 0 2 8 9 2 , 1916) e x t r a c t t h e waxes b y solvents before t h e bleaching process. A p p a r e n t l y with a similar i n t e n t i o n P e c k h a m (Met. and Chem. Eng., 1916, 160) boils t h e cloth in a soap solution containing benzol, ins t e a d of scouring in t h e u s u a l way, a n d , further, a solution containing p o t a s h s o a p , c a r b o n disulphide, a n d olein has been suggested for r e m o v i n g grease from fabrics (S. Dyson a n d J . D y s o n & Co., L t d . , E n g . P a t . 10311, 1 9 1 3 ; J., 1916, 887). A r e c e n t research on pectic m a t t e r s (S. B . Schryvar a n d D . H a y n e s , Biochem. / . , 1916, 10, 539-547 ; J . , 1917, 577) is of i n t e r e s t t o bleachers, a n d t h e removal of pectic m a t t e r from vegetable fibres b y m e a n s of a h o t aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid h a s b e e n protected (B. Leech, E n g . P a t . 104202, 1916; / . , 1917, 451). In bleaching w i t h a n alkali peroxide a claim is m a d e (Deutsche

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109

G o l d u n d Silber-Scheide Anstalt, E n g . P a t . 10916, 1915 ; e/. 5 1916, 925) for heating t h e b a t h immediately to' 85 c ! t o p r o d u c e a b e t t e r white in a shorter time. To p r e v e n t t h e flocculation of calcium soaps in washing b a t h s , t h e a d d i t i o n of a soluble colloid, e.g. glue, albumin, etc., is p r o t e c t e d (Farbenfabri. vorm., F . B a y e r u n d Co., Ger. P a t . 294028, 1914 ; J . , 1916, 1153). I n a p a p e r o n bleaching faults, J . F . Briggs (J., 1916> 7 8 ) discusses m o s t of t h e troubles w i t h which bleachers h a v e t o c o n t e n d , and a p a p e r b y B u d d e (ibid. 404) i s of i n t e r e s t t o those bleachers who are troubled w i t h r i v e r pollution. On exposing bleached cotton t o t h e a c t i o n of t h e light of a Cooper-Hewitt l a m p i t was f o u n d t o be " t e n d e r e d " a n d a p p a r e n t l y partially changed t o GC o x y c e l l u l o s e " (Doree & Dver, J. Soc. Dyers and Col., 1 9 1 7 , 3 3 , 1 7 - 1 9 ; J . , 1917, 211). Owing t o t h e war, acids h a v e been costly a n d scarce. Nitre cake h a s b e e n used in m a n y cases in place of sulphuric a c i d a n d of hydrochloric acid for " s o u r i n g " t e x t i l e s . E x c e p t in c e r t a i n cases, such as lime scouring, i t has b e e n f o u n d a g o o d s u b s t i t u t e ; and even in t h e case m e n t i o n e d i t h a s b e e n used, w i t h a d v a n t a g e , after t h e goods h a v e b e e n well w a s h e d . Troubles of dissolving t h e cake a n d t e s t i n g i t s a c i d i t y h a v e been m e n t i o n e d ; special t a n k s h a v e t o b e used, a n d t h e solution tested volumetrically (Chew. Trade Journ., J a n . 8, 1 9 1 6 ; J . , 1916, 1 0 9 ; J . R . H a n n a y , J. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1916, 32, 65-66 ; J . , 1916, 4 8 ; P . B e a n , J . , 1916,1153. See also J . , 1917, 1216 A). S . J . P e n t e c o s t ( J . Soc. Clem. Ind., 1918, 169 R ) calls a t t e n t i o n t o t h e presence of iron in some samples of n i t r e c a k e a n d t h e possibility of it causing trouble if used for bleaching. T h e tendering action of acids on cotton h a s b e e n inv e s t i g a t e d b y M. F o r t and F . Pickles ( J . , 1916, 38), a n d d i s c u s s e d b y J . F . Briggs (ibid. 7 8 ) ; cellulose d o e s n o t form c o m p o u n d s w i t h acids, a n d with m i x t u r e s of a c i d s selective adsorption was only pronounced a t h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n (A. Leighton, / . Phys. Chem., 1916, 20, 1 8 8 - 1 9 4 ; J . , 1916, 464). The tendering effect of a c i d s o n c o t t o n w a s found ( H . Wilkinson, J. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1917, 33, 148-151 ; / . , 1917, 707) t o increase w i t h

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t h e length of time of contact and was r e d u c e d b y washing w i t h water or alkali. Zanker a n d Main (Farber-Zeit., 1916, 27, 3 5 5 ; / . , 1917, 708) found t h a t a m i x t u r e of Glauber's salt a n d acetic acid caused t e n d e r i n g of cotton, b u t t h a t this was t h e best m i x t u r e t o use in dye-baths for union goods. Of interest t o b o t h bleachers a n d d y e r s has been the trouble experienced b y m a n y bleachers of c o t t o n piece goods woven with coloured borders. M a n y n e w dye-stuffs h a v e been used for dyeing t h e y a r n s for these coloured b o r d e r s ; in some cases " b l e e d i n g " i n t o t h e white cloth resulted during t h e scouring process. T h e n e w dye-stuffs h a v e been fairly fast t o t h e usual tests, e x c e p t t h e test mentioned, a n d when once t h e colours h a v e " r u n " the bleacher finds it impossible t o correct t h e fault. To prevent the bleeding of v a t colours, p a d d i n g t h e cloth with caustic soda solution, to which non-oxidisable salts h a v e been added to p r e v e n t t h e solution of t h e colour, a n d allowing t h e goods t o lie some t i m e before t h e process of bleaching, has been protected (J. Graf, Ger. P a t . 288751, 1914). The permanganate bleach for silk is s t a t e d (E. Ristenp a r t , Farber-Zeit., 1918, 29, 37) t o be preferable t o t h a t using peroxide, nitrite, or a q u a regia, b u t care should be t a k e n t o avoid t h e presence of alkalis i n t h e b a t h . A small amount of sulphuric acid is a d d e d . A b e t t e r colour could not be obtained b y repeated bleaching, for with m a n y treatments a falling off in colour w a s noticed, t h e silk becoming brown a n d losing in w e i g h t a n d tensile strength. A paper (R. K. Meade, J . Ind. Eng. Chem., 1918, 10, 214) on t h e valuation of lime is of i n t e r e s t t o bleachers. Dyeing The troubles t o dyers caused b y t h e interference with t h e supply of dye-stuffs h a s been discussed b y W h i t t a k e r ( J . Soc. Ghem. Ind., 1916, 783, 1201). W o o d colours have been more used t h a n formerly, a l t h o u g h previous t o t h e war they were used in large q u a n t i t i e s b y some y a r n dyeing works (" The Dyeing Value of some N a t u r a l Indian

P R O G R E S S DURING THE WAR PERIOD

111

Dye-stuffs," S r i v i s t a v a , Agric. J . , India, 1916, 53-64: " Cutch in B u r m a / ' J. Soc. Chem. hid., 1917, 208 ; " Dyeing M a t e r i a l s in t h e Philippines/ 5 J. Hoy. Soc. Arts] 1917, 65, 5 5 3 ) . A development of t h e -production of n a t u r a l indigo i s reported ( J . Soc. Chem. In, 1918,261 R ) , t h e result b e r n g a p a s t e which h a s been found superior t o synthetic i n d i g o p a s t e for h e a v y shades. I t cannot b e used for l i g h t shades, however, because of impurities. E . R. W a t s o n ( J . Soc. Chem. Ind.} 1918, 81 T) records a considerable l o s s of indican during t h e air-drying of t h e indigo leaf a n d suggests t h e immediate steeping of the leaves. Of r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e h a s been a n inclination towards t h e p r o d u c t i o n of fast d y e s ; fastness h a s received more consideration t h a n hitherto. T h e use of v a t dye-stuffs h a s e x t e n d e d , a n d t h e r e has been a m a r k e d activity in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of n e w shades b y t h e developing of azodye-stuffs o n t h e fibre. F a s t grey shades are produced on c o t t o n b y t h e oxidation on t h e fibre of di-/3-naphthyl4-4'-diaminodIphenylaminosulphuric acid (Farbenfabr. vorm., F . B a y e r u n d Co., Ger. P a t . 296142, 1916); clear red t o d a r k b l u e shades b y impregnating t h e fibre with a sodium c a r b o n a t e solution of arylides of 6-hydroxy~2n a p h t h o l - 3 - c a r b o x y l i c acid, t h e n heating w i t h a solution of a n u n s u l p h o n a t e d diazo compound (Farbenfabr. vorm., F . B a y e r u n d Co., Ger. P a t . 294798, 1914); T u r k e y red shades b y c o u p l i n g a n aromatic diazo c o m p o u n d with 2 - 3 - h y d r o x y n a p h t h o y l a m i n o t h i a z o l e (Farben. vorm., Meister, Lucius, u n d Briining, Ger. P a t . 294780, 1914); fast black d y e i n g s b y coupling a n arylide of 2-3-hydroxynaphthoic acid a n d a diazotised asym-dialkyl-^-diaminoazo c o m p o u n d ( C l i e m . F a b r . Griesheim-Electron, E n g . P a t . 100804, 1916) ; a n d yellow t o black shades b y impregnating t h e cloth, w i t h a sodium carbonate solution of 2-3h y d r o x y n a p h t l a o y l a m i n o n a p h t h o s u l p h o n i c acids a n d t h e n treating w i t h u n s u l p h o n a t e d diazo compounds (Farbenfabr. v o r m . , F . B a y e r u n d Co., Ger. P a t . 296559, 1914). F u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e use of formaldehyde for these fixations is shown in t h e production of fast red t o blue s h a d e s b y t r e a t i n g on t h e fibre with formaldehyde t h e dye-stuffs o b t a i n e d b y coupling tetrazotised diamines

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w i t h one molecule of a n a m i n o n a p h t h o s u l p h o n i c acid a n d one molecule of a n a m i n o - s u b s t i t u t e d derivative of 2-5-7a m i n o n a p h t h o l s u l p h o n i c acid c o n t a i n i n g a free a m m o g r o u p ( F a r b e n f a b r . v o r m . , F . B a y e r u n d Co., Ger. P a t . 295072, 1914). O t h e r examples of dye-stuffs p r o d u c e d on t h e fibre a r e a b r o w n s h a d e b y oxidising salts of aniline a n d its homologues m i x e d w i t h a n a r o m a t i c h y d r o x y c o m p o u n d containing n o n i t r o , n i t r o s o , or a m i n o group, e.g. a p h e n o l (J. F . Moseley a n d E . McCardell, E n g . P a t . 105349, 1916) ; a n aniline b l a c k , said t o b e unaffected b y sulphur dioxide, b y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n , a t a h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e , of aniline, a d i a m i n e , a n d chloric acid, with or w i t h o u t a n o t h e r m i n e r a l acid c o n t a i n i n g oxygen, b u t w i t h o u t salts of copper, iron, m a n g a n e s e , v a n a d i u m , or c h r o m i u m (Ehrenzweig, Ger. P a t . 291955, 1 9 1 3 ) ; a deep black on wool, b y t r e a t i n g w i t h a solution of a mono- or polysulphonic acid a n d of a p - a m i n o - or >-arylamino-aryl-/3n a p h t h y l a m i n e , t h e n c h r o m i n g (Farbenfabr. vorm., F . B a y e r u n d Co., Ger. P a t . 2 9 1 0 2 1 , 1 9 1 4 ) ; fast k h a k i shades o n wool b y b a t h s c o n t a i n i n g d i h y d r o x y - or amino-hydroxyn a p h t h a l e n e - s u l p h o n i c acids a n d c o p p e r salts (Farbenfabr. v o r m . , F . B a y e r u n d Co., Ger. P a t . 291456, 1 9 1 4 ) ; a n d k h a k i shades o n a n i m a l or v e g e t a b l e fibres b y immersing t h e m in b i c h r o m a t e solution, a n d t h e n i n a solution of a s u b s t a n c e o b t a i n e d b y m e l t i n g t o g e t h e r four p a r t s of a m-diamine w i t h one p a r t of a >-phenol (R. Vidal, E n g . P a t . 1024, 1916). T h e n a t u r e of t h e m o r d a n t i n g process is discussed b y A . B . Clark {J. Phys. Chem., 1917, 21, 776), a r e l a t i o n being s h o w n t o exist b e t w e e n t h e m o r d a n t i n g p o w e r of a m e t a l a n d its position in t h e periodic t a b l e . T h e m o r d a n t i n g a c t i o n of ferro- a n d ferricyanides is d e a l t w i t h . Of t h e different e x a m p l e s of d y e i n g w i t h m o r d a n t s w h i c h h a v e b e e n described we h a v e : t h e e x t r a c t of t h e leaves of Acer ginnala gives b l a c k a n d g r e y s h a d e s o n a n iron m o r d a n t , k h a M s h a d e s ( / . Chem. Ind., T o k y o , 1 9 1 8 , 2 1 , 211) on a chrome m o r d a n t ; a n d e x t r a c t of w a t t l e , which p r o b a b l y contains t a n n i n i n some form, p r o d u c e s s h a d e s of b r o w n , fawn, grey, a n d d r a b on wool a n d c o t t o n (J. Roy. Soc. Arts, Mar. 1 5 , 1 9 1 8 ) . As m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y a diligent search h a s been m a d e

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113

for n a t u r a l colouring m a t t e r s in order t o substitute t h e d e a r a n d , in some cases, u n p r o c u r a b l e artificial varieties. 0 . Diehl (Farber-Zeit, 1917, 28, 233) describes t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a fast b l a c k on a n iron m o r d a n t b y means of a m i x t u r e of alizarin a n d dinitroresorcinaL a n d F . C. S c h m i d t (Ger. P a t s . 305275 a n d 305770), for t h e dyeing of logwood b l a c k on silk, p r o t e c t s m e t h o d s of reducing t h e n u m b e r of t i n p h o s p h a t e b a t h s , a n d for obviating t h e u s u a l t r e a t m e n t w i t h t a n n i c acid a n d with a n aniline dye-stuff for t h e p u r p o s e of t o p p i n g . F u r t h e r , t h e subs t i t u t i o n of s o d i u m silicate for soap in t h e dyeing b a t h is claimed t o give a higher loading. A shade similar t o n a p h t h y l a m i n e claret, a n d n o t h a v i n g t h e objections of t h a t dye-stuff, is said to b e p r o d u c e d b y dyeing w i t h a m i x t u r e of alizarin a n d alizarin c y a n i n on a n aluminium m o r d a n t ( 0 . Diehl, Farber-Zeit., 1917, 28, 212). T h e u s e of t i t a n i u m t a n n a t e a n d t a n n o - o x a l a t e as a m o r d a n t h a s b e e n described (Barnes, J. Soc. Dyers and Col., 1916, 141). A n u m b e r of shades on animal fibres a r e said t o b e p r o d u c e d b y t h e action of metallic salts i n t h e presence of n i t r a t e s a n d of a n acid (E. a n d G. E . E . L o d g e , J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1916, 409). I n t h e dyeing of wool a n d silk w i t h v a t colours t h e addition t o t h e b a t h of a small a m o u n t of alkali a n d of t h e hydroxide of a h e a v y m e t a l h a s b e e n p r o t e c t e d ( E . Wedekind, Ger. P a t s . 287042 a n d 289314). F o r t h e d y e i n g of t u s s a h silk Sen ( J . Soc. Dyers and CoL, 1916,243) recommends t h e m e t h o d s u s e d for d y e i n g wool, since t h i s fibre resembles wool i n i t s b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s d y e solutions. T h e interaction of c e r t a i n dye-stuffs w i t h copper during dyeing operat i o n s h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t b y J . E , H a n n a y ( / . Soc. Chem. Ind.y 1916, 36), a n d t h e use of acetic acid in place of s u l p h u r i c acid for after-chroming h a s been recommended i n order t o p r e v e n t t h e p a r t i a l destruction of t h e d y e stuff b y o x i d a t i o n ( E . Grossmann, Farber-Zeit, 1915, 7). O. Diehl (ibid., 1916,134) suggests t h e use of a slightly a c i d alizarin d y e - b a t h a n d r a p i d l y raising t h e t e m p e r a t u r e t o c o m p l e t e t h e dyeing w i t h i n a q u a r t e r of a n h o u r . S e n (ibid.) h a s described a m e t h o d of producing aniline b l a c k o n wool. I n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of aniline black, E . Bechtel (FdrberI

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Z&it., 1917, 28, 300) s t a t e s t h a t a m i x t u r e of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid m a y be used w i t h a d v a n t a g e in place of t h e former acid, a n d sodium ferrocyanide m a y replace t h e potassium salt. Since ferrocyanide, aniline oil, and acids give a blue on vegetable fibres, t h e r e is a tendency t o a bluish black. T h e Calico P r i n t e r s Association and E . A. F o u r n e a u x h a v e protected a further m e t h o d of producing aniline black (Eng. P a t . 115278), a n d a previously described process (ibid. 7345 (1908)) has been modified in t h a t t h e u s e of aluminium chloride has been dispensed with a n d t h e proportion of p-phenylenediamine reduced. The presence of formic acid is necessary, b u t it m a y be used along w i t h other acids (ibid. 113484). F u r t h e r , t h e use of boric acid, either alone or with phosphoric acid, is p r o t e c t e d (ibid. 116562) i n order to p r e v e n t t h e loss of aniline during careless drying. I n a further p a t e n t (ibid. 117987) various stipulations as to t h e a m o u n t s of t h e ingredients are m a d e a n d t h e order in which t h e ingredients are used specified. The addition of fat-splitting agents, such as TwitehelPs reagent, t o t h e d y e - b a t h , in order t o p r o d u c e emulsification, has been p r o t e c t e d (S. Aschkenasi, Ger. P a t . 303121). I n hydrosulphite v a t s a homogeneous emulsion is produced on stirring. F u r t h e r w o r k h a s been done b y E . Lodge (,/. Soc. Ghent. Ind., 1916, 41) on t h e application of sulphide dye-stuffs t o a n i m a l fibres, sulphites a n d hydrosulphites being used for t h e reduction of t h e dye-stuff, a n d excess of alkali in t h e d y e - b a t h avoided so as n o t t o impair the strength of t h e fibre. Sen ( J . Soc. Dyers and Col., 1916, 32, 245-246) a d d s T u r k e y red oil t o t h e b a t h t o improve penetration, a n d describes methods of p r o d u c i n g sulphide dye-stuffs on wool. T h e tendering of fabrics which have been d y e d w i t h sulphide dye-stuffs h a s been further investigated. T h e dye-stuffs are said g r a d u a l l y t o liberate sulphur, which in t h e course of t i m e becomes oxidised t o sulphuric acid a n d t h u s causes t h e ' ' t e n d e r i n g " of vegetable fibres. Various m e t h o d s h a v e been described a n d p a t e n t e d for p r e v e n t i n g this defect of sulphide dyestuffs. F o r i n s t a n c e , t r e a t m e n t of t h e d y e d fabric with a b a t h of sodium a c e t a t e , t h u s leaving a small quantity

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of this s a l t on t h e fibre, h a s b e e n u s e d ; if s u l p h u r i c acid be afterwards developed, i t a c t s on t h e a c e t a t e , l i b e r a t i n g acetic acid, which does n o t injure t h e fibre. I t is said (Zanker a n d W e y r i c k , Farber-Zeit, 1915, 26, 337-341) t h a t fabrics d y e d w i t h b l a c k s u l p h i d e dye-stuffs, which will w i t h s t a n d h e a t i n g t o 140 C. for one h o u r w i t h o u t tendering, m a y be s t o r e d w i t h safety. T o p r e v e n t t h e " t e n d e r i n g " of t h e c o t t o n of u n i o n goods d y e d w i t h sulphide dye-stuffs, a n a f t e r - t r e a t m e n t of t h e fabrics w i t h a m m o n i u m salts a n d c h r o m a t e s h a s b e e n p a t e n t e d . T h i s t r e a t m e n t also d y e s t h e wool (Act. Ges. f. Anilinfabr., Ger. P a t . 293455, 1915). The i n d u s t r y of re-dyeing c a n n o t y e t b o a s t of a n extensive l i t e r a t u r e , b u t t h e i n d u s t r y h a s a s s u m e d large proportions a n d h i g h scientific d e v e l o p m e n t i n some countries. The m e t h o d s a d o p t e d a r e p r i n c i p a l l y m a t t e r s of e q u i p m e n t , special m e t h o d s being u s e d for special p u r poses, a n d t h e r e is little desire o n t h e p a r t of t h e users of these m e t h o d s t o m a k e t h e m p u b l i c p r o p e r t y . C. M. W h i t t a k e r ( / . Soc. Dyers and Cot, 1916, 32, 4-9) shows t h a t exposure t o light a n d air affects t h e affinity of flannel for dye-stuffs, a n d he suggests t h a t t h e e x p o s u r e r e s u l t s in t h e p a r t i a l d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e a m i n o g r o u p s of t h e w o o l M. F o r t (ibid. 32, 109-111) s t a t e s t h a t t h e affinity of faded wool for v a r i o u s dye-stuffs is e r r a t i c , basic colours being t a k e n u p m o r e r e a d i l y after t h e e x p o s u r e , b u t acid colours show a less decided affinity. H e suggests m e t h o d s of t r e a t i n g t h e wool t o overcome t h i s e r r a t i c affinity. H e further found (ibid. 32, 184-187) t h a t w h e n e v e r wool is browned b y a n y a g e n c y , its affinity for dye-stuffs is altered. Silk is similarly affected, b u t i n a less degree. T h e browning of t h e fibre is said t o b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of d e g r a d a t i o n of t h e a m i n o - a c i d s of t h e wool. Some i n t e r e s t i n g r e m a r k s on r e - d y e i n g a r e also m a d e b y L a k e ( J . Phys. Chem., 1916, 20, 761-808). Slop p a d d i n g is r e c o m m e n d e d in place of d y e i n g (G. Tagliani, Farber-ZeiL, 1915, 26, 222-228) on g r o u n d s of e c o n o m y ; b y u s i n g a n oil in t h e d y e - b a t h t o assist the penetration, deep shades can be produced. P a c k dyeing is discussed b y F . S m i t h (J~ Soc. Dyers and Col., 1916, 32, 128-135), t h e difficulties a n d m e t h o d s of over-

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coming :' channelling :5 being dealt with. I n foam d y e i n g , P. Sisiey (Bull. Soc. Chim., 1917, 21, 155-157) shows t h a t the concentration of colloids in a foam has a parallel i n t h e concentration of colloids in t h e emulsified portion of an immiscible solvent, a n d t h e p r o p e r t y of an emulsified liquid, e.(f. a " b r o k e n " soap b a t h , of dissolving m u c h more than t h e normal a m o u n t of liquid, is used t o e x p l a i n a number of dyeing processes involving the use of e m u l sions in fixing very slightly soluble dye-stuffs. The u s e of ?ilk-n*0Tin "chrysalides instead of soap t o produce t h e foam in foam dyeing has been protected (G. Schmid, E n g . P a t . 100336, 1915). Papers on wood dyeing (Moll, Z . twgcic. Gheni., 1916, 29, 405-409) and p a p e r y a r n d y e i n g : Kerrerz, Ghem. Zeit., 1917, 41, 43-44) h a v e been p u b l i s h e d . The fastness of dye-stuffs has been treated, a n d s t a n d a r d s fixed by P . H e e r m a n n (Mitt. K. Materialpruf, 1916, 3 4 , 153-156). F o r testing t h e fastness of dye-stuffs t o l i g h t , A. Ganswindt (Fdrber-ZeiL, 1917, 53, 49) uses a l a m p enclosed in marble plates, which h a v e been soaked, a t a high temperature and pressure, in a non-volatile h y d r o carbon ; although highly transparent, t h e marble a b s o r b s the dark heat rays, a n d therefore provides a light e m i n e n t l y suitable for using in testing t h e fastness of colours t o light. A method of determining alizarin in dyed f a b r i c s is described b y Leigh (J. Soc. Dyers and Col., 1 9 1 6 , 32, 205-213). A number of papers bearing on t h e t h e o r y of d y e i n g have a p p e a r e d ; it has been shown (Rohland, Kolloid Zetts., 1915, 16, 16-18) t h a t t h e adsorption of dye-stuffs by colloidal clay increases with t h e colloidal n a t u r e of the dye-stuffs, and t h a t (Pfeiffer & W i t t k a , Chem. Zeit., 1916, 40, 358) aminoacids and polypeptides (and h e n c e probably proteins such as wool a n d silk) combine with, neutral salts t o form molecular compounds during t h e dyeing process. F u r t h e r , F o r t has shown (J. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1916, 32, 33-40) t h a t sulphuric acid e m p l o y e d in t h e dye-bath combines with t h e wool base to form a n additive salt which reacts b y double decomposition w i t h the salts of t h e colour acid of the dye-stuff. K n e c h t a n d Hibbert (ibid. 32, 226-230), in experimenting on t h e adsorption of dye-stuffs b y charcoal and silica, f o u n d

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t h a t animal charcoal, in these experiments, couia not be regarded as a form of the element carbon. ^;:xo t h e nitrogen c o n t e n t s of the charcoal had a n a r k e d influence on its affinity for dye-stuffs. This U u:: :imp o r t a n t observation, for one of t h e strongest ^ i p x x r t of t h e mechanical theory of dyeing was "the uireie:;t behaviour of t w o forms of the same element, namely, graphite a n d a n i m a l c h a r c o a l towards dye-stufi solutions ; i t was shown ( J . Hiibner, Chem. Soc* Trans., 1907. 91. 1057) t h a t t h e former behaved like cotton and t h e l a t t e r like wool in b a t h s containing different dye-stuffs. The relation between electrical endosmose and* t h e adsorption t h e o r y of c o n t a c t electrification has been shown (T. R. Briggs, H . L . Pierson, a n d H . S. B e n n e t t , Amer. Electro. Chem. Soc., 1917, M a y ) ; t h e phenomena encountered in dyeing are said t o be in accordance with t h e ionic adsorpt i o n theory. N o further work has been done on t h e adsorption of dye-stufis a n d of moisture b y textile fibres since i t was shown (Higgins, J. Soc. Chan. Ind.9 1909, 188) t h a t a n analogy exists between the adsorption b y textile fibres of moisture from t h e air (i.e. a v a p o u r from a gaseous medium) a n d of dye-stuffs from solution (i.e. solids from a liquid medium). The question as t o whether t h e a b s o r p t i o n of moisture b y vegetable fibres is a chemical or physical phenomenon is by no m e a n s settled, b u t t h e writer t h i n k s t h a t much enlightenment would result from further investigation of t h e two absorptions mentioned. The t h e o r y of dyeing h a s been discussed b y members of t h e Society of D y e r s a n d Colourists a n d b y P . E . K i n g (British Association, First Report on Colloid Chemistry and its Industrial Applications, 1917). Besides t h e old chemical a n d mechanical theories of dyeing there are m a n y explanations of dyeing phenomena which he between t h e s e t h e o r i e s ; some observations, such as t h e dyeing of vegetable fibres b y substantive cotton dye-stuffs, a r e n o t regarded b y a n y group of chemists as being due t o chemical reactions. I t m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t in this r e a l m of speculation, progress will largely depend in t h e advance of o u r knowledge of physical chemistry, on t h e development of t h e theories of ionisation, a n d of t h e

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colloidal s t a t e . W . H a r r i s o n ( J . Soc. Chem. Ind., 1919, 111 R) states t h a t t h e electrical t h e o r y of dyeing provided explanations where t h e chemical t h e o r y failed, although i t was n o t opposed to t h e l a t t e r t h e o r y . T. R . Briggs, H . S. Bennett, a n d H . L. Pierson (J. Phys. Chem., 1918, 22, 256) describe a n electrical endosmometer, and discuss their observations on solutions of acid a n d basic dye-stuffs with reference t o t h e adsorption t h e o r y of dyeing. I n studying t h e distribution of basic dye-stuffs between isobutyl alcohol a n d w a t e r i t h a s been found (H. R . K r u y t and J . E . M. v a n der Made, Proa k. AJcad. Weterisch. Amsterdam, 1918, 20, 636) t h a t t h e presence of sodium salts of different acids affords a series in which t h e amines are a r r a n g e d in t h e same order as in t h e lyotropic series. I n t h e case of t h e a d s o r p t i o n of dyestuffs by blood charcoal this lyotropic influence w a s also noticed, a n d t h e a u t h o r s suggest t h a t t h i s line of inquiry should be productive of elucidation of t h e d y e i n g process. Two papers on t h e dyeing process h a v e been published b y R, Haller. I n one (Kolloid Zeit., 1918, 22, 49) he points o u t t h a t jellies formed b y certain s u b s t a n t i v e cotton dye-stuffs with w a t e r are similar t o soap jellies, a n d t h e formation of t h e jellies seems t o b e d e p e n d e n t on t h e presence of small quantities of a n electrolyte in t h e dye-stuffs. The action of t h e s e electrolytes c a n n o t be explained, b u t i t is evident t h a t t h e y p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t in t h e technical application of these dye-stuffs. I n a second paper (ibid. 22, 113) h e s t a t e s t h a t t h e adsorption compounds of dye-stuffs, w i t h a crystalline substance such as b a r i u m s u l p h a t e a n d w i t h a colloidal substance such as cotton, behave as mechanical m i x t u r e s r a t h e r t h a n as chemical compounds, t h e difference i n t h e compounds being entirely due t o t h e v a r i e d physical characteristics of t h e adsorbents. T h e m i x t u r e h y p o thesis is supported b y t h e behaviour w i t h solvents, t h e n a t u r e of t h e absorption spectra of t h e solutions, a n d t h e determination of t h e melting-points. I n t h e case of mord a n t s , chemical compounds a r e p r o b a b l y formed with d y e stuffs, these compounds subsequently forming adsorption compounds with t h e fibre during t h e process of dyeing. An exchange of opinions has t a k e n place between

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W . Harrison a n d M. F o r t over t h e behaviour of wool towards acids a n d solutions in dye-stuffs. Harrison ( / . Soc. Dyers and Col, 1918, 34, 57) found wool which h a d been t r e a t e d w i t h acid g a v e u p all this acid to boiling water on r e p e a t e d e x t r a c t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e extracted wool h a d no g r e a t e r affinity for dye-stuffs t h a n t h e unt r e a t e d wool. H e concluded t h a t t h e dyeing of wool with acid dye-stuffs is a colloidal chemical phenomenon. F o r t (ibid. 34, 124) replied t h a t on treating wool with acid, t h e acid cannot be entirely washed o u t of t h e wool. H e p o i n t s to t h e p r a c t i c a l value of t h e theory of t h e acid-wool c o m p o u n d as opposed t o theories based on little u n d e r s t o o d electrical p h e n o m e n a , a n d states t h a t Harrison's results do n o t explain t h e decomposition of n e u t r a l salts b y wool. T h e behaviour of wool in dyeing operations, he s t a t e s , is d u e t o its protein cont e n t s . I t h a s often been p o i n t e d o u t t h a t wool holds acid very tenaciously, a n d t h e p r e s e n t writer remembers washing a sample, which h a d been h e a t e d with acid, for a long period w i t h distilled water. On t h a t occasion i t was found t h a t t h e wool still r e t a i n e d a slight a m o u n t of acid. R e c e n t l y m u c h a d v a n c e h a s been m a d e in determining t h e n a t u r e of t h e constituents of textile fibres, a n d also m u c h h e a d w a y h a s t o b e recorded as regards our knowledge of proteins. Theories of dyeing m u s t m a k e room for this knowledge a n d assimilate t h e fact t h a t proteins, which are contained i n r a w vegetable fibres t o a small e x t e n t a n d in a n i m a l fibres t o a larger extent, h a v e sometimes basic a n d sometimes acid properties, according t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e substances presented t o t h e m . F o r t ' s r e m a r k t h a t belief in t h e chemical t h e o r y of dyeing is helpful in practical m a t t e r s c a n n o t altogether be regarded as evidence. T h e present writer h a s always been as convinced of t h e mechanical theory, a n d in dyeing operations he always h a s upheld this t h e o r y a n d indeed used i t as a guide. I t is possible t h a t w i t h t h o s e using vegetable fibres t h e mechanical t h e o r y of dyeing is t a k e n for g r a n t e d , while i n other centres, n a m e l y , woollen districts, t h e chemical t h e o r y is supported. Of this contention we h a v e a n o t a b l e example in t h e late Walter Crum.

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As regards t h e fastness of dye-stuffs t o l i g h t , t h e efficacy of a layer of oil or w a x in excluding t h e u n f a v o u r able influence of moisture and t h u s increasing t h e fastness h a s been mentioned (K. G-ebhard, J. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1918, 34, 74). The fading of dye-stuffs m a y b e p r e v e n t e d b y t h e dislocation of t h e original equilibrium b e t w e e n t h e oxygen in solution a n d t h e ions of t h e w a t e r ( t h e perhydroxyl ions), b y preventing or impeding t h e r e a c t i o n s between t h e dye-stuff a n d t h e p e r h y d r o x y l i o n s a n d b y t h e transformation of t h e dye-stufi peroxide i n t o m o r e stable compounds. A. E o b s o n ( / . Soc. Dyers and Col., 1918, 34, 185) describes a m e t h o d of s t a n d a r d i s i n g t h e fastness of dye-stuffs t o light b y t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e q u a n t i t y of actinic light required t o p r o d u c e a visible change in t h e tone or d e p t h of t h e t e s t sample. T h i s is assisted b y noting t h e n u m b e r of consecutively e x p o s e d s t a n d a r d strips of a quickly fading colour, w h i c h are completely bleached u n d e r t h e same conditions. Objections t o t h e m e t h o d are a d m i t t e d . The n u m b e r of dyeing machines which h a v e been described is few, a n d a p p a r e n t l y n o distinctive a d v a n c e has been m a d e . A machine for dyeing y a r n on t h e p a c k system (J. Annieg, E n g . P a t . 113575) arranges t h a t t h e flow of dye-stuff solution t a k e s place b y force f r o m t h e side walls of t h e machine a n d along t h e t h r e a d s t o b e dyed placed horizontally in t h e m a c h i n e a n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y in t h e direction of t h e flow. T h a t t h e different processes of dyeing h a v e a n effect on t h e combustibility of t h e finished m a t e r i a l h a s been pointed o u t b y G. E . H o l d e n (J. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1918, 34, 7-9). The u l t i m a t e destination a n d t h e b u r n ing t e s t should receive consideration before s e l e c t i n g processes of dyeing. W . Thomson (ibid.) called a t t e n t i o n t o t h e fact t h a t black d y e d velveteens, c o n t a i n i n g iron, b u r n e d until only t h e ash remained, whereas o t h e r velveteens, dyed w i t h different dye-stuffs b u t c o n t a i n i n g n o appreciable a m o u n t of iron, gradually b e c a m e e x t i n g u i s h e d .

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A n u m b e r of processes h a v e recently been p a t e n t e d depending on t h e action of s u l p h u r i c " acid of various strengths on c o t t o n . Mercer, in his original specification, mentioned t h e u s e of sulphuric acid of 105 Tw., b u t subsequent e x p e r i e n c e i n mercerising showed caustic soda t o be t h e best r e a g e n t t o produce t h e swelling a n d lustring of t h e fibre; m o r e o v e r , i t could b e used w i t h o u t risk of damaging t h e m a t e r i a l . Heberlein u n d Co. ( E n g . P a t . 100483, 1916) p r o d u c e novel effects on c o t t o n fabrics b y (1) alternately t r e a t i n g t h e m w i t h alkali lye of 15 B . a n d sulphuric a c i d of over 48 B . , a n d (2) s u b m i t t i n g t h e cotton f a b r i c (previously mercerised) t o t h e action, in places, of s u l p h u r i c acid of s t r e n g t h greater t h a n 50*5 B . , t h e n washing a n d again mercerising ( / . Soc. Chem. Ind., 1917, 133). A n o t h e r method, devised for producing t r a n s p a r e n t effects on cotton, is b y t r e a t m e n t w i t h sulphuric acid of l e s s t h a n 5 0 5 B . , cooled t o a t least 4 C , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y mercerising with caustic soda (Akt. Ges. Cilander, E n g . P a t . 103432, 1916). Heberlein u n d Co. (Eng. P a t . 108671) produce t r a n s p a r e n t effects on c o t t o n goods b y t r e a t i n g w i t h caustic alkali of a d e n s i t y above 20 B . a t t e m p e r a t u r e s below 0 C. T h e t r a n s p a r e n c y is increased b y subjecting t h e t r e a t e d fabric t o sulphuric acid of a b o u t 50*5 B . I n t h e U . S . P a t e n t (U.S. P a t . 1265082) t h e c o n d i t i o n s mentioned are t r e a t m e n t w i t h caustic alkali s o l u t i o n of a t least 15 B . , washing, a n d t h e n t r e a t i n g w i t h sulphuric acid of a t least 50*5 B . , b o t h t r e a t m e n t s b e i n g carried out a t a t e m p e r a t u r e below 0 C. The s t r e n g t h a n d elongation of mercerised y a r n s h a s been shown ( T . N a k a t a , J. Chem. Ind., Tokyo, 1917, 20, 1 2 2 4 ; / . , 1 9 1 8 , 203 A) t o depend on t h e t h o r o u g h rem o v a l of t h e c a u s t i c soda after mercerising, on t h e a m o u n t of stretching t o which t h e y a r n s are subjected in t h e mercerising m a c h i n e , a n d on t h e moisture contained i n t h e y a r n before mercerisation. No p a r t i c u l a r a d v a n c e in t h e practice of mercerising c a n b e r e c o r d e d ; i n recent years a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n devoted t o t h e economy of t h e soda lye, a n d few changes

i!

THE DYEING

INDUSTEY

ia the process itself h a v e t a k e n place. M e r c e r i s e d g o o d s , hitherto imported from enemy countries i n l a r g e q u a n tities, have now been produced in this c o u n t r y , a n d t h e r e seems little possibility of this h o m e t r a d e b e i n g l o s t . The tests to distinguish mercerised from o r d i n a r y c o t t o n described b y J . H u e b n e r (p. 29) h a v e b e e n u s e d w i t h success in industry. Of interest t o m e r c e r i s e r s is a m e t h o d of recovering lime from spent caustic m u d b y filtering and calcining in a kiln ( J . H . P a y n e , J. Ind. Eng. Ckem., 1915, 1056). A. Leighton ( J . Phys. Clem., 1916, 20, 32-50) h a s investigated t h e absorption of c a u s t i c s o d a b y cellulose and, after criticising previous work, s u p p o r t s H u e b n e r a n d Teltscher's ( J . Soc. Ckem. Ind., 1909, 6 4 1 ) conclusion t h a t there is no experimental evidence of t l i e f o r m a t i o n of any chemical c o m p o u n d of cellulose w i t h s o d i u m hydroxide. Various explanations h a v e b e e n g i v e n of the fact t h a t mercerised fibres a b s o r b m o r e m o i s t u r e from the air and more dye-stuff from solution t h a n o r d i n a r y cotton fibres. E . Haller (Kolloid Zeits., 1 9 1 7 , 20, 127145) states t h a t t h e o u t e r m e m b r a n e of t h e c o t t o n fibre consists of two s t r u c t u r a l elements, t h u s s u p p o r t i n g Nageli's micellary t h e o r y of t h e s t r u c t u r e of v e g e t a b l e membranes. The absorption of d y e s a n d m o r d a n t s b y t h e penetration of t h o s e substances i n t o t h e m i c e l l a r y interstices is dependent on t h e p o w e r of d i s p e r s i o n of t h e particles, a n d in t h e case of m e r c e r i s e d fibres, t h e micellae being more widely s e p a r a t e d t h a n i n o r d i n a r y cotton, particles of larger size are a d m i t t e d , t h u s a c c o u n t ing for the increased shade of dyeing p r o d u c e d . As regards t h e t h e o r y of t h e mercerising a c t i o n , W . Harrison (Proc. Roy. Soc, 1918, A, 94, 460) r e g a r d s t h e shrinkage which t a k e s place d u r i n g m e r c e r i s a t i o n as being due t o t h e balancing of t h e i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s of t h e fibres. H e studied t h i s action b y using p o l a r i s e d l i g h t . Regarding t h e twists in t h e n a t u r a l fibres, W . L . B a l l s (The Development and Properties of Raw Cotton, A . & C. Black, Ltd., London) p o i n t s o u t t h a t w h e n t h e c o t t o n p l a n t is thirty-three d a y s old i t is e a s y t o d i s t i n g u i s h simple pits in t h e cell-walls of t h e fibres; t h e s e p i t s a r e common in m a n y kinds of vegetable cell-wall a n d a r e

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123

n o t in a n y w a y peculiar t o cotton. Given such pits, t h e fibre m u s t t w i s t w h e n it dries unless t h e wall h a s been thickened so m u c h as t o obliterate t h e central cavity almost entirely. Twisting m a y be left or r i g h t ; t h e direction a p p e a r s t o be accidental. F u r t h e r , he states t h a t lustre is p r o b a b l y almost synonymous w i t h t w i s t ; if all t h e hairs i n a sample are well a n d evenly twisted, there will b e a n infinite n u m b e r of convex surfaces, each reflecting a spot of light. I n addition t o this there is diffraction of light which can b e seen b y holding a welltwisted fibre against a dull background w i t h a good n o r t h light well overhead. I t seems more t h a n probable t h a t t h e causes of lustre changes lie behind t h e cuticle, because t h e cuticle is one of t h e last p l a n t tissues t o b e affected b y ill-treatment. To t h e present writer these r e m a r k s offer a strong s u p p o r t t o t h e t h e o r y of H u e b n e r a n d P o p e (J. Soc. Ghem. Ind., 1914, 23, 404) as t o t h e increase of lustre b y mercerisation. Discussing t h e s t r e n g t h of y a r n s , Balls s t a t e s t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h , within limits, follows t h e a m o u n t of t w i s t which is p u t into it, even t h e v a r i a t i o n s in t h e s t r e n g t h of y a r n after mercerising being accounted for in this way. The causticising of soda liquors h a s been fully discussed (M. L . Griffin, W . H . Howell, jun., a n d G. K . Spence, Met. and CJiem. Eng., 1917, 17, 599) 3 m a n y systems being described, a n d t h e saving in space produced b y using filter presses emphasised. Printing The use of resorcinol t o dissolve t h e lakes formed b y t a n n i n w i t h basic colours has been suggested (Wosnessensky, J. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1916, 32, 278-280); i t c a n also be used for discharging these colours on a t a n n i n ground. F o r t h e fixation of acid dye-stuffs on cotton, t h e use of t h e condensation p r o d u c t s of aromatic amines a n d aldehydes h a s b e e n p r o t e c t e d (Know Mill P r i n t i n g Co., L t d . , a n d F . W. Weeks, E n g . P a t . 102291). Two m e t h o d s of producing white a n d r e d impressions on indigod y e d goods h a s been described (Gr. Tagliani a n d Brosio, Farber-ZeiL, 1915, 26, 1-3), a n d p r i n t s of g r e a t fastness

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INDUSTRY

t o light a r e said t o b e p r o d u c e d b y 1'4'5'8-tetrahydroxya n t h r a q u i n o n e , using a n a l u m i n i u m m o r d a n t (Farbenfabr. v o r m . , F . B a y e r u n d Co., Ger. P a t . 290975, 1914). The use of a r e d u c i n g a g e n t , a c i t r a t e , a n d " Blandola " (pure vegetable gelatin) for p r o d u c i n g w h i t e or coloured reserves i n p r i n t i n g w i t h c h r o m e colours h a s b e e n p a t e n t e d ( D u r a n d H u g u e n i n e t Cie., Ger. P a t . 293359, 1915), as h a s also t h e use of p h e n o l - f o r m a l d e h y d e c o n d e n s a t i o n p r o d u c t s for t h e fixation of metallic p o w d e r s , p i g m e n t s or dye-stuffs (Bakelite, G. m . b . H . , E n g . P a t . 7284, 1916). E . Dzieyk (Ger. P a t . 290598, 1914) describes t h e use of Manila copal a n d paraffin t o p r o d u c e b y grinding w i t h dye-stuffs, dustfree, dry, transfer p r i n t i n g colours for embroidery w o r k ; t h e colours a r e fixed b y s p r a y i n g w i t h alcohol. The p r o d u c t i o n of n o v e l effects in u n i o n fabrics b y p r i n t i n g w i t h substances w h i c h a r e capable of destroying one of t h e fibres p r e s e n t , t h e n subjecting t o a high t e m p e r a t u r e , h a s been p r o t e c t e d (Zeidler, Ger. P a t . 293400, 1914). T h e fixation of dye-stuffs d u r i n g p r i n t i n g is b r o u g h t a b o u t (C. J a g e r , G. m . b . EL, a n d R . W . Carl, E n g . P a t . 116109) b y m i x i n g w i t h t h e dye-stuff a s u b s t a n c e containing a protein a n d a s u b s t a n c e w h i c h yields formaldehyde a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e p r i n t i n g m a c h i n e . The formaldehyde r e a c t s w i t h t h e p r o t e i n . T h e Calico P r i n t e r s Association a n d F . A s h t o n ( E n g . P a t . 117715) produce c h r o m i u m m o r d a n t s o n v e g e t a b l e fibres b y immersing in a c h r o m i u m s a l t solution a n d in c a u s t i c soda of s t r e n g t h n o t less t h a n 20 T w . FinisMng This b r a n c h of t h e i n d u s t r y h a s b e e n little affected b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of science, b u t i n some b r a n c h e s t h e r e is evidence of t h e success of this application. T h e Aust r i a n s h a v e m a d e a success of t h e finishing of h e a v y mercerised goods, a n d t h e y h a v e d o n e t h i s b y t h e special p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e c o t t o n for this p u r p o s e ; t h e spinning, weaving, a n d s u b s e q u e n t finishing h a v e all been specially a d a p t e d t o p r o d u c e t h e b e s t mercerised article, j u s t as t h i s special a d a p t a t i o n h a s b e e n c a r r i e d o u t in G e r m a n y t o p r o d u c e h e a v y " raised " c o t t o n goods. F e w p a p e r s on finishing h a v e a p p e a r e d . P . B e a n (J. Text. Inst,

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125

>15, 4, 223-232) h a s discussed a n u m b e r of modifications : s t a r c h , a n d t h e a n a l y s i s of sizes a n d finishes h a s b e e n eated b y L a m b a n d H a r v e y ( / . Soc Dyers and Col.. )17, 33, 19-20). Glue in place of s t a r c h h a s b e e n sug^sted for sizing, a n d s t a r c h a n d d i a s t a f o r i n place of sxtrin (E. B u t , Z . ges. Textil Ind., 1915, 18, 140). T h e w e i g h t i n g of silk c a n b e c a r r i e d a s h i g h a s 1 8 0 % , 3cording t o A n m a n n (Farber-Zeit., 1915, 26, 301-303), l e degree of w e i g h t i n g b e i n g influenced b y t h e p h y s i c a l tiaracteristics of t h e fibre. H e e r m a n n (M. A. K, Materialruf, 1915, 33, 446-453) s t a t e s t h a t n o definite a d d i t i v e o m p o u n d b e t w e e n t h e s t a n n i c chloride a n d t h e silk i n weighted silk h a s b e e n p r o v e d . H e f a v o u r s a n electron i c t h e o r y , t h e a t t r a c t i o n of t h e silk b e i n g g o v e r n e d >y t h e s t a t e of electrolytic dissociation of t h e s t a n n i c hloride. As r e g a r d s c o t t o n sizing, R . H . P i c k a r d ( J . Soc. Chem. 'nd.9 1918, 26 R ) p o i n t s o u t t h e empiricism of t h e process m d t h e n e e d for research. T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of this >rocess, h o w e v e r , is difficult b e c a u s e of s u c h i n t a n g i b l e h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as t h e feel a n d a p p e a r a n c e of cloth, w h i c h lo n o t allow of definite m e a s u r e m e n t . T h e s a m e r e m a r k s ipply t o t h e finishing of d y e d a n d b l e a c h e d g o o d s ; experience is still t h e o n l y factor i n t h i s b r a n c h of t h e n d u s t r y . A m e t h o d of finishing fabrics b y e x p o s i n g t h e m :n t h e open w i d t h t o a v a r i e t y of o p e r a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g brushing, e x p o s u r e t o s t e a m , c a l e n d a r i n g , a n d s t r e t c h i n g has b e e n p r o t e c t e d (Columbia Conditioning Co., U . S . P a t . 1270153). W . H a r r i s o n (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1918, A, 94, 460) s t a t e s t h a t d o u b l e refraction i n t e x t i l e fibres is d u e t o i n t e r n a l stresses w h i c h m a y b e i n c r e a s e d b y c o m pressing t h e fibres. W h e n t h e p r e s s u r e is released, t h e fibres d o n o t r e v e r t t o t h e i r original form n o r lose t h e i r increased d o u b l e refractive p o w e r s u n t i l i m m e r s e d in cold w a t e r ; b u t cold w a t e r is n o t c a p a b l e of influencing t h e n a t u r a l i n t e r n a l stresses of t h e fibres. A t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s , w a t e r r e n d e r s fibres plastic, a n d d e f o r m a t i o n p r o d u c e d b y compression does n o t cause i n t e r n a l stresses. These o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e of i n t e r e s t i n s t u d y i n g t h e calendaring a n d o t h e r finishing process. S u c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s m a y succeed i n infusing s o m e scientific i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o t h e

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empiricism of finishing. M. F o r t ( J . Soc. Dyers and Col, 1918, 34, 9) records a case of mechanical powdering of t h e cotton fibre during t h e beetling process. A deposit resembling lumps of starch was obtained which was easily crushed t o a smooth powder. The p r o d u c t still h a d t h e properties of cellulose. I n t h e weighting of silk, the weighting liquors, phosp h a t e and stannic chloride, are alternately forced t h r o u g h t h e fabric rolled on a m e t a l d r u m . The d r u m is t h e n removed t o a drying machine a n d t h e fabric is dried by centrifugal action. The t r e a t m e n t is r e p e a t e d u n t i l t h e desired loading is obtained ( F . J . B . Knabiehler a n d A. Fankhauser, U.S. P a t . 1259526). F o r t h e t r e a t m e n t of waste liquors from textile a n d dyeworks, the use of chlorides or sulphates of alkaline e a r t h s a n d t h e n highly plastic clay h a s been protected (C. Ghinkel, Ger. P a t . 304040).

CHAPTER

XIII

COLOUR PEODUCTION 1 The German worksPast, present and futureCombination and Its possible effectsOur positionPossible remediesProtectionPatent legislationOrganisation of the industry in Germany. T H E G e r m a n colour-works are perhaps t h e m o s t perfectly developed a n d scientifically managed organisations in t i e world. The E n g l i s h c o a l - t a r colour industry has received m u c h a t t e n t i o n from m a n y publicists, b u t our industry h a s p r i n c i p a l l y been reviewed historically in order t o elucidate o u r p a s t faults. The p a s t has been considered t o o much, w h e r e a s a peep i n t o t h e future is of more imp o r t a n c e . E v e r y b o d y now knows t h e story of how G e r m a n y h a s deprived us of our aniline colour industry, h o w we s e n d coal-tar t o her a n d receive back finished p r o d u c t s f o r which we p a y dearly, a n d how difficult it is for us t o c o m p e t e with her i n this i n d u s t r y now t h a t h e r works a r e so large a n d so carefully organised. B u t t h e possibilities of development have n o t been argued. The i n d u s t r y originated in England, a n d further progressed i n t h i s c o u n t r y as t h e result of a series of chemical t r i u m p h s . H o f m a n n was in E n g l a n d experimenting, b u t later, unfortunately for our industry, he r e t u r n e d t o G e r m a n y . F r o m this t i m e we m a d e little progress, b e c a u s e we h a d n o t t h e chemists t o u n d e r t a k e t h e research, w o r k necessary for t h e industry. I n Germany t h e c o n d i t i o n s were different, for, t h a n k s t o Liebig, a n a r m y of y o u n g chemists developed t h e i n d u s t r y in t h a t
1 This chapter has been left practically as it appeared in the first edition. 127

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THE DYEING INDUSTRY

country relying on foreign raw materials. England was better "prepared for t h e development of this industry because of our cheap acid, alkali, fuel, intermediate products, and raw materials, and because our gas industry, which supplied t h e crude coal-tar from which t h e dyestuffs were made, was more developed t h a n t h a t of a n y other country. Our position differed from t h a t of Germany in t h a t the latter country had t h e research c h e m i s t s ; we had not, or, rather, t h o s e t h a t we h a d were either unwillino1 to take u p this branch of work or were n o t encouraged to do so. A t a later t i m e t h e acid and alkali industries developed i n Germany, a n d h a d t o t h a n k t h e aniline colour industry for this r a p i d change. The coalt a r industry developed m u c h m o r e slowly t h a n their dyestuff industry, and as a consequence G e r m a n y had t o rely on foreign raw materials for t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of dye-stuffe. The imports of raw materials for t h i s purpose, however, became less and less, until at t h e present t i m e t h e Germans practically supply all t h e i r own needs. The success of their coal-tar colour i n d u s t r y is attributed by t h e Germans t o their research chemists, b u t it should rather be stated t h a t success was due t o t h e encouragement of these chemists. A t first t h e German chemists came t o E n g l a n d for capital t o work o u t their ideas, and m a n y of t h e m were engaged in t h e Manchester district; b u t t h e y afterwards found t h a t t h e y could get the assistance t h e y required a t home, where such men as Bayer and Cassella, w h o were n o t themselves chemists, supplied t h e business a n d financial element. I n short, research was encouraged in G e r m a n y b u t n o t in this country. Brilliant chemists left E n g l a n d t o achieve great success in t h e German research laboratories. Professor 0 . N. Witt said progress in Germany h a d been due t o t h e development of t h e people during t h e last h u n d r e d years, to research, t o t h e combination of science a n d technique, and to the fortunate organisation of t h e chemical industry. Further, t h e Chemical Society a n d I n d u s t r i a l Chemical Society had had a big influence i n fostering t h e i n d u s t r y through their journals. That is t h e past, a n d the fact t h a t these German colour-works now e x p o r t about 10,000,000 w o r t h of

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129

coal-tar colours a n d similar products, nearly a fifth of which are s e n t t o this country, gives some idea of the present position of t h e i n d u s t r y in Germany. I n considering t h e loss of our i n d u s t r y we must not consider i t a p u r e loss, b u t remember t h e people who would have been engaged in t h a t i n d u s t r y are now followi n g other p u r s u i t s . The a c t u a l loss is t h e difference in t h e income obtained in t h e two cases b y t h e employment of t h e same labour a n d capital in different directions. Certain countries a r e b e t t e r a d a p t e d t h a n others for t h e working of certain industries, and t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of industries b e t w e e n countries changes with t i m e . Sometimes, indeed, t h e existence of an i n d u s t r y in a country is somewhat fortuitously determined. Thus t h e English c o t t o n i n d u s t r y originally came t o us from t h e Netherlands b y t h e e m i g r a t i o n of skilled workers from t h a t country. This i n d u s t r y assumed a tremendous scale in this country, a n d in spite of t h e after developments of t h e industry i n almost every other country of t h e world, we h a v e m a i n t a i n e d a n unrivalled position in this b r a n c h of m a n u facture. I t is seen t h a t a small event decided t h e establish* m e n t of t h e i n d u s t r y in this country, a n d similarly we m i g h t s a y t h a t a small event, namely, t h e encouragement of a few research chemists, decided t h e establishment of t h e aniline colour i n d u s t r y in Germany. B u t when we consider our position as regards t h e dye-stuff industry, we c a n n o t for a m o m e n t m a i n t a i n t h a t our capital a n d labour is more economically directed a t t h e present t i m e t h a n i t would b e if w e were employed on a large scale in t h i s i n d u s t r y ; for we k n o w t h a t t h e German coal-tar dyestuff i n d u s t r y is a v e r y profitable one ; we know t h a t we h a v e great n e e d of dye-stuffs ; a n d we k n o w t h a t i n t h e p a s t t h e G-ermans h a v e used our r a w materials, a n d from t h e profits obtained b y t h e chemical transformation of these materials h a v e founded their industry on a sound basis. The existence of this huge industry in G e r m a n y h a s also a n o t h e r effect. A short t i m e ago a German professor deplored t h a t G e r m a n y w a s n o t so progressive in t h e inorganic a n d analytical branches of chemistry as in organic chemistry. H e said F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d were

ISO

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

taking the lead in these branches. The fact is, t h a t t h e colour-works in Germany are absorbing so m a n y of t h e German chemical students, t h a t as a consequence t h e organic side of chemistry is flourishing. I n this i n s t a n c e we have the demand for labour influencing t h e d i r e c t i o n of study, and the large colour-works have in this way b e e n very influential in maintaining the s t a n d a r d of t e a c h i n g of chemistry in Germany. Moreover, it is t h e a u t h o r ' s linn belief t h a t it is because of t h e development a n d t h e organisation of these colour-works t h a t we hear so m u c h of the scientific German, who is busy applying science t o industry. The colour industry is a great asset t o G e r m a n y . Turning to the industry itself, we find in process of manufacture substances which were unknown a few years ago, and in some cases even a few months a g o . With intellectual advancement man's tastes have b e c o m e more and more complex, and in his taste for new colours lies the success of the industry under review. B u t , l i k e most other innovations, artificial dye-stuffs were not a t first enthusiastically received. After making some h e a d w a y , there was a reaction in favour of t h e old methods of d y e i n g and printing, b u t finally t h e utility of t h e new p r o d u c t s was proved, and t h e industry progressed a t a great r a t e . The separate firms have become very large and, m o r e over, there is a tendency towards combined w o r k i n g . Thus, there is a working understanding between t h e firms of F . Bayer of Elberfeld and Leverkusen, t h e Berlin A c t i e n Gesellschaft fur Anilinfabrikation, and t h e Badische A n i l i n und Soda Fabrik. I n fact, t h e Bayer a n d Badische firms already work their business together in t h e United S t a t e s . Further, the two Frankfort works of L. Cassella of M a i n k u r , and Meister, Lucius & Briining of Hoechst, are a c t i n g in a similar manner, so t h a t two large concerns p r o m i s e to arise and to drive small competitors out of t h e dye-stuff market. T h a t t h e small works are troublesome t o t h e larger ones from time to time is shown b y t h e following experience. A Swiss a n d a German firm were c o m p e t i n g to supply a certain product, and t h e latter firm w i s h e d to come to an agreement as t o t h e sharing of t h e profits, so as t o avoid ruinous competition. The terms offered t o t h e smaller Swiss firm, however, were n o t considered sufficient,

COLOUR

PRODUCTION

a n d war began. T h e larger wvrk.s r-r ^\iMv w. long-run, and also p r o b a H y injured its * .-niv,v*::-r t l i s w a y t h e p o w e r f u l combination? in^vr:-:-.] :; t i e entire m a r k e t t o t h e m s e l v e s . Besides t he c-r-n; V: mentioned, it is also known t h a t tliere are certain agreem e n t s between different i n n s of t h e r\v* c o r n H r a t : T^. I n f a c t , t h e whole G e r m a n colour industry l< 015.1 IIIHH! > < > a^ to prevent ruinous c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d intermediate productwhich are not r e q u i r e d b y one works are sold t o others where t h e y are r e q u i r e d . A t the t i m e of the author's visit tliere was a n a g r e e m e n t between two colour Arms to keep u p t h e price of s u l p h u r blacks in iliineheii-Gladhacli: t i e indigo c o n v e n t i o n between t h e Badische and Hoech>t ferns is also v e i l k n o w n . N u m e r o u s o t l e r conventions existin t h e colour i n d u s t r y , such as t h a t between t h e British Alizarin Company a n d the foreign producers of t h a t substance. C o m p e t i t i o n forces t h e prices of colours down enormously, and a g r e e m e n t s like those mentioned above a r e welcome r e t r e a t s for both parties. But if such overt u r e s can. t a k e p l a c e between u n i t s of rival organisations, i t is conceivable t h a t a t i m e will arrive when the German colour i n d u s t r y will "be organised under one set of directors, or a t a n y r a t e s u e t a connection will exist between the combinations m e n t i o n e d t h a t a monopoly will be created. S u c h a powerful c o m b i n a t i o n could undersell our small works, drive t h e m f r o m existence, a n d finally get t h e dyeing i n d u s t r y of t l i s c o u n t r y eatirely in its grasp. T l e v might p u t t h e price u p in Ajneriea a n d at home, and, while keeping t h e price in t h i s c o u n t r y very low, yet o b t a i n a profit. Supply price m a y b e placed below cost of production in order t o gain, a m a r k e t . The price of an artificial colour is so uncertain a q u a n t i t y t h a t this '" dumping " could easily "be brought a b o u t if rigid combination, existed in Germany. A G e r m a n film, w h i c h exploited t h e direct cotton colours, originally sold one o f these colours a t 6s. per lb., b u t nowa d a y s t h e price o b t a i n e d is only 6d. a n d t h e firm does not wish t o supply it. T h i s example gives one an idea of t h e profit obtained i n t h e sales of these products, a n d s i o w s t h a t prices might in. m a n y cases b e much reduced^ in order to achieve some p u r p o s e , a n d y e t a pxofit made. I n Crerrnany t l i e r e is a tendency f01 businesses t o come

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to a common agreement. A kind of executive g o v e r n m e n t of the heads of t h e various businesses is formed, a n d t h e y agree upon a joint government ruling o u t p u t a n d sales. They also fix t h e home price, and sometimes t h e " k a r t e l , " for such is the arrangement termed, p a y s a b o u n t y o n exports if there is any loss occasioned b y being compelled to sell at a low price abroad. The loss is t h u s d i s t r i b u t e d amoriff the whole of t h e businesses a n d does n o t cripple single concerns. The kartels differ from t h e p r e s e n t form of *most of t h e American t r u s t s in t h a t t h e y h a v e n o t advanced to a unified management of p r o d u c t i o n ; t h e y a r e combinations for maintaining prices and, more o r less, for the joint marketing of t h e produce b y a n u m b e r of concerns, which retain their own independence as p r o d u c e r s . I t must be said t h a t combination often checks u n h e a l t h y competition and provides u p - t o - d a t e c o n d i t i o n s , and, if well worked a n d organised, a t r u s t m a y be t h e v e r y b e s t of economic factors. Large-scale operations a r e , w i t h i n limits, the most profitable a n d often result i n b e t t e r conditions for t h e workmen t h a n in small w o r k s . I n t h e United States the tendency is r a t h e r for t h e c o m b i n a t i o n to become an individual business, a t r u s t b e i n g formed by the sale of businesses t o a company ; one h u g e business entirely absorbs the individual businesses. I n G e r m a n y and in this country businesses show a n i n c l i n a t i o n t o g e t larger, b u t n o t t o t h e same e x t e n t as in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Moreover, in England t h e degree of t r a d e c o m b i n a t i o n i s considerably less t h a n in Germany a n d A m e r i c a , w h e r e this artificial state is aided b y a n o t h e r artificial restriction, namely, t h e high tariff. The German k a r t e l s h a v e notoriously sought t o relieve t h e home m a r k e t in t i m e of depression by selling abroad below t h e d o m e s t i c price. Considering these facts, we come t o u n d e r s t a n d o u r position as regards dye-stuffs. The d y e - w o r k s of t h i s country are so dependent on German dye-stuffs t h a t i t is n o t pleasant t o contemplate w h a t would h a p p e n if t h e s e supplies were stopped or interfered with. A n y r u p t u r e i n t h e trade between, t h e two countries would l e a d t o m o s t serious difficulties, a n d our t r a d e in d y e d goods vrith o t h e r markets might be permanently and i r r e t r i e v a b l y injured.

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Prices are becoming so much c u t t h a t increases in cost of production, however slight, m u s t be felt. As regards t h e kartels existing in t h e colour industry, i t m u s t be remembered t h a t although competition within t h e kartels is restricted, this a r r a n g e m e n t sometimes gives a chance t o t h e smaller works of obtaining business. Thus, in one instance, one of t h e big firms had h a d a contract for y e a r s a n d q u o t e d for a renewal of t h e contract, h a v i n g some idea of t h e price which t h e firms in t h e rival karfcel could supply at, a n d knowing t h a t t h e firms in its own k a r t e l would n o t compete. T h e small outside producers were n o t , however, considered, with t h e result t h a t t h e firm lost to one of t h e smaller firms a big contract. The small works are m a k i n g a big fight, a n d are employing t h e best t a l e n t t h e y c a n get, sometimes a t t r a c t i n g m e n from t h e larger works. The larger organisations have technical m e n i n all t h e industrial centres of t h e world, a n d these m e n m e e t from t i m e t o time a t t h e German h e a d q u a r t e r s t o discuss business m a t t e r s . On one occasion one of t h e smaller colour firms sent m e n t o s t a y a t t h e same hotel as t h e other technical men mentioned, with t h e result t h a t t h e y h e a r d all t h e doings of t h e conference discussed a t t a b l e . This information t h e y m a d e use of, a n d now t h e rule h a s been m a d e t h a t t h e m e n m u s t n o t discuss business m a t t e r s off t h e premises. I t is t h u s seen t h a t t h e small firms are still full of life, a n d b y their enterprise are prev e n t i n g t h e consummation of a rigid monopoly i n this industry. F u r t h e r combination will cause m a n y dye-stuffs t o be t a k e n off t h e m a r k e t , for t h e separate firms produce m a n y of t h e same colours, although sometimes under different n a m e s . An individual concern, working in strict comp e t i t i o n w i t h all other concerns, h a d t o supply as m a n y colours as possible in order t o satisfy their customers and i n order in m a n y cases t o obtain fresh accounts. B u t with c o m b i n a t i o n t h e tendency will b e towards specialised production, a n d a series of t h e best colours will be produced. This a r r a n g e m e n t will also assist t h e dyer in his selection. Our position i n t h e colour i n d u s t r y h a s often been p o i n t e d o u t a n d remedies suggested. Although largescale p r o d u c t i o n h a s m a n y advantages, it is seen t h a t

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.-mall work? flourish in Germany and in Switzerland, a n d there is no reason why they should^ n o t do so in t h i s 11 Hiiitry. Germany is a long way behind us in the t e x t i l e industries, but site is gradually decreasing our l e a d . A l t h o u g h ' t h e larger the scale of production t h e m o r e profitable production usually is, yet countries cannot b e ruuceived as having large and unconquerable s t a r t s o v e r csther countries. One English firm is making headway o n the Continent and is receiving respect from G e r m a n chemists. Their dye-stuffs have received very favourable reports, while recent booklets issued from t h e works s h o w no lack of enterprise. I t must be remembered t h a t o n e i)f the principal reasons why t h e German colour i n d u s t r y flourishes to-day is because of the application of k e e n business ability I n the management. Protection would have little effect in keeping out t h e German dye-stuffs, and the cost of production of our d y e d goods would only thereby be raised. The German firms might erect works in this country, as they have done i n France, Russia, and in other countries, and this a r r a n g e ment might benefit employment a little, b u t t h e n a t i o n a l benefit would only be small. Our present producers of coal-tar colours would not benefit materially, because t h e y would not be allowed to work the German p a t e n t s , so t h a t our dyers would still have t o import their colours or fall behind in the production of t h e latest s h a d e s ; i n o r d e r to obtain the novelties from time to time sent o u t b y t h e colour firms, our dyers would have t o p a y t h e o r d i n a r y price, together with t h e tariff which h a d been placed o n these products. I n Germany many raw materials a r e admitted d u t y free, as coal, lime, tar, pitch, t u r p e n t i n e , wool and hair, raw copper, lead, tin, zinc, hides and skins, and some chemicals; b u t not alkali, alum, b l e a c h i n g powder, or salt. I n any case, considering t h e circumstances mentioned above, aniline colours are r a w materials t o our cotton, woollen, and other industries. I n t h e U n i t e d States salt and most chemicals are t a x e d ; b u t w h i t e arsenic, sulphur, crude nitrates, petroleum, tar, t u r p e n t i n e , and wax are admitted free of duty. America, like G e r m a n y , recognises t h a t t h e raw materials of i n d u s t r y should n o t be taxed.

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Another solution of t h e problem of aiding our almost d e f u n c t coal-tar colour industry, a n d one which deserves m o r e attention, is t h a t relating t o our p a t e n t laws. These l a w s were intended t o introduce new industries t o t h e c o u n t r y , b u t b y granting p a t e n t s t o foreigners we h a v e p r e v e n t e d t h e development of m a n y processes a t h o m e , a n d foreigners coming t o this country h a v e b e e n g r a n t e d monopolies which their own country refused t h e m . It i s generally conceded t h a t m a k i n g t h e inventor work his p a t e n t in t h e c o u n t r y where it is t a k e n o u t a m e t h o d a d o p t e d b y all E u r o p e a n countries except our ownis t h e best direction for reform. The Germans worked our p a t e n t s in their own country a t t h e beginning of t h e c o a l - t a r industry, and were so successful t h a t t h e y firmly established themselves financially. " English brains c r e a t e d t h e colour industry, English enterprise developed i t , and English legislative folly h a s been t h e principal c a u s e of its d e c l i n e " ( I v a n Levenstein, Nature, 1903). I n t h e United States legislation h a s n o t been passed t o f o r c e foreign inventors t o work their p a t e n t s i n t h a t c o u n t r y , b u t t h e high tariff has a somewhat similar effect. T l i e question of p a t e n t s , however, h a s t o b e carefully s t u d i e d in order to ensure against evasion of t h e comp u l s o r y working clauses, for there is t h e possibility of a n i n v e n t o r working his p a t e n t on a very small scale, t h u s satisfying t h e clauses mentioned, b u t a t t h e s a m e time p r e s e r v i n g his monopoly. Legislation regarding p a t e n t s i s of great importance, a n d some German technical schools h a v e lecture courses on t h i s subject. Turning t o particular examples of p a t e n t e d products, w e find t h e G e r m a n firms, immediately t h e y discover a n e w colour, p a t e n t i n g it all over t h e world. Of course t h e c h e m i s t s t u r n out m a n y colours which, after consideration, a r e n o t p u t on t h e m a r k e t , b u t those which are considered w o r t h y of manufacture are well guarded a n d p a t e n t e d . O n e German firm employs for this purpose a m a n who h o l d s doctor's degrees b o t h in chemistry a n d in law. T h e German firms are continually t a k i n g out new p a t e n t s , a n d if this r a t e of progress continues one can conceive of a t i m e when t h e chemical p a r t of t h e colour i n d u s t r y will b e so far developed t h a t little further progress c a n be

T H E DYEING I N D U S T R Y 'n.t-ii luivi ,i term of years all p a t e n t s will have i L n manufacturers will b e able to make ;u I i :>:>;v ]..:..:t-i-reti products. The Germans rexLtf iK^<^:lh\ of this development and, while **v i*ri:^i:.g out new products, t h e y make their :: ii IL-III while they are new; t h e prices ob: ir.il liMVtvities are high, but after a time they ^vrai-A". Moreover, the German colour-works, i;^ :Le probdidlity of other manufacturers proiieir ^ 'lours when their patent rights run out, are iVut care that their specifications should be to give protection, but at the s a m e time little ioii as regards the working of the p a t e n t s . In this iey have shown great cleverness. Further, t h e y are spending large sums on research work, because they WK.t.irm^e that only in this way can they jflourish. Lngland has set examples to the world a n d has been imitated on all hands in many business m a t t e r s , and has reated many competitors. As regards our position

Of the German colour-works the Badisciie Anilin und h\ Fahrik .wast fnnndjp.fl in iftftS f.f. whfr.Ti tim

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fastness of t h e colours. They were n o t far behind w h e n s u l p h u r colours were introduced, and t h e y produced t h e first green. T h e Bayer firm has advanced v e r y rapidly, u n t i l now it is one of t h e most i m p o r t a n t . I t is significant i n t h i s connection t o note t h a t t h e y h a v e t h e m o s t p a t e n t s , 1 0 0 0 German a n d 1200 foreign, a n d a t t h e t i m e of t h e a u t h o r ' s visit employed t h e most chemists. The business side of t h e German colour-works is highly d e v e l o p e d . They m a k e all t h e y possibly can for t h e m s e l v e s . Passing t h r o u g h t h e d e p a r t m e n t s in which t h e different handbooks are made, one is struck w i t h t h e e n o r m o u s trouble a n d expense of such productions. M a n y of t h e s e are quite artistically produced, a n d contain scores of p a t t e r n s , all of which h a v e t o be fixed b y h a n d . These p a t t e r n s are issued for cotton, wool, half-wool, silk, halfs i l k , leather, soap tints, straw, buttons, wood p l a i t fox h a t s , w o o d stains for picture frames, etc., a n d t h e i n t e n d i n g c u s t o m e r is t h u s presented with reliable a n d t r u s t w o r t h y s a m p l e s of t h e dyed article besides elaborate instructions h o w to perform t h e dyeing. Also some of t h e h a n d b o o k s g i v e drawings of t h e latest machinery in use, a n d a l t h o u g h t h i s is of German manufacture, y e t one gets a n idea of w h a t is being done in Germany. The books are issued i n a b o u t a dozen languages, including J a p a n e s e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of good p a t t e r n - b o o k s is manifest i n m a n y i n d u s t r i e s , a n d t h e Germans seem t o h a v e developed t h i s b r a n c h of business t o a high state. H u n d r e d s of clerks are s e e n a t work in t h e different factories, a n d from t h e scores e m p l o y e d in t h e English departments, occupied solely w i t h , t h e t r a d e w i t h England, one gets an idea of t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h a t t r a d e . I n all cases t h e works are built where good t r a n s p o r t facilities exist. Thus, m o s t of t h e m are situated on or n e a r t h e Rhine, while t h e Berlin Company's works is o n t h e Spree a n d t h u s i n connection w i t h H a m b u r g . All h a v e ample railway communication, a n d i n some cases p r i v a t e lines. As one s t a n d s on t h e b a n k s of t h e R h i n e a n d watches t h e m a n y barges floating down t h e s t r e a m , o n e is reminded t h a t this river is a m i g h t y factor i n G e r m a n commerce. H e r e we h a v e no large initial capital e x p e n d i t u r e as in t h e case of our canals, b u t a n a t u r a l

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means of the cheapest t r a n s p o r t ; t h e products of t h e industries of RMneland are thus taken down t o t h e sea and enabled to compete where otherwise t h e y would n o t have a chance. The importance of cheap t r a n s p o r t is becoming greater and greater, and it has often been said t h a t England, both as regards external a n d internal communication, is the home of transport anomaly. The way t h a t some foreign goods are carried to p a r t s of E n g l a n d a t cheaper rates t h a n our own produce, a n d t h e way t h a t English ships carry goods from other countries a greater distance at a cheaper rate t h a n they carry ours, t h u s defeating us in some foreign markets, h a s often been mentioned and deplored. However, it m u s t be remembered t h a t the enormous development of Rhineland as an industrial district had resulted largely from t h e presence of the Rhine and its use as a means of transport. Moreover, this fact should not be lost sight of i n comparing t h e relative growth of England and Germany industrially. I t is said t h a t t h e Thames has done more for E n g l a n d t h a n all its canals and perhaps even its railroads. An interesting part of t h e colour-works is t h e m a n u facture of the dye-stuffs themselves. Of course different dye-stuffs require different methods of production. I n one case a building about 70 feet high was used. This h a d big tanks arranged at different heights a n d containing different chemical preparations. The liquids from these t a n k s were run a t certain periods into a v a t , and t h e dye-stuff was produced b y interaction. I t settled out of solution on standing, and b y filtering through presses came o u t like clay. The liquid filtered off is farther utilised, a n d the clay-like mass is p u t into barrels a n d t a k e n t o t h e drying ovens. These ovens are heated b y fires below the ground, and the dye-stuff is wheeled into t h e ovens a t the ground level. Different temperatures are used for drying, according t o t h e nature of t h e dye-stuff being dried, and the ovens are specially constructed to admit of regulation. The dye-stuff is dug out of the barrels b y means of spades and placed on trays, for transference t o t h e ovens. Dyestufis of all kinds are scattered about t h e ground, giving i t a peculiar appearance on a wet day. Moreover, one sees workmen of all colours emerging from their working

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q u a r t e r s and m a k i n g for t i e baths. Kaeh labourer engaged in dirty work h a s t o h a v e a b a t h before leaving t h e works, a n d t h e y require it. A large a m o u n t of ice is used in t i e colour-works for cooling purposes during t h e manufacture of diazo colours, a n d this ice is m a d e on t i e premises. A t one works, long r e c t a n g u l a r i r o n "boxes ^were seen standing vertically i n brine, which is m a i n t a i n e d a t a low t e m p e r a t u r e . These boxes are filled w i t h ^ a t e r and agitated b y a le^er arrangem e n t ; w h e n t h e w a t e r is frozen t h e iron boxes are tilted a n d t h e ice removed. Some works m a k e a s much, as 200 t o n s of ice daily. A t B a y e r ' s L e v e r k u s e n Works, on t i e K h i n e , near Cologne, t h e w a t e r - s u p p l y is obtained from a deep well. T h e pumping-engines are capable of raising 60,000 cubic m e t r e s of w a t e r per d a y , a n d t h i s is 10,000 cubic metres in excess of t h e daily consumption of t h e city of Cologne. Of course t h i s a m o u n t of w a t e r is n o t used at present, b u t t h e whole of t h i s works is designed for future needs. There is p l e n t y of r o o m for expansion. T h e a u t h o r p a i d a visit t o a works at N u r e m b e r g ^vhere colours of a different class were made. Nuremberg h a s m a n y industries, a n d prominent a m o n g t h e s e are t h e p r o d u c t i o n of m i r r o r s a n d of lithographic supplies. At t h e works m e n t i o n e d fine metallic colours were produced b y h e a t i n g p o w d e r e d m e t a l with aniline colours. Different alloys of copper a n d sine a r e used. Aluminium is used a l o n e for t h i s p u r p o s e , b u t not along with t i e other t w o m e t a l s , as a slight a m o u n t of aluminium produces brittleness a n d spoils t h e whole melt. Aluminium h a d a t t h e t i m e of t h e a u t h o r ' s visit risen greatly in price, owing t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g between E u r o p e a n a n d American p r o d u c e r s . T h e copper used is t h e p u r e s t m e t a l obtainable, a n d is usually p r o d u c e d elec-trolytically; i t is b e a t e n o u t w i t h h a m m e r s a n d washed with sulphuric a n d t a r t a r i c acids. T h e COIOUTS a r e used for wall-papers, p r i n t cloths, and in l i t h o g r a p h y . T h e t r a d e with Great B r i t a i n is large. I n r e c e n t y e a r s m a r k e d a d v a n c e s haTe been m a d e b y English employers a s regards t h e housing of t h e i r employees, a n d similarly i n G e r m a n y m u c h h a s been done in this direction. T h i s is particularly t h e case a t the large

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German colour-works. Thus, a t Hoechst t h e r e is q u i t e a town of artisan dwellings, each of which h a s a garden. Also there is a store, where provisions are sold b y t h e firm a t little more t h a n cost price, a school, a continuation school for workmen, a library, an assembly hall, a huge dining-hall, and other conveniences. Hoechst itself is a very dirty place, but by t h e aid of a policeman a n d t h e increasing intensity of the fumes proceeding from one of t h e works' chimneys, t h e author was able t o find his w a y through t h e unpleasant portions of t h e t o w n t o t h e m u c h better district, where the colour firm's work-people were housed. The neat dwellings in this q u a r t e r are i n big contrast with the squalid shanties of t h e t o w n itself. B u t it must be mentioned t h a t it is only t h e more respectable work-people who live in t h e houses mentioned ; t h e lowest classes find other places of abode. At all t h e works good kitchens provide excellent, cheap dinners. Besides t h e above conveniences some works have also savings-banks, hospitals, long-service premiums, pension funds, workmen's relief funds, musical societies, clubs, etc. A director of one concern sends workmen's wives a n d little ones t o summer resorts, a n d pays for milk for t h e children a t certain times of t h e year. The German firms are m a k i n g huge profits, and some of these returns t h e y are investing in a profitable and productive manner, t h a t is, i n caring for those who labour t o make t h e profits. A t Miilhausen there is a workmen's colony which was founded in 1850 to improve t h e conditions of t h e workmen of t h e town. I t consists of about 1000 houses with small gardens, which were sold t o artisans a t a b o u t cost price. The district at t h e present time, however, is h a r d l y in t h e best condition, and m a n y of t h e houses are u n t e n a n t e d , because it is said t h e workmen are anxious t o live outside t h e town, a n d t o travel into t o w n in t h e m o r n i n g b y t r a i n . There are baths, wash-houses, and schools in t h e colony, b u t a t t h e time of t h e author's visit t h e whole appeared t o be a mixture of disorder and small businesses, only a p a r t of t h e houses being used as originally intended. Returning to t h e German colour-works, we find in t h e technical departments chemists engaged as analysts, as research chemists, and as technical men. The first class of

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chemists deal with t h e work materials and products : t h e y also analyse t h e p r o d u c t s of other firms and a t t e m p t t o detect infringements of p a t e n t s . The research chemists are u n d e r t h e direction of such distinguished chemists as Duisberg and Bernthsen. A list of t h e chemists who h a v e been employed from t i m e t o t i m e b y these works shows t h a t t h e best brains h a v e been a t t r a c t e d , a n d t h e same conclusion is formed as t o t h e present s t a t e of affairs w h e n one surveys t h e list of distinguished chemists who came from G e r m a n y t o E n g l a n d for Sir W. H . Perkin's coal-tar jubilee. T h e technical m e n are concerned with t h e dyeing properties of t h e different dye-stuffs produced. I n t h i s d e p a r t m e n t all their own p r o d u c t s a n d t h e p r o d u c t s of other firms are tested. As soon as a dye-stuff is p u t o n t h e m a r k e t b y a rival firm i t is first analysed a n d t h e n investigated a s regards its dyeing properties b y one of t h e technical stafi. A conference is called, a t which t h e technical m a n reports on t h e characteristics of t h e new colour, a n d suggests one or m o r e of their own colours or m i x t u r e s of colours which can be used in competition w i t h t h e new article. T h e travellers are t h e n provided w i t h t h i s information i n order t o compete with t h e new p r o d u c t ; if one of t h e i r customers m e n t i o n s t h e a d v a n t a g e s of t h e new product, t h e travellers a r e r e a d y with t h e information t o convince h i m t h a t b y m i x i n g their B X w i t h a little B R h e can get t h e same result a t less cost. T h e chemists w h o investigate t h e dye-stufis as a b o v e m e n t i o n e d are generally university graduates, who, o n entering t h e works, are t r a i n e d t o become technologists or t o go o u t as representatives of t h e firm. Some of t h e s e m e n are sent t o all p a r t s of t h e world a s special travellers, while others a t t a i n positions as superintendents of t h e different d e p a r t m e n t s . Most of t h e h e a d s of d e p a r t m e n t s a n d m a n y occupying high positions in t h e a c t u a l m a n u facture of t h e colours h a v e gone direct from t h e university i n t o t h e works, a n d t h e a d v a n t a g e of employing university m e n is well shown. N o i n d u s t r y employs more university g r a d u a t e s , a n d no i n d u s t r y is more prosperous. These university m e n gradually rise t o occupy t h e highest positions. A " good practical man,' 5 as t h e saying is i n

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THE DYEING INDUSTEY

England, might discharge the duties very well, b u t a s a niie lie is not imaginative, and he cannot suggest i m provements or keep in touch with progress t h r o u g h t h e technical journals. University graduates are received for t r a i n i n g a s technical men a t a salary of about 100 a year, and^ a contract is made for one year. If during t h a t year s a t i s faction is given, their salary is gradually raised d u r i n g a period of rive years, for each year of which a s e p a r a t e contract is entered into. Most of the servants of t h e s e works are under similar contracts. If any breach t a k e s place between employer a n d employed, t h e latter is n o t allowed t o enter the employment of a rival organisation during a period of two years after t h e breaking of t h e connection, but during this time he receives his s a l a r y from the firm. I n this way a man, who has gained s o m e special information in a department, cannot i m m e d i a t e l y place t h a t information a t t h e disposal of a rival firm ; a n d after the two years agreed to, t h e information, owing t o the rapid progress of the industry, m a y be of little u s e . During t h e first year or more t h e men engaged as a b o v e mentioned merely collect information, and are of l i t t l e direct use to the firm employing them. I t is t r u e t h a t t h e y have to report on various products as before stated, b u t most of their time is t a k e n u p in gathering as n m c l i practical knowledge as t h e y can in order t o fit t h e m s e l v e s for subsequent duties. They are for the most p a r t left t o themselves; they use t h e splendid libraries which m a n y of these works contain, experiment as t h e y wish, a n d learn as much as possible. I n fact, this training is s o m e what similar to the instruction provided b y t e c h n i c a l schools. The men meet periodically, when a n y t h i n g n e w in the chemical world is discussed, a n d t h e technical p a p e r s are passed round. I n this w a y all are k e p t in t o u c h w i t h progress in the industry. The actual dyeing is performed in a laboratory c o n taining some dyeing machinery, which is worked b y labourers t o t h e directions of t h e technical men. S o m e modern machinery is used, b u t i t is more or less on a n experimental scale, and simply used to test t h e different dye-stuffs.

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I n fact, t h e whole training of these technical m e n is designed because of t h e lack in G e r m a n y of good d y e i n g schools. A g r a d u a t e of a university rarely enters t h e t r a d e schools, so t h a t t h e colour-works h a v e t o p r o v i d e t h e training themselves. B u t in England, where we h a v e excellent schools of dyeing, these schools could b e u s e d i n place of t h e experimental d e p a r t m e n t s n a m e d , a n d a s t u d e n t who has gone t h r o u g h a training in dyeing a t a good technical school would require little further i n s t r u c t i o n before being called u p o n t o discharge t h e d u t i e s for w h i c h t h e German technical m e n are trained. T h e a u t h o r s p e a k s from experience w h e n h e says t h a t a u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e can learn as m u c h b y a year a t a n E n g l i s h technical school, as h e could b y a year's e m p l o y m e n t i n a technical d e p a r t m e n t of a German colour-works as described. Indeed, if it is contemplated t h a t technical m e n b e employed i n connection with t h e n e w British d y e scheme, t h e right men t o engage would be t h o s e w i t h university training, together with some technical school or industrial experience. After t h e technical m e n have been engaged a c e r t a i n t i m e a t t h e duties mentioned, a n d when t h e directors t h i n k t h a t these men are sufficiently trained, t h e y are sent i n t o a w o r k s in order t o o b t a i n some industrial experience, t h a t is, if t h e y h a v e n o t previously obtained this experience. If a m a n is intended for travelling in E n g l a n d , h e is s e n t t o a n English works which is on good t e r m s w i t h t h e colour-works, a n d in this w a y he learns i n a b o u t six w e e k s ' t i m e a little a b o u t t h e organisation, equipment, a n d occupation of t h e works, which some d a y he m a y be called u p o n t o visit for business purposes. On completion of t h i s t r a i n i n g t h e technical m a n r e t u r n s t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l l a b o r a t o r y , a n d after a short t i m e he is r e a d y t o c a r r y o u t t h e work for which he h a s been trained. Some of t h e s e m e n travel in districts near t h e works, r e t u r n i n g p e r h a p s weekly, while others go abroad. All t h e travellers visit t h e works from t i m e t o time, b u t in t h e case of t h o s e working, for instance, in America, t h e visits are of course n o t frequent. These m e n are also sent o u t w h e n technical difficulties are experienced a t t h e different works w i t h w h i c h t h e colour firms do business. F o r instance, a t a

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certain print-works t h e chemist died, a n d i t w a s found impossible to carry on t h e business without h i m . During his lifetime he had kept secret all his recipes, a n d h e h a d different signs for different materials, so t h a t w h e n h e suddenly died there was no means of finding o u t in w h a t way and with w h a t materials he h a d m a d e t h e v a r i o u s " mixings " used by the firm. The works w a s a t a s t a n d still, so they applied t o one of t h e colour-works for assistance. One of their technical men was s e n t , a n d after three weeks' h a r d work all was in order a g a i n . B u t t h e r e was one difference between t h e new c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d those previously prevailing. The chemist in m a k i n g u p the new recipes h a d used only the colours of t h e firm w h o sent him, so t h a t b y this means t h e t r a d e in d y e - s t u f f s a n d some other materials was diverted to his firm. A large staff of research chemists is e m p l o y e d a t e a c h of the works. Their remuneration is only m o d e r a t e , b u t successful work leads t o increased earnings ; p a t e n t s a r e taken out by t h e firm, and if successful t h e i n v e n t o r g e t s a share of t h e profits. I n this way m a n y c h e m i s t s a r e drawing large amounts, and this system c e r t a i n l y incites t h e men to their best efforts. The p r e p a r a t i o n of a n e w dye-stuff is usually entered into after t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h a t dye-stuff has been found, just as t h e f o r m u l a for indigo was discovered before i t was p r e p a r e d o n t h e large scale, and the whole series of magenta colours w e r e p r o d u c e d b y introducing groups of various kinds into t h e t r i p h e n y l methane n u c l e u s ; b u t in t h e case of s u l p h u r colours, whose constitutions are n o t definitely k n o w n , n e w colours of this series are not produced with t h e s a m e c e r t a i n t y . The different colour firms aim at p r o d u c i n g a v a r i e t y of products, because business obtained for o n e p r o d u c t m a y lead to other business. F o r this reason, t h e t r a v e l l e r s of some colour firms h a v e been known t o u r g e t h e i r e m ployers t o either m a k e indigo or to sell t h e n a t u r a l v a r i e t y in order t o satisfy all classes of customers. I n t h e works, each m a n is confined t o h i s o w n d e p a r t ment, a n d is in no case allowed t o visit o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s . Men occupying high positions are known t o h a v e n e v e r been in any other p a r t of the works t h a n t h e i r o w n s m a l l building. There is a case on record of a c h e m i s t e n g a g e d

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a t a school who used t o speak against t h e p r o d u c t s of o n e colour firm. This firm gave h i m a good position in order t o k e e p h i m quiet. As regards t h e experimental dye-houses of t h e different colour-works t h a t a t H o e c h s t (Meister, Lucius & Briining) is a b o u t 30 y a r d s square, a n d is fitted with small m a c h i n e r y , pots, a n d other requisites for d y e t r i a l s . R o u n d t h e sides of t h i s laboratory, a n d connected w i t h i t , are smaller laboratories, which are devoted t o special p u r p o s e s , such as cotton, wool, a n d silk dyeing, p a p e r dyeing, indigo dyeing, etc. A large n u m b e r of chemists a r e e m p l o y e d , a n d here, as a t other G e r m a n works, Englishm e n w e r e seen. I n t h e indigo room t h e familiar spiderweb-like hexagonal frames were used for dyeing piecegoods. Volunteers (see p p . 87 and 147) also work i n t h i s d e p a r t m e n t , a n d t h e y h a v e good opportunities for learning. J u s t p r e v i o u s t o t h e a u t h o r ' s visit t o this works, one of t h e t e c h n i c a l m e n h a d i n v e n t e d a machine for dyeing c o t t o n cloth a series of colours which blend i n t o one a n o t h e r . T h e m a c h i n e consists of a pair of rollers, between w h i c h t h e c l o t h passes ; t h e lower roller, instead of being in o n e piece, i s divided i n t o numerous sections, t h e sizes of w h i c h v a r y , a n d each section fits into a s e p a r a t e small t r o u g h . The m a c h i n e is like t h e ordinary p a d d i n g machine, e x c e p t t h a t t h e b o x a n d t h e lower roller are in sections. Different d y e solutions are placed in t h e different sections of t h e t r o u g h , a n d in t h i s w a y t h e cloth is d y e d differently a t different p a r t s . If different strengths of t h e same d y e liquor b e used, beautiful blendings are produced, a n d t h e v a r i e t y a n d perfection of t h e effect depends on t h e n u m b e r of sections i n t h e t r o u g h . Another box, exactly corres p o n d i n g t o t h e t r o u g h used, is employed for a d d i n g t h e d y e l i q u o r s t o t h e trough. M a n y varieties of t h e m a c h i n e are a t w o r k , a n d i t is m a d e b y H a u b o l d ' s of Chemnitz. I n Cassella's l a b o r a t o r y t h e y h a v e cop-dyeing a n d o t h e r m a c h i n e r y . A F r e n c h modification of t h e M a t h e r a n d P l a t t s t e a m e r is used. Cassella's p r i n t i n g t r a d e is growing r a p i d l y , a n d consequently their experimental p r i n t i n g d e p a r t m e n t shows t h e s a m e change. Their e x p e r i m e n t a l l a b o r a t o r i e s a p p e a r t o b e well conducted, b u t t h e y a r e old. I n t h e different machines some p a t t e r n s are d y e d , b u t L

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most of these are obtained from manufacturers using their dye-stuffs. The youths who labour for t h e technical men begin the work while very young, and after a t i m e a t t a i n such skill t h a t they can carry out t h e dye trials without direction. Their wages are very small, as t h e work is quite mechanical The weighing out of t h e dye-stuffs is done in a separate room, usually by girls. Some youths are engaged entirely in testing the fastness of dye-stuffs t o washing, reagents, etc. Manufacturers send a p a t t e r n with instructions t h a t t h e dye-stuff required m u s t be as fast as t h a t used for t h e p a t t e r n ; this request necessitates tests for fastness, and it is a good principle t h a t this firm never relies on any previous trials. I n testing t h e strength of a dye-stuff and comparing it with a p a t t e r n , all t h e dyestuff is salted out of solution on to t h e material, and afterwards another piece of material is p u t into t h e b a t h t o show whether it is e x h a u s t e d ; this second piece of material is attached to t h e first piece when making a judgment of dye-stuff strength. I n t h e laboratory of t h e Badische works t h e r e is a machine in which c o p - d y e i n g is done b y frothing, a Pornitz cop-dyeing machine, and an Obermaier machine for treating loose fibres. Felting tests were done b y working the material along with soap between t w o wooden slabs. I n testing the strength of d y e - s t u f f s used for dyeing paper pulp, a certain a m o u n t of pulp is mixed with a solution of a certain amount of t h e dye-stuff and stirred b y means of a vertical stirrer. The pulp is t h e n filtered b y pressure, and t h e paper t h u s formed is first dried between absorbent paper and t h e n in a steam b a t h before comparing t h e strength of t h e dyeing t h u s obtained. I n t h e leather-dyeing department skins were shaken with solvents t o extract t h e fatty matter, a n d t h e n d y e d back t o back t o prevent t h e flesh side from absorbing t h e dyestuff. Sometimes t h e skins were dyed b y merely painting t h e m with a solution of t h e dye-stuff. L e a t h e r was also seen in process of dyeing, a n d afterwards polished in a machine provided with a small smooth roller, which revolved against t h e surface of t h e leather. At t h e Berlin Company's works t h e y h a v e a neat milling machine, t h e material being moved backwards,

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forwards, a n d sideways d u r i n g t h e process b y means of rods o p e r a t e d b y different eccentrics. The walls of one r o o m were covered w i t h small drawers, which contained t h e p r o d u c t s of competitors ; each firm finds it necessary t o l e a r n a s m u c h as possible concerning t h e productions of its competitors. T h e large G e r m a n works contain d e p a r t m e n t s in which m e n a r e t a u g h t t o d y e t h e i r p r o d u c t s in all possible ways. These d e p a r t m e n t s are called " volunteer laboratories/ y a n d t h o s e receiving instruction are either sons of m a n u facturers, or i n some o t h e r w a y connected with, or a b o u t t o e n t e r , t h e dyeing i n d u s t r y . This scheme is a d v a n t a g e o u s t o b o t h p a r t i e s concerned. I n t h e first place, t h e firm profits because t h e volunteer learns t o dye his colours t h o r o u g h l y ; and, since he is u n d e r contract n o t t o volunteer w i t h a n o t h e r works for one year, he afterwards uses in p r a c t i c e t h e colours h e h a s learned so m u c h about. T h e n t h e s t u d e n t gains in general knowledge, for he learns t o dye m a t e r i a l s which, p e r h a p s , he h a s n o t seen before. Thus, h e c a n l e a r n t h e dyeing on t h e small scale of cotton, wool, half-wool, wool a n d mercerised cotton, silk, half-silk, j u t e , linen, r a m i e , artificial silk, shoddy, etc. H e is placed u n d e r a c o m p e t e n t chemist, a n d , as he also has a fine l i b r a r y a t his disposal, he has every o p p o r t u n i t y of acquiring knowledge. H e also has t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of keeping in t o u c h w i t h t h e scientific journals, for in this w a y one learns t h e l a t e s t discoveries in technology. I n some works t h e v o l u n t e e r s m o v e freely in t h e technical laboratories, b u t i n others t h e y a r e k e p t t o their own d e p a r t m e n t . F r o m t i m e t o t i m e discoveries, which h a v e been m a d e as r e g a r d s dyeing, are t e s t e d in t h e s e laboratories, a n d m e n p a y periodic visits from different works in order to keep in t o u c h w i t h progress i n t h e i r industry. B y means of p a t t e r n - b o o k s a n d note-books t h e volunteers keep records of t h e i r work, a n d these notes subsequently p r o v e useful in i n d u s t r y . Moreover, b y meeting young dyers of different nationalities in these d e p a r t m e n t s , one gets a n i d e a of t h e n a t u r e of t h e dyeing industry in different p a r t s of E u r o p e .

C H A P T E R XIV
COLOUR PRODUCTION (continued)

IN- the previous chapter, wkick h a s keen left practically as it appeared i n t h e first edition, some aspects of t k e colour industry kave been discussed. Fox instance, t k e effect of war "between this country a n d G e r m a n y w a s alluded to, and t k e chaotic s t a t e which would t h e r e b y result. As regards t h e compulsory working of p a t e n t s we have recently kad legislation o n this m a t t e r , b u t i t Is evident t h a t t h e new Act has been so evaded a s t o m a k e it practically useless. The a u t h o r mentioned t h i s possibility, and t i e outbreak of war has revealed t h e m e t h o d s used b y t h e Germans t o evade t h e law. I n t h e U n i t e d States compulsory working is n o t demanded of p a t e n t s , because they regard such legislation a s incapable of achieving i t s purpose. Then in reference t o t k e p r o d u c t i o n of new colouring matters t h e authoT pointed t o t h e possible exhaustion of t h e field, a n d i t is significant, i n looking back over t h e last t e n years, t h a t relatively few discoveries of a n important nature have been m a d e i n coal-tar colour chemistry. The discovery of Tido-Indigo R e d , hefore t h e decade mentioned, led to t h e production of other v a t colours, such as Tlio-Indigo Scarlet,, t i e Algol a n d Ciba colours, a n d t h e n m a n y new "brands of older classes w e i e introduced; b u t t i e range of colours l a s n o t b e e n v e r y much extended. I n fact, dyexs w l o use no colours which have "been discovered during t k e last t e n years m a y b e prominent i n tkeix industry. Indeed, i n t h i s c o u n t r y , many large works still use wood colours in large q u a n t i t i e s , particularly for yarn, and t k e y a r e n o t inclined t o give u p their use. I t can therefore be understood t h a t , a s t i e p a t e n t rights of t k e i m p o r t a n t aniline colours ran o u t , t i e 148

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aniline dye industry will assume a u u t W a^ptat. A* previously mentioned, the Germain have rei< .^Lisea TL;? possibility, and h a r e disguised their patent specification so a s t o give little information as to the met hod ci prod u c t i o n of the p a t e n t e d articles. Moreover, they ilave t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n more and more towards the prod u c t i o n of other synthetic products, as photographic and p h a r m a c e u t i c a l articles. After a long run, a n d when t i l s b r a n c h is played out, they will no doubt iind some other b r a n c h of r e m u n e r a t i v e activity. T h e German aniline colour industry lias been so much discussed i n t h i s c o u n t r y of recent years, and a t present is receiving so m u c h attention, that"one is a p t t o lose all sense of p r o p o r t i o n i n regarding it. I t must, however, be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t this industry is only a relatively small p a r t of t h e total chemical industry of a n y country. Ind e e d , if t h e chemical industry as a whole be considered, i t will b e found t h a t , as regards the value of chemicals prod u c e d per h e a d of t h e population, Great Britain is not faT, if at all, behind Germany. On this point t h e author w r o t e t h e following remarks in a letter to the Manchester Guardian i n 1910 : " A s for the German colour industry I h a v e long contended t h a t it h a s too often provided food for those Britishers who are always stating t h a t we are falling behind i n t h e industrial race, and the fact t h a t this i n d u s t r y is again brought to our notice only serves t o p o i n t to t h e p a u c i t y of more suitable material t o brood over. E v e n t h o u g h t h e dividends declared b y t h e German colour-works are high, it m u s t be remembered t h a t there a r e still m a n y English chemical concerns which are t h e e n v y of German manufacturers. For instance, to-day I received a German paper t h a t contained a n advertisem e n t for a chemical commodity which is m a d e n o t far from Manchester. This article is made by a firm whose enterprise is world famous, whose capital is as big, I think, a s all t h e G e r m a n colour-works p u t together, and whose profit in n o r m a l times is v e r y large. This is merely one c o n c e r n i n one British industry, b u t such facts are often overlooked when generalisations are m a d e , " Although G e r m a n y is foremost as regards t h e prod u c t i o n of synthetic dyea a n d some fine chemicals, it m u s t

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b e remembered t h a t our heavy chemical industry is of great importance, and t h a t we also produce large quantities of tine chemicals of prime importance. Thus, as regards alkaloids, German}' was our principal customer before t h e war. Then, more' morphia is produced in^ this country t h a n we require for our needs, a n d caffeine is made to a n enormous extent. Chloroform is produced i n large quantities a n d exported t o all parts of the world. As regards synthetic drugs, it is true Germany lias produced some articles of value, but at one time hardly a month passed without some new drug with a scientific n a m e being introduced to English medicine. The new products differed only slightly from those previously used, a n d few were of v a l u e : they only served t o cause annoyaace to medical men. Moreover/ the few of these drugs t h a t are of value can be made in this country without much difficulty. I t has also been pointed out t h a t some drugs which were discovered in this country h a v e been given high-sounding names b y the Germans, a n d "by this means t h e t r a d e i a these articles has been diverted to themselves. I t is recognised t h a t , except as regards synthetic dyestuffs, synthetic drugs, and fine chemicals, t h e English chemical industry has held its own ; b u t it is also manifest t h a t the Germans are now turning theii attention t o t h e capture of the heavy chemical trade, for their exports of sulphuric acid, cyanides, etc., are increasing. There is no doubt, however, t h a t t h e German aniline colour industry, as explained i a t h e previous chapter, has been a great industrial asset t o Germany, because i t has become t h e mother of m a n y new industries, such as synthetic pharmaceutical products, anhydrosulphuric acid, a n d liquid chlorine; because t h e industry Las been a great object-lesson to the Germans i n showing t h e advantage derived from the application of science t o i n d u s t r y ; because i t has reacted in producing a more general appreciation of technical education ; and because i t has been a n important factor in inducing the Government a n d local authorities to render assistance in fostering various industries. Co-operation a m o n g factories in Germany enables difierenfc syndicates t o ohtain facilities from their Government which we c a n n o t obtain here, a n d this lack

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of cohesion a r a o n g our chemical manufacture--? c r e a u a t e n d e n c y t o c o m p e t e unduly with one anotLtr. ^ L : r ^ . ^ some system of co-operation a n d control, such a> tL~v Lr-v in G e r m a n y , w o u l d be of value both in cheaper.;::_: v4;,--rk;r^costs a n d in r e g u l a r i s i n g o u t p u t . I n 1913 t h e n u m b e r of coal-tar dye-\roiks In the v: : j w a s : G e r m a n y 22, P r a n c e 11 ? Great Britain 11. V:;:%,! S t a t e s 9, A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y 4 ? Switzerland 4. HoIL-::...; 2, Russia 2, B e l g i u m 1, Greece 1 ? and I t a l y 1. Sixte *.-:: p l a n t s , w h i c h at one t i m e m a d e coal-tar colours. Liv-e a b a n d o n e d t h e manufacture : 11 in Germany and one e a l i in Austria, B e l g i u m , France, Great Britain, and Switzerland. F o u r t e e n l a v e been absorbed by oilier factories: six: i n G e r m a n y , four i n Switzerland, t w o in Fiance, and one e a c h in H o l l a n d and Belgium. Tliese figures do nor give a n idea of t h e relative importance of the different countries in t h e dye-stuff industry, but t h e following r e t u r n s give s o m e idea of t h e eminence of Germany's t r a d e . The v a l u e s of coal-tar dye-stuffs imported into t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , I n d i a , and J a p a n from Germany in 1913 were : United Kingdom. Alizarine and anthraquinoae dyes . Aniline and naphthalene dyes 1 . Synthetic indigo Other kinds . . 271,119 140,271* 1,382,478 339,24$ 76,681 37,412 543 1,730,821 CMna i m p o r t e d synthetic indigo from Oerniany of t h e T a l u e of 575,000. O n t h e o u t b r e a k of w a r t h e stoppage of imports from G e r m a n y p l a c e d users of dye-stuffs in an a i m o n s position. S u b s t i t u t e s w e r e found in some cases, and it was remarkable t o find h o w often o t t e r colours and pigments could b e u s e d in p l a c e of t h e usual dye-stufls. Wood colours w e r e more u s e d , a n d t h e Swiss firms assisted m a t t e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y ; b a t a t times such, colours a s basic blues, basic v i o l e t s , a n d acid violets were practically unobtain-

in: MYF.IXG i x o r s R T r r *V:; i'ja :>:vt* ,i\o DVE-STOFS IS 1913

3.s;v 2,1134 493 ! 3,461 24,004' o,Tl t 1,130 1,493 j 1,180 15,235! 207 1,361 7,975 1 5,5S2 : 223 i *KV; : 158 . . . ; 652 6,392 174 \ 434 4,579 1,JS 156 . . . ! 313 3,037 2,7tO 90 98 i 323 2,839 1,301 124 259 2,003 *MH !

,123
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3,605

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!> % :hv-v- i n t h e t r a d e i t h a s b e e n r e a l l y w o n d e r !;;- T V , . - l i a b l e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e p u b l i c h a v e -\ tii-p t e x t i l e t r a d e s d u r i n g t h e u n f o r e s e e n cir, * iiri-mi: o u t of t h e w a r . T h o s e e n g a g e d in L vt\ of c o u r s e , b e e n r e t i c e n t a s t o t h e i r m e t h o d s h i * d.vA t h e i r m e a n s of o v e r c o m i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a w arisen. Publicity as t o t h e s e m a t t e r s w o u l d \-\t\i n o g o o d p u r p o s e , a n d m i g h t e v e n h a v e b e e n from a national p o i n t of v i e w . Wi 3 t h o Wiii brcke o u t i t w a s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s t o p p a g e r i i p i T t - tf a n i l i n e d y e - s t u f f s f r o m G e r m a n y i n t o r.;try w o u l d h a v e a b i g e f f e c t o n a n u m b e r o f o u r rn*-N a n d t i e m a t t e r e n g a g e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e njumt T h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e B o a r d of Trade Med a Committee to investigate t h e matter, and a n igt lice B r a n c h w a s o p e n e d t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r b u y e r s and sellers o f a r t i c l e s h i t h e r t o i m p o r t e d f r o m e n e m y countries Acts were passed t o e x t e n d t h e p o w e r s o f t h e B o a r d of T r a d e a s r e g a r d s p a t e n t s d u r i n g t h e c o n t i n u a n c e of h o s t i l i t i e s . T h e e x p o r t a t i o n of d y e - s t u f f s f r o m t h i s c o u n t r y w a s p r o h i b i t e d o y d e c r e e d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 8, 1 9 1 4 , but a f u r t h e r O r d e r o f C o u n c i l g r a n t e d l i c e n c e s t o c e r t a i n firms t o e x p o r t c e r t a i n d y e - s t u 5 s . On September 15 the f2~~~ G o v e r n m e n t also issued a decree p r o h i b i t i n g t h d

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export of dye-stuffs a n d tar proaiK-ts. hut it u k::- '.rr. : L ^ since t h a t time both nitenneJLite products arw J;ve-5:;:::s have been exported t o Switzerland and tliere*? re :'..*: countries. I n fact, t h e Germans later threwt^:.-; 1 * ) supply t k e Swiss with no further products If the-ie ;ve:e exported t o England. In Xovember 1914 t h e Board of Trade, after o.-:.sultation with t h e Committee appointed, deemed it a ^ v i able t o take such steps as were possible to develop t i e immediately available sources of supply, and also to encourage t h e p e r m a n e n t manufacture of dye-stuiis in the United Kingdom on tlie large scale, so as t o guard against any recurrence of t h e present difficulty. Arrangements were made t o encourage t h e immediate expansion of tke various existing sources of supply, and, a s regards tke pexmanent supply, after consulting representatives of various colour-using industries, a scheme for the formation of a limited company was devised, t h e "bulk of t h e capital of this company to b e subscribed "by the consumers of dye-stufis and others interested. The Government indicated their willingness to subscribe a certain proportion of t k e s t a r e capital, and t o guarantee t h e interest on a large debenture issue for a t e r m of years. I t "was pointed out t h a t t h e trouble was not a temporary one, for after t i e war t h e t\TO large German combines could so dominate OUJ great textile industry t h a t t h e y could overcharge and h a m p e r it pending t h e time when they could challenge its very existence. T h e share capital of the new company was stated a t 3,000,000 divided into 3,000,000 shares of l each, t h e Government to advance t o such company l350O,00O bearing interest a t t h e rate of 4 per cent per a n n u m a n d secured a s a first charge on t h e assets and undertaking of t h e company, and t o be repayable in twenty-five years. Arrangements were made with Read, Hollida7 < f c Sons, Ltd., for t h e extension of their plant, and later, this works was t a k e n over by the new company. The Government stated t h a t t h e y should h a v e t h e right of appointing two directors, a n d t h a t they considered co-operation could best be secured b y t h e subscription of t h e share capital b y those interested, a n d also by a contract being entered into between t h e company a n d t h e con-

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sumers and users of t h e products, w h e r e b y t h e consumer should agree for a period of five years after peace is established t o t a k e supplies from t h e c o m p a n y in all cases where t h e c o m p a n y is able t o supply t h e same of good quality a n d a t reasonable prices, b u t with t h e provision t h a t , if t h e consumer t h i n k s t h a t t h e prices charged b y t h e c o m p a n y are t o o high, he m a y require t h a t t h e prices charged shall b e determined b y a n i n d e p e n d e n t referee. W i t h t h e object of securing for t h e c o m p a n y i m p a r t i a l administration, t h e B o a r d was chosen b y t h e Committee, a n d was mainly composed of business m e n w h o were n o t themselves necessarily engaged in t h e dyeing t r a d e . A n Advisory Committee was formed, mainly from representatives of users of dye-stuffs, a n d i n addition t h e B o a r d h a d t h e a d v a n t a g e of t h e advice of chemical a n d o t h e r experts. The scheme m e t with m u c h opposition. F o r instance, t h e Leeds Chamber of Commerce suggested p r o t e c t i o n for t h e new i n d u s t r y b y m e a n s of i m p o r t duties, a n d , later, s t a t e d t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t scheme would n o t m e e t t h e needs of t h e situation, b u t would stifle competition a n d establish a m o n o p o l y ; t h e Council of t h e Associated Chambers of Commerce s u p p o r t e d t h e L e e d s C h a m b e r ; t h e London Chamber of Commerce asked for p r o t e c t i o n for t e n years after t h e conclusion of peace ; t h e Manchester Chamber of Commerce expressed itself a g a i n s t p r o t e c t i o n for t h e new i n d u s t r y ; a n d t h e D e r b y C h a m b e r of Commerce preferred private enterprise t o a G o v e r n m e n t u n d e r t a k i n g , because small u n d e r t a k i n g s t o m a n u f a c t u r e a t first quite a limited n u m b e r of colours would, t h e y t h o u g h t , be more successful t h a n one large concern. T h e y further s t a t e d t h a t t h e m o v e m e n t would b e assisted b y co-operation between gas works, t a r distillers, alkali works, etc., for t h e purpose of a d v a n c i n g t h e crude p r o d u c t s a n o t h e r stage. Objections were also raised i n o t h e r quarters. Many firms hesitated t o b i n d themselves u n d e r t h e cont r a c t i n g clause, which compelled t h e m t o b u y only from t h e new company, owing t o their d o u b t s as t o t h e ability of t h e c o m p a n y t o produce dyes of t h e requisite quality a n d a t a suitable price. Moreover, t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n of science t o business was considered b y some people as a weakness of t h e scheme, since i t was t h o u g h t t h a t science

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should g o v e r n t h e d i r e c t o r a t e . Resignations from t h e Boa I'd t o o k place because of differences, b u t d u r i n g this criticism it was p o i n t e d o u t (1) t h a t t h e G o v e r n m e n t only lent t h e i r assistance because p r i v a t e enterprise h a d n o t t a k e n t h e m a t t e r u p , a n d (2) t h e co-operation of t h e users of dye-stufl's was r e q u i r e d because, if t h e users a n d t h e allied t r a d e s resolved t h a t n e v e r again w o u l d t h e y be placed in such j e o p a r d y , t h e G e r m a n s would b e powerless a n d t h e 'British c o m p a n y unassailable. Opposition, i t w a s said,, c a m e principally from t h e t h r e e largest d y e i n g concerns i n t h e c o u n t r y , a n d i t was s t a t e d t h a t t h e s e w o r k s could look after t h e m s e l v e s , whereas th(* smaller w o r k s could not. T h e success of t h e s c h e m e d e p e n d e d largely on t h e m a n n e r i n which t h e G e r m a n p a t e n t s were a d m i n i s t e r e d , a n d t h e G o v e r n m e n t s t a t e d t h a t it w a s t h e i r i n t e n t i o n n o t to cripple t h e c o m p a n y after t h e war w a s over, b u t t o give it every o p p o r t u n i t y of m a k i n g t h e m o s t of t h o s e p a t e n t s . T h e G o v e r n m e n t left open for discussion t h e p a y m e n t of royalties i n r e s p e c t of t h e s e p a t e n t s , b u t i t w a s s t a t e d t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e p a t e n t s u n d e r t a k e n b y t h e new c o m p a n y w o u l d be allowed t o proceed after t h e war was over w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n or h i n d r a n c e . T h e g r a n t of 100,000 t o w a r d s research was s t a t e d t o b e really a g r a n t t o w a r d s assisting technical e d u c a t i o n . A g a i n s t t h e criticism t h a t no c h e m i s t was o n t h e B o a r d , i t w a s u r g e d t h a t m a n y chemical concerns b a d been r u i n e d b y h a v i n g highly gifted scientific m e n on t h e i r B o a r d s . T h e r e s u l t of t h e criticism was t h a t t h e C o m m i t t e e w a s a l t e r e d a n d a modified scheme introduced. T h e financial basis of t h e c o m p a n y w a s also altered, a n d t h e a g r e e m e n t t o be e n t e r e d i n t o b e t w e e n users of dyes a n d t h e c o m p a n y was c o n s i d e r a b l y modified in favour of t h e users. O n March 27, 1915, sufficient applications for shares h a d been o b t a i n e d t o e n a b l e t h e C o m m i t t e e t o decide t o go on w i t h the company. A research department was afterwards formed, a n d a Technical C o m m i t t e e a n d a s t r o n g A d v i s o r y Council n o m i n a t e d . I t was s t a t e d t h a t t h e o u t p u t of H e a d , l i o l l i d a y & S o n s ' w o r k s h a d b e e n d o u b l e d since t h e t a k i n g over b y t h e c o m p a n y , and further p l a n t w a s i n c o u r s e of erection. I t was essential t o increase largely

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t h e capacity of t h e p l a n t for t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of intermediate products, a n d t o this end a n e w works was established near Huddersfield. I n America, a t t h e o u t b r e a k of war, t h e position was v e r y similar t o t h a t in this country. T h e y h a d also been d e p e n d e n t on G e r m a n y for supplies of dye-stuffs, a n d w i t h t h e stoppage of i m p o r t s they, like ourselves, h a d t o seek other means of obtaining these p r o d u c t s . The authorities a t W a s h i n g t o n tried to m a k e a r r a n g e m e n t s for importing dye-stuffs from Germany, b u t w i t h o u t success. I t was pointed o u t t h a t other countries would n o t require t h e stocks of dye-stuffs held in Germany, a n d , if means of t r a n s p o r t could b e found, American mills would t h u s be enabled t o r u n for a n o t h e r y e a r ; otherwise, i t was predicted t h a t m a n y of t h e mills would b e forced t o close in sixty days. I t was soon, however, determined t o proceed t o t h e manufacture of dye-stuffs. N o G o v e r n m e n t assistance was required, b u t of course t h e circumstances in t h e U n i t e d States were different from t h o s e prevailing here. I n our case t h e chemical m a n u f a c t u r e r s were b u s y w i t h explosives, from which t h e y were m a k i n g big profits, so t h a t t h e r e was little inclination t o t a k e u p a b r a n c h of manufacture which required m u c h expensive p l a n t a n d of which t h e profits were b y no m e a n s so certain. A t first i t was stated i n America t h a t i t would be exceedingly difficult t o establish a coal-tar dye-stuff i n d u s t r y in t h a t c o u n t r y , because t h e G e r m a n i n d u s t r y was so d e p e n d e n t on interlocking chemicals; i t h a d reached such a s t a t e of complexity a n d interdependence t h a t i t would b e v e r y difficult t o translate i t as a whole. As regards t h e chemical a n d engineering work, n o difficulty was expected, for i t was s t a t e d t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a useful illuminating oil or a medicinal p r e p a r a t i o n from crude p e t r o l e u m compared very favourably in technical m a n i p u l a t i o n w i t h t h e production of m o s t coal-tar dye-stuffs. Moreover, t h e petroleum p r o d u c t s were of greater economic value. I t was pointed o u t t h a t t o establish a complete coal-tar d y e stuff industry, 700 different. dye-stuffs would require t o be made, a n d t o be m a d e properly, as good qualities of t h e same products would be in competition o n t h e m a r k e t .

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I t was one t h i n g t o develop such a n i n d u s t r y a n d t o m a i n t a i n it against newcomers, b u t a n o t h e r t o b u i l d i t u p in t h e face of competition a n d t o hold i t a g a i n s t t h o s e w h o developed t h e business, k n e w all its ins a n d o u t s , a n d h a d their experience b o u g h t , p a i d for, a n d w r i t t e n off l o n g a g o . F o r America t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t of G e r m a n y as r e g a r d s dye-stuffs, i t was urged t h a t t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p r o d u c t s m u s t be m a d e on a large scale, a n d t o d o t h i s t h e y w o u l d require a protective d u t y sufficient t o allow t h e t r a d e t o be developed. T h e p r e s e n t d u t y of 10 p e r c e n t w a s s t a t e d t o be insufficient protection, because of t h e c o n v e n t i o n which controlled t h e i n d u s t r y i n G e r m a n y a n d i m m e d i a t e l y reduced prices b y t h e a m o u n t of t h e t a x . T h e unfair competition of G e r m a n y could be easily checked, if t h e Government would incorporate in t h e i r tariff w h a t w a s k n o w n as t h e " d u m p i n g clause," w h i c h forbids t h e i m p o r t a t i o n into, a n d t h e selling of, in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s of a n y products a t a less price t h a n t h e y are sold i n t h e c o u n t r y where t h e y are produced. T h e m a n u f a c t u r e of explosives would increase t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of i n t e r m e d i a t e products, for n o c o u n t r y would care t o b e d e p e n d e n t o n a foreign supply of toluol or carbolic acid. I n self-defence, i t was urged t h a t some sort of a tariff should b e c r e a t e d t o protect t h e i n d u s t r y . The experience of t h e Benzol P r o d u c t s C o m p a n y , w h i c h s t a r t e d in a small w a y t o m a n u f a c t u r e aniline oil, w a s t h a t , a l t h o u g h a tariff of 10 p e r cent was p l a c e d on aniline oil b y Congress, foreign manufacturers r e d u c e d t h e i r prices t o a p o i n t where i t w a s impossible t o c o m p e t e . Similarly in E n g l a n d t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of a l p h a a n d b e t a n a p h t h o l a n d of H a n d G acids h a d been h i n d e r e d b e c a u s e t h e G e r m a n s d u m p e d d o w n t h e i r large surplus. There was a m o v e m e n t on foot i n 1909 t o revise t h e American p a t e n t laws on t h e lines of r e c e n t B r i t i s h a m e n d m e n t s , b u t G e r m a n y negotiated a t r e a t y , b y w h i c h t h e G e r m a n compulsory working clause w a s m a d e i n o p e r a t i v e o n American inventions. B u t in America changes of t h e p a t e n t laws are n o t regarded of i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e d y e stuff industry, for t h e r e are quite e n o u g h d y e s o n w h i c h t h e p a t e n t s h a v e expired t o c o n s t i t u t e a large i n d u s t r y . A committee of t h e American Chemical Society r e p o r t e d

I,-,.

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

i-'-^ee? in the p a t e n t laws, such as compulsory '.'.- --"'*'<V compulsory working clauses, were wholly :':>::', ";Tw. dv more harm t h a n good, and should n o t b e F v n ' l ^ 1 * to 1SS3, when there was a d u t y of 35 p e r , >.. * Tif - Jwtii and 50 cents per lb. specific, there were t e n ;V f J t r : ^ in the United States. I n 1883 t h e specific f:Tv^ f \ ^ r c ^ n t s was abolished, and within one year, i t is J f ; -: v 0 i f tliese factories succumbed. Now only five were ]>A\ 'ill I those had had a great struggle to maintain t h e m ^ / ; V j 7 It was stated t h a t America could m a n u f a c t u r e i.;vi-. if it were made commercially possible; but, w h e n i va: t > ii :::t:ons became normal again, i t was t h o u g h t t h a t r::*^ ru,i!;;ifacture of intermediate products would not b e >:: t >-f::L because these products could be obtained v e r y r k i . j i from Europe. A further opinion was t h a t whether an American dye?::;:: industry arises or not depends on t h e consumers of the live-stuffs. They have t h e materials, t h e technical kT.o\v]ed<ji.\ IUHI the capital, and there are suflicient u n p;UeriTed dyes t o make nearly everything needed. P r o ttvtiini is necessary and will increase t h e prices of dye-stuffs for a time, but this increase in price will b e a n absolutely nesliffible item on the cost of dyed goods, and, when t h e industry is once established, protection will be n o longer necessary. Consumers of dye-stuffs merely require t o petition Congress t h a t they want an American coal-tar <.}ye industry. The Xew York section of the American Chemical Society reported t h a t alterations in t h e tariff are necessary to introduce the manufacture of explosives, medicinals, chemicals, and dye-stuffs in t h e United States. The United States produces sufficient quantities of r a w products to supply a self-contained industry, a n d such a n i n d u s t r y could be brought into being if there were a certainty of output in the nature of a d e m a n d from t h e home users. To be independent of all foreign nations a t all times as regards the supply of explosives, or t o p r o t e c t t h e textile industries using chemicals and dye-stuffs a n d m a k e t h e m independent of foreign nations, t h e n a t i o n m u s t bear t h e burden incident to such expansion. T h e Committee

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r e c o m m e n d e d : (1) t o prevent the unfair underselling alleged t o b e p r a c t i s e d b y foreigners in t h e United S t a t e d an effective a n t i - d u m p i n g clause should be adopted ; (2) t h e so-called coal-tar intermediate products, which are the basis of t h e c o a l - t a r chemical industry, inclusive of explosives, medicinals, a n d dye-stufis, should be t a x e d onehalf of whatever t h e finished dyes are t a x e d for tariff purposes, all coal-tar d y e s w i t h o u t exception t o be t a x e d alike, namely, 30 per cent ad valorem and 7 | cents per lb. specific. A t the^ beginning of t h e war the United States was in a fair position as regards intermediate products, such as aniline oil, aniline salts, b e t a naphthol, and para nitraniline, b u t t h e growth of t h i s i n d u s t r y depended on t h e supply of benzol. Very soon t h e supplies of benzol became great, for in April 1915 P i t t s b u r g was producing 20,000 gallons of benzene daily, t h e United States Steel Corp o r a t i o n 12,000 gallons, and other plants were being erected. The Benzol P r o d u c t s Company laid down a large works for t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of intermediate products, a n d a n o t h e r c o m p a n y began t h e manufacture of sulphur colours. T h e C a m b r i a Steel Company arranged to m a n u facture dye-stufis from six tons of benzene a n d its homologues yielded daily b y their coke plant. Other firms established p l a n t s for making dye-stuffs, a n d existing p l a n t s were e x t e n d e d . The daily o u t p u t of benzol from coke works was b r o u g h t u p t o more t h a n fifty tons, b u t t h e manufacture of intermediates was hampered by t h e d e m a n d s for benzol a n d toluol for explosives. The o u t p u t of t h e works m a k i n g intermediates is now sufficient t o m e e t t h e needs of American dye-stuff makers, a n d other works are being erected. Two new companies h a v e been organised for t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of coal-tar products, a n d t h e other works h a v e increased their plants for t h e t u r n i n g o u t of finished dyes. There is now a steady increase in t h e o u t p u t of American m a d e coal-tar dyes. The large works a t Buffalo a r e running night and day, employing 600 operatives. T h e volume of t h e o u t p u t is a t least d o u b l e w h a t i t w a s before t h e waT. Manufacture is c o n c e n t r a t i n g on a few staple dyes, which are chiefly i n d e m a n d , a n d t h e l a c k of which would be severely felt b y t h e g r e a t textile interests. A new direct black h a s been

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produced, which is capable of replacing aniline black t o some extent, and also some new sulphur blues. T h e Bayer Company's works, after being closed for some months has now reopened and resumed t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of nigrosines, alkali blue, a n d a few other colours. I n s t e a d of getting their intermediates from Germany as formerly, these arenow m a d e from crude American p r o d u c t s ^ This firm is also making some of its pharmaceutical specialties. The combined efforts of these works will certainly relieve the situation somewhat, b u t i t is stated t h a t a t t h e best thev can only replace for the n e x t few m o n t h s a relatively small q u a n t i t y of t h e lacking colours. The firms devoted to the production of dye-wood extracts a r e m a k i n g ample preparation for meeting heavy demands during t h e next few m o n t h s ; increased attention is being devoted to quercitron, t h e only n a t u r a l dye-stuff indigenous t o the United States. As the result of representations m a d e b y various interests, a Bill has been introduced into t h e H o u s e of Representatives with a view t o t h e protection of t h e American dye-stuff i n d u s t r y from foreign competition. All substances produced i n commercial quantities b y t h e destructive distillation of coal, a n d are n o t themselves dye-stuffs, are t o bear a d u t y of 5 per cent ad valorem. The d u t y on " intermediates " m a d e from these substances is t o be 3 | cents per lb. a n d 15 per cent ad valorem, a n d on t h e finished dye-stuffs 7 j cents p e r lb. a n d 30 per cent ad valorem. Coal-tar, w o o d - t a r , acetic acid a n d other acids, and n a t u r a l indigo are placed on t h e free list. I n J a p a n it was r e p o r t e d t h a t stocks of dye-stuffs were very short at t h e beginning of t h e war, a n d t h a t t h e situation was very exacting. Previously t h e y h a d imported dye-stuffs of t h e value of 700,000, chiefly from Germany. As most of these dye-stuffs were used i n t h e important textile industries, and as prices advanced rapidly, t h e Government introduced a Bill g r a n t i n g s u b sidies t o companies m a k i n g dyes and chemicals in J a p a n , provided t h a t more t h a n half t h e capital was subscribed b y Japanese subjects. T h e a m o u n t of t h e subsidy will be sufficient t o enable t h e companies t o p a y 8 p e r cent on their paid-up capital. Attention was also devoted t o

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t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e indigo plant, a very old J a p a n e s e i n d u s t r y . Later, t h r e e companies were organised w i t h a view t o obtaining G o v e r n m e n t subsidies. One c o m p a n y , e n g a g e d i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of glycerin, with a capital of 3,000,000 yen, i n t e n d s t o t a k e over t h e business of a n oil c o m p a n y a t Osaka. T h e second c o m p a n y , m a n u f a c t u r i n g m e d i c i n e s and chemicals, i n t e n d s t o specialise in t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of formalin a n d its derivatives, a n d i n o t h e r carbon c o m p o u n d s . This c o m p a n y will h a v e a c a p i t a l of 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 yen, a n d will acquire the works of a n existing J a p a n e s e concern engaged in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of acetic acid. The t h i r d c o m p a n y produces medicines, a n d will h a v e a capital o f 1,000,000 yen. The J a p a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t h a s a r r a n g e d t o form a c o m p a n y for t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of d y e stuffs, w i t h a capital of 8,000,000 yen. The first works will b e b u i l t in Tokio or Osaka, or in t h e n o r t h of K u i s h i n ( p r o b a b l y close t o t h e W a k a m a t z u ironworks, whence t h e n e c e s s a r y benzol will be obtained). I n R u s s i a a syndicate was formed, composed of some of t h e l a r g e s t industrial concerns, for t h e establishment of w o r k s for m a k i n g dye-stuffs a n d for t h e erection of special r e s e a r c h laboratories. The assistance of a n u m b e r of t e c h n i c a l chemists from Switzerland was obtained. One o f t h e reasons a t t r i b u t e d for t h e failure of t h e F r e n c h t o establish a coal-tar colour i n d u s t r y is t h e p a t e n t l e g i s l a t i o n , according t o which a new substance m a y b e m a d e t h e subject of a p a t e n t , so t h a t t h e i n v e n t o r of a m u c h p r e f e r a b l e m e t h o d of production is u n a b l e t o w o r k t h e n e w p r o c e s s u n t i l t h e p a t e n t for t h e substance itself h a s e x p i r e d . M a n y examples of such hindrance a r e known. F o r instance, t h e indanthrenes, a n i m p o r t a n t class of d y e - s t u f f s , were discovered a n d p a t e n t e d in-France, b u t w e r e eventually m a r k e t e d b y G e r m a n firms because t h e o r i g i n a l process of p r o d u c t i o n was less economical. P r o h i b i t i v e fiscal measures will n o t of themselves, i t is said, a s s u r e t h e building u p of a coal-tar i n d u s t r y , for success i n this direction depends m o r e on educational a n d c o m m e r c i a l considerations. T h e n t h e r e is t h e difficulty of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g for fiscal purposes between raw materials, i n t e r m e d i a t e products, and finished products. For e x a m p l e , t h e colourless leuco bases of t r i p h e n y l m e t h a n e M

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dye-stuffs have been admitted to France as i n t e r m e d i a t e products. The manufacture of dye-stuffs is now e s t a b l i s h e d a t Paris, Nancy, and Lyons, and extensions of t h e works have been decided upon, b u t a t present there is a shortage of crude tar products, which previously were i m p o r t e d from Belgium, Great Britain, and Germany. I t is n o t regarded as probable t h a t sentiment m i l play m u c h p a r t eventually in the purchase of dye-stuffs ; h e n c e i t will be essential to offer colours a t practically t h e s a m e prices as German firms. The manufacture of colours, for which t h e patents have expired, can be taken u p , b u t t h i s business is not very remunerative, because such colours a r e generally low in price since the patentees have made t h e i r profit out of them and further developed their p l a n t a n d process. The attraction of chemists trained i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of dye-stuffs was a difficulty, b u t it was t h o u g h t t h a t some assistance might be obtained from S w i t z e r l a n d such a s Russia had obtained. It is the author's opinion t h a t t h e enterprise of British Dyes, Ltd., will be a great success. Moreover, t h e v a l u e of the German dye-stuff industry will d e c r e a s e as t h e industries of England a n d America, hitherto G e r m a n y ' s best customers, increase. The e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e aniline-colour industry in this country will a l s o give t h e public a concrete example of t h e value of science t o industry, and will prevent politicians from p o i n t i n g t o the decadence of England as instanced b y t h e anilinecolour industry. B y providing employment f o r t r a i n e d chemists it will also react in helping t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d technical education in general. There seems t o be a consensus of opinion t h a t after the war prohibition for a time of German i m p o r t s , a n d t h e n a high tariff, will be t h e only w a y of p r o t e c t i n g t h e industry. While in Germany t h e a u t h o r was o f t e n t o l d t h a t a tariff p u t on German manufactures by E n g l a n d would have m e a n t war between t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s , b u t such a consideration is n o t now of interest. C e r t a i n i t is t h a t , from what has been stated above, some p r o t e c t i o n will have to be provided for t h e new e n t e r p r i s e . F r e e Traders have always admitted t h a t protection is s o m e t i m e s

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163

of a d v a n t a g e i n developing new i n d u s t r i e s ; in this case i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e will h a v e t o be arranged with t h e military s i t u a t i o n in view. B u t it might n o t be advantageous t o our textile industries t o exclude all German dye-stuffs after t h e war, because this procedure might affect u s i n competing in foreign m a r k e t s . F o r instance, such c o l o u r s as B a y e r ' s alizarine brands m a y be found difficult t o m a k e , a n d if k e p t out of this c o u n t r y m a y be a h a n d i c a p to our textile industries. A great deal will depend, h o w e v e r , on t h e progress m a d e b y British Dyes, Ltd. Mr. R u n c i m a n , t h e President of t h e Board of Trade, in t h e H o u s e of Commons on J a n u a r y 103 s a i d : " Of course w e could n o t go on with our t r a d e treaties in t h e same w a y after t h e war. Some of t h e m did t h e E m p i r e grave i n j u s t i c e . T h e working of t h e most-favouredn a t i o n c l a u s e h a d o p e r a t e d increasingly t o our d e t r i m e n t in recent y e a r s u n d e r t h e arrangements m a d e between G e r m a n y a n d Russia. W e could n o t p e r m i t a t t h e conclusion of t h e w a r t h e o u t b r e a k of another economic w a r b y G e r m a n y against us. Our own national a n d commercial i n t e r e s t s m u s t in all these m a t t e r s be our first a n d only g u i d e . Some industries were almost entirely i n t h e h a n d s of G e r m a n y before t h e war. W e were now p r o d u c i n g o p t i c a l glass a n d a large n u m b e r of chemical articles w h i c h previously were almost entirely in G e r m a n h a n d s . T l i e same t h i n g applied t o dyes, electrical a p p a r a t u s , a n d other articles. W e h a d been placed a t a g r e a t d i s a d v a n t a g e owing t o t h e lack of these articles i n t h i s c o u n t r y . N e v e r again should t h a t h a p p e n . There s h o u l d b e n o essential article, either for t h e a r t s of peace or w a r , w h i c h we could n o t i n t h e E m p i r e l a y our h a n d s on. P r o g r e s s in t h i s m a t t e r did n o t depend on Governm e n t assistance. G o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s could do a g r e a t deal, b u t w i t h o u t t h e personal ability, training, skill, a n d k n o w l e d g e of t h e individual nothing could b e d o n e . T h e first interest of t h i s country was t o i m p r o v e t h e t r a i n i n g of o u r own m e n , a n d we should n o t a t t e m p t t o e c o n o m i s e in t h i s direction. The n e x t quality was t h a t of a d a p t a t i o n . The w a r h a d t a u g h t t h e commercial people of t h i s c o u n t r y t h e necessity of a d a p t a b i l i t y . " H e

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agreed t h a t there should be an extension of commercial banking as distinct from t h e more conservative form of banking business. Manufacturers a n d commercial m e n were at^a disadvantage as compared with those i n G e r m a n y who were in touch with more adventurous institutions. Our banks must be more enterprising. If t h e y could not, then we must have some additional institutions. He also agreed t h a t we must overhaul our p a t e n t system. However m u c h we might help i n d u s t r y b y changes of policy, there was no d o u b t t h a t t h e development of new inventions, a n d restrictions p u t on their use, would have a greater influence on t h e extension of our trade and industry t h a n even t h e juggling of a tariff. Of the 700 or more colours made b y t h e German works, only a small proportion need be m a d e in t h i s country in order t o supply our w a n t s during t h e war or, indeed, after the war. I t is i m p o r t a n t t o m a k e large quantities of a few colours. Many of t h e G e r m a n colours gained a market merely because of their cheapness, b u t price is not a vital consideration a t present. L a r g e quantities of the better colours are necessary. E e s e a r c h w o r k will be principally required a t first t o ascertain m e t h o d s of production of known colours, in order to p r e p a r e t h e s e products on t h e large scale, b u t afterwards work can be done in t h e way of discovering new compounds. I t has been stated t h a t after t h e w a r large quantities of dye-stuffs will be m a d e in America u n d e r German control, and t h a t these dye-stuffs will be exported t o this c o u n t r y ; b u t i t m u s t b e remembered t h a t America will have t o strive very h a r d t o supply her own needs. If, however, she is able t o export some dye-stuffs, our i n d u s t r y can be protected from these imports in t h e s a m e w a y as it will be protected from dye-stuffs coming directly from Germany. There is n o d o u b t t h a t great efforts will be made in America t o r e t a i n t h e i n d u s t r y which t h e y are building up in war t i m e ; if an export t r a d e follows, there are plenty of other markets t o supply besides ours. We ourselves, in t h e meantime, h a d better give our whole attention t o our own requirements. I n considering t h e aniline-colour i n d u s t r y it m u s t always be remembered t h a t through chemical research is

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t h e r o a d to success. T h e German and Swiss works, which have b r o u g h t o u t t h e greatest inventions, are t h e principal works devoted t o t h e i n d u s t r y , a n d their success has been due t o t h e research work which h a s resulted in these inventions. T h e only w a y t h a t our new i n d u s t r y can flourish is by developing in t h e same direction, t h a t is, b y employing research chemists from our universities. I n t h e G e r m a n aniline-colour works there are h u n d r e d s of research chemists t r y i n g t h e effects of introducing different groups into t h e molecules of k n o w n dye-stuffs, and b y a v a r i e t y of other m o r e or less stereotyped ways preparing new organic c o m p o u n d s . N e w dye-stuffs produced are s u b m i t t e d t o technical m e n for t r i a l ; some are found w o r t h y of m a n u f a c t u r e a n d others are rejected. And even if adopted t h e y m i g h t be little used in i n d u s t r y . Now, if a large n u m b e r of m e n are continually engaged in t h i s work, i t is obvious t h a t some discoveries m u s t result, a l t h o u g h i t m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e r e is an element of chance i n t h e whole business. Moreover, w h e n one considers t h a t m a n y of t h e best products of these works h a v e b e e n discovered outside t h e works laboratories, it is manifest t h a t each one of t h e research chemists i n t h e works cannot h a v e achieved m a n y distinct t r i u m p h s . If o u r new colour i n d u s t r y engages a n u m b e r of research chemists, a n outlet for our organic chemists will t h u s be provided. T h e a u t h o r h a s long maintained t h a t it is only b y s u c h means t h a t organic chemistry can flourish. I n G e r m a n y t h e colour works employ large n u m b e r s of chemists trained i n organic research, a n d in this w a y encourage t h e s t u d y of this branch of science. W e m u s t m a k e organic c h e m i s t r y a " b r e a d - a n d - b u t t e r " s t u d y . If t h e n e w colour i n d u s t r y offers students, who h a v e done research work in organic chemistry, a position at, say, 100 a year a n d a s h a r e in all remunerative discoveries, it will n o t be long before t h e r e is a large supply of organic research chemists. W h e n students have finished their t h r e e y e a r s ' h o n o u r s course in chemistry a t a n English university, a n d h a v e p e r h a p s done a little research work, t h e y look o u t for a r e m u n e r a t i v e appointment. I n some cases a research scholarship is obtained, b u t t h e comp e t i t i o n for these scholarships is keen, a n d i t would be

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THE DYEING INDUSTRY

much keener if the graduates could see some definite position ahead after the scholarship is finished. After the research work has been completed and published, these scholarships generally lead to minor staff a p p o i n t ments, and in some few cases t o professorships. B u t t h e graduates who do not succeed in obtaining research scholarships have to find other outlets for their abilities, and the tendency has been in recent years for h o n o u r s chemistry graduates to obtain positions as science m a s t e r s at grammar schools, t h a t is, t o find refuge in positions which are not designed for them, and are more suitable for men who have taken the ordinary science degree. W h e n these situations are obtained, the honours m a n c e r t a i n l y receives a living wage a t the outset, b u t he finds t h a t his opportunities of further advancement are few, for h e has little chance of doing research work or of distinguishing himself in other ways. I n short, his honours t r a i n i n g has not been utilised as it should have been, and h a s h a d no opportunity of developing its t r u e usefulness. This position has really arisen because of t h e few opportunities which are presented to t h e honours graduate of o b t a i n i n g a living; for it must be remembered t h a t there a r e comparatively few students in t h e chemical laboratories of our universities who can afford t o s t u d y t h e science without giving consideration t o t h e position t o w h i c h t h e study will lead. If an outlet for these honours g r a d u a t e s can be found in t h e new industry, there will be a g r e a t impetus t o the study of organic chemistry and a direct gain to the industry. I n fact, b y providing such positions is the only way in which t h e new aniline-colour enterprise can achieve success, a n d such an action will m a k e i t absolutely unnecessary for t h e Government t o m a k e lavish grants in aid of so-called research. E a c h position so granted will yield its own reward, a n d it is only b y a commercial transaction of this n a t u r e t h a t research a n d university chemical training can receive real assistance. These remarks also apply t o other branches of chemical industry. The primary consideration is get t r a i n e d chemists into industry. The study of chemistry in this country has h i t h e r t o opened the door t o few employments, hence it has s h o w n

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it>;

a, t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s becoming a kind of luxury dabbled In b y those who liked i t a n d could afiorcl to pursue it re^ir,1less of profit. U n d e r such circumstances t h e study e ;;Ld n o t flourish. Professor Perkin lias lately menrioiied his father's n a t u r a l dislike for an industrial career and his desire t o devote himself entirely to pure chemistrv. Tii,r; resolve proved to b e of a d v a n t a g e t o pure chemistrv, buri t w a s certainly u n f o r t u n a t e for our infant colour industry. I t is still more u n f o r t u n a t e , however, t h a t so m a n y chemists in this c o u n t r y are r e a d y to follow in Sir William Perkin*s footsteps, for a m o n g scientific chemists connection with i n d u s t r y is n o t liked, a n d industrial work is looked upon as being of " merely technical ? ? interest. Work known t o h a v e t a k e n m a n y years of hard labour, work seientiiieaHv carried out a n d sometimes of high importance t o the c o m m u n i t y , h a s b e e n overlooked because it was said it m a d e no direct contribution to science. The result is t h a t research s t u d e n t s aim more and more at abstract research, a n d a t t e m p t t o introduce higher mathematics i n t o their work so as t o squeeze papers into the transactions of learned societies, and t h u s receive recognition. T h e y know a t t h e outset t h a t technical work will not a d v a n c e t h e m i n chemical circles. This state of a m i r s c a n n o t be of use in assisting the application of science to industry. Another s t a t e of affairs which must be mentioned, and also deplored, is t h e feeling of distrust which exists between w h a t are called scientific chemists and technical chemists. A l t h o u g h m a n y scientific chemists refuse to have any connection with industry, this feeling does n o t prevent t h e m from lecturing industrial chemists from time t o time in a n a t t e m p t t o give t h e m advice concerning industries of which t h e y themselves have only an outside knowledge. These a t t e m p t s , however, only lead t o irritation. I t m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t there are m a n y really distinguished chemists engaged in t h e industry of this country w h o h a v e no university degrees a n d t o whom contributions t o t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s of learned societies ofier no attractions. I t is i n t h e interests of t h e co-operation of science a n d i n d u s t r y t h a t a spirit of esteem should, be engendered b e t w e e n t h e t w o classes of chemists mentioned.

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THE DYEING INDUSTRY

As for the contention t h a t in Germany t h e professors ui chemistry are far more in touch with i n d u s t r y t h a n they are in \liis country, the author found little e v i d e n c e in favour uf this view* For instance, he m e t P r o f e s s o r F. Haber at Karlsruhe, a chemist who has since b e c o m e distinguished. Professor Haber was engaged on a n u m b e r uf researches at the time, and he gave t h e a u t h o r a n u m b e r of introductions to works in the district, b u t it was e v i d e n t that a t t h a t time this professor was n o t in i n t i m a t e association with industry. Shortly after t h e a u t h o r ' s visit, however. Haber was brought into association w i t h indusirv, but this event was a direct result of his discoveries. Such "work would have resulted in industrial c o n n e c t i o n in almost any country. Again, t a k e t h e d i s c o v e r y of salvarsan by a German professor, a n d its m a n u f a c t u r e at the Hoechst Works. Can i t be maintained t h a t , if such a product had been discovered a t an English u n i v e r s i t y , a chemical works could not have been found i n this country to take u p its manufacture ? I n such c a s e s a s these, industrial connection was bound to arise : t h e m e r i t of the discoveries brought a b o u t the connection. B u t i t is only in such cases t h a t we find a close connection b e t w e e n professors and industry in Germany. I n E n g l a n d , however, we find professors openly stating t h a t t h e y h a v e n e v e r done consulting work or h a d any connection with i n d u s t r y while holding their professorship, and this t h e y c o n s i d e r a right position t o take up. A chair a t a u n i v e r s i t y inight be founded from money made in industry, b u t t h e professor holding t h e chair might refuse t o h a v e a n y connection with industry. There is no p o i n t i n our scientists calling for co-operation between science a n d industry if they themselves do little t o e n c o u r a g e t h e connection ; for success in this m a t t e r can only be a c h i e v e d by the urgent desire of both parties interested.

CHAPTER
COLOUR PROJDTJCTIOX

XV
(continued)

I N 1914 a committee w a s appointed b y t h e Society of Dyers a n d Colourists t o compile a census of dye-stuffs used i n Britain, a n d t h e Board of Trade continuing t h e m a t t e r have issued a report, wMcli gives a list of t h e colours imported, together with t h e quantities a n d t h e m a k e r s ' names. E a c h specific variety of d y e is g i v e n ; for instance, there are 155 distinct kinds of m e t h y l violet, a n d i t is pointed o u t t h a t this multiplicity m u s t cause needless expenditure in manufacture ; accordingly British makers would be well advised to limit t h e n u m b e r t o t w o or three varieties, leaving t h e consumers t o alter t h e shade b y a d m i x t u r e with other dyes. Although a b o u t 10,000 colours are listed this q u a n t i t y is really very m u c h greater t h a n t h e actual number of distinct dyes, owing to t h e use of multiple n a m e s for t h e same colour. Benzo sky blue appears under a t least nine different s y n o n y m s . Moreover, m a n y commercial dyes are complex mixtures. I n t h e s u m m a r y of imports, the cheap direct cotton colours head tlie list with just under seven million p o u n d s weight. This g r e a t vogue is due t o ease of application r a t h e r t h a n t o t i e permanence of t h e d y e . Chrome a n d other m o r d a n t dyes were imported t o t h e e x t e n t of 6,477,065 lbs., while t h e extremely fast b u t expensive v a t dyes t o t a l only 588,445 lbs. I n all 18,000 tons of dyes came i n t o E n g l a n d in 1913, valued a t 2,000,000, a n d t h e industries depending on this importation h a d a yearly o u t p u t of over 200,000,000. Nearly t h e whole of t h e dye-stuffs mentioned came

170

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

from Germany, a small minority from Switzerland, a n d a lew from France. The progress of dye-stuff m a n u f a c t u r e durinu the war period has been well portrayed b y P r o f . G. T Morgan in the Annual Reports of the Progress in AppUtd Chanistry, 1916-1918. For nearly sixty years p r i o r to 1914. the manufacture of synthetic dyes h a d b e c o m e inerea^iiidy a German monopoly. A few e n t e r p r i s e s notably those of the Swiss colour-makersstill c o n t i n u e d the industrial struggle against heavy odds, b u t t h e y w e r e the honourable exceptions t o the general rule. The l i n e of least resistance more often followed b y reputed d y e makers outside Germany was either t o assemble G e r m a n intermediates and convert t h e m into dyes, or, m o r e lucratively, to purchase finished German dyes, and, a f t e r breaking bulk, to purvey them, cum grano salis, to d y e users a t enhanced prices. The outbreak of war d e m o n strated to the general public of t h e allied a n d n e u t r a l nations two cardinal facts which h a d long been a p p r e ciated by chemists having expert knowledge of t h e c o a l tar industries. The first of these facts t o a t t r a c t p u b l i c attention was the serious hindrance t o great i n d u s t r i a l undertakings in all civilised countries of t h e world b y the stoppage of German dyes. The second fact w h i c h became potent, as t h e military exigencies involved an i n creasingly lavish use of artillery of all calibres, was t l a e intimate connection between t h e production of dyes a n d the manufacture of high explosives. I n Germany t h e huge plants of the colour factories were easily a n d swiftly diverted to the making of these essentials. The a b s e n c e of such establishments in t h e allied countries was a t first a serious drawback t o a n y increased o u t p u t of t l i e required munitions of war. Then arose t h e public o u t cry for the development a n d protection of " key i n d u s tries." Outside t h e German alliance each civilised n a t i o n , whether belligerent or neutral, strove t o set its house i n order as regards t h e production of synthetic dyes, t i i i s branch of manufacture being, as we have seen, a k e y industry of fundamental importance. As all civilised countries are coal consumers, a n d s o m e are also coal producers, i t is evident t h a t a determined b i d will be made by each industrialised n a t i o n for t h e s u p p l y

COLOUR P R O D U C T I O N

171

of i t s own synthetic dyes a n d other coal-tar derivatives. If o t l i e r nations persist in their determination to develop their colour industries i t m a y be predicted with cons i d e r a b l e c e r t a i n t y t h a t t h e new epoch in the history of c o a l - t a r dyes will find nations supplying their own w a n t s a n d exporting some of their specially good products. The l o c a l d e m a n d will be satisfied mainly by local prod u c e r s , b u t certain very profitable specialties will command a w o r l d sale. I n t h e competition for this foreign t r a d e G e r m a n y will h a v e a tremendous a d v a n t a g e , because it p o s s e s s e s well-organised colour factories, generously e q u i p p e d research laboratories, comprehensive libraries, c a r e f u l l y compiled records, and a n amenable personnel of t h o r o u g h l y t r a i n e d research chemists working u n d e r h i g h l y qualified direction in a scientific atmosphere. A d d e d t o these are t h e valuable material assets of c h e a p b r o m i n e , p o t a s h , a n d other essentials. I t cannot i n fairness b e expected t h a t other countries, which, have h i t h e r t o neglected t h e factors which m a k e for s u c c e s s in these highly technical industries, can hope i m m e d i a t e l y t o divide t h e chief prizes with t h a t n a t i o n w h i c h has assiduously developed each asset, w h e t h e r m a t e r i a l or personal, for more t h a n forty years. A l t h o u g h c o n s i d e r a b l e determination is being manifested o n all s i d e s , there is m u c h leeway t o m a k e u p . A n o t h e r p o i n t m a d e b y Professor Morgan is t h a t t h e s y n t h e t i c dye question is in reality p a r t of a m u c h larger p r o b l e m , t h e conservation of our resources in fuel. Coal a n d o t h e r combustibles are frequently b u r n t in a s h a m e fully wasteful m a n n e r , n o a t t e m p t being made t o collect a n d utilise t h e escaping b y - p r o d u c t s . The economical c o m b u s t i o n of o u r carbonaceous fuels, such as coal, lignite, p e a t , wood, etc., a n d t h e systematic recovery of t h e b y - p r o d u c t s , ammonia a n d t a r , is t h e first essential step t o w a r d s t h e establishment of a flourishing i n d u s t r y of s y n t h e t i c dyes, drugs, a n d other p u r e chemicals. "Where fuel is wasted, t a r p r o d u c t s and their derivatives can n e v e r be manufactured cheaply a n d efficiently. T h e immediate p r o d u c t s of coal-tar distillation, forming t h e basis of t h e synthetic colour industry, c o n s t i t u t e a s m a l l group of substances, of which t h e following

172

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

furni>h the great majority of t h e so-called coal-tar dyes. These direct"coal-tar productsbenzene, toluene, xylene, naphthalene, anthracene, phenol, creosol, carbazole, a n d a l e w others of minor importancemust usually b e converted imo more complex derivatives, from w h i c h the colours are ultimately produced. These intervening materials are conveniently termed " intermediate p r o d u e t s , " or, more shortly, k ( intermediates." Before the war it was in t h e production of t h e s e essential intermediates t h a t German chemical t e c h n o logists excelled to the extent of creating a monopoly i n this branch of chemical manufacture. The^ d y e - m a k e r s of other nations then depended almost entirely on t h e Gentian supply of these products, a n d non-German d y e making consisted largely in the assembling of i n t e r m e d i a t e s and the conversion of these substances i n t o finished d y e s . Accordingly, it is to t h e manufacture of i n t e r m e d i a t e s t h a t attention is being chiefly directed by w o u l d - b e founders of dye factories. If only t h e difficulties a t t e n d ing t h e commercial production of intermediates a r e mastered, a supply of derived dyes will in m o s t eases be assured. Increasing numbers of intermediates a r e being manufactured in America, including aniline a n d benzidine and their homologues, y-nitroaniline, t h e naphthols a n d naphthylamin.es and a n increasing export trade with the United Kingdom is in progress. Tie strenuous labours of the last four years h a v e shown t h a t methods for producing colour intermediates can be r a p i d l y improvised when cost is n o t t h e p r i m a r y consideration. Workable processes for manufacturing t h e m o s t needful intermediates have been, evolved, and certain members of this important group of synthetic products are now being turned o u t on a very large scale, although a t prices which., generally, are veiy much higher t h a n those which p r e vailed before the war. A resolute effort a t cheaper p r o duction, says Professor Morgan, is a vital necessity, for without it no feasible mode of protection, whether b y tariff or b y boycott of foreign goods, will be of a n y avail. I f only this effort is forthcoming it is Mghly p r o b a b l e t h a t the dye industries of the allied countries will be assisted by the altered social and economic conditions of Greimany,

COLOUR PRODUCTION

173

arising from t h e military defeat of this highly organised a n d cleverly camouflaged slave state. These changes m a y render i t less possible for German industrialists to m a n u facture a t very low rates or t o " d u m p 5? their finished chemical p r o d u c t s , a n d especially dyes, into allied or n e u t r a l countries a t prices lower t h a n the cost of production. This levelling u p of prices b y t h e foreign competitor should m e e t half-way t h e processes of cheapening which need t o be p r a c t i s e d b y our manufacturers of fine chemicals. A t t h e a n n u a l m e e t i n g (Sept. 18, 191S) of t h e Calico P r i n t e r s ' Association, L t d . , the chairman, Mr. Lennox B. Lee, said t h e Association was t h e largest consumer of dyes i n t h e country. Before t h e war over 70 per cent of t h e 2000 dyes t h e y t h e n used were m a d e in G e r m a n y a n d less t h a n 7 p e r cent were British. Of a b o u t 230 essential base colours only 25 per cent were now being p r o d u c e d b y British makers, a n d about one-third of these were used because no better could be obtained while t h e cost was 200-1000 per cent above pre-war figures. Of t h e 230 colours t h e commoner sorts were obtained from British m a k e r s , t h e finer kinds have still t o be b r o u g h t from Switzerland; a n d fully half of t h e numbex are u n p r o c u r a b l e . Restriction on colour imports, which was a n a t u r a l corollary to t h e scheme of G o v e r n m e n t control for t h e dye-stuff industry, involved a principle which would affect prejudicially t h e textile t r a d e of t h e c o u n t r y . Cotton e x p o r t s in 1913 were valued a t over 127,000,000, of which 56,000,000 worth was exported in t h e coloured s t a t e . If t h e industries which produced t h i s s u m were in t h e future unable t o get their colouring m a t t e r s u n d e r equally favourable conditions compared w i t h o t h e r countries, t h e y would quickly lose their r e p u t a t i o n a n d t r a d e , a n d t h e uncoloured trade would probably follow. N e w business depended largely on t h e production of novelties, a n d foreign dye-makers would n o t send their n e w colours t o this c o u n t r y if importation of t h e bulk of t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n w a s prohibited. On the other h a n d , i t h a s been pointed o u t t h a t State aid is necessary for t h e i n d u s t r y because a large a m o u n t of p l a n t h a s t o be e r e c t e d a t a high cost, whereas t h e Germans have still t h e i r p r e - w a r p l a n t i n t a c t . Professor Morgan states it is

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THE DYEING INDUSTRY

becoming recognised more generally t h a t t h e establishment under peace conditions of a self-contained B r i t i s h dye industry is an arduous task, requiring continuous service during m a n y years of united efforts in l a b o u r , capital, inventive still" and business organisation of t h e indicst order. To this end there is n o r o a d or s h o r t ciu ^ueli as was suggested by the alleged "capture" of 257 Herman dye recipes, a n absurd canard to which r e grettable prominence was given b y t i e popular press i n J a n u a r y 1918. That Americans are very much alive t o t h e corresponding facts in their own country is shown by t h e i r Dye-stuff Tariff Act of September 85 1916, a n d t h e proposed Bill to amend it. This Act, which protected the dye industry in the United States a t t h e time &nd made * home manufacture the criterion of^ future tariffs, has apparently accomplished its abject i n encouraging t i e investment of capital in the United States dye industry, but it now appears t h a t there are several loopholes in the wording of the Act, through which foreign competitors might succeed in evading t h e import taxes a n d m i g h t thus capture t h e trade. A draft Bill to remedy t h e s e defects in the Act has been issued Tby the United S t a t e s Tariff Commission. One possibility of evasion resides in. t h e fact t h a t m a n y dyes could he imported a s leuco bases under t h e title of intermediates, a n d could then be converted easily a n d cheaply into finished dyes "by simple oxidation i n one process. The Act could also t o some e x t e n t be e v a d e d b y importing highly concentrated d y e s instead of t h e usual commercial b r a n d s produced b y diluting with salt, dextrine, etc., or a p a s t e of t h e dye could be diluted further after importation. I n the A c t of 1916 certain dyes (anthracene and carbazole) were e x e m p t e d from t h e specific 5 per cent import d u t y . I n t i e new Bill i t is proposed to include these important v a t dyes, as i t is just in the manufacture of such colours t h a t t h e U n i t e d States is backward. T h e object of t i e American census of dyes is to determine t i e relation between t h e l o r n e production of dyes and t h e domestic consumption of these substances. If after five years t l i s production is

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175

less t h a n 60 per cent of t h e consumption of dyes t h e n the special duties levied u n d e r t h e Act of 1916 will no longer b e collected. The future protection of t h e t r a d e in dye a n d synthetic p r o d u c t s is dependent on t h e Growth of t h e i n d u s t r y within t h e U n i t e d States. T h e p r e s e n t position of t h e dye-stuffs i n d u s t r y in this c o u n t r y h a s recently heen discussed b y H . Dean of British Dyes, L t d . (Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col, 1919 ? 35, 91). D u r i n g t h e w a r t h e first, problem with which d y e m a n u f a c t u r e r s were faced, a n d one which was solved satisfactorily from t h e beginning, was t h e production of sufficient k h a k i a n d blue dye-stuff for military a n d n a v a l p u r p o s e s . F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e intermediate p r o d u c t s were a v a i l a b l e , a n d a l t h o u g h t h e d e m a n d was very h e a v y t h e s u p p l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e w a r was satisfactory. W i t h o t h e r dyes, however, t h e case was very different, because t h e G e r m a n aggressive policy h a d crushed out B r i t i s h - m a d e i n t e r m e d i a t e p r o d u c t s a n d h a d t h u s crippled t h e possibilities of t h e development of t h e industry in this c o u n t r y . " T h e n e x t question, therefore, which arose was t h e erection of a l a r g e n u m b e r of manufacturing plants, which called for considerable chemical a n d mechanical skill a n d t h e e x p e n d i t u r e of large s u m s of money. I t was quickly recognised t h a t we were faced with t w o a l t e r n a t i v e p r o b l e m s , namely, t h e production of t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r a n d q u a n t i t y of colouring m a t t e r s for consumption d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of t h e war a n d t h e erection of a large n e w works a n d p l a n t for t h e object of meeting t h e G e r m a n c o m p e t i t i o n after t h e war, or a t least of being in a selfc o n t a i n e d position in t h e m a t t e r of dye-stuff production, u p o n w h i c h t h e great textile industry of this c o u n t r y d e p e n d s . After m u c h careful consideration i t w a s decided t h a t t h e only rational course t o pursue was t o work a t b o t h p r o b l e m s concurrently, which course w a s a d o p t e d , a n d h a s been p u r s u e d from t h a t time forward." M a n y difficulties in development were experienced d u r i n g t h e war, owing t o t h e scarcity of labour a n d of steel a n d building materials. P l a n t erection, therefore, d i d n o t keep p a c e w i t h technical research b u t progress was m a d e w i t h t h e erection of the D a l t o n works a t Huddersfield, a works on a scale hitherto u n a p p r o a c h e d

17G

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

in this country and in m a n y respects equal t o t h e b e s t of the great German works. Messrs. Levinstein a n d Messrs. Claus have also d e v e l o p e d along lines of research, and it is most pleasing t o r e a d howthe former firm, at the outset of t h e war, g r a p p l e d with the situation. Indeed, the development of Levinstein's during the last few years shows t h a t i n i t i a t i v e and enterprise were n o t lacking ; their chance o n l y c a m e when the tremendous and over-bearing c o m p e t i t i o n of the Germans was removed. A t their E l l e s m e r e P o r t factory they are now producing large q u a n t i t i e s of s y n thetic* indigo and some v a t dye-stuffs. Then t h e British Alizarin Company have supplied alizarin and s o m e o t h e r alizarin colours during the war, besides c a t e r i n g for t h e export trade. Messrs. L. B . Holliday & Co., after beginning w i t h t h e manufacture of picric acid in 1915, have since p r o d u c e d quantities of intermediates and dye-stuffs. Synthetic drugs have also been produced. Solway Dyes Co. ( M o r t o n , Sundour Fabrics, Ltd.) produced indanthrene y e l l o w i n small quantities soon after t h e outbreak of war, a n d e a r l y in 1915 they were making this dye-stuff in q u a n t i t y . Later they produced alizarin sapphirole, i n d a n t h r e n e b l u e , and other v a t dye-stuffs. They h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n the production of fast dyes. Messrs. Brotherton & Co. have specialised i n m e t a chrome colours, single b a t h wool dyes, a n d h a v e a c q u i r e d the Mersey Chemical Works which was f o r m e r l y u n d e r German ownership. The Clayton Aniline C o m p a n y , after being engaged largely in explosive m a n u f a c t u r e , h a v e now resumed the manufacture of intermediates, a n d d y e s of the azo, sulphur, a n d basic series. The large g a s companies have also added largely to t h e supply o f intermediates. " A f t e r m a n y abortive a t t e m p t s t o establish a community of interests between the principal dye m a n u f a c turers in this country, a satisfactory scheme h a s a t l a s t been evolved whereby British Dyes, L t d . , a n d L e v i n s t e i n Ltd. have pooled all their resources. T h e fusion o f t h e s e two great dye manufacturing firms will result in u n i t y of control, elimination of unnecessary competition a n d over-

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177

y, exchange of ideas, processes, etc. The new comp a n y , British Dye-stuffs Corporation, L t d . , will include t h e works a t T u r n b r i d g e a n d Dalton, Huddersfield, t h e works of Messrs. Levinstein, L t d . , a t Blackley a n d Clayton, Manchester, a n d t h e S y n t h e t i c Indigo works acquired b y Messrs. Levinstein a t Ellesmere P o r t . A splendid site has been acquired i n close p r o x i m i t y to t h e existing works a t Ellesmere P o r t , a site possessing a two-mile frontage t o t h e Manchester Ship Canal, an unlimited supply of w a t e r is available, a n d t h e effluent can be disposed of i n t o t h e Mersey with comparative ease. The land is level a n d is in close p r o x i m i t y t o t h e N o r t h Wales coal-fields. 5 ' Professor Morgan, discussing t h e a m a l g a m a t i o n of British Dyes, L t d . , a n d Messrs. Levinstein, L t d . , s a y s : " T h e new merger h a s obviously t h e potentiality of further growth, so t h a t in t h e future it m a y embrace other dyeproducing enterprises. T h e fears of those who on principle d i s t r u s t t r a d e monopolies on account of their repressive a n d stagnating tendencies should, however, b e allayed b y a consideration of t h e v e r y meritorious and successful efforts in dye p r o d u c t i o n m a d e during t h e last four years, b y t h e a m a l g a m a t i n g firms a n d also b y other works a t p r e s e n t outside t h e above-mentioned corporation. Moreover, a further i m p e t u s t o progress arises from t h e circumstance t h a t t h e t w o branches of t h e new corporation will remain as separate business entities, although working together u n d e r t h e same directorate. T h e Board of T r a d e scheme of assistance t o t h e d y e i n d u s t r y is i n t e n d e d t o help all British firms engaged in dye production. This financial assistance afforded b y t h e G o v e r n m e n t will t a k e t h e form of loans a n d grants-in-aid for buildings, p l a n t , a n d research. I n r e t u r n for t h e s e privileges t h e companies t h u s assisted will b e subject t o inspection a n d t o a certain degree of Government control. T h e p r i m a r y a n d essential object of this s t a t e aid is t h e firm a n d p e r m a n e n t establishment of a British i n d u s t r y in d y e production, yielding a supply of dyes m o r e t h a n sufficient for British requirements, t h u s leading t o a substantial e x p o r t t r a d e with cost of p r o d u c t i o n b r o u g h t down t o a p o i n t which will m a k e competit i o n w i t h t h e v e r y large scale industry of G e r m a n y com-

I7S

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

mercially possible. If, as t h e result of t h i s policy, t h e dye industry is established sufficiently t o m e e t British demands at"reasonable prices the object of t h e Government will be attained. The economic side of t i e dye question will be t h e crucial t e s t i n t h e f orthcoioing years of reconstruction, a n d on a satisfactory solution of this p a r t of the problem will d e p e n d t h e future of t h e British industry in fine chemicals i n general a n d of d y e s in particular/' Dean gives figures to show how t h e B r i t i s h dye-stuff industry was completely dominated b y t h e G e r m a n s before the war. Thus Germany p r o d u c e d 74 p e r cent of t h e total consumption of 18,000,000 w o r t h of dye-stufis b y the world in 1913, besides providing over one-half of t h e materials needed to produce the remainder. H e m e n t i o n s prices conventions, such a s h a v e been previously referred to, and states that these associations always resulted from a period of destructive competition and excessive fall in prices. Thus t h e price of synthetic indigo showed t h e following fluctuations: 1S97-S . 1S98-9 1901 1901 1901 1901 1902 1902 1902 1902 1904 . . Eadische Hoechst Hoechst Badische Hoechst Badische Badische Hoechst Badische Hoechst Badische 100% indigo 20% paste , , , , , , , , Marks per kilo 15-16 12-12-5 2-4 2-3 21-2-3 20 1-9 1-75-1-8 1-7O-1-75 1-6O-1-65 L-50

The fall further continued down t o 1-25 m a r k s , u n t i l t h e Indigo Convention was formed a n d t h e price m a i n tained a t 1-75 marks per kilo. In the German colour industry price associations were arranged regarding alizarin, Congo dyes, p a r a n i t r a n i l i n e , auramines, a n d rhodamines, Yictoria blue, m a g e n t a , methylene blue, resorcinol, b e t a - n a p h t h o l , h y d r o s u l p h i t e , indigo, and aniline. The majority of t h e s e associations were ordinary price conventions, b u t t h e Aniline Convention a n d t h e Alizarin Convention were i m p o r t a n t i n t e r national cartels- The terms of these a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e ,

COLOUR PRODUCTION

179

on t h e whole, k e p t v e r y secret, b u t the policy and details seem t o have been settled b y committees composed of directors of t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g firms. N o n e of these a r r a n g e m e n t s , however, succeeded in eliminating t h e k e e n competition between t h e firms and even t h e joint working, referred t o in a previous chapter. did n o t a t t a i n t h e desired end. Dean gives a full account of t h e Berlin-Badische-Bayer a n d other combinations and s t a t e s t h a t in a b o u t five years after t h e formation t h e old condition of a c u t e competition reasserted itself, and even t h e i n t e r c h a n g e of c o n t r a c t notes was discontinued. J o i n t offices opened b y Berlin, Badische & B a y e r in New Y o r k a n d b y Bayer-Berlin in Brussels after t h e conclusion of t h e agreement were failures. " These arrangements were continued u n t i l 1916, when, in order t o prepare t o m e e t p a s t w a r problems, a m u c h larger c o m m u n i t y of i n t e r e s t s was formed, embracing all t h e companies already mentioned, viz. Badische Anilin u n d Soda F a b r i k , t h e Berlin Aniline Co., F . B a y e r & Co., Cassella & Co., Meister, Lucius & Briining, a n d Kalle & Co., a n d also Weilerter-Meer a n d P . L e o n h a r d t & Co. (owned b y Meister, Lucius & Briining). T h e reasons given for t h e new combination m a y b e summarised as follows: (a) The b r e a k i n g of far-reaching international arrangements b y t h e s t a t e of w a r ; (b) t h e desire of t h e German Governm e n t t o t r e a t with one b o d y for export purposes ; (c) t h e realisation t h a t combination was necessary t o m a i n t a i n , after t h e war, t h e position of t h e German chemical t r a d e ; (d) t h e establishment of new factories in E n g l a n d a n d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ; (e) t h e passing of t h e anti-dumping laws a n d t h e t h r e a t e n e d revision of t h e tariff in t h e U n i t e d States (now actually effected). T h e arrangements a r e for a period of fifty years a n d profits will b e pooled a n d divided on t h e basis of t h e capital of each concern. 35 Griesheim-Elektron joined t h e combination in 1917, a n d all t h e firms largely increased their capital, m a k i n g a t o t a l of 293 million m a r k s , t h e capital increase being wholly used for t h e Badische n i t r a t e business. " I n spite of these a r r a n g e m e n t s , " D e a n states, " t h e various m a n u f a c t u r e r s still keenly competed with one another, a n d each one h a v i n g for sale non-syndicated products, t h e y

180

THE DYEING INDUSTRY

were able, when occasion demanded, to defeat t h e objects of t h e associations of which t h e y were members. The three Swiss colour-making firmsthe S o c i e t y for Chemical Industry, the Geigy Company a n d t h e Sandoz Chemical Workshave called meetings of t h e i r shareholders to consider proposals for a close w o r k i n g agreem e n t among the three concerns. I t is u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e arrangement will follow closely t h a t of t h e G e r m a n colour-makers, this is t o say, there will be a l o n g t e r m agreement, under which profits, processes, a n d p a t e n t s will be pooled, b u t each firm will retain its i n d i v i d u a l i t y a s far as management is concerned. As regards the development of t h e British i n d u s t r y , D e a n expressed the opinion t h a t this will d e p e n d chiefly on the dogged determination and p e r t i n a c i t y of t h e British chemist in conjunction with t h e British m a n u f a c t u r e r . The British textile industries m u s t n e v e r again b e jeopardised b y t h e possibility of t h e s u p p l y of d y e stuffs being cut off. To meet t h e German c o m p e t i t i o n (1) a large capital expenditure is absolutely n e c e s s a r y . (2) E a w materials, h e a v y chemicals, acids, alkalis, c h r o m e compounds, etc., m u s t be available a t prices n o t g r e a t e r t h a n those obtaining in competitive countries. (3) T h e r e m u s t be complete recovery a n d utilisation of b y - p r o d u c t s , t h u s ensuring a minimum of waste. (4) The closest b o n d of u n i t y must be established between science a n d i n d u s t r y . (5) Complete development of the photographic, d r u g , a n d fine chemical products with which t h e dye-stuffs i n d u s t r y is inseparably bound. The German capital invested in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of d y e stuffs is 50,000,000, whereas t h e corresponding B r i t i s h c a p i t a l is only 5,000,000. Our rejuvenated d y e i n d u s t r y will therefore need careful nursing. As regards t h e progress of t h e d y e i n d u s t r y i n o t h e r countries, it is evident from t h e p a t e n t l i t e r a t u r e t h a t m u c h research is being done on dye-stuff p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e United States. Owing t o the fact t h a t t h e y c a m e i n t o t h e war a t a late period t h e y h a d a d v a n t a g e s over t h o s e countries which were engaged in t h e conflict from 1914, and t h e y h a d n o distractions arising f r o m t h e mobilisation of their man-power a n d t h e diversion of

COLOUR P R O D U C T I O N

181

their m a n u f a c t u r i n g activities into war industries. Before t h e w a r seven American companies assembled German i n t e r m e d i a t e s a n d converted t h e m i n t o dyes. T h e y used per a n n u m approximately 3,000,000 worth of dyes, of w h i c h a n a m o u n t costing only a b o u t 600,000 was made in t h e U n i t e d States. A t t h e present time 190 firms are m a k i n g dyes, drugs, a n d intermediate products from coalt a r . Of these concerns 81 manufacture c o a l - t a r dyes from American materials, equivalent in t o t a l weight t o t h e a n n u a l i m p o r t s before t h e war, a n d t h e total o u t p u t of t h e 190 firms is 54,000,000 lbs., of a value of a b o u t 69 million dollars. More t h a n 1700 chemists a n d engineers are e m p l o y e d in research and chemical control of t h i s r a p i d l y developing industry, being a b o u t 8 - 8 % of t h e t o t a l personnel of 19,650. The capital of t h e concerns e x c e e d e d 40,000,000 in 1917. The p r o d u c t s now m a n u f a c t u r e d in t h e U n i t e d States include numerous colour i n t e r m e d i a t e s from benzol, toluene, a n d n a p h t h a l e n e . T h e r e still remain t o b e tackled certain finer dyes derived from a n t h r a c e n e a n d carbazole. Anthracene w a s n o t a v a i l a b l e in America until t h e summer of 1917. T h e p r o d u c t i o n of carbazole was expected in 1918. I t is significant of t h e value a t t a c h e d b y Germany t o t h e retention of its m o n o p o l y in v a t dyes derived from anthracene a n d c a r b a zole t h a t t h e cargo carried to America b y t h e submarine Deutschland in J u l y 1916 contained 400 tons of dyes, chiefly of t h i s class, a n d in October of t h e same y e a r another cargo of t h e s e dye wares was t r a n s m i t t e d b y t h e same means. F o r reasons s t a t e d above, P r a n c e a n d I t a l y have h a d l i t t l e leisure t o devote t o t h e production of dye-stuffs, b u t i m p o r t a n t work has been done by t h e Compagnee N a t i o n a l e des Matieres Colorantes et P r o d u c t s Chimiques i n t h e manufacture of synthetic indigo a n d alizarin a n d its d e r i v a t i v e s , a n d b y t h e Societe des P r o d u c t s Chimiques e t Colorantes P r a n j a i s in synthetic dyes, including ind u l i n e s , nigrosines, a n d azo-colours for wool a n d cotton. T h e t w o firms h a v e a j o i n t committee intended to avoid o v e r l a p p i n g in research a n d processes. I n J a p a n t h e d y e - producing factories are u n d e r G o v e r n m e n t surveillance a n d i t is expected t h a t all home r e q u i r e m e n t s will be m e t .

INDEX Acids and cotton, 109; and wool, 119 Additions to scouring lyes for bleaching, 41 Advantages of coal-tar colour industry to Britain, 162 to Germany, 84, 130,150 of education not always seen, 84 Algol colours, 19, 148 Alizarine colours, 2, 163; blue, 18; cyanine, 18 ; production, 131 American, English workers compared with, 60, 72; conditions, 49 ; dyeing industry, 49; employers and education, 81 ; hank-mercerising machine, 23 ; home trade, 49 ; machinery, 49 ; mercerising machines, 26, 27 ; trusts, 132; workmen, 72 Analytical chemists at German colour works, 140, 141 Aniline black, 113 Application of chemistry to bleaching, of science to industry, 167 Appointments for chemists in British industry, 165 in British colour industry, 165, 166 for technical students, 83 Arlington Mills, Lawrence, 61, 73 Arnold Print Works, North Adams, 55, 73 Arrangement of operations in bleachworks, 59 Art of dyeing, 1 Assistance afforded to manufacture, 74 to chemical training, 166 Austria, technical instruction in, 86 Automatic counting machines, 60 Baraaby Works, Fall Eiver, 63 Basic blues, 17 Bayer Co. of Elberfeld and Leverkusen, 18, 19, 130, 136, 139, 160, 163, 179; development of, 136 ; employment of chemists, 137 ; patent specifications, 137; water-supply at Leverkusen, 139 Beetling, 57 Bemberg's dyeing and machine works, Barmen, 35, 75, 76; hank-mercerising machine, 21, 22; piece-mercerising plant, 25 Benzol Products Co., 157, 159 Berlin Aniline Company, 75, 130, 137, 146, 179; technical laboratories, 146 Black smoke in U.S.A., 75 Bleaching, agents, 37; application of chemistry to, 32; by electrolysis, 37; empiricism in, 32; enzymes in, 100; faults, 109; history of, 31; industrial, 32; methods, 97, 101, 106, 107; recent progress in, 100; safety in, 101; solutions and antiseptics, 105; theory of, 104; without complete scouring, 41 Bleachworks, organisation of, 59 Blues, alizarine, 18; basic, 17; benzo, 17; developed, 17; diamine, 17; direct, 17; sulphur, 12, 15, 18 19, 61; vat, 18 Books on technical instruction, 81 British Alizarin Co., 131 British chemical industry, effect of war on. 163; industry and German patents, 155; colour industry during war, 155; Dyes, Ltd., 162; dye-stuff industry, 176; efforts to found colour industry, 153; Empire and industry, 163; Government attitude to colour industry, 152; imports of dye-stuffs, 169,173 Business management of German colour works, 134, 137

Badische A nil In and Soda Fabrik, 15, 67,130, 131, 136, 178, 179; technical laboratories, 146 Cachou de Laval, 12 Banking reform in Britain, 164 Canals, use in industry, 74 Barmen, 3, 5, 8, 66, 75 183

184

THE DYEING

INDUSTRY Consumers of dye-stuffs and colour industry, 154, 158 Contracts with servants in German colour-works, 142 Co-operation of science and industry, 167,168 ; between works in Germany, 150 Cop-dyeing, 6 ; by frothing, 146 ; dyestuffs for, 6; faults in, 8; origin of, 6 machines for, 7 ; with perforated spindles, 9 ; with solid spindles, 8 Cotton blankets, 57 and acids, 109 Research Association, 95, 98 sizing, 125 speculation, effect on industry, 56 Counter currents, principle of, 5, 23 Crefeld, 3, 27, 71, 75, 85; Fachschule, 85, 86, 87 Crimping of cloth, 20

Cassella, L., of Frankfort and Mainkur, 12,15,18,130,145,179; experimental laboratories, 145 Cell dryer for cloth drying, 62, 76 Cellulose, 32, 97, 99 Census of Dye-stuffs, 169 Changes in dyeing industry, 80 Charlottenburg technical high school, 86 Cheap chemicals and colour industry, 128 Chemical graduates and appointments, 165; research and colour industry, 164 Chemistry and bleaching industry, 33; and dyeing, 2; professors and consulting work, 85, 168; professors of, and industry, 168; tuition in dyeing schools, 85 Chemists and abstract research, 167 ; and industry, 94, 125, 166, 167 ; in British industry, 167; in German colour works, 72; in German industry, 71 Chemnitz, 3, 4, 5, 9, 56, 66, 71, 75, 85; Staat-Lehranstalt, 86 China, natural indigo in, 17 Chloramines, 41; in bleaching, 103 Ciba colours, 19, 148 Circulation during bleaching, 63 Cleanliness in industry, 65 Cloth-dyeing, 5 Coal economy, 171 Coal-tar colour works of the world, 151 Cocheco Manufacturing Co., Dover, N.H., 76 Cochineal, 1 Cohnen cop-dyeing machine, 7; hankmercerising machine, 23 Colour industry in France, 162 in Great Britain, advantages of, 162 in U.S.A., 156 mixing, 54 works, influence on education, 84 Coloured bordered goods, bleaching of, 110 Colouring matters of textile fibres, 97 Columbia University, New York, 90 Combination in German colour industry, 130,131,133; of employers on labour questions, 57 Commercial adaptability, 164 Comparison of manufacturing conditions, 67 Competition and prices of dye-stuffs, 131; in colour industry, 130, 133, 147 Compilation of patent specifications, 136 Compulsory working of patents, 135, 148, 157, 158 Conditions in old and new works, 66 Considerations to industry, 74

D Decline of colour industry in England, 127 m prance, 161 in U.S.A., 158 Degrees in Germany, 83 Dependence of England on German dye-stuffs, 132 of Japan, 160 of U.S.A., 156 Developed dye-stuffs, 111 Development of the art of dyeing, 1 Direct blues, 17 ; cotton colours, 17 Distribution of the dyeing industry, 3 Drying cylinders, arrangement of, 62 of dye-stuffs, 138 Dumping of German dye-stuffs, 131,157, 159; legislation against, in U.S.A., 159 Dutchflannelettes,48 Duty on dyed cloth, 2 Dyeing industry in U.S.A., 72, 174; information collected at German colourworks, 91 machine, special, 145 recent progress in, 110 schools supplying own needs, 88 theory of, 116 Dye-stuffs, British imports of, 169, 173; census of, 169; drying of, 138; manufacture of, 138 Dye-works and machine-shops together, 75,76 E Ecob and Hasslacher mercerising machine, 25 Eoonomic relations with Germany, 163 Economy of high wage*, 55, 69

INDEX
Edmeston continuous kier, 36 Education in Germany, 69; of classes in Germany, 8 3 ; of poor children, 69 Educational ladder in England, 83 Effect of colour industry on other chemical industries, 128 of lock-out i n Lowell, 57 of tariffs in America, 51 of war on dye-stuff supply, 148,151

ia j a p a i l y 160 ia Russia, i$i ^ . ia U.S.A., 156 Efficiency in English dyeing industry, 78 Efforts of U.S.A. in colour production, 159, 164 Eight-hours day in industry, 70 Elberfeld, 3, 66 Electrolysers, 38 Electrolytic "bleaching, 37, 38, 39 Eminence of English dyeing, 78 Empirical methods in industry, 73, 80 Employees' advantages in German colour-works, 140 Employers and education, 88, 90, 92, 93 Employment in American print-m>rk8, 64 of chemists in dye-works, 64 Encouragement of labour, 58; of research in Germany, 129 England and chemical industry, 81 English and Continental technical schools, 86 chemists in Germany, 84 coal-tar dye-stuff industry, 127 colour firms, 134 cotton-waste used in Germany, 44 employers and education, 81 foremen and managers in U.S.A., 60, 72 graduates and industry, 84 industrial position, 82 industry and German dye-Btufis, 132 instructors in American schools, 89 machinery in Germany, 3, 44, 85 pessimism regarding education, 81 regarding industry, 82 students in German industry, 88 Englishmen in American industry, 60, 72 Engraving of printing-rollers, 58 Entrance examinations at American technical schools, 90 qualifications at German technical schools, 87 Enzymes in bleaching, 100 Evasion of patent laws, 135 Examinations in Germany, 83

185 Excellence of British dyeing, 90 technical schools, 90, 143 Experimental dye-houses at German colour-works, 145 Expiration of German colour patents 136, 157 Explosives and dye-stuffs, 157, 159 Export trade in American prints, 51 External specialisation in Gennanv 47 in U.S.A., 50, 77 Extremes of remuneration, 69

Factory Regulations, 65 Faculties of commerce at universities, 82 Fall Eiver, Mass., 3, 50, 61,88 ; specialisation at, 61; water-supply, 62 Fall River Bleachery, 62; Ironworks, 62 ; Textile School, 88, 89 Fastness of dye-stuffs. 111, 120, 146 Fees in German technical schools, 85, 86 Felting, brushing, and steaming of flannelettes, 44 Fine and coarse goods at Lcwell, 56 Fine chemicals in Great Britain, 149, 150 Finishing, 51; recent progress in, 124 Flax Research Association, 95 Foam dyeing-machine for cops, 11, 146 Foreigners in German technical schools, 85 Foundation of colour industry in U.S.A., 156 France and chemical industry, 81; the colour industry, 161 Free tuition in Austrian technical schools, 86 Future of English colour industry, 94, 162 of German colour industry, 129,162
G
Gebauer kier, 34; machine - works, Berlin, 75, 76 ; open-width kier, 35 Gera Mills, Passaic, J S T . J., 50, 51, 76 German chemists and English industry, 128 colour firms in U.S.A., 130 industry a monopoly, 131 patents, 134 and British colour industry, 155 works, 91, 94 in France, Russia, etc., 134 educational institutions, 81 exports of dye-stuffs, 151,152 graduates and industry, 84 grants to technical education* 84 kartels and home price, 132 patent specifications, 148

186

THE DYEING INDUSTEY Influence of colour-works on education in Germany, 84,129 Information collected by German colour-works, 91 Injurious conditions in dye-works, 65 Inorganic chemistry in England and Trance, 83 Intermediate products, manufacture of, 158,160 Intermediates for dye-stuffs, 170, 172 Internal stresses in cottonfibres,125 Italianflannelettes,48 Jackson-Hunt kier, 34, 36 Japan, colour production in, 160; natural indigo in, 17 Jeanmaire's piece-mercerising machine, 24,25 Jiggers for dyeing, 5, 57, 59 K Kalle & Co., 19 Karlsruhe, 86; Technical High School, 86, 168 Kartels, 132 Kiers for scouring, 33; circulation in, 33 ; low pressure, 62 Klauder-Weldon hank-dyeing machine, 4, 14, 63, 89; raw-stock dyeing machine, 61 Kleinewefer's, Crefeld, 21, 75, 76; hankmercerising machine, 21 Labour-saving machinery, 59 scarcity in America, 49, 55 Land at reduced rates for industry, 75 Large-scale production, advantages of, 45, 75, 132 in U.S.A., 60, 63 Lawrence, Mass., 50, 55, 60 Leather dyeing, 146 Lectures in economics, 91 in patent law, 85, 91, 135 Libraries at German colour-works, 142 Lime-boil in bleaching, 40 Location of dyeing industry, 3 Logwood, 2 Loose cotton mercerising, 21 Low-pressure kiers for bleaching, 62 Low wages and long hours in Germany, 69 Lowe, 20 Lowell, Mass., 53, 56, 73, 75, 88; Textile School, 73, 88, 89

German professors and industry, 168 railways and industry, 138 technical schools, 84 Government facilities to industry in Germany, 150 Gramigers cop-dyeing machine, 9 Griesheim-Elektron, 179 Gruschwitz piece-mercerising machine, 27 H Hamilton Works, Lowell, 59 Hank-dyeing, 3, 4; in U.S.A., 4, 60; Klauder-Weldon machine for, 4, 14, 63; machines, 4 mercerising, 21; machines, 21, 23 washing, 4, 5; machine, 4 Haubold's cop - dyeing machine, 9 ; hank-mercerising machine, 21, 22; hank-washing machine, 4 ; kier, 34; machine works, Chemnitz, 75, 76; special dyeing machine, 145 Heavilyfilledcotton goods, 51 Heavy chemical industry, 149, 150 History of bleaching, 31 of dyeing, 1 Holland, 11, 31, 151; colour industry in, 151 Home and export trade in flannelettes, 45 Home demand and colour industry, 158 Honours chemistry graduates in England, 165 Hours of work in Germany, 69 in U.S.A., 55, 58, 60 Housing of working-classes, 140 Hydrogen peroxide as a bleaching agent, 37 Hypochlorites, properties of, 106

Ice-making in German colour-works, 139 Immigration, effect of, on American labour, 49 ; Importance of chemistry in technical education, 85 of colour industry to Britain, 96 Indanthrene colours, 19 Indigo, 1,15, 63,111 dyeing, 145 fading of, 19 natural, 15; cultivation of, 16; in China, 17; in Japan, 17; revival due to war, 16 substitutes, 17 synthetic, 15, 151; and natural compared, 16; effect of war on, 16 Industrial combination in England, 132 in Germany, 132 M in U.S.A., 132 research in Germany, 168 Machine-building at dye-works, 56; Inflammability offlannelettes,48 ^industries in new countries, 56

INDEX Machinery used forflannelettes,46, 47 Machines for raw-cotton dyeing, 61 Manchester machinery, 44; printers, 45 Manufacture of a few necessary colours, 159, 164 of dye-stuffs, 138 Manufacturing conditions in Germany, 66 in U.S.A., 67 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, 61, 89 Meister, Lucius & Briining, Hoechst, 12, 130, 131, 140, 168, 178, 179; experimental laboratories, 145 Mercer, 20 Mercerising, 20, 121, 124; additions to ; lye in, 21, 28 ; economy of soda in, :; 26; imperfect, 26; prices for, 27 ; ^ recent progress in, 121; research in, ^79; strength of soda for, 20; tem^:perature of soda for, 20; tests for, L 29 ; theory of, 122; trade in Crefeld, * 26 Merrimac River, 60 Merrimack Manufacturing Co., Lowell, 26, 27, 53, 73 Metallic colours, 139 mordants, 2 Milling machine, 146 Mineral matters of textilefibres,97 Modern inventions, 72 Mommer cop-dyeing machine, 7, 11 engineering works, 76 Monopoly in German colour industry, 131-133 Most-favoured-nation clause, 163 Miilhausen, 3, 5, 36, 66, 88,140; Dyeing School, 85 Miinchen-Gladbaeh, 3,43,47,84,88,131; Textile School, 84, 87 Muntadas (Paris) continuous kier, 36

187 Opinions regarding technical education in U.S.A., 88, 89 Opposition to artificial dye-stuns, 130 to British Government dve scheme 154 to innovations, 2, 130 to introduction of new machinery 58 to progress, 2 Organic chemistry and British colour industry, 165 and German colour industry, 130 in Germany, 84 Organisation of English flannelette trade, 46 of Germanflannelettetrade, 46 of industry in U.S.A., 50

Pacific Mills, Lawrence, 61 Pack dyeing, 115 Padding, 14, 57, 59 Paper spindles used in cop-dyeing, S Passaic, New Jersey, 49, 50, "68, 75 Patent legislation, 164; in England, 135; lectures on, 85, 124 Patented products of German colour works, 135, 148 Patents and the colour industry, 135, 148,157, 162 Pattern books supplied by German colourfirms,137 Payment of royalties on British dyestuffs, 155 Pectins of textilefibres,97, 10S Pemberton Mills, Lawrence, 60 Pharmaceutical chemicals, 149 Philadelphia, 3, 89 Photographic chemicals, 149 Piece-mercerising machines, 21, 24 Polygenetic colour dyeing, 1 N Pornitz cop-dyeing machine, 9, 10, 146 Nationalities engaged in American Position of German colour industry, 129 Post-graduate research, 16o industry, 49, 60 Prejudice against technical education in Natural dye-stuffs, 111, 112 U.S.A., 88, 89 New Bedford, 50, 89 Prices for dyeing, 71 New England, 3, 49, 50, 51 of dye-stuffs, 71, 91, 131, 164 New methods ia industry, 78 of materials used in dyeing, 91 New technical literature, 78 Printing, 14, 50, 53, 54; recent progress New York, 3, 90, 158 in, 123 Nitre cake, use in bleaching, 109 Production of chemicals in Great Non-inflammableflannelettes,48 Britain. 149 North Adams, Mass., 54, 55, 73 of new dye-stuffs, 148 Numbers of students at German techniProfits from dye-stuffs, 129,131 cal schools, 86, 87 Nuremberg, 139; lithographic colours Prohibition of importation of German colours, 162 at, 139 Protection and the colour industry, 134, 0 158 and the American colour industry, Obermaier cop-dyeing machine, 8, 11 Open-width scouring, 34 158,160

188

THE DYEING INDUSTRY Scientific and technical chemists, 167 management, 55 skill in industry, 71 Scouring, 41,104; effect of neutral salts in, 40 Secrets in industry, 54, 72, 95, 96 Self-made men in English industry, 69, 92 Sentiment and purchase of dye-stuffs, 162 Silk Research Association, 95 Singeing machines, 62 Sizing of cotton, 125 Skin dyeing, 146 Slop padding, 115 Small colour-works in Germany and Switzerland, 134 Society of Chemical Industry, Basle, 18 Sodium hypocblorite in bleaching, 37 produced by electrolysis, 37 peroxide as a bleaching agent, 37 Sorau technical school, 87 Southern states of U.S.A., 3 Spanishflannelettes,48 Special lectures at technical schools, 89 students at technical schools, 88 Specialisation at Fall River, 61 in printing, 55 in textile machine industry, 56 internal and external, 46, 47, 55, 76 Specialised textile machine-shops in England, 76 Speed of machines, 58 in bleachworks, 63 Spinning the weft for cotton blankets, 44 State aid, 173 Stentering machines, 57 Strength of dye-stuffs, testing, 74, 146 Strikes in Germany and U.S.A., 67, 68 Students at German technical schools, 87 ; entering industry, 92 Study governed by outlets for students, 82; of chemistry in England, 166; of English in Germany, 83; pursued for professional object, 83 Success and research in colour industry, 164 due to employing new machines, 55 to paying high wages, 55 to scientific management, 55 of German colour industry, 128 Successful methods in German colour industry, 136 Suggested improvements in technical instruction, 91 Sulphur blacks, 12, 15 blues, 12, 15, 18, 61; fading of, 19 violets, 12 Sulphur colours, 12, 114; machine used for, 14, 15; methods of dyeing, 13; padding of, 14; printing with, 14; research in, 144 ; tendering due to, 12, 114

Protection and the British colour industry, 162 Proteins of textilefibres,97 Publication of research in journals, 78 R Railway development in U.S.A., 74 Raising of cotton fabrics, 43 Ratepayers and education, 84 Raw cotton, constituents of, 40 , dyeing, 60,61 Raw materials and taxation, 134 for German colour industry, 95 Read, Holliday & Sons, Ltd., 119, 122, 152, 155 Recovery of waste products, 74 Re-dyeing, 115 Reichenberg Weaving School, 86 Report of Moseley Commission, 81 Reports of commissions on education, 81 Research and British colour industry, 155 chemists and the colour industry, 95, 140, 141, 144 in German colour industry, 144 remuneration of, 144 encouragement of, in Germany, 129 in dyeing in technical schools, 88 in dye-stuff preparation, 144 in English universities, 165 in German technical schools, 85, 86 in pure chemistry, 167 on mercerising, 79 scholarships in chemistry, 165 work in German colour industry, 136,164, 165 during the war, 94, 95 jja industry, 78 Resources of U.S.A., 72 Restrictions on dyeing industry, 1 Rhine and German commerce, 137 Rights obtained by examination in Germany, 83 Royalties and British colour industry, 135 Russia and the colour industry, 151,161, 162 S Salts Manufacturing Co., Bridgeport, Conn., 51, 63 Saxony, 3 Scarcity of labour in U.S.A., 49, 55 Schirp cop-dyeing machine, 8, 9, 10 Schreiner calendar, 76 Schwabe's piece - mercerising machine, 24 Science and empiricism in bleaching, 32 and the direction of colour-works, 154,155

INDEX Synthetic and natural indigo, 16 Synthetic drugs, 149 Swiss colour firms, 18, 134, 151, 161, 162, 165; competition with Germans, 130
T Tagliani-Rigamonti kier, 35, 36 Tarijffs and dye-stuffs in France, 161 in U.S.A., 157, 158, 159, 160 and German exports, 162 and the colour industry, 134 Technical chemistry at American schools, 89 -departments of German colourworks, 140, 142 education, 81, 8 3 ; in Austria, 86 ; in Germany, 8 1 ; in U.S.A., 8 8 ; of workmen in Germany, 87 instruction in dyeing, 80 men and British colour industry, 1 4 3 ; in German colour-works, 133, 140, 141 periodicals, 72, 78 research work, 167 schools and industry, 92 ; schools as leaders of development, 91 training and the dyeing industry, 8 0 ; and works experience, 9 3 ; at German colour-worlts, 142, 143; in England, 163 Tendering due to imperfect scouring, 41 of bleached goods, 103 Testing of dye-works supplies, 73 Textile chemistry, 97 Institute, the, 91, 95 machine-shops attached to dyeworks, 75 Theis's cop-bleaching apparatus, 11 Theory of dyeing, 116 Thio indigo red, 19, 148 Thomas & Prevost, 20 Trade in coal-tar dye-stufis, 151 Trade unions, 5 8 ; in Germany and U.S.A., 67 Training of managers in American technical schools, 88 Transport facilities to German industry, 137 Travellers employed by German colourworks, 141 Turkey red and the American market, 57 U Uniformity of nap on German flannelettes, 45

189

University graduates an.i Brkisli colrar industry, 165 at German colour-wrsrks. 14* 142 students and testiie schorls, ?T, ^ Use of canals, 74 Variety of products at German colourworks, 144 Vat blues, 18; dye-stuffs, li>, III Ventilation of dve-works, tit) Vidal black, 12 " Vienna weaving school, SG Visiting of works in U.S.A., 53 by other workers, 53 _. by technical students, 90 Volatile solvents used in scouring, 41 Volunteer departments in German colour-works, $7, 145, 147 W Wages in Germany, G9; in the dyeing industry, 68, 7 1 ; of chemists, 71, 9t>~ Walsh-Jackson kier, 34 War and the chemical industry, 163 Warp mercerising, 21, 23 Water-supply at Fall River, 62; at Leverkusen, 139 Waxes of textile fibres, 40, 97, 108; effect of lime-boil on, 40; effect of hypochlorites on, 41 Weighing of dye-stuff*, 73, 146 Weighting of silk, 125 Weisbach piece-mercerising machine, 27 Welter continuous kier, 36 Woad, 1 Wood colours, 148, 151, 160 Wool and acids, 119 Wool Research Association, 05 Works experience for tcciinicai inen, 143 Works training deferred, 93

Yarn dyeing, H i n U.S.A., 4, 60, >3 Yellowing of bleached goods, 102

Zwickau, 3

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