Unified Soil Classification System Explanation

SOIL CATEGORIES
Soil rarely exists in nature as sand alone, gravel alone, or any other single component. Usually, soil occurs as mixtures with varying proportions of particles of different sizes. Each component contributes its characteristics to the mixture. The Unified Soil Classification System is based on the characteristics of the soil that indicate how it will behave as a construction material. There are many indicators and descriptors for soil.

Particle size
Gravels range from about 3 inches down to the size of peas. Sands start just below this size and decrease until the individual grains are just distinguishable by the naked eye. The eye can normally see individual grains about 0.07 millimeter in size, or about the size of the No. 200 sieve. Silt and clay particles, which are smaller than sands, are indistinguishable as individual particles.

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Size Group Boulders Cobbles Gravels Sands Fines (clay or silt)

Sieve Size Passing No maximum size 12 inches 3 inches No. 4 No. 200

Retained On 12 inches 3 inches No. 4 No. 200 No minimum size

Categories
In the USCS, all soils are placed into one of three major categories. They are Coarse-grained Fine-grained Highly organic The USCS further divides soils that have been classified into the major soil categories by letter symbols, such as S for sand G for gravel. M for silt. C for clay. A soil that meets the criteria for clayey sand would be designated (SC). There are cases of borderline soils that cannot be classified by a single dual symbol, such as GM for silty gravel. These soils may require a dual symbol for a full description. For example, (SM-SC) describes sand that contains appreciable amounts of silt and clay.

Grain Shape
When a sample is examined for grain sizes, the shapes of the visible particles can be determined. Sharp edges and flat surfaces indicate an angular shape; smooth, curved surfaces indicate a rounded shape. Particles may not be completely angular or completely rounded. These particles are called sub-angular or sub-rounded, depending on which shape predominates. Platy is a term used to describe those particles which have one relatively small dimension compared to the other two.

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Clays generally fall into this category.

Well-Graded Soils. A well-graded soil is defined as having a good representation of all particle sizes from the largest to the smallest. Poorly-Graded Soils. There are two types of poorly-graded soils. A uniformly graded soil consists primarily of particles of nearly the same size. A gap-graded soil contains various particle sizes, but the gradation continuity is broken by the absence of some particle sizes.

Coarse-Grained Soils
Coarse-grained soils are defined as those in which at least half the material is retained on a No. 200 sieve. They are divided into two major categories, which are Gravel Sand

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Soil Classification
A coarse-grained soil is classed as gravel if more than half the coarse fraction by weight is retained on a No. 4 sieve. The symbol G is used to denote gravel and the symbol S to denote sand. Where a mixture occurs, the primary name is the predominant soil portion and the minor soil portion is used as an adjective. For example, a sandy gravel is a soil mixture containing more gravel than sand, by weight. Additionally, gravels are further separated into either coarse gravel or fine gravel with the 3/4-inch sieve as the dividing line. Sands are divided into coarse, medium, or fine with the No. 10 and No. 40 sieves acting as the dividing line. The coarse-grained soils may also be further divided into three groups on the basis of the amount of fines (materials passing a No. 200 sieve) they contain. These amounts are: Less than 5 percent. More than 12 percent. Between 5 and 12 percent. Coarse-grained soils with less than 5 percent passing the No. 200 sieve may fall into the following groups: GW represents well-graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures with little or no fines. The presence of the fines must not notably change the strength characteristics of the coarse-grained soil portion and must not interfere with its free-draining characteristics. SW represents well-graded sands and gravelly sands with little or no fines. GP represents poorly-graded gravels and sandy gravel mixtures with little or no fines. SP represents poorly-graded sands and gravelly sands with little or no fines. Coarse-grained soils containing more than 12 percent passing the No. 200 sieve are classified using the following groups: GM represents silty gravel and poorly graded gravel/sand-silt mixtures. SM represents silty sands and poorly graded sand-silt mixtures. GC represents clayey gravels and poorly-graded gravel-sand-clay mixtures. SC represents clayey sands and poorly-graded sand-clay mixtures.
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The use of the symbols M and C is based on the plasticity characteristics of the material passing the No. 40 sieve. Atterberg limits, which include the liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL), are used in determining the plasticity of the fine materials. The symbol M is used to indicate that the material passing the No. 40 sieve is silty in character. M usually designates a fine-grained soil of little or no plasticity. The symbol C is used to indicate that the binder soil is clayey in character. Liquid Limit. The LL (or wL) is defined as the minimum moisture content at which a soil will flow upon application of a very small shearing force. With only a small amount of energy input, the soil will flow under its own weight. Plastic Limit. The PL (or wp) is arbitrarily defined as the lowest moisture content at which a soil can be rolled into a thread 1/8 inch in diameter without crushing or breaking. If a cohesive soil has a moisture content above the PL, a thread may be rolled to less than 1/8 inch in diameter without breaking. If the moisture content is below the PL, the soil will crumble when attempts are made to roll it into 1/8-inch threads. When the moisture content is equal to the PL, a thread can be rolled out by hand to 1/8 inch in diameter; then it will crumble or break into pieces 1/8 to 3/8 inch long when further rolling is attempted. Some soils (for example, clean sands) are non-plastic and the PL cannot be determined. A clean sand or gravel will progress immediately from the semisolid to the liquid state. Coarse-grained soils containing more than 12 percent of material passing the No. 200 sieve that are borderline between silt and clay are classified using a dual symbol (SM-SC or GM-GC). Course-grained soils with between 5 and 12 percent of material passing the No. 200 sieve also require a dual symbol based on gradation and plasticity. GW-GM GP-GM GW-GC GP-GC SW-SC SW-SM SP-SC SP-SM

Plasticity Index
The PI (or Ip) of a soil is the numerical difference between the LL and the PL. PI = LL PL For example, if a soil has a liquid limit of 57 and a plastic limit of 23, then the plasticity index equals 34 (PI = LL PL = 57 - 23). Sandy soils and silts have characteristically low plasticity indices, while the plasticity indices of most clays are larger. Soils that have high PI values are highly plastic and are generally highly
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compressible and highly cohesive. The plasticity is inversely proportional to the permeability of a soil; so, the higher a soils plasticity index the lower the permeability. Soils that do not have a plastic limit, such as clean sands, are reported as having a plasticity index of zero.

Fine-Grained Soils
Fine-grained soils are those in which more than half the material passes a No. 200 sieve. Fine-grained soils are not classified by grain size but according to plasticity and compressibility. Laboratory classification criteria are based on the relationship between the liquid limit and the plasticity index, determined from a plasticity chart. The chart indicates two major groupings of fine-grained soils. These are The L groups, which have LL < 50. The H groups, which have LL 50.

The symbols L and H represent low and high plasticity, respectively. Remember that the liquid limit and plastic limit are found on the fraction of the soil that passes the No. 40 sieve and therefore may contain fine sands. The ML group includes Very fine sands. Rock flours. Silty or clayey fine sands with slight plasticity. Plastic silts fall into the MH group. CL and CH represent clays with low and high compressibility, respectively. These soils plot above the A-line and are principally inorganic clays. The CL group includes gravelly clays, sandy clays, silty clays, and lean clays. The CH group includes inorganic clays of high plasticity, such as fat clays, the gumbo clays of the southern
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Plasticity Index (PI)

United States, volcanic clays, and bentonite. The glacial clays of the northern United States cover a wide band in the CL and CH groups. Soils in the OL and OH groups are characterized by the presence of organic matter, indicated by the symbol O. Organic silts and organic silt clays of low plasticity fall into the OL group, while organic clays plot in the OH zone of the plasticity chart. Many organic silts, silt-clays, and clays deposited by rivers along the lower reaches of the Atlantic seaboard have liquid limits between 40 and 100. Peaty soils may have liquid limits of several hundred percent. Fine-grained soils that exhibit properties of two groups can be given dual symbols (for example, CL-ML). Several soil types exhibiting low plasticity plot in this general region on the chart and no definite boundary between silty and clayey soils exists.

Color
Color helps in distinguishing between soil types and aids in identifying a specific soil type. Color may also indicate the presence of certain chemicals or impurities and often varies with the soil's moisture content. Thus, the moisture content at the time of color identification should be noted. Some of the more familiar color properties are stated below. Colors in general become darker as the moisture content increases and lighter as the soil dries. Some fine-grained soil (falling into the OL and OH categories on the chart) with dark, drab shades of brown or gray (including almost black) contain organic colloidal matter. In contrast, clean, bright shades of gray, olive-green, brown, red, yellow, and white are associated with inorganic soils. Grayblue or gray-yellow mottled colors frequently result from poor drainage. Red, yellow, and yellowish-brown colors result from the presence of iron oxides. White to pink may indicate considerable silica, calcium carbonate, or aluminum compounds.

Highly Organic Soils

A special classification, Pt, is reserved for the highly organic soils, such as peat, which have many undesirable engineering characteristics. No laboratory criteria are established for these soils, as they generally can be easily identified in the field by their distinctive color and odor, spongy feel, and frequently fibrous texture. Particles of leaves, grass, branches, or other fibrous vegetable matter are common components of these soils.

Categorization Factors
These same properties can also be considered in field identification. The table below provides characteristics that can be used in the field to classify soils. What to look for Visual appearance and feel Granular soils, fine sands and silts Coarse grains can be seen; feels gritty when rubbed between fingers Plastic (cohesive) soils, clay Grains cannot be seen by the naked eye; feels smooth and greasy when rubbed between fingers

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Movement of water in the spaces

Plasticity when moist Cohesion in dry state

When a small quantity is shaken in the palm of the hand, water will appear on the surface of the sample. When shaking is stopped, water will gradually disappear. Very little or no plasticity Little or no cohesive strength in dry state; will crumble readily

When a small quantity is shaken in the palm of the hand, it shows no sign of water moving out of the voids. Plastic and sticky; sample can be rolled High dried strength; crumbles with difficulty and disintegrates slowly in water

Other characteristics observed should also be included in describing the soil, whether the identification is made by field or laboratory methods. Properties normally included in a description of a soil are Color Grain size, including estimated maximum grain size and estimated percent by weight of fines (material passing the No. 200 sieve) Gradation Grain shape Plasticity Predominant type Secondary components Classification symbol Other remarks, such as organic, chemical, or metallic content; compactness; consistency; cohesiveness near PL; dry strength; and source (i.e., residual or transported) An example of a soil description using the sequence and considering the properties referred to above might be Dark brown to white Coarse-grained soil, maximum particle size 2 3/4 inches, estimating 60 percent gravel, 36 percent sand, and 4 percent passing the No. 200 sieve Poorly-graded (insufficient fine gravel, gap-graded). Gravel particles sub-rounded to rounded Nonplastic Predominantly gravel Considerable sand and a small amount of nonplastic fines (silt) (GP) Slightly calcareous, no dry strength, dense in the undisturbed state

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