Acheson - Anthropology of Fishing

Anthropology of Fishing Author(s): James M. Acheson Source: Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 10 (1981), pp.
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Ann. Rev.Anthropol 1981.10:275-316 Reviews Inc.Allrights reserved Copyright i 1981byAnnual
ANTHROPOLOGY OF FISHING
James M. Acheson
ofMaine, ofAnthropology, Maine04469 Department University Orono,
o9680
INTRODUCTION
in "maritime Anthropologists interested havefocused on anthropology" three marine subjects: modem fisheries, shipboard andprehistoric adlife, In thisage of proliferating it willcomeas no aptations. subspecialties, inthese areascomprise three exclutolearn that thepractitioners surprise members arescarcely awareofeachother's existence. sive"clubs"whose work onthe ofthose maritime While this review will concentrate specialists in modem it willinclude references to work doneby interested fisheries, two"clubs" when their work canilluminate members oftheother particularissues ofimportance. Whatarethemajor contributions ofmaritime anthropology? Someanand thatsuchstudies havenothing in are none, thropologists say there common butwater (223). Bernard (41, pp. 478-79),forexample, argues in that it hasno focus that "maritime is "far-fetched" and anthropology" ourunderstanding hasproduced few ofman." "generalizations increasing in thisfield, he claims, Studies couldbetter be classified as "plainold or physical with no loss ethnology, archaeology, linguistics, anthropology M. E. Smith ofgenerality." Bernard's (223)contests that assertions, arguing theproliferation ofsubspecialties suchas maritime areinevianthropology in anthropology table thelackofa theoretical focus as a whole. given She a longlistofgeneralizations and "ethnographic elegoeson to produce inboth ments" maritime significant andfishing communities (223,pp.4-5). I agree with Smith that there aresomeclearthreads running through the To be sure, literature onfishing. there areanthropological anthropological ona variety oftopics incommunities studies where do some people fishing. inarchaeology, Suchstudies orother clearly belong physical anthropology, subareas of socialanthropology. But fishing the posessimilar problems world andthesignificant oftheanthropology contributions offishing over, havestemmed on thewaythat from studies focusing human beings have inthemarine toearning a living environment. Mostofthecontriadapted
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what studying havebeenmadeby anthropologists of thisfield butions by shore-based industry-not on boardshipsand in thefishing happens communities. offishing studies environment anduncertain heterogeneous placein a very takes Fishing environthephysical from notonly stems (25, 159,248).Thisuncertainty place. takes in which fishing thesocialenvironment butalso from ment, manis andoneinwhich andalienenvironment, Thesea is a dangerous the onlywith It is a realm thatmanenters to survive. equipped poorly scubagear,or canoes, platforms, devices (i.e. boats, ofartificial support allow. weather andsea conditions when andthen only other technologies), fishing failure makes ormechanical accident, ofstorm, threat Theconstant (39,69,79, 142, intheworld anywhere occupation dangerous at sea a very conditions," to aquatic be "adapted gearusedmust 158,209).Thefishing of land transferences are not simply devices meansthat"fishing which never offishing gear features many technological andthat devices, hunting ofthewater" (102,p. 239). The usedoutside in hunting devices appear must here people buteven ocean, as open as dangerous zoneisnot intertidal tide,and the toolsand techniques in thefaceof theincoming retreat here. for landwillnotwork designed (70,81) ofspecies numbers very large contain typically ecozones Marine Thus,the different techniques. capture andrequiring different habits with fishing different mustbe adeptat several culture of a single fishermen Notonly do available areonly periodically. species (228).Many techniques or decan increase butfish populations seasonally, migrate many species fisheries foreventrained in wayswhichare difficult creasedrastically following economic disaster, topredict (62,70, 128).Widespread scientists unknown (106). is farfrom failure, on theheelsofstock surface undifferentiated on a flat, areoperating The fact that fishermen to see increases uncertainty thatare difficult animals and are exploiting andit is always problematic; one'sposition locating (180).Forfishermen, as to learn thefisherman impossible-for more difficult-perhaps is much whocan closely and farmer, as thehunter species much aboutdesirable one'scatches (223).In addition, they exploit animals andplants observe the and even of fellow fishermen, on theactivities can fluctuate depending thestocks canaffect with technology primitive relatively fishermen working ofthe markets fish ofaquaticanimals (18, 82, 149,150,212). In many mean a goodcatchdoesnotalways so that fluctuate wildly prices world, a goodday'sincome (31, 157,247). the thatbefore suchas Sauer(208,p. 309) haveargued Geographers and man witha "continuous" theseas provided of agriculture, advent ofmarine organisms Thelong-run stability offood. supply "inexhaustible" Howforsettlement. unusual manwith opportunities mayhaveprovided
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the from social isthat the evidence modem sea'slargesse ever, anthropology in theshort andbiologists havestressed is notoriously undependable run, fishermen areall toocapableofexhausting it. that industrialized on crowded Thefact that many fishermen work longhours boatsin an environment farfrom homecausesphysical and psychological all-male problems for them andtheir families from whom they areseparated (35, 53, bothfishermen and their 233). Moreimportant, it forces families to play intheculture areoften from which roles that notstandard they come. The men must organize effective work groups andmaintain privacy; thewomen with their mengonemuch must bring up families andrunhouseholds of that for the time selects different (28).Itisnot surprising fishing psychologiin thesameculture than land-based cal characteristics occupations (177), insome there areproblems fisheries andthat recruiting people (33,131,186, areabsent ofthetime, areoften Sincefishermen so much they unrepreinthepolitical arena andareusually on middlemen sented and dependent in a position to exploit them shipowners (79, 247) whoare often (154). There fish area common resource. isa growing Most important, property ofall kinds that resources owned bodyofliterature demonstrating bythe andabused public (i.e. air,rivers, grazing land,oceans)areoverexploited inways that do notoccur with owned resources. Private privately property after is protected andmaintained byitsowners, who, all,obtain benefits of make. ofcontrast, oncommon investment those any they Byway depending inwhich arelocked into a system itis only property resources logical that their without limit increase fishermen they exploitation (99). Whyshould when there for conserve is nowaythebenefits canbe reserved themselves? inboth In theshort the run andlong Thisintroduces uncertainty short run. that a fisherman's run, it means physical output is dependent notjuston buton theuncertain theresource, ofother actions fishermen (24). In the livewith itmeans fishermen the ofcomplete failure. long run, specter stock In summary, somevery unusual constraints andproblems. fishing poses ofthegroup contribution ofanthropologists primary studying has fishing a body beentoproduce ofliterature andsetofconcepts onthewaypeople in thisuncertain havesolved theproblems a living and posedbyearning environment. risky
Marine adaptations are one of the most extreme achievedby man. The 187).
RESPONSE TO UNCERTAINTY: INSTITUTIONS AND CLUSTERS

theweather While fishermen cannot control andlocation offish, can they of into with someoftheuncertainty reduce fishing byentering agreements
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each other. Someofthese fishing institutions and norms reduce riskby insuring fishermen some part ofthecatch oratleasta chance tocatch fish; to reduce others operate thecostsoffishing; and stillothers to increase from revenues thesaleoffish.
Crew Organization
The world over, fishing crews are organized to offishing. spread therisk Fishermen arepaida flat rarely feeorwage; they areordinarily ofthe catch. Thisis true invirtually paida portion every area oftheworld-from Canada(49),Sweden (122),toMexico (133),SriLanka (18),Ecuador (138),andGhana(59). Thiseffectively themotivaincreases intheenterprise, tion ofthecrew them bymaking andreduces partners the for risk boatowners that willnothavetopayfixed byensuring they wages ifcatches arepoor(83). Theprinciples on which shares areallocated vary In virtually somewhat. allsocieties, offish shares areallocated toboth labor In most andcapital. societies where peasant aresmall, capital requirements eachcrewman obtains an equalshare, andoneor twoshares arereserved for the boatandequipment inboatandfishing investment (83,198).As total a larger number ofshares equipment are reserved fortheboat increases, increased owner(s) (122,204). In somesocieties, shares are allocated to on thebasisofageandexperience individuals casesall share (49); inother of experience equallyregardless where (122). In someinstances fishing onhighly success skilled these willreceive depends a specialists, specialists ofthecatch higher oftheshares percentage (197,242).Twoeffects system should a crewman's be noted. since on thesuccess First, earnings depend oftheboat, there for is a tendency thebestcrewmen to seekoutthemost This exacerbates successful between of captains. competition captains vessels andcontributes tocrew fishing it instability (36, 112,117).Second, is saidto inhibit because boatowners capital andinvestors investment, do notreceive full returns on theinvestment make.Thatis, theowner they butthecrew receives paysall costsofinvestment, oftheincreases in part catchthat result (20).
THE SHARES SYSTEM EGALITARIAN EMPHASIS Relationships on among crew members boatsareremarkably from fishing egalitarian, Europe (56, 122)and Latin America (34,114, 204)toAsia(48,54,73).Allfishing havecaptains vessels or skippers becausetheneedto coordinate activities and makedefinite butinmany the decisions isever present, israrely crews, captain's authority "Theidealskipper-crew exercised: is onewhere crewmen rerelationship marked oftheskipper that 'he'sso quiet, themanis up know youhardly there' or'hehardly a word,' andorders [inthe have wheelhouse] says rarely
279
onPuluwat, same situation exists where tobegiven" (25, p. 219).Muchthe thecaptain to thesuggestions T. Gladwin that (95) reports paysattention havecommented ofthecrew Several onthe members. anthropologists need crews for "voluntary cooperation" among (21; 242,p. 107)"which generrelations thecrew in command." between andthose atesmore egalitarian Several havebeenproposed toaccount different hypotheses for this pheBarth that this nomenon. First, (36) argues egalitarian emphasis is related to theneedfor a well-trained, committed crew. He notes as theneed that fora trained crewincreased, thecaptain and crewbecame moreequal. Barth that when seines were into (36) writes purse introduced theNorweentered intoa series gianherring industry, captains oftransactions with in which crews someoftheir their traditional they relinquished authority in exchange for greater commitment andperformance, resulting in higher catches (36, 192). Norr& Norr(154) andPollnac(180) argue that theegalitarian nature is directly to therisks. Thatis,theneedfor ofcrews related coordination crews toavoid disaster andincrease effectiveness offishing increases fishing In addition, ofeachworker. theimportance entails risk of "fishing higher increases economic fishermen and equipment loss,"which mobility among between boat owners and crew(157). reducessocial distance fishing theshares Egalitarian arealso congruent with After relationships system. of"co-adventurers" all,a crewis a group (25)-not wageearners. Muchoftheliterature on crew centers ontheproblem ofrecruitment-that organization is,thewayownersofvessels attract andtherelationship between owners andcrewcrews, men.Herethequestion ofkinship is of paramount concern sincemany inthe inshore artisanal fisheries-are around crews-particularly organized a coreofkinsmen. in theorganization In a Widevariation exists ofship's crews, however. offriends few crews consist cases, primarily (73,91) ornonkinsmen (112). In a very fewsocieties at theother crewmen extreme, typically are close as is thecase in theNewfoundland described kinsmen, ports by Nemec usualfor crews to exhibit (147),Faris(77),andFirestone (78). It is more in recruitment andvariation great flexibility patterns and to involve both kinand nonkinsmen. ofkinsmen, Where crews arecomposed itis typical mainly that theboat in recruiting In theFaroes(44), owner is granted them. great flexibility ofkin. crews aretypically theowner hasnoobligation composed However, incertain toaccept orreject kinsmen kinsmen categories. Here, joincrews "kith" ties.Thus,kinship doeslittle more than byconsciously activating within arerecruited. define a social field crews which Stiles (232)argues that
CREW RECRUITMENT AND KINSHIP
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inNewfoundland arerecruited kinties both andcontractual through crews small ofpurely There number familial orcontractual ties. area "relatively kinties that arenotthe (133)states crews" (232,p. 206).AndMcGoodwin shark areformed regardMexican fishing crews structural basison which say. lessofwhatinformants involve different admixthat crews usually Theexplanations for thefact ofkinsmen ornonkinsmen areas various as theauthors andsocieties tures H. Gladwin crews built around cores ofkinsmen described. that (91) notes kinlinkages. without Stiles (232) echoesthis are morestable thancrews a stable crew that a skipper's primary goalistorecruit theme, hypothesizing ofskills. If he can recruit combination sucha crewfrom with theright he is obligated togivethem jobs. closeagnates, he willdo so since among toobtain crew members via contractual tiesifthe Buthe willnothesitate thegreat of thecrewis threatened. Lofgren (122) emphasizes stability offamily firms with "shockabsorbing" faced uncertain, fishing capacity and difficulty obtaining obtaining crews, fluctuating incomes, problems in oneFrench ofwork groups Breton that organizers capital. (49) argues choose the ofagnatic Canadian percentage agnates. However, fishing village ontheseason oftheyear, varies ties insuchgroups considerably depending ofthecorporate involved. Orbach (159,p. thetask, andthelineality group in San Diego choosecrewmen from 168) notesthattunaboatskippers with headmits that "their friends andrelations"; candor refreshing among hesuspects access toinformation isunclear, about crew the reason although is an important factor. vacancies in the literature whichhave strong Two themes cropup repeatedly issue. at seafor oftime ontherecruitment long periods First, being bearing stress. theamount ofstress under Although putscrewmen psychological in non-Western cultures where haveperbe relatively small people might inthe tolongtimes at sea (94),itis severe traits them sonality preadapting
nations(35, 103). As a result, Western crewsof vessels case of crewsfrom
ofnorms, interactional patfrom haveevolved a variety Western nations ofprivacy mechanisms togive some semblance andspacing (42, 101, terns, andeffectiveness ofa vessel on theability depend thesafety 117).Second, reason itis critical tochoose ofa crew towork (198,204).Forthis together whoarecompatible with eachother likely crewmen (159).Thisgoalismost ifrecruitment are very flexible. to be achieved procedures
Access toFishing Rights

fisheries resources aretruly a common resource. In some property societies, onwidely scattered inthe world have noted Several authors places reporting of want there fishermen canfish where andthat is no ownership that they
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is a burgeoning fish resources there (72, 80). However, bodyofliterature inmany fishermen that diverse do have demonstrating societies, established resources to marine ownership rights (52, 57, 109,110). have noted instances where arenotformally Several authors fishing spots butwhere and information to effect owned, secrecy management operate overresources someproperty rights (21, 82, 83, 122,235). In a fewincertain to specific nichesand stances, boat crewshave de factorights onesintheareawhich ecozones since arethe havethe they only technology inmost outthat tofish them societies (64,122).McCay(130,p. 399)points over"fishing fishing rights involve control space"-nottheresource itself. of sea tenure sucha widevariety of types However, systems havebeen to generalize reported that it is difficult aboutthem. In someinstances temporary usufruct rights to choice fishing spots are reaches thefishing allocated to theboatthat first grounds (51); in others, inways fishermen areorganized which allowdifferent crews to taketurns outsiders cannot be excluded from choice exploiting spots (56). Sometimes butthey can be forced to abideby local norms certain fishing grounds, in various casesfishing territories are defended (129); in other waysand excluded to outsiders arecompletely (2, 3, 7, 119).In many cases,rights andcontrolled arerecognized as is the fishing grounds bythegovernment suchrights case in Japan cultures are (153) and Sweden (123); in other andaredefended completely unrecognized bythegovernment by"illegal often lastthroughout theyear, tactics" butin a few (7). Ownership rights areasthere is freedom from certain seasons competition onlyduring (24, areasare occasionally owned as is thecase 129).Fishing byindividuals, theSalish(237) and on theBaltic(123),butin most areasofthe among areowned world, they communally (2, 7, 27, 37, 129,150,152,156).In ofOceania, are owned parts fishing rights bygroups, although accessto them is controlled byleaders (109,207). it is clearthatin many Despitethevariations, fishing societies in the to fish arecontrolled andfishing world, rights territories arenotcommon property resources. Suchownership rights clearly operate toreduce uncerIf fishermen cannot control thefish, at leastthey can control who tainty. for willbe allowed to fish and howthey willdo so. It is very clear them, also that in most communities has as itsgoal"access territoriality fishing isnot toprotect orconserve rights-privileged space"(27,p. 63).Theobject thefish as much that are there for one'sself. thefish as to reserve In most oftheworld, fishermen andmiddlemen establish parts strong and There long-lasting relationships. aretworeasons for thispattern. First, it for fishermen is very difficult tomarket their owncatches successfully. Not
Markets and FishBuyers
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only must fishermen be physically a gooddealofthetime, absent butthey onschedules operate aresimply which notcompatible with the and opening ofmarkets closing onshore. As White points out, fishermen arenot oriented toan ordinary business buttoa world inwhich schedule, time is reckoned interms oftrips andtows, andinwhich one'sschedule anddecisions depend on thehabits oftheanimal andtheweather in (245). In addition, success marketing fish requires a gooddeal of specialized knowledge ofvarious markets and an ability to predict thefluctuations of prices forvarious offish in different locations species is no room (93, 199).There for delay orindecision, given the oftheproduct, highly perishable nature "Hence the to a greater ofmiddlemen tendency development whotakethese matters off his [thefisherman's] hands"(79, p. 27). Second, andmore fishermen establish important, tieswith long-lasting middlemen toreduce theuncertainty ofmarketing fish andobtaining capital.Thereasons fishermen haveproblems arefairly obtaining capital obvious. Not onlycan boatsbe moved and be lostin storms, butboatsand fishing geardepreciate rapidly (157). Thus it is difficult to use them as collateral. The reasons for theinstability offish prices aremore difficult to understand. The facts are thatmany fish markets havea history of periodic andgluts shortages so unpredictably (157).Sometimes prices change that fishermen do notknow howmuch willreceive money they for their catch when leave Fishermen often they port. seethese unfortunate fluctuations as theresult ofa conspiracy among dealers; andsuchconspiracies havebeen well from documented time totime areeconomic (45,236).Butthere forces involved as well.Partoftheprice instability canbe traced to theperiodic ofvarious offish. availability a more species isthe Perhaps factor important of thedemand nature curves In many involved. oftheworld, parts the demand formany to be highly inelastic species appears (e.g. 132).This inquantity means that offish a change will a more bring than proportional intheprice. In some theinelasticity change ofdemand is dueto the areas, fact fish that be stored for cannot in small longand thusaresoldmainly local markets, which can become saturated quickly (76, 79, 83). In the ofdemand United is traceable States, to thefact inelasticity that approxi80percent ofthe catch isconsumed mately andother byrestaurants institutions a constant (15). Theseinstitutions and charge the purchase supply same itregardless amount for ofcatches orseasonal inpart, variations, due, toa reluctance toreprint As a result, menus. when there arelarge supplies offish, fill warehouses for ifprices fish arelowered. up even Atsuchtimes, dealers do notsaythey willbuyno more theprice lower fish; they merely willpaytoan absurdly lowlevel which they saysthesamething (247).As a result, all ofthe risks ofproduction arepassed backonthe fisherman who
283
butuncertain for theuncertain catches, prices must notonly putup with he doescatch. thefish to kindsof tieswithmiddlemen manydifferent Fishermen establish In many these risks. tribal andpeasant fishing socireduce spread and/or is doneby women themarketing (59, 83, 85, 91, 156).In Ghana eties, tobe very efficient andable(92). In some fish arereported women traders Forman fish and thewomen arefish sellers. cases,themenofthefamily such inthe somewhat that arrangements keep profits enigmatically, argues, outthat men female kinsChristensen prefer (59) points family (83); while fish because aremore trustworthy. mento selltheir they in a variety is obtained ofways. In tribal societies, capital and peasant equipment are ownedby In somefishing theboatand fishing societies, vessels are cases,fishing ofthecrew (18, 85, 146,147).In other members members it is very common (80, 119).However, owned jointly bylineage from businessmen andothers for fishermen toobtain capital byborrowing ofcases, sucharrangements kinds the outside industry (79).In these fishing butspread therisks among many iteasier toamasscapital, notonly make individuals. which serve fishermen establish tiesto fish dealers In many instances, Suchlong-term tieshave andtoamass both tofacilitate capital. marketing in fishing in peasant societies common beennoted (e.g.243) and arevery in modem Western countries. communities so that the obtains In the such operate dealer arrangements United States receive of fish-hisprimary a steady might goal. The fisherman supply for market for his a secure accessto credit, investment, capital long-term hiscatch, andvaluable about market for knowledge fish, preferential prices receives on what thefisherman depends conditions (236,247,248).Exactly offish offactors such as the amount thefisherman cansupply, the a variety have been business andthe oftrust built degree oftime the two doing length who cannot or are unableto establish such and dealers up. Fishermen (247). areat a distinct disadvantage long-term relationships havebeennoted between andsellers relationships buyers Long-standing in theethnography different oftheworld (88, 127,141). ofseveral parts fishermen to theanthropologist that would surprising Thus,it is scarcely onedealer sellto thehighest tieswith rather than establish long-standing For economists, suchcasesare moreshocking. an Theyindicate bidder. evidence ofa fundamental in market andarefurther weakness "impaired" theneoclassical model ofeconomics (247). in New England, thebenefits of these In somefisheries long-standing and middlemen appearto acrueto both between fishermen relationships In other In SriLanka,fish communities thisis nottrue. equally. fishing threat ofviolence fishermen dealers useviolence orthe andcompetiagainst
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of course, which, control overlocal fish markets, torsaliketo maintain for their catches (19). Faris in fishermen lowprices very receiving results of Cat Harbor, thefishermen Newfoundland, thatuntil recently, writes on merchants whoextended them credit their fish with annually exchanged Thusthey the fishermen would never beoutofdebt. made certain that terms (243) fish towhomever (77).Ward they desired. never free toselltheir were to inHongKongoften worked that thecreditor-debtor relationship writes that In a similar (123)reports vein, Lofgren ofthefishermen. the detriment offish clients merchants. fishermen were dependent Swedish for this phenomtoaccount suggested havebeen hypotheses Tworelated if ofbuyers that thepower is increased enon. First, it hasbeensuggested and control thetransportation a monopsomy are able to establish they system (19, 50,247). are able to takeadvantage thatmiddlemen suggests Second, Lofgren towithhold their catches andtheir "bargaining fishermen areunable when this NewEngland buttress is weak"(123,p. 104).Thedatafrom position formonths in livelobsters whocan store Mainelobstermen, hypothesis. than theMaine harder with dealers or "cars,"drive a far bargain pounds an "out sellsmallperishable catches through whomust groundfishermen cannot circumstances where superpersonally broker under they ofstate" visethesale (248). arejoining in many of theworld, fishermen parts scattered At present, increased the movement hasbeen Theimpetus for cooperative cooperatives. developandgovernmental ofinternational inrecent years bythepolicies solution to many to seecooperatives as a general ment whotend agencies fisheries ofsmall-scale cooperatives oftheproblems (183,205). Generally fish dounder toprovide ofthe same services dealers ideal aredesigned many forfish; forfish; credit, market fairprices (i.e. a steady circumstances themarket) (56, information about andbaitat reasonable prices; supplies, theavowed & Gersuny (177) makeclear, 76, 161,177,205). As Poggie is to reduce risk anduncertainty. offorming many cooperatives objective have orfeel used when fishermen been badly tend tobeformed Cooperatives markets for to getfairer and steadier andjoin together prices bybuyers, when outside arealsoformed fish begin enterpreneurs their (56, 175).They which as Norr inthefishing & Norr (155)point toinvest industry, heavily In short, are often cooperatives "bynonfishermen." out,leadsto control control over andmaintain toregain as a strategy formed capital equipment for fish. notjustto gaincompetitive prices independence, can be usedforother as well.McCay purposes At times cooperatives in which a cooperative with limited a case in NewJersey (132) describes
Cooperatives
285
which notonly control gives membership instituted a catch quotasystem butoperates to conserve thefish resource overprices, as well. somefishing cooperatives havebeen Despitethepotential advantages, havenot.As Pollnac& Carmo(183) point out,the successful andothers offactors or failure ofcooperatives is dueto sucha large number success in the is difficult. Several themes appearrepeatedly thatgeneralization when Cooperatives tendto succeed literature on successful cooperatives. interms at ofbetter prices, favorable loans, services fishermen gain benefits stable supplies offish and stabler prices reasonable fees(161, 174),more ina waythat is organized thefisher(130,170), andwhere thecooperative isa much feel larger andmore diffuse literature men itistheirs (175). There onthereasons fail. Digby (74) believes that lackofcompetent cooperatives factor. Other anthropologists stress that coopermanagement is themajor inways arenotorganized arecongruent the atives fail when that with they systems" (174, p. 2). For example, "other aspects of thesocio-cultural is a psychoculturally that "independence adapPoggie (175, p. 21),argues fishermen." The successof the Point tivecharacteristic of small-scale R. I. cooperative is due in partto thefactthatit is organized Judith, ofindividuals," andthefailure ofthe onindependence "without impinging CostaRicais duetothefact that its"organizaat Puntarenas, cooperative tion with this psychological characteristic" (175, p. is indeed incompatible thefailure ofa Peruvian fishing cooper24). Sabella(205) hasfound that ofineptitude, ativewas dueto a combination and the poormanagement, fact that itsideology as a with thatoftheculture was notin accordance whole. that and sabotage Opposition playa roleas well.Pollnac(180) argues resisted whohavea great dealtolose areoften cooperatives bymiddlemen ifmarketing hands. McGoodwin (137,pp.34-47)traces istaken outoftheir ofa Mexican thefailure fisherman's toa combination ofofficial cooperative lackofautonomy, economic from offinefficiency, competition corruption, shore trawlers "an unstable marfinanced international bythe government, in thelocalarea.However, themajority ofpeople andconffict with ket," ofa cooperative outthat theabsence doesnotalways mean Orbach points In Chesapeake Bay,watermen helplessness, atomization, andexploitation. forms toachieve their haveused"different purposes." Cooporganizational socialform thewatermen eratives wereonlyone (161,p. 55). Whatever ofcooperation was present" (161,p. 55). used,"a significant degree A number ofother ofinstitutions arereported from of various parts kinds In theworld reduce offishing in a variety which theuncertainty ofways. fishermen rules haveinformal to avoidgearconflict, designed many areas,
Miscellaneous Institutions.
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ofgear(129,248).Other institutions positioning suchas rules concerning onamount ofgearfishermen canuse;(3, 4)]. In cutfishing costs [e.g.rules have abounds, fishermen where illegalfishing one Japanese community, ofpolice are toexchange information about patrols. They sightings agreed fleet is going to fish. Whenthe daystheentire also able to agreewhich theentire fleet in(47),which is threatening, reduces pressure stays weather in bad weather. in many fishermen oftheworld, it is parts tofish Among ofdisaster, or outintime mechanical failure, obligatory tohelpeachother that Mexican shark fishersimilar McGoodwin (134) reports happenings. whileNorr(157) notesthat menmakelong-distance crossings together, in anycrisis survival at sea." on eachother's "skill for fishermen depend infishing widespread commuofthis kind areprobably very Arrangements theworld. nities throughout the to describing A great work has beendevoted deal ofanthropological invarious fishermen cultures andstructural fishing arrangements normative risks. howand spread Fishermen, uncertainty havedeveloped to reduce to lessformal them havealsodeveloped arrangements allowing other, ever, Andersen a very environment. uncertain (21, 25),Wadel(242), copewith Stiles (87) havefocused (159),Stuster (234),andGatewood (230),Orbach tiesbetween boatsare managed. Wilson& on thewaycommunication a more model concerning relationdeveloped elaborate Acheson (248)have inthe andtheeffects between direct such industry competitors fishing ships haveon eachother. competitors in NewEngland arepart (248)argue that fishermen Wilson & Acheson ofmenwhofish for thesamespecies with the ofloosenetworks composed first inthesame area.Suchgroupings call"clusters," a term same they gear whohavethesamesetof usedbyBarth ofclusters-men (36). Members in contact with eachother andconstitute feasible constantly options-are a reference Cluster members share a setofrules abouttheproper group. ofinformaofthese to fish, andmembers networks obtain twokinds ways information on thelocation ofspecies and tion from eachother: short-run information technical andecoconcerning information; long-run marketing of In both fishermen totheproblem nomic innovations. cases, arereacting eachother-especially their more successbyimitating uncertainty simply fulcompetitors. ofspecies is obtained Information about location from one'sownexperiofother enceandelectronic andalsobyverbal observation exchange, gear; or indirectly radiotransmission, exetc).In clusters (overhearing boats, theduration ofknowledge is very longso that ploiting sedentary species, Ifonelocates a bedofclams ora concentrathere is a great dealofsecrecy.
Management and Information Fishing Clusters
287
ifone keeps tionoflobsters, onecan return to getthem repeatedly their location secret (248).In these fisheries men learn about locations offish by or through ownexperience direct observation their (5). in NewEngland aremuch more Fishermen likely to exchange accurate thelocation ofmigratory information openly about species (248).There is suchinformation secret fish willnotbe ina given little sense keeping since location long. Byexchanging information, fishermen hope others will reciprocate in thefuture. Suchexchanges also greatly increase thetotal search area. inother arefound inother Sucharrangements fisheries areas. migratory In thePacific andtheinshore California for tuna industry fishery, example, offishermen oncatches groups called "codegroups" exchange information ofschools offish codedradiomessages andlocation using (159,234,235). inAlaska that ofsalmon Gatewood seiners share infor(87) reports cliques fish Thetrawler ofNewfoundmation from "scouting expeditions." fishery to be between aresemimigratory, these land, where target species appears establish andgive Herea few oldfriends "trust twoextremes. exchanges" information basis.However, on a regular Andersen eachother factual (21, inboth most areinvolved itclear that and 25) makes skippers "deceptive" In Newfoundland, transactions. information "nondeceptive" management is expected, involves a delicate balance. While onedoes deception ideally flow is restricted, nottry others. Theinformation butonedoesnot to hurt As Stiles tell lieseither. canafford outright (230,p. 48) phrases it,"nocrew ina vacuum because itis both anddangerous to do to operate impractical eachother's success. alsoinfluences information about innovations. Cluster membership Spethat theadoption ofinnovations Wilson & Acheson cifically, (248) argue is related to thedegree of"cluster In "tightly packing." packed" clusters inuseis relatively thetechnology fishermen willmore (i.e.where uniform), incremental innovations. likely adopt small, Large, radical innovations are in "loosely in which ifat all,only adopted, byfishermen packed clusters," for firms thesetoffeasible various is quitedifferent. options fishing risk thedevelopment While fishermen canreduce anduncertainty through a dangerous oftechnology, andcommunication, theseais still institutions, for a terrestrial animal suchas man.Malinowski and risky environment thathuman risk (126, 127) first suggested beings cope withirreducible intheTrobriand He noted that nomagic ritual andmagic. Islands through reliable can be obtained exists in lagoonfishing, where catches without inopen-sea full ofdanger "While anduncertainty, physical danger, fishing,
to need each other"(28, p. 162) and contribute so, . . ." "The competitors
Ritualand Magic
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is extensive ritual to secure andgoodresults" there magical safety (127,p. 31). Other anthropologists havedocumented cases in which magicand infishing areassociated superstitions societies with high risk. Johnson (111) number ofwitches toinhabit argues that a large were thought theenvirons before theadvent ofmotorized ofa Portuguese fishing community fishing craft. When motors were which adopted, madeit much safer to negotiate of theharbor, thewitches a dangerous bar at theentrance disappeared almost observance immediately andthelevelofreligious declined as well. a relationship In addition, both Prins (197)andWatanabe (244)havefound inKenya risk andritual observances between andamong theAinu, respectively. inoneareainsouthern & Gersuny that Poggie (176)show NewEngland, more tabus andrituals fishermen than millthere aremany among among who far safer andmore secure have discovered workers, jobs.However, they in rituals between lobster fishermen and offshore no difference fishermen; thantheformer facegreater thelatter presumably dangers (176, 177).In more that demonstrate a methodologically sophisticated study (179),they offishing fishermen arepositively with therituals associated among length associated withhaving beensocialized in a fishing and negatively trips Malinowski's since fishermen who These results family. support hypothesis, takelongtrips arefishing themore offshore areas.In addition, dangerous infishing socialized families haveoneormore successful rolemodels, boys which presumably reduces anxiety (179). in a concern offishing The quasiritual nature shows with purity and In many classes ofwomen certain areproscribed from pollution. societies, contact with boats orboatconstruction fisherhaving (95, 177).In others, men arenotsupposed tohavecontact with women when they areengaged in fishing or preparing for magic fishing trips (54, 119). In addition, a different fishermen enter realm when they arefishing, and into thecommunity andif, havetobe reincorporated return to when, they is sometimes it.Entry andexit between these twospheres accompanied by suchas theonedescribed marked rituals, byJohnson (112).
COMPETITION: POLITICAL PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL STRATEGIES

is notonlyan uncertain buta competitive Fishing enterprise, one. The is exacerbated accessnature ofmany fisheries. competition bythefree One hasbeen, offishermen as wehaveseen, to develop a widevariety response to share ofnorms andinstitutions establish de facto risks, property rights ensure reduce overfish, competition, markets, gainaccessto information offish and so on. aboutlocations stocks,
Politics and Conflict
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Another response is to useforce andpolitical pressure (i.e.regulations) inanattempt toreserve access totheresources. Fishermen have entered the ina number offishing political arena societies to establish rights to fish or areso few tosettle there studies that disputes. However, generalizations are difficult. Somegoodindividual studies C. L. Smith exist, however. (214, 220) provides excellent information on theconfficts that haveoccurred in ofOregon andtheregulations that An analysis thesalmon fishery resulted. in 1974-75has just appeared of theNewfoundland trawlerman's strike ofthe (124);Andersen (24)gives general coverage various kinds oflegal and inNewfoundland toavoid mechanisms used conffict andreserve extra-legal on thewayMainelobstermen fishing space.Acheson (2, 7) has written which arenotrecognized organize political "teams," bythegovernment, to establish and maintain areas.Yngvesson group-owned fishing (250) has in one fishing thewaydisputes are settled on the analyzed community Atlantic coast ofanindustrialized nation. Andthere arestudies concerning factors in thesocialand economic efforts to manage fisheries influencing these studies are on such Oregon (215,218) and Maine(4, 9). However, insuchwidely no attempt canbe made scattered areasthat different topics infishing toanswer about andstructures comquestions political processes munities as a whole. kinds ofregularities toexist across Twoimportant commuappear fishing ofareasthere nities. First, in a number areinformal rules concerning the canbe usedandthewayit conditions under which kinds gearofdifferent be used.Theserules minimize conffict should obviously (159). ofunconstrained effects areso costly the andconffict Second, competition in many locations haveorganized to havelawspassedto thatfishermen inmany limit access tofisheries andfishermen societies have (7,26,58,129), inlegalizing tofixed beensuccessful sites ownership rights gear fishing (24, havepolitical 77, 158, 220).In these casesthey power tobe abletoaccomplish their ends(24, 229) butunder other conditions they havenot(29). in which offishermen to a situation Stillanother is response competition as possible. is to compete as effectively endemic Thereare four different whichhave been studiedextensively widelyused strategies by anofskills, thropologists: acquisition occupational switching, capital manageand innovation. ment, isa good from SKILL There dealofevidence scattered fisheries that widely ina given some menaremuch more successful season than their competithesamegear.In Newfoundland, torswhoare using Wadel(242,p. 10) that"a single seiner as five or tenothers notes purse maycatchas much is "characterized put together," while thecodfishery differences bystriking
Individual Strategies
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in catch perunit"(27,p. 49). On theColombia River "15 percent ofthe 50percent fishermen harvested ofthetotal value oflandings" (219,p. 221). in individual The samewidevariation catches has beennotedfrom Sri Lanka(18) to Brazil(64) and Norway (96). Many factors, itis widely recognized, influence success. Biologists tend insuccess toaccount for suchdifferences interms offishing effort, usually interms ofdays orhours measured spent fishing (70),anda few anthropologists havealsomadethis argument. Kottak (114),for example, hasargued traits that success is correlated with that aresuggestive ofthe"Protfishing ethic." Others havenoted that success is related toother estant or personal Forman that"youth, psychological characteristics. (83, p. 19) mentions to takecalculated goodhealth, sobriety, willingness and theability risks, ofa crew. . ." arenecessary for tocommand success. Roberts & allegiance boatsis Acheson (202) showthatthe successof Maine groundfishing match correlated with the between andmate strongly psychological captain of fishing thevastmajority of anchoices affecting strategy. However, areconvinced that suchdifferential success is primarily due thropologists in fishing skill(5, 24, 27, 64, 82). Thereis some to marked differences from onefishery In theMaine quantitative evidence that arecorrect. they of technical, lobster industry, a very largenumber and environmental, A regression catches. of21 of characteristics influence personal analysis that skills were near these factors showed thetopofthelist. two very Only on catch variables hadmore influence thanskill (i.e. season andlength of while some19 variables had lessinfluence trap), (11). Whileit is clearthatskills are important, it is very to obtain difficult on thenature ofthose skills information because, as Andersen (24,p. 306) "treat thisoften information as scarce points out,fishermen hardgained offishermen to share skills Thereluctance information about has capital." beenvery noted widely (5, 25, 75, 77, 83, 147,163). thedifficulties ofstudying is a growing Despite there fishing skills, body ofliterature on thesubject in many which demonstrates that socifishing forsuccessare very etiesthekindsof skills muchthesame. necessary a fisherman must know howto operate andmaintain hisboat Obviously, and equipment. have not concentrated on theseskills, Anthropologists because seem so obvious. arenotatallobvious tonovice perhaps they They fishermen most areunfamiliar (5),andI suspect with them anthropologists as well.However, havefocused on thekinds attention of anthropologists time skills that so much andattention ofexperienced fishermenoccupy tofind offish tobe caught. namely ways concentrations Theseskills areof four different kinds. thekeyto being ableto locateconcentrations offish First, is to know where those areapttobe andtobe abletofind concentrations those spots.
ANTHROPOLOGYOF FISHING
291
great accuracy. Before the be ableto navigate with Thismeans onemust ofcomplicated electronic navigation wasoften gearsuchas Loran, advent In somecultures, ofdeadreckoning systems a difficult kinds artto learn. ondetailed ofstars andcharacteristics were knowledge usedwhich depend ofsucha system Thebest hasbeendonebyT. ofsea andsky. description offishing Gladwin cultures, however, fishermen (95). In thevastmajority butalsolocate positions by ofdeadreckoning, notonly navigate bymeans ofthebottom overwhich aretraveling they (5, 82, a detailed knowledge of theoceanitself-its havea goodknowledge 113).Second, fishermen is essential, Thisknowledge espetypes ofbottom. depth, currents, reefs, or losingfishing gear(5, 248). ciallyif one wantsto avoiddamaging offish are they havea detailed knowledge ofthespecies Third, fishermen food habits, supply, feeding breeding cycles, enemies, seeking-their habits, andhabitats. andespecially Particularly goodaccounts patterns migration are provided by Morrill (143) and of thisaspectof fishing knowledge dealabout the behavCordell know a great fishermen typically (64). While to havea very elaborate seek, they do notappear ioroftheanimals they little hasbeendonetoelicit thecognitive taxonomy offish (143).However, is provided One exception byPollnac(182),whouses mapsoffishermen. offish salient to canonical toanalyze thetypes andcharacteristics analysis fisherfishermen havetoknow fishermen inCostaRica.Fourth, what other after notonly menknow willbehave. all,depend Catches, andhowthey areafter This them. onlocating butalsoonhowmany other fishermen fish, ofinformation tothe management related issue kind ofknowledge isclosely The wayone uses thecompetition and competition. and ruleslimiting from to fishery maneuvers around suchboatsdiffers substantially fishery (see 26, 66, 159). strategy used by SWITCHING Perhapsthe mostcommon is to combine fishermen occupations. Leap (118) to adaptto uncertainty is rarely in tribal andpeasant doneexclufishing outthat societies, points or other It is almost with combined hunting, agriculture, always sively. that often Swedish peasants combined (123) reports occupations. Lofgren tosuchan extent that itwasdifficult totellwhich was andfarming fishing In modem itis very for their common societies, fishing major occupation. is alternated to holdmultiple with fishermen either fishing jobs,in which of between different fisheries overthecourse nonfishing jobs,or to switch round theannual (8, 129). in many societies witha mixed thecultural and economy, However, ofagriculture. In this offishing far that overshadows emotional significance "But somehow [theland] does not have the same regard, Fox writes,
FISHERY
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as do theboats. emotional No oneever dieddigging there quality potatoes; is no danger planting barley" (83a). under which fishermen switch The conditions jobs or combine fisheries arenotwellunderstood. Davenport (72) usesa gametheory approach to factors Jamaican fishermen to switch analyze influencing between lagoon His use of gametheory fishing and offshore fishing. has beenseriously criticized, however (201). Thework ofMiddleton (138) andPi-Sunyer (171) suggests theobvious that butimportant conclusion fishermen combine with fishing nonfishing of economic distress. The changing of fisheries workin times overthe annualround, whilea widely notedphenomenon, is evenmorepoorly inMaine, understood. Onestudy indicates that fisheries however, changing over round is connected tothecareer offishermen theannual andto cycle a permanent from onemajor thedesire to make to another change fishery (8). in thelongrunis linked success not CAPITAL MANAGEMENT Fishing buttothe toability tocatch tohandle andinvest the only fish, ability money of financial Whilethere havebeenfewstudies generated. management these studies haveproduced someinteresting decisions among fishermen, results. in theliterature offamily-owned One argument concerns theviability firms. WadelandLofgren (122,242) argue very persuasively that familyin Scandinavia ownedfirms have certain and are especially advantages the shocksof fluctuating for adaptedto absorb resources, competition ofamassing In other andproblems firms crews, capital. areas, family-owned to be very haveproved vulnerable-especially wheninvestment requirements tocapital increase andreturns these conditions (243).Under nonfishermen in theindustry, beginto invest fishermen heavily gradually lose and ultimately a kindofsea-going control, fishermen become proletariat intheviability offirms (155).Thesedifferences cannot be explained solely interms oflevels In MaineandNorway, ofcapitalization required. where firms haveproven fisheries aremodernizing andcapifamily very resilient, talrequirements arerising Yetinother areassuch as Grenada rapidly. (76) andNewfoundland modernization andincreased investment (33,155), have ledtooutside offishing firms even ownership theamount ofcapital though was relatively small. additional dataare needed required Clearly, on the factors thefinancial offishing affecting viability firms-especially management strategies. Two different of studies types have provided conceptual toolswhich inthis beuseful effort. demonstrate the might First, McCayandMoyer that intwofishing ofcapital wasnot societies repertoire management strategies as theexternal butchanged environment constant, changed (130,144).In
293
fishermen to declining two resources Newfoundland, responded byusing such which adaptive strategies McCay terms "intensification" and"diversithewaytheintroduction fication" (130). Moyer (144) describes ofwage labor into anEskimo community altered standard practices for maintaining in boatsand equipment. capital Second, Heaney (100) delineates thenetwork activated tobegin a fishing ties onefisherman business andthestrategiesand tieshe usedto expand it. ofstrategies Understanding the range open andthe ofties kinds necessary toactualize eachwould goa long way toward increasing ourunderstanding to fishermen of theeconomic available and thefactors inopportunities fluencing theviability oftheir fishing operations.
INNOVATION AND TECHNICAL CHANGE One of theprimary ways isbyadopting with others new andmore effective fishermen compete fishing this fishermen the andvessels. world over aresurprisingly gear Despite fact, conservative moredocumented and there are,if anything, cases where innovations havebeenrejected thanaccepted. Anthropologists examining infishing theinnovation communities haveusedfour process different very in studying theoretical innovations. perspectives fishing inanthropological itisaxiomatic studies that First, ofinnovation innovaifthey tions toberejected areunprofitable orifthey arelikely economically areincompatible with cultural is on existing patterns (120).Here, emphasis factors thesocialandcultural innovators as a class-noton the affecting Sabella(205),for decisions ofindividual innovators. that example, reports in one Peruvian fishermen becuasethey were portdid notadoptmotors whose introduced viaa new administration wasinept and being cooperative muchat oddswith which had an ideology thatoflocal fishermen. very motors thetraditional Baluchfishermen rejected because threatened they inCoqueiral, oflife that sailboats way (165).Forman (83)notes with Brazil, localelite hulls were butnot vast ofordinary adopted bythe bythe majority fishermen whocouldnotraisethenecessary capital. In thepastseveral on thewestcoastof Sweden decades, and in the haveexpanded andlarge Far6es, fisheries andmodernized, offshore fishing In both vessels havebeen adopted. cases, theadoption ofthis newtechnolto newopportunities ogycameaboutas fishermen responded as created banksand government madelarge-scale loansavailable agencies and as so that markets itwaspossible to export were reorganized large quantities offish profitably (107, 123). in thepast 30 years, on innovation research has focused on Second, decisions toadoptorreject innovations. Thesestudies byindividuals have tried toanswer two innovations andwhy do they questions: (a) whoadopts do so? and (2) which In this innovations areadopted? bodyofliterature, itis axiomatic that ofinnovations is highly theadoption with differential,
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innovations others before (whoare adopting ("early adopters") some people with innovations "middle and late adopters") (203). Moreover, termed with other traits. consistently aheadofothers areadopted certain traits societies on fishing ofthiskindin theliterature There are fewstudies innovations tend that bywayofpassing authors havenoted (145).Several offishermen, butthere is no category byone or another to be accepted orthe traits oftheinnovations adopted. ofthe individuals adopting analysis cycle arecritical age and career that In several studies it hasbeenstated thatyoung innovations. Middleton (138) notes in theadoption offishing toenter tuna were far more prone fishing community inanEcuadorian men that fisherandWadel(242)argues cautious men; older, more fishing than capitalat and buildup their adoptinnovations menin Newfoundland ofthis Oneofthebest studies hasbeen type careers. certain oftheir stages in the out thatefficient purseseines doneby Goodlad(96), whopoints ofthevessels because theowners Islands were primarily Shetland rejected to invest innewgearandboats menwhodidnotwant heavily were older andbecause theadoption ofsuch notgain all thebenefits, would since they ofauthority. alsoworried They systems threaten thetraditional nets would thefish stocks andpossibly the glut threaten increasing catches might that market. isprovided byWard (243),whoanalyzes casestudy outstanding Another vessels andthe motorized consereasons adopted HongKongfishermen the for rapid develconditions Ward outthat many prerequisite points quences. of absence (i.e. wagelabor, HongKongfishermen among opment existed so that camealong when newopportunities links to world markets) clans, Mechanization, quickly. intheform ofmotors, some were abletorespond inwhich ina "clearthree-class stratification" system is resulting however, setsof owners is doingwell and two other one groupof independent driven fishermen arebeing outofbusiness (243,pp. 285-87). is in the of innovation to thestudy thiswholeapproach At present that innovaofradical is increasing evidence change (200).There process are matched to theneedsofadopters. One are adopted when tions they In theMainefin-fishery thisnewapproach. (i.e. study supports fishing (i.e. peoplewho there are no "earlyadopters" and herring) groundfish and no innovations innovations earlier thanothers) adopted consistently In this others. a regression toadopt than that were easier analysis fishery, of when fitted theneeds that innovations were demonstrated they adopted ofno twoinnovations In fact, theadoption couldbe adopters. particular with thesameexactsetoffactors (14). explained nature oftheresource baseoperates toinhibit theadopthefixed Third, innovation will increase ofinnovations. the offish tion output Technological maximum has to catch.If thebiological are morefish onlywhenthere ofmore boats andfishing then theadoption efficient beenreached, already
295
gearwillnotmean in output an increase butrather that thesameamount offish canbe caught inlesstime. Thiscanleadtounemployment ofcapital andlabor andinefficiency (245).Ultimately, itcan leadto overfishing and stock failure (194).Under these conditions, fishermen andpoliticians have sometimes opted to adopttheinnovations and then enacted conservation ruleswhich prevented their being usedefficiently (89, 219). In other instances, fishermen haverejected theinnovations primarily to prevent the unemployment or declines in stock it might bring (55, 96, 177,229). Fourth, a large number ofanthropologists areinterested notso much in thefactors influencing theadoption of innovations as in theimpact of innovations on thesocialsystem oncethey areadopted (86). [Several articlesof thistype in ThoseWho are contained Live bytheSea (226).] In several cases,studies haveindicated thattheintroduction ofinnovations andmodernization offishing fleets led to inequality and a lossofcontrol byfishermen (16, 17,43, 135,171).In other theadoption areas, ofmotors lowered theincome offishermen (238).Several studies indicate that technicalchange ledtomultifaceted insocial changes structure andorganization. Epple (76) showsthatadoption of motors in the Grenada fishing fleet ultimately for newspecies, ledto:fishing newgear, newfishing locations, migration to thecity, concentration ofcapital, increased status specializaand ultimately tion, to theformation of a cooperative. Christensen (59) argues that the Fanti among the new motors changed theshares the system, relationship between husbands andwives, andalsoincreased thepower of themarket women wholoanmoney for capital equipment. Other studies stress that technical change brings unemployment, ecological damage, or both.In Japan and New England, theadoption ofmore efficient boats andgearcaused fishing ofstocks as wellas overexploitation a decline in thenumber of fishermen employed (37, 90). In Scotland, increased in newlobster investment fishing boatsand gearresulted in a serious to thestocks threat (193, 194). Mostanthropologists havebeeninterested in thesocialchanges stemming from intechnology; changes a few, however, haveanalyzed theway in socialstructure changes haveaffected choice oftechnology (211).
COMMITMENT TO FISHING AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FISHERMEN

Despite the risks anduncertainty associated with fishing, the preponderence ofevidence suggests thatin mostfishing societies, fishermen are usually committed totheir occupation. Quantitative studies ofattitudes inPanama revealed that fishermen "generally havea positive attitude" toward their
Commitment toFishing
296
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in RhodeIslandturned similar occupation (188); andanother project up weremorecommitted thefactthatfishermen to their occupation than inthese men work millworkers (177).Thereasons that gavefor liking their In southern similar. twodifferent cultures aresurprisingly NewEngland, said they becauseof the:"independence," fishermen likedfishing "challenge," "working outdoors," "lackofregimentation," and"income" (177, p. 54). In Panama,fishing was attractive becauseit was "pleasurable" offishing"), and allowed ("gaming aspect gavea goodincome, oneto be "independent" (188,p. 16). is generally However, while thelevelofcommitment high, there is evifishermen likeor dislike dencethatthereasons fishing can vary sharply even within a relatively small area.Thisis best demonstrated byPollnac & Poggie (187),whohaveusedMaslow's hierarchy ofneeds concept tostudy in three NewEngland fishermen job satisfaction among ports. thatfishermen haveargued are psychologically Several anthropologists inthis face. While arefew totheconditions there studies adapted they area, ifpeople tosucceed havebeen made. aregoing twoimportant points First, inthis be abletoplanaheadanddefer rewards. The must occupation, they is rarely and yetboatsand fishing from income fishing steady, gearneed at theUniversity maintenance andreplacement. Studies bysocialscientists insouthern ofRhode Island outthat NewEngland, Puerto point Rico,and toa greater than do men Panama fishermen defer rewards degree working on land(172, 184,185,188).Other related studies showthat declosely ofsuccess is a predictor fishermen ferred gratification among (173). that onestudy demonstrates fishermen notbepsychologiHowever, may of their to certain callyadapted aspects jobs. A study by Pollnac(181) carried outin CostaRica points outthat themore menhadin experience the tocertain illusions. Thismight more were fishing, susceptible they make it difficult forthem to "accurately interpret data from electronic equipment" (181,p. 432). Thepsychological offishermen show characteristics remarkable similarities is substantial that inmany There evidence fishermen socicross-culturally. etiesare aggressive, and independent. Thisis perhaps to be courageous, ina dangerous where decisions must bemade expected occupation byone's inBrazil self andquickly. Raft fishermen have become and legendary heros, inGreece oftheir tales aretoldwidely exploits (83). Muchthesameis true us that on Tobagomust be brave (40). Abrahams (1) tells fishing captains toencourage crews. than men their arealsoapttobemore They aggressive
Psychological Adaptation
Traits Personality
297
nonfishermen (34). Several other studies support theideathat fishermen in places from Panama toPuluwat andIfaluk enjoy the challenge andthe risks a very ofstudies oftheir occupation (54,95,177).In addition, large number of in widely separated cultures havementioned theindependent nature fishermen (34, 84, 177,188,206). oneachother toproduce fish Fishermen must depend both andtoreduce risks. Onemight assume that they would alsobe abletowork with others. intheliterature. is somesupport for this BothMcGoodThere hypothesis inthe offishermen thecooperative nature win(134)andAronoff (34) stress in Mexicoand St. Kitts. communities studied they masculine made noted theextreme often Several authors have by display a "macho which some havetermed fishermen, complex" (159).Theexplanations ofthis behavior would notbe considered flattering bymost fisherareoften that and men. Tiller (239)notes fishermen thesonsoffishermen areraised inhouseholds where men areabsent much ofthetime. This thus andthedevelopment hehypothesizes, leadstoidentity situation, problems the"macho" behavior offishermen is He suggests that offeminine traits. a disguise. Andersen & Wadel(28), who,the a compensatory complex, ona Newfoundavoided rumor mill suggests, haveonly narrowly lynching fishermen a longtime home landdock, havenoted that spend awayfrom men.Theysuggest thatwomen control in thecompany of other really of"homoandthat atseaconjur households fishing long periods upthreats in fansexual behavior." The supermasculine display, they say,"provides infact" itprovides what is notprovided tasy (28,pp. 144 45). Specifically, incontrol with ofbeing over their families andhelps to men the"illusion" ofhomosexual thedanger wardoff activity. that on thefact a gooddealof havecommented Several anthropologists in thesamesociety. fishermen and others socialdistance exists between fishermen feel aresuperior toagriculturalCarribbean andPortuguese they is thecase.Norr ists(111, 196).In Japan andIndia,theopposite & Norr inthese (154)suggest that hierarchically organized societies, theseparation to insulate offishermen functions thesociety as a whole bycastebarriers offishermen the values andbehavior against threatening (i.e.independence, aggression).
WOMEN AND FAMILY LIFE

In most in theworld, is a strong there sexualdivision of fishing societies while thewomen mind thehousehold labor: themenfish (180).Certainly inthe ofthe fisheries West. It hasbeen this is the caseinmost industrialized stamina andstrength, that andwomen suggested fishing requires presumA variant is that boatsare ablydo nothavethese qualities. explanation
298
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do their for someone whocannot andthere is noroom small andcramped, simplistic suchexplanations give a somewhat However, share ofthework. area large because there oflaborin fishing societies, viewofthedivision refers to in fishing. Hornell women do participate number ofcaseswhere in which in around women areinvolved from theworld several examples of which are very and demanding all kinds offishing operations-some Asiansocieties liveon where women Southeast dangerous (104).In those all fishing (151). during operations women present boats, are,ofcourse, whohelp ships andSwedish girls onRussian factory There arealsowomen & Wadel(28,p. 142) fisheries (123). As Andersen pullnetsin theBaltic mixofmenandwomen in different work situations point out,therelative "in cultural areno and fishing activities terms must always be explained ofmen theconditions under which mixes different However, exception." in fishing activities has notbeendelineated. and women areincluded where fishing is industrialized, In oursociety other societies andinmany fishermen and their is a sharp division oflabor.In these societies, there a gooddealofthetime andliveinseparate wives andfamilies areseparated Thismeans that theentire must be abletooperate without worlds. family and their Wivesof fishermen families an adultmalemuchof thetime. than ofmilitary wives officers tobe abletocopeas wellifnotbetter appear offishing families support orother household heads (71).Thestudies single wives areunusually and resourceful, theideathat fishermen's independent, thehousehold wellableto copewith single-handedly operating generally in the ofunusual pathology. Moreover, evidence (71,240).There is little ofan adultmaleis is no solidevidence thattheabsence literature there infact suchharm be done.Thisis not harmful tochildren-although may in an unusually a husband absent and working thathaving to indicate and strain. Orbach doesnotcauseproblems (159), dangerous occupation intothedifficulties such Tunstall (240),and Faris(77) givesomeinsight A study indifferent oftheEnglish-speaking world. done families face parts offishermen's focused onthe attitudes exclusively byDanowski (71),which inRhodeIsland, turned results. Danowski wives deminteresting upsome their life and fishermen's wives are generally satisfied with onstrates that itandbecause husbands like husband's because their primarily occupation, income. a relatively bythedanger it gives high Theyarenotas disturbed ofinstant widowhood as they arebythe oftheoccupation andthethreat in advance, andthefact that cannot fact that fishing plana schedule they activities over takes graduation, (for example, important family precedence birthdays). In deepsea fisheries husdeserve mention. Two adaptations especially, than aretogether. Both husbands and areapart more bands andwives they thatdo not setsof ties,loyalties, and activities buildup separate wives
299
hisshipis hisrealhome include theother. Fortheman, andthetieswith as those with hisfamily establishes hisshipmates areas close (28).Thewife and so on. Whenthehusband returns tieswith other women, kinsmen, andwife havetoreorient home, both husband themselves toeachother and when the ties have both established the husband wasaway drop they fishing. Thetime thehusband is home often seems likea holiday (71). Butbecause suchhusbands andwives arereally adapted to living apart, a gooddealof ifthe candevelop husband toolong. Thisstrain isexacerstrain stays home while husbands aresupposed tohave bated bythe fact that authority ashore, realdecisions about thefamily aremadebythewife (28). Danowski (71) reports thatwhenthehusband is ashore, thewife has to workharder, normal schedules aredisrupted, and lifeis more hectic. Whenhe leaves, isoften Thefisherman, for hispart, return tonormal. things gladheisback at sea again(240). In some fishing societies, wives ofskippers alsotakea very active rolein do theaccounting, with thefamily business. fishing They regularly bargain fish andgearwhile dealers, andorder parts their husbands areatsea (71). In offishermen wives at leasttworeported to instances, organized politically men areat seathey ofcourse, for thefamily business lobby (13). While are, do correspondence, take anddo the unable toattend meetings, phone calls, ofsmall demands. Their wives alsoappear details business more myriad any ofsociallifeashore. to all aspects attuned
INTRACULTURAL DIVERSITY
themes thatare found So farwe have stressed manyof the common offishing. threaded weneedto stress that theliterature through However, in the are substantial differences between fisheries-even fisheries there M. E. Smith sameculture. out thatseamen on Great (224) has pointed a different Lakesboatsare from occupational subculture thanthoseon in ports on theAtlantic. vessels Butimportant can be seenin differences in theNortheastern much suchas ports oftheUnited smaller areas, part andNewBedford havelarge States. Gloucester ethnic andare populations devoted to offshore and Chatham, fishing. Newburyport, Provincetown, andStonington, areall smallports Massachusetts, Connecticut, generally ininshore butthere inthecompoinvolved fisheries, arenotable differences sition ofthe ofthese the fleets oftheir ports, lifestyle the inhabitants, species fished success ofthefishermen andeconomic for, (46, 108,139,167,178). differences can alsobe seenbetween theindustrialized, Strong urbanized, ofsouthern where arethemajor booming ports Maine, groundfish species andlobstering harbors ofeastern andtheherring Mainewhich sought, are
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in theU.S. (12). Almost locations in one of themostrural, depressed in canbe found between nearby fishing ports certainly marked differences areas. other ethnographic
THE ACTIONS OF GOVERNMENT: FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT Theoretical Perspective
involves regulating human behavior, social Although fisheries management infisheries until involved scientists have not been management very recently has beendominated completely by biologists and (206, 231). The field isreflected inthe basicconceptual tools andthis used. Thebasic economists, are economic models based on concepts used in fisheries management ofcommon "Schaeffer andthetheory property resources. Thetwo curves" curves areclosely connected. Schaeffer seerecruitment into the essentially fish ofmarketable-sized which as a become available) fishery (i.e.numbers As can be seenin of human called"fishing effort." function predation for infisheries selected isso high management Figure 1,actual fishing effort is lessthan it hasbeendamaged, andthus recruitment that stock breeding offisheries is The object would be at a lower levelofeffort. management ofreducing tend to think effort to obtain tolower effort. fishing Biologists maximum while economists that effort argue sustainable yield (MSY) (213), to produce maximum economic yield (69). should be limited infisheries effort andoutput is rare between Therelationship productive In fishing, onereceives in theannals ofeconomics. more with production This"backMSY hasbeen exceeded. lesseffort than with higher effort after for fish causes some anomaward curve" economic strange bending supply
z W
CIOa
Maximum Sustainable
Yield
Maximum Economic Yield
[I/ctual
Fishing Ettort & Yield
FISHING
EFFORT
I Figure
between effort andyield. fishing Relationship
301
to these it is important to notethataccording lies. For our purposes, If all parties wouldgainby fisheries management. bioeconomic models, fish wouldrevive, fishermen wouldgetlarger stocks effort werereduced, would increase, so that both efficiency andreturns catches with lesseffort, fish at a lower would price. getmore and theconsumer is that fish area comTheusualanswer Why do fishermen overexploit? byno one.Whyshould a monproperty resource and thusare protected he doesnotcatch this willonly morning be conserve? "Thefish fisherman these a fisherman conditions, is elsetomorrow. Under caught bysomeone ofcapital he expands theamount equipment he rational when only being fish as quickly as many as possible" (9, p. 20). to catch ownsand tries "thetragedy ofthecomHardin (99,p. 1244)terms The result is what and human dimensions since has bothecological mons."The "tragedy" a system inwhich into aredestroying theresources they people arelocked isoverexploitaIn the the result their livelihood fisheries, onwhich depends. lowered catches, higher pricesfor stock, tion,damageto thebreeding costs and,where opportunity inefficient useofcapital resources, consumers, oflowincomes 210). the (30,60,61,67,68,97,190,191, arelow, acceptance and willnotlimit own to thisview,cannot their Fishermen, according in theinterest ofconservation. efforts Regulation bygovernexploitative is necessary. ment this in andextend bodyofconcepts Anthropologists areableto modify in many directions. oceansare scarcely several different societies, First, ina large As wehave ofsocieties number common resources. seen, property over oceanareas(75, intheworld, fishermen do maintain rights ownership inthemodem United some States (2, 7, 132).In many 109,153)including ofstrateusea variety as Andersen fishermen other (24) stresses, fisheries, which to fishing territories accessrights" "range giesto gain"privileged to themost private." from themost public isvalid, resources establishing property Ifthe ofcommon property theory effects. Specifically, we areasshould produce favorable rights overfishing that there would belesslikelihood would where property rights exist, expect ofresources, more efficient useofcapital, ofoverexploitation larger catches, Oneofthe difficulties intesting this tofishermen. andhigher hypothewages intheyield tomeasure offisheries and difficult sisis that itis very changes ofobtaining oftheocean(65),to saynothing accurate carrying capacities is evidence there income data.In theanthropological supporting literature, this that example, argues the hypothesis (38, 132).McCay(132,p. 35) for ina NewJersey tothe limits access fishermen's effectively port cooperative Thereis also qualitative evidence. which"reduces overfishing." fishery thatwhere Mainelobstermen defend Acheson vigorously demonstrates ofeffort arehigher and the catches and catchperunit their fishing areas,
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incomes offishermen aresignificantly larger (3). In addition, thechances to thesize where of a female lobster surviving she can extrude eggsis in perimeter-defended to be 50 percent areasthanin estimated higher nucleated areas(246). Forman thatsecrecy (82, p. 417) argues aboutprime fishing locations andprevents "minimizes competition overfishing byaccording temporary toindividual fishermen." property rights However, Cordell (63)andMcCay in thesocieties (130) believe there is no evidence they havestudied that aloneeither or helpsto maintain secrecy reduces fishing pressure therein thelongrun. source Behind theidea ofa tragedy of thecommons lie certain assumptions offishermen. andsocialorganization it aboutthemotivations Specifically fish to catchas many as possible assumes fishermen aremotivated as fast reasons andthat for monetary alone, they operate completely independently ina situation & Pontecorvo Crutchfield (69) call"competitive withdrawal." in certain fisheries. It is a highly Thiscertainly maydescribe thesituation ofothers. with a great inaccurate summation Fishermen interact eachother forinformation of on each other aboutthe location deal, and depend ofeffective andfor innovations offish theassessment concentrations (159, a variety of institutions. In 248). Theyare certainly capableof forming offishermen are very C. L. Smith themotivations addition, complicated. a great outthat fishermen from (222)points gain many things fishing besides ofPollnac, & Poggie income; andthework Gersuny (184)notonly echos in the butsuggests that income this theme maybe relatively unimportant ofoccupation and commitment to it (177, 186,187). selection bioand theclosely associated ofcommon resources The theory property since would leadoneto think that economic models everyone-including conservation fishermen-will and management, efforts to congainfrom fish a gooddeal ofpolitical resources should receive from serve support In mostcasestheexactopposite In fact, thosein theindustry. occurs. & Pontecorvo andcontinuous Crutchfield (69,p. 6) speakofthe"vicious that conservation has plagued authorities." political infighting from thefact that fisheries Thislackofsupport stems often management in theindustry on people has deleterious effects that havenotbeentaken or thebiologists theeconomists who havebeen intoaccount by either for Theproblem, as C. L. Smith responsible developing management plans. out(217,p. 33) is that some andnotothers." points "anysetofrules helps whois helped andhindered on thespecific rules andthe Exactly depends ofthefishery. nature offisheries Forexample, is recommended by regulation bylimited entry to reduceeffort economists sinceit promises whilemaintaining several
in Practice Fisheries Management
303
would create a goodmany economic efficiency (60, 191).Suchregulations ofBritish Columbia industry (166).Thesalmon different kinds ofproblems oflicenses. thenumber being regulated bylimiting andAlaskais currently outthatthese limited entry Smith and Langdon (115,217) havepointed with fishermen having very inequality, some rules haveresulted inextreme In Alaska, high removed from thefishery the entirely. incomes andothers ofnative Americans (116).In Maine theinterests lawhasworked against considered toraise thelegalsizemeasure being seriously a lawis currently offemales tosurvive into thesize for to allowa larger proportion lobsters Acheson & Reidman (15) ofextruding eggs. range where they arecapable thenetrevenues to havedemonstrated thatsucha rulewouldincrease inthelong butwould income fishermen's decrease fishermen run, severely themeasure would when be increased. theproposed 5-year period during of established is notpopular with themajority The proposed legislation of & Faris(33) arguethata variety In a similar Antler fishermen. vein, in Newdifferent agencies enforced by several government regulations, oflarge, aidowners modem offshore vessels and unintentionally foundland, fleet. theinshore penalize it is scarcely that benefit different surprising Sinceregulations groups, on the billsis mixed. One study formany fisheries management support found that people opposed orfavored NewEngland fin-fishery ofnorthern on thewaysuchlegislation would depending "limited entry" legislation of theMainelobster industry affect them (9). Another study personally that fishermen favored notsurprisingly, generally managedemonstrated, with existing norms andsocialinstituwascongruent ment legislation that tions (4). current efforts ofopinion is that among anthropologists The consensus in well.They differ somewhat havenotsucceeded very tomanage fisheries for Andersen outthat of regardless their thefuture. (22) points prognoses officers arebound what fisheries enforcement comefrom, they background for oranother. whohas C. L. Smith, toconflict with fishermen onereason ofthesalmon fisheries ofthenorthwest watched thesteady decline coast, that to manage fisheries are doomed to failure (215,216). believes efforts have He points rules tomanage salmon fisheries out(218, 221)that designed have since fishermen notonly conflict, buthave alsobeen ineffective created their around them. Smith believes that way proved very adept atinnovating "from andgathering doesnotposea viable food theseabyhunting getting mariculand thatonlylargescale "domesticated long-term alternative," canincrease ofprotein from theoceans (219). ture" theamount harvested offishermen to Other havebeenimpressed bytheability anthropologists form various ofinstitutions tolimit accesstomarine resources. They kinds tend tobe more ofmanagement sincesuch abouttheprospects optimistic in them. institutions havetheseedsofmanagement Management regimes
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of fish resources, they believe, wouldsucceed bestif laws wereenacted which tookadvantage or reinforced suchinformal arrangements (4, 24, 132).Certainly such plans would receive more localpolitical support (231). Withtheexception ofeconomists, socialscientists haveplayed a very offisheries small rolein theformulation management plans(4, 6, 22,23). intheUnited Thatsituation haschanged, States at least, since thepassage ofPL 94-265, theFisheries Conservation and Management Actof 1976, which over extends U.S.jurisidiction fisheries outto 200miles. Under this law,thecoastalareasoftheU.S. are divided intoeight In each regions. region, fisheries management plansare formulated bya regional council. Thisactcallsfor the ofU.S. fisheries for management optimum sustainable yield (OSY), which in essence, means, that fisheries shallbe managed not only for biological endsbutforsocialand economic endsas well(241). There isoneserious difficulty: there isnoagreed-on way tooperationalize on what OSY, andno agreement andeconomic social, biological dataare needed or howthey should be integrated. The problems inherent in the in their full concept haveonly beenrevealed since thelawwas complexity passed(160). The Regional havereacted ofinformation Councils to theabsence on ofignoring it.They OSY, inthemain, haveframed bythe simple expedient fisheries MSY as was management plansto comeas closeto achieving thepolitical involved. Bothfishermen possible given pressures andbiolowiththe results gistshavebeenunhappy (248). The wayone fisheries initsformative council hasoperated management (i.e.NewEngland) phase has beendescribed byM. E. Smith (225). Threestudies havebeencomon theeffect pleted oftheNewEngland council's decisions on thefishing oftheregion. communities thewaythefishermen Husing (105) describes of Provincetown themselves to opposethebureaucracy effecorganized out thatthequotasystem Another usedby the tively. study (10) points in larger, council investments better and moreverstimulated equipped, satile effort boatsso that total wasincreased rather than decreased. fishing In Gloucester, Miller & VanMaanen to (140) showhowfederal attempts in serious conflict manage thefisheries resulted between twogroups of ofItalian duetotheunwillingness extraction ofthegovernment fishermen toadminister the lawandthe value onobedience different tothelaw placed ofthese twogroups. bymembers can be no question there thatPL 94-265has Despitetheproblems, doors toanthropologists interested in applied fisheries work opened many intheUnited four Atleast arepermanent members States. anthropologists ofcommittees different councils. haveprovided that advise Others regional datafor which have background management plansforspecific fisheries, beensubmitted conto regional councils andThygesen (148, 162).Smith
305
in thePacific Northwest ofthesalmon industry (162). tributed to a study sociocultural profile forthe Acheson, Poggie, and Pollnacdid a general Planof 1980(148). Other have anthropologists NewEngland Groundfish Peterson & Smith (169)reported completed other types ofapplied studies. in NewEngland for Marine on fish theNational Fisheries Sermarketing while a monograph (164) prepared on vices, Paredes, Sabella& Hepburn inonesmall ofthe commuthe social structure andattitudes Florida people concerned with both developnity which is designed tobe ofuseto those A study ofmarine resources. ofMaioloetal (125) ment andconservation be similarly useful. While suchworks and another byGroth (98) should few they do provide general socioculcontain ideasnewtoanthropologists, on themeaning orvalueof tural fisheries andinformation dataon specific ofsuchdata ofthose communities. Thepresentation to thepeople fishing management process before. has notbeenpartofthefisheries in areasrequiring havebecome involved deStillother anthropologists ofthesocial, andeconomic ofspecific tailed aspects knowledge biological, a plantomanage the Massachufisheries. Peterson & Friedman (168)wrote ofsuch for Others haveassessed theimpact lobster setts fishery, example. hasshown howsocialscience plans(15, 116).At leastoneanthropologist work be ofuse in stock additional ofthis might assessment (189). While be noted thatwhen are anthropologists kindis to be expected, it should lefttraditional aninvolved in such endeavors theyhave temporarily a strange world where knowlandhave entered interdisciplinary thropology ofdataonthe ofcoastal is oflittle useinthe absence behavior cultures edge oflocalpolitics. offish, ofthe andthe andtake give the economics industry,
Fisheries Development
offisheries management. Management Fisheries development isthe obverse and conserve stocks seeksto increase overexploited by lowering output orprivate effort bodies governments fishing (SeeFigure 1).In development, offish areattempting toincrease thesupply byincreasing fishing effort and the diffusion of innovations, marketing, productive capacity through onthe infisheretc.Anthropologists donelittle work whole, schemes, have, Thereason ofstocks iesdevelopment. is that overexploitation is generally intemperofthe a far than stocks Many greater problem underexploitation. which havelongbeenexploited are in ate zones, byindustrialized fleets, of ThirdWorldcountries wantto serious difficulty (20). Governments their fisheries stocks arevery tropical fragile develop (121,135),butthese communication). Manyare overexploited, even (D. Stevenson, personal of fishermen is relatively In the thetechnology unsophisticated. though forexample, the 600,000artisanal have overexfishermen Philippines, in virtually all areasof thecountry's stocks inshore waters (C. ploited
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In thesecases,attempts Bailey, personal communication). to developfishing in moreefficient fleets bypromoting investment boatsand gearhas resulted inunemployment (16, 17,135).As Lockwood& Ruddle(121,p. 12) bluntly have notforthemostpart state,"These efforts [at development], however, improved significantly thelevelsofliving ofartisanal fishing households and have often worsened theirposition."In cases wherethe MSY of fisheries has been attainedor exceeded,innovation or fisheries development must either be accompanied to retrain bymanagement (193) or byprograms and help unemployed fishermen (190). In Third World countries of East Asia, aquacultureholds forth some promiseas a meansto increasethe supplyof protein and to increasethe of fishermen who employment (37). However,those fewanthropologists in ThirdWorldcountries ofaquaculture have studiedthediffusion are not Two problems have beenmentioned. Yenaboutthepossibilities. sanguine thatthe capitaland goyan(249) pointsout in one area of the Philippines ofaquaculture are so highthatfewofthe"ruralproletarskillrequirements viableaquaculture iat" havebeenable to establish operations. Aquaculture is largely forthemiddleclass. McGoodwin(136) believesthatit wouldbe in Mexico due to a to diffuse difficult aquacultureto ruralcommunities variety of political, economic, and social blocks. In the industrialized to modernize world, attempts by governments fisheries communities have met withmixedsuccess.Such atand fishing in Sweden(123) and spectacularly havesucceeded wellin the tempts nicely have resulted loans and incentives in one Far6es (107), wheregovernment in the world. fleet of the mostmodernand perhapsthe mostproductive well in otherpartsof theworld-particuSuch efforts have not worked a number ofexcellent where studies havebeendone larlyin Newfoundland on the effect of governmental efforts to modernize the fisheries. Antler& Faris (33) arguethata number of government agenciesin Newfoundland favored had policieswhichinadvertently thelargeoffshore fleet, ownedby in urbanareas,and made it very difficult fortheinshore fleet entrepreneurs In theprocess, it "proletarianized" a largenumber to survive. ofmenwho fishermen and greatly had been independent reducedtheeconomiccontributionofwomen(32, 33). Britan(51) and McCay (131) echo theseconclusmallfishermen havemaintaining a crew sions,and pointoutthedifficulties and a viablefishing enterprise. of governments to develop fishing Prattis(195) argues that the effort in the NorthAtlanticare bound to fail,because the basic communities He statesthatall of thefishing communities from used is flawed. strategy whose povertyis England to New England are marginalcommunities are on theedgeofdeveloped urbanareas which causedbythefactthatthey
307
ofcapital andother assets. Govhinterlands havedenuded the surrounding them intourban are trying to aid suchcommunities by tying ernments that the existhestates (195,p. 20),"misunderstand markets. Suchpolicies, is a result ofexposure structure of to theparticular ingmarginality itself If this is sound, itsimplications extend modem market forces." argument farbeyond studies offishing.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

is perhaps in that fields unique itis oneofthefew Maritime anthropology Thosestudying worth byitsownpractitioners. whose hasbeen questioned I believe, madean important contribution societies bydocufishing have, from a highly alienand toearn a living menting theways manhasadapted theworld overhavesought to reduce environment. Fishermen dangerous risks theuseofa setofnorms, andspread institutions, through uncertainty Ifonecannot ofvarious control theweather andfish, andnetworks types. an effective obtain information on onecanusesocialtiestoorganize crew, andbe assured offish accessto them, andhaveprivileged concentrations market for thecatch. ofa secure a comnature ofmarine resources makes fishing The common property in many societies use very similar endeavor. Fishermen strategies petitive ofskills, information tocompete manageincluding: acquisition effectively, combining occupations, technical innovation, ment, capital management, of fishing, and use of efficacious rituals. fishermen are Despitetherisks and they and their families to to theindustry, committed appear adapted ofthis characteristic theuncertainty andperiodic wayoflife. separations inapplied aspects of anthropologists havebeen involved Many maritime inmodem Their fisheries industrial countries. most important management ofsomeoftheassumptions contributions lieintheir modification underlyof common resources and in their analysis of property ing the theory schemes. fishermen's to fisheries management frequent opposition literature on fishing fewissuesare societies, Despitetheburgeoning remain. To me,four are of questions closedand many critical questions menon fishing at present. What aretherelationships between importance ofmalesaffect thesocialization absence vessels, and howdoesprolonged Howaresocial, ofchildren structure? andbiological economic, andfamily datatobe integrated toachieve OSY? What is theroleofkinship infishing Theflexibility ofkinship ties hasbeennoted butthere repeatedly, societies? in systems found havebeenvery few studies ofthewidevariety ofkinship worldwide. can the manykindsof norms and societies Finally, fishing tocontrol access andfishing procedures fishermen hadinvented institutions
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be used as a basisforsuccessful resource management? The lastmaybe the formaritime mostcritical anthropology. Unlessthewidespread overexploican be halted,theremay soon be fewfishing tationof marineresources societiesleftto study.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
on Dr. Ann W. Acheson,who commented Most sincere thanks to mywife, and editedseveraldrafts of this articleunderhouseholdconditions that would make Bedlam seem tranquil.
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Acheson - Anthropology of Fishing

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Anthropology of Fishing Author(s): James M. Acheson Source: Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 10 (1981), pp.

Ann. Rev.Anthropol 1981.10:275-316 Reviews Inc.Allrights reserved Copyright i 1981byAnnual

RESPONSE TO UNCERTAINTY: INSTITUTIONS AND CLUSTERS

Access toFishing Rights

Markets and FishBuyers

Management and Information Fishing Clusters

COMPETITION: POLITICAL PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL STRATEGIES

Politics and Conflict

COMMITMENT TO FISHING AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FISHERMEN

WOMEN AND FAMILY LIFE

THE ACTIONS OF GOVERNMENT: FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT Theoretical Perspective

Maximum Economic Yield

Fishing Ettort & Yield

between effort andyield. fishing Relationship

in Practice Fisheries Management

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

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