Plane Strain Compression of Copper, Cu 6Wt Pct AI, and Ag 4Wt Pct Sn Crystals

B. C. WONSIEWICZ AND G. Y. CHIN C r y s t a l s of v a r i o u s o r i e n t a t i o n s w e r e f o r c e d to u n d e r g o p l a n e - s t r a i n c o m p r e s s i o n to s i m u l a t e the d e f o r m a t i o n of a g r a i n in a p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e a g g r e g a t e . C o p p e r , Cu-6wt p c t A1, and A g - 4 w t p c t Sn w e r e s t u d i e d to e v a l u a t e the influence of s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y on the m o d e l of G. I. T a y l o r which a s s u m e s e q u a l h a r d e n i n g on a l l s l i p s y s t e m s . The c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s s t r a i n (e-c) c u r v e s w e r e c o n v e r t e d to r e s o l v e d s h e a r - s t r e s s : s h e a r - s t r a i n (v-),) u s i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e T a y l o r f a c t o r . A q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s of l a t t i c e r o t a t i o n d u r i n g d e f o r m a t i o n w a s m a d e and found to be in a g r e e m e n t with the o r i e n t a t i o n change d e t e r m i n e d with the aid of X - r a y p o l e f i g u r e s . The change in T a y l o r f a c t o r a s s o c i a t e d with the r e o r i e n t a t i o n was c o m p u t e d and u s e d in c o n s t r u c t i n g the r - y c u r v e s . A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on the a c t i v e s l i p and twin s y s t e m s was p r o v i d e d by o p t i c a l m e t a l l o g r a p h y . The r-~, c u r v e s g e n e r a l l y f e l l into a n a r r o w band for a l l t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the a s s u m p t i o n of e q u a l h a r d e n i n g was r e a s o n a b l y valid f o r low s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y a l l o y s u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of m u l t i p l e s l i p i m p o s e d in the p r e s e n t e x p e r i m e n t . D e v i a t i o n s o c c u r r e d m a i n l y in the a l l o y c r y s t a l s which e x h i b i t e d m e c h a n i c a l twinning. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the a c t i v e twin s y s t e m s in t h e s e c r y s t a l s w e r e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y p r e d i c t e d by an e x t e n d e d T a y l o r a n a l y s i s . s t r e n g t h of a c r y s t a l u n d e r g o i n g d e f o r m a t i o n d e p e n d s on the c r y s t a l o r i e n t a t i o n and the i m p o s e d s h a p e change. The d e t a i l s of how s t r e n g t h d e p e n d s on o r i e n tation ( p l a s t i c a n i s o t r o p y ) a r e i n t e r e s t i n g f o r two r e a sons. F i r s t , i n c r e a s e s in s t r e n g t h g a i n e d by o r i e n t a tion, " t e x t u r e h a r d e n i n g , ''~ a r e a d v a n t a g e o u s in the d e s i g n of s t r u c t u r e s . The a p p l i c a t i o n of t e x t u r e d c o p p e r a l l o y s f o r s p r i n g r e l a y s 2 and t i t a n i u m f o r s p a c e v e h i c l e s 3 a r e two e x a m p l e s . V a r i a t i o n s in s t r e n g t h can a l s o be e x p l o i t e d in c o n t r o l l i n g d e f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g o p e r a t i o n s . The i m p r o v e d d e e p d r a w i n g s t e e l s a r e an e x a m p l e . 4 Secondly, a b y - p r o d u c t of a full u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c r y s t a l p l a s t i c i t y would be i n f o r m a t i o n on l a t t i c e r o t a t i o n d u r i n g d e f o r m a t i o n . Hopefully t h i s would l e a d to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how p r e f e r r e d c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c o r i e n t a t i o n (or t e x t u r e ) a r i s e s d u r i n g the d e f o r m a t i o n of a p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e a g g r e g a t e . Since many p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e s e n s i t i v e to o r i e n t a t i o n ( m a g n e t i c a n i s o t r o p y and e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s a r e i m p o r tant e x a m p l e s ) , a knowledge of t e x t u r e f o r m a t i o n is of practical interest. The m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e m o d e l of the d e f o r m a t i o n of c r y s t a l s was o r i g i n a t e d by G. I. T a y l o r . 5 The b a s i c p r o b l e m i s to s e l e c t a c o m b i n a t i o n of s l i p s y s t e m s which w i l l a c c o m p l i s h the i m p o s e d shape change with the l e a s t p o s s i b l e i n t e r n a l w o r k . F o r e x a m p l e , in fcc m e t a l s , s l i p can o c c u r on twelve {111} (110) s l i p s y s t e m s . The i n c r e m e n t a l amount of w o r k clW done by a s h e a r s t r a i n d), u n d e r a c r i t i c a l r e s o l v e d s h e a r s t r e s s (CRSS) r on the e a c h of the t w e l v e s y s t e m s i s : m i n u m u m w o r k by a s s u m i n g the CRSS to be the s a m e for a l l s l i p s y s t e m s . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n i m p l i e s that a l l s y s t e m s h a r d e n e q u a l l y w h e t h e r they have o p e r a t e d o r not. In that c a s e Eq. [1] b e c o m e s
12

d W = "r~ IdYll = rdy

i=1

[2]

d W = ~ ~'i d~'i
t=l

[1]

G e n e r a l l y no m o r e than five s y s t e m s a r e n e e d e d b e c a u s e an a r b i t r a r y shape change i s c o m p l e t e l y defined by five independent s t r a i n c o m p o n e n t s ( a s s u m i n g cons t a n t volume). T a y l o r s i m p l i f i e d the t a s k of finding the
B. C. WONSIEWICZ and G. Y. CHIN are Members o f the Technical Staff, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Murray Hill, N.J. Manuscript submitted February 9, 1970. METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

w h e r e r s t a n d s f o r the s i n g l e CRSS for a l l s y s t e m s , and d~ i s u n d e r s t o o d to be the sum of the s h e a r s on a l l twelve s y s t e m s . Thus, the c o m b i n a t i o n of s l i p s y s t e m s which m i n i m i z e s the t o t a l s h e a r d~, w i l l a l s o m i n i m i z e the work. The l a b o r i o u s c a l c u l a t i o n s of s e l e c t i n g the m i n i m u m have been e l i m i n a t e d by Chin and M a m m e l 6 u s i n g a l i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g technique. Bishop and Hill 7 r e f o r m u l a t e d the m o d e l in d i f f e r e n t terms using a maximum external work principle, which h a s r e c e n t l y been shown s to be e n t i r e l y e q u i v a lent to that of T a y l o r . One of the m a t e r i a l p a r a m e t e r s that could c h a l l e n g e the v a l i d i t y of the T a y l o r a s s u m p t i o n of e q u a l h a r d e n ing i s the s t a c k i n g f a u l t e n e r g y (SFE). Both c r o s s - s l i p and i n t e r s e c t i n g s l i p p r o c e s s e s a r e m a d e m o r e difficult by the e x t e n d e d d i s l o c a t i o n s a s the S F E i s l o w e r e d . 9 I n i t i a l s t u d i e s t e s t i n g the T a y l o r t h e o r y w e r e conducted by H o s f o r d on a l u m i n u m 1~ and by Chin, Nesbitt, and W i l l i a m s on p e r m a U o y , 12 both high s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y m a t e r i a l s . S a t i s f a c t o r y a g r e e m e n t with t h e o r y w a s obtained. M o r e r e c e n t l y , M a y e r and Backofen is e x t e n d e d the study to l o w e r SFE m a t e r i a l s c o p p e r and Cu-7wt p c t A1 a s w e l l a s i r o n , a high S F E m e t a l . C r y s t a l r o d s w e r e d r a w n t h r o u g h c o n i c a l d i e s to s i m u l a t e a x i s y m m e t r i c e x t e n s i o n . The m e a s u r e d o r i e n t a t i o n d e p e n d e n c e of the d r a w i n g s t r e s s was in keeping with the T a y l o r t h e o r y in the c a s e of i r o n , but c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s so in c o p p e r and C u - 7 p c t A1. The a u t h o r s s u g g e s t e d that d i s l o c a t i o n b a r r i e r s such a s L o m e r - C o t t r e l l l o c k s and s e s s i l e j o g s , a s w e l l a s m e c h a n i c a l twinning, could c o n t r i b u t e to a d e c r e a s e in the o b s e r v e d s t r e n g t h a n i s o t r o p y . Chin, M a m m e l , and Dolan ~4 r e e x a m i n e d the a x i s y m m e t r i c flow p r o b l e m by taking into a c c o u n t the effect of m e c h a n i c a l
VOLUME 1, OCTOBER 1 9 7 0 - 2 7 1 5

twinning. It was concluded that the l a t t e r would i n d e e d d e c r e a s e the s t r e n g t h a n i s o t r o p y in a x i s y m m e t r i c e x t e n s i o n , although it would i n c r e a s e the a n i s o t r o p y in c o m p r e s s i o n . P l a n e s t r a i n c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t s conducted by Chin, Hosford, and Mendorf *s on c r y s t a l s of Co-8wt pct Fe, a very low SFE alloy, c o n f i r m e d that t w i n n i n g was chiefly r e s p o n s i b l e for s t r e n g t h d e v i a t i o n s f r o m the b a s i c T a y l o r a n a l y s i s . The o b s e r v e d a c t i v e slip and twin s y s t e m s w e r e c o n s i s t e n t with an e x t e n d e d T a y l o r a n a l y s i s which i n c l u d e d twinning. In the p r e s e n t work, f u r t h e r s t u d i e s have been m a d e on the low SFE m a t e r i a l s c o p p e r , Cu-6wt pct A1, and Ag4wt pct Sn. The c r y s t a l s w e r e d e f o r m e d in plane s t r a i n c o m p r e s s i o n , which has c e r t a i n advantages over w i r e d r a w i n g as an i m p o s e d d e f o r m a t i o n . F i r s t , the c o m plete s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e can be m e a s u r e d w h e r e a s in w i r e drawing only the d r a w i n g s t r e s s for a s p e c i f i c s t r a i n i s available. Secondly, the c o n s t r a i n t s a r e b e t t e r e s t a b l i s h e d and the shape change is m o r e e a s i l y m e a s u r e d than in w i r e d r a w i n g , where the c r y s t a l f r e q u e n t l y cocks b e f o r e e n t e r i n g the die. Special eff o r t s have also been made to take into account the e f f e c t s of lattice r o t a t i o n and d e f o r m a t i o n banding on the s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e . R e c o g n i z e d though not taken into a c c o u n t in the e a r l i e r w o r k s cited, such effects c o n t r i b u t e s c a t t e r to data, p a r t i c u l a r l y at high s t r a i n s . EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The r - 7 and a-E plots can be r e l a t e d by equating the i n t e r n a l w o r k due to slip, Eq. [1], to work done by the e x t e r n a l s t r e s s e s . Taking x , y , z a s the c o m p r e s sion axis, c h a n n e l wall n o r m a l , and c h a n n e l axis, r e spectively, we have
d W = "rdT = (YxxdExx + CryydEyy + ~ z z d s + azxds + (YxydExy + (ryzds z

[3]

T h i s equation can be s i m p l i f i e d if we a s s u m e that the w a l l s of the c h a n n e l p r e v e n t l a t e r a l s p r e a d i n g d e y y = 0 and m a i n t a i n a r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n on the z face, d e x y = O. F u r t h e r , the Teflon l u b r i c a t i o n r e d u c e s the f r i c t i o n a l s t r e s s e s p r a c t i c a l l y to z e r o . a z z = e y z = Czx = 0. With the above s i m p l i f i c a t i o n
rd:y = % x d E x x

[4]

Defining the T a y l o r factor M as the r a t i o of c r y s t a l l o graphic s h e a r to the c o m p r e s s i o n s t r a i n M - d ~ / d c x x , the c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e can be r e s o l v e d into a s h e a r - s t r e s s : s h e a r - s t r a i n c u r v e through the relations

~- =

~xx

[Sa]

M [Sb]

dT = M d e x x

C r y s t a l s of copper, Cu + 6wt pct A1, and Ag-4wt pct Sn w e r e grown f r o m the m e l t in solid graphite c r u c i b l e s s e a l e d in e v a c u a t e d q u a r t z a m p u l e s . S a m p l e s w e r e s p a r k m a c h i n e d to r e c t a n g u l a r p r i s m s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 by 6.5 by 8 m m . After a b r i e f c h e m i c a l polish, the copper and Cu-A1 s a m p l e s w e r e a n n e a l e d at 900~ f o r 12 h r u n d e r vacuum. The Ag-Sn alloys were s i m p l y e l e c t r o p o l i s h e d in a KCN solution. The c o m p o s i t i o n of each s a m p l e was d e t e r m i n e d by X - r a y f l u o r e s c e n c e and found to be within 10 pet of the n o m i n a l c o m p o s i tion. The final o r i e n t a t i o n was checked by Laue b a c k r e f l e c t i o n and found to be within 1 deg of the n o m i n a l orientation. C o m p r e s s i o n t e s t i n g was conducted in a Teflon l u b r i c a t e d c h a n n e l whose w a l l s r e s t r i c t e d l a t e r a l flow. '2'1s D e f o r m a t i o n was i n t e r r u p t e d for r e n e w a l of l u b r i c a n t , m e t a l l o g r a p h i c and X - r a y pole figure o b s e r v a t i o n s , and o b s e r v a t i o n on the shape change. As will be noted l a t e r , s p e c i m e n p r o f i l e did not always r e m a i n r e c t a n g u l a r but often s h e a r e d into a p a r a l l e l o g r a m . The r e f l e c tion pole f i g u r e s were obtained u s i n g N i - f i l t e r e d C u K ~ r a d i a t i o n on a S i e m e n s g o n i o m e t e r . RESULTS Copper C r y s t a l s L a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s in s t r e n g t h were o b s e r v e d in c r y s t a l s i d e n t i c a l in e v e r y r e s p e c t but o r i e n t a t i o n . The t r u e c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s for the c o p p e r c r y s t a l s a r e p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 1. The flow s t r e s s at a s t r a i n of about 0.10 for c r y s t a l 1 was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 t i m e s that for c r y s t a l s 4, 5, o r 6. To d e t e r m i n e if the l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e was due s o l e l y to the different a m o u n t s of s h e a r r e q u i r e d (as a s s u m e d ) it was n e c e s s a r y to c o n v e r t the c u r v e s to a s h e a r - s t r e s s : s h e a r s t r a i n (T-Z) plot. 2716-VOLUME 1, OCTOBER 1970

If we s i m p l y a s s u m e no l a t t i c e r o t a t i o n so that M does not v a r y d u r i n g the test, then V = ME. Table I l i s t s the o r i e n t a t i o n of each c r y s t a l , the T a y l o r factor, and a c t i v e s y s t e m s for r e l a x e d d e f o r m a t i o n t y p i c a l of the c h a n n e l t e s t (r = Exy = 0) and for the fully c o n s t r a i n e d case (Eyy = Ey z = E z x = E x y = 0 ) . The l a t t e r p r o v i d e s c o n d i t i o n s for an u p p e r - b o u n d solution and is a p p r o a c h e d in channel d e f o r m a t i o n o r r o l l i n g of p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e m a t e r i a l where n e i g h b o r i n g c r y s t a l s provide the two a d d i t i o n a l s h e a r c o n s t r a i n t s . The slip s y s t e m notation is that of Ref. 15 and is included in Table II. Fig. 2 r e p r e s e n t s the s h e a r - s t r e s s : s h e a r - s t r a i n plot for the c o p p e r c r y s t a l s b a s e d on a c o n s t a n t i n i t i a l

IOOr | NO. ORIENTATION

l--

/ 2

( H I ) [112]

I 3
/ 4 / s
| 6

-(~,,~ [T,o]

/ / /
|

/,y
/
"5 sol
.

( . o ) [h2] (uO) [OOI]

(001) I/To]

-I 600
-'
COPPER

................

l
400 .

2
. . . . 3 ~

Ii z,

..,S'/~

I
s .50 .75

.25

Fig. 1--True-stress : true-strain curves for plane strain compression of copper crystals. METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

Table I

No.

Orientation

MSlip

Slip Systems

Rotation M4, Fig. 3(c) M ,1, Fig. 3(a) M,~Fig. 3(d) M constant Mconstant M 1,1"Fig. 3(b)

Twinning Tendency yes yes (after rotation) no no no yes

(110) [110] (111) [ii2] (111) [i10] (uo) [i]21 (llO) [001] (0o~) [iio]

2X/6
1.5

1.5 V~* ~gt V~" ~/~

I 2 2[ 5 7 g 10 ~ St 5 9 1-2 7r 5 7 8 10 i2" 2 4"t" 1 2 4 5 1 2" 4 5

*M = (5/3) X/6"slip on I 2 ff 5 7 g 10 1-i if fully constrained. i'M=(3/2)~/'6-slip on T 2 4 5 7 ~" 10 H if fully constrained.

30

NO.

ORIENTATION

200 plane
COPPER

Table II. The Twelve { 111} (110) Slip Systems

r
2

(II0) [Jo]
(Hi) [Ti2] (JJl) [ i l o ] (flO) [hz]

111

1il

ill

lil

3
4

direction
system ~E z IOO

011 101 1i0 6i1 101 ]1~ 61T 101 110 6i] i01 110
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

5
6

(Ho) [oofl
(001) [T[O]

20

tated coordinates. After n steps

T(IXX

;,....#.~ ~ 2 :"''~r'---'--" ..... ~

.........

Mn
n

[6]

Fig. 2--Shear-stress : shear-strain curves for copper c r y s tals neglecting rotation during deformation and assuming constantM, Table I. M v a l u e . The i n i t i a l p o r t i o n of the c u r v e s f a l l into a n a r r o w band, but at i n c r e a s i n g s t r a i n s , the c u r v e s begin to d i v e r g e due to changing v a l u e s of M with l a t t i c e r o t a t i o n . C r y s t a l s 4 and 5, (110)[112] and (110) [001], m a y be taken a s r e f e r e n c e c r y s t a l s s i n c e they did not r o t a t e f r o m t h e i r o r i g i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s . Thus the i n i t i a l M = f f f , s e e Table I, should be a p p l i c a b l e t h r o u g h o u t the t e s t f o r t h e s e two s a m p l e s . Using the s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s of c r y s t a l s 4 and 5 a s a r e f e r e n c e , then c r y s t a l s 1, 2, and 3 a p p e a r to h a r d e n l e s s r a p i d l y and c r y s t a l 6 in the l a t t e r s t a g e s of the t e s t i s h a r d ening m o r e r a p i d l y . As w i l l be d e v e l o p e d l a t e r , m o s t of the d i v e r g e n c e in Fig. 2 can be r e l a t e d to the l a t t i c e r o t a t i o n of the c r y s t a l d u r i n g d e f o r m a t i o n . C r y s t a l s 1, 2, and 3 r o t a t e to o r i e n t a t i o n s m o r e f a v o r a b l e for s l i p ; that i s , to l o w e r M, while c r y s t a l 6 e v e n t u a l l y r o t a t e s to a l e s s f a v o r a b l e o r i e n t a t i o n ; t h a t i s , h i g h e r M. Since the amount of s l i p on e a c h s y s t e m i s one of the p r e d i c t i o n s of the T a y l o r a n a l y s i s , the r o t a t i o n s can be o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y by s t a n d a r d a n a l y s i s , z~ The effect of r o t a t i o n on M, hence on the T-~, c u r v e , w a s c a l c u l a t e d a s follows: The d e f o r m a t i o n i s a p p r o x i m a t e d a s a s e r i e s of i n c r e m e n t a l s t r a i n s a~xx (say 0.01) d u r i n g which M r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t (or a l t e r n a t i v e l y the o r i e n t a t i o n d o e s not change). Beginning with the i n i t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n , the a m o u n t of s h e a r zx),~ n e c e s s a r y f o r the f i r s t i n c r e m e n t AExx i s c a l c u l a t e d along with the r o t a t i o n of the c r y s t a l a x e s c a u s e d by t h i s s t r a i n . A new value of M along with the next i n c r e m e n t of s h e a r A72 i s then c a l c u l a t e d b a s e d on the r o METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

w h e r e M i = ATi/AExx i s the T a y l o r f a c t o r a p p r o p r i a t e for the ith step. The m o d e l i s a d a p t a b l e to p r o g r a m m i n g t e c h n i q u e s , and a p r o g r a m h a s been w r i t t e n which p r o v i d e s Mi, 7, the M i l l e r i n d i c e s of the r e o r i e n t e d s p e c i m e n a x e s (x, y , z), and the c o m p l e t e s t r a i n t e n s o r a s s o c i a t e d with the d e f o r m a t i o n . L a t t i c e R o t a t i o n and C o r r e c t e d T-7 C u r v e s

I) S T A B L E O R I E N T A T I O N S
C r y s t a l 4, (110) [112], can d e f o r m by s l i p on a s i n g l e p a i r of s y s t e m s , n a m e l y , 2 and i , Table I. T h i s c a s e h a s been a n a l y z e d by Chin, N e s b i t t , and T h u r s t o n . z8 The c r y s t a l d e f o r m s with c o n s i d e r a b l e Cyz s h e a r but no change in o r i e n t a t i o n . Even if the ey z s h e a r w e r e s u p p r e s s e d (which it w a s not) by the o p e r a t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l s y s t e m s , a n a l y s i s shows that the o r i e n t a t i o n i s s t i l l s t a b l e . No r o t a t i o n w a s o b s e r v e d in any of the no. 4 c r y s t a l s . C r y s t a l 5--(110)_[001]. F l o w o c c u r s by s l i p on two p a i r s of s y s t e m s 1, 5 and 2, 7t with no r o t a t i o n . A n a l y s i s shows that m i s o r i e n t a t i o n by r o t a t i o n about the x a x i s w i l l r e s u l t in a s h e a r Cyz if the p r e v i o u s two p a i r s o p e r a t e , but no r o t a t i o n w i l l o c c u r . H o w e v e r , if eyz i s s u p p r e s s e d b y the a d d i t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n of 10 and 11, a r o t a t i o n t o w a r d a f i n a l (110) [112] o r i e n t a tion w i l l o c c u r . No r o t a t i o n w a s o b s e r v e d in o u r c r y s t a l s which w e r e f r e e to u n d e r g o Eyz s h e a r . R o t a t i o n s t o w a r d (110)[112] have been r e p o r t e d in h e a v i l y c o l d r o l l e d c r y s t a l s , p r e s u m a b l e due to a Eyz c o n s t r a i n t , z7 2) UNSTABLE ORIENTATIONS

C r y s t a l 2 - - ( l l l ) [ i i 2 ] . The d e f o r m a t i o n of t h i s i n t e r e s t i n g o r i e n t a t i o n h a s been r e p o r t e d in d e t a i l in a
VOLUME 1, OCTOBER 1 9 7 0 - 2 7 1 7

30|

21

, .I

.2

; .3

.4

, .5

1
bl~-

NO,

ORIENTATION ( H o ) D~o]

200

2 3
4 6

(HI) [TT2] (~H) [ h o ]

(HO) [Ti2] (001) []TO]

(iJo) [ool]

COPPER

NE
#s J

,/.s I

I ~ ; . ~ . ~

_ / / ~ _ ~ ' -

- -

..

~ o
I00

z
"j

21

I
.5

I
1.0

5 .............................................................................. (c) (i,o~ [ho]

J 2V"~"

,o /y//"
i i i 2

.5

1.0

zd), i

Fig. 4--Shear-stress : shear-strain curves for copper crystals, adjusted for rotation during deformation.
40
.I .2 .3 ,4 S T R A I N , - Exx .5

-(HZ)[HT] o
.o 5 0 ~E Ezx #

0~ a ~ j a
oa

a:"
....

Fig. 3--Summary of theoretical calculation of M as a function of strain for plane strain compression of various orientations. (a) If fully constrained, M follows dotted line. If Qx is unrestrained, rotation is to either (110) [001] (lower full line) or (112) [111] (upper full line). The average M for the last two rotations is shown as the broken line. (b) Fully constraineddotted line. Free Qx--full line. (c) Fully_constrained-dotted line. Free ~yz --full line. (d) Slip on 10, 12 with large exy-line 1. Slip on 5, 10 with smaller Exy--line 2. Slip on 5, 10, with Exy = 0--1ine 3. Lines 1 and 2 correspond to rotations 1 and 2, respectively, in Fig. 6.

m 20
b
10 / o

A
/

aCu o Cu+6WIOAI

O~

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6 Exx

-0.8

-I.0

-(0011 rllO]

s e p a r a t e paper.ZSIn s u m m a r y , if Ez~ s h e a r i s p e r m i t t e d , the c r y s t a l can r o t a t e e i t h e r t o w a r d (112) [111] o r t o w a r d (110) [001]. The s e n s e of r o t a t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d by the l o c a l s t r e s s e s and the c r y s t a l is o b s e r v e d to d i v i d e into four s y m m e t r i c a l p a r t s , two of e a c h of the f i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s . The r a t e and s e n s e of r o t a t i o n a r e in good a g r e e m e n t with t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s . 2E D u r i n g d e f o r m a t i o n , M d e c r e a s e s f r o m 1.5~6-to ~6f o r the p o r t i o n of the c r y s t a l which r o t a t e s to (110) [001], F i g . 3(a), while r e m a i n i n g r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t at 1.5~6" f o r the p o r t i o n r o t a t i n g to ( 1 1 2 ) [ i i l ] . Th e a s s u m p t i o n that M = 1.5,/-6- t h r o u g h o u t the t e s t c l e a r l y is an o v e r e s t i m a t e and t h i s e x p l a i n s the downward d r o p of c r y s t a l 2 in Fig. 2. A b e t t e r e s t i m a t e is to t a k e the a v e r a g e of the i n s t a n t a n e o u s v a l u e s of M f o r the two o r i e n t a t i o n s . T h i s p r o c e d u r e would be c o r r e c t if the s t r a i n Exx was the s a m e in both o r i e n t a t i o n s and if both o r i e n t a t i o n s w e r e about half of the v o l u m e of the s a m p l e . With this p r o c e d u r e , the s h e a r - s t r e s s : s h e a r - s t r a i n c u r v e in Fig. 4 f a l l s n e a r t h o s e of the r e f e r e n c e c r y s t a l s (4 and 5). C r y s t a l 6--(001)[110]. A s p o i n t e d out p r e v i o u s l y , za t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n is u n s t a b l e with r e s p e c t to r o t a t i o n s about y a x i s , leading to e i t h e r ( 1 1 2 ) [ l i l ] o r (112)[111] if EzxiS u n r e s t r a i n e d . If Ez~ = 0, a s i m i l a r r o t a t i o n i s e x p e c t e d but the s t a b l e o r i e n t a t i o n i s at 8 deg 14 m m f r o m {112}. z9 Both t h e o r e t i c a l and o b s e r v e d r o t a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d in Fig. 5. The o b s e r v e d r o t a t i o n is s o m e w h a t s l o w e r than p r e d i c t e d b y the r e l a x e d s h e a r c u r v e . T h i s 2718-VOLUME 1, OCTOBER 1970

Fig. 5--Rotation about the [110] axis of the compression plane normal x as a function of compressive strain exx for crystals initially oriented for (001) [110] deformation. Solid lines indicate the calculated rotations for relaxed'Ezx and for no shear strains. Stable orientation for no shear (dashed line) is 8 deg 14 min short of that for ~ree ezx, (112) [111]. Symbols indicate the observed orientations as determined from the intensity maximum of pole figures taken after deformation to the strain Exx. could be due to the o p e r a t i o n of the s y s t e m s which a c t to s u p p r e s s ez~ s h e a r . The o r i e n t a t i o n r e a c h e d a f t e r E = 1.0 is n e a r (112) a s p r e d i c t e d by r e l a x e d Ezx. Fig. 3(b) shows the e f f e c t of r o t a t i o n (due to s t r a i n ) on M f o r this o r i e n t a t i o n . A f t e r a s m a l l d e c l i n e , M i n c r e a s e s t o w a r d 1.5 x/B-as the s t a b l e o r i e n t a t i o n is a p p r o a c h e d . The u p w a r d d i v e r g e n c e of c r y s t a l 6 at )/ ~ 1.3 in Fig. 2 r e f l e c t s the i n c r e a s i n g M. When the M b a s e d on the o b s e r v e d r o t a t i o n i s u s e d , Fig. 4, the d i v e r g e n c e is practically eliminated. C r y s t a l 1 - ( 1 1 0 ) [ 1 1 0 ] . The eight s l i p s y s t e m s , f a v o r e d at the i n i t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n , T a b l e I, can lead to an i n s t a b i l i t y with r o t a t i o n about the c o m p r e s s i o n (x) ax i s. If the r o t a t i o n is t o w a r d [ i l l ] , c a l c u l a t i o n s show that the eight a c t i v e s [ s t e m s a r e r e d u c e d to four; n a m e l y , 2, 4, 10, and 11. Rotation in the o p p o s i t e s e n s e t o w a r d [111] o c c u r s by o p e r a t i o n of r e m a i n i n g four s y s t e m s . In e i t h e r c a s e , M d e c r e a s e s f r o m 2V~to 1.Sv~- with r o t a t i o n , Fig. 3(c), thus e x p l a i n i n g the drop in the u n c o r r e c t e d T-y c u r v e of t h i s c r y s t a l vs the r e f e r e n c e c u r v e s in Fig. 2. The o b s e r v e d r o t a t i o n w as c o m p l e x , but r o t a t i o n s about the x a x i s w e r e a p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e . The m i c r o s t r u c t u r e w a s c h a r a c t e r METALLURGICAL TRANSACTtONS

ized by m a n y d e f o r m a t i o n b a n d s with l a r g e local r o t a tion of s l i p l i n e s c o n s i s t e n t with the r o t a t i o n about the x d i r e c t i o n . S i m i l a r banding o b s e r v a t i o n s have been made on a p e r m a l l o y c r y s t a l with c o n s i s t e n t softening in the 7- 7 c u r v e . ~2 An a l u m i n u m c r y s t a l studied by Ifosford, n however, did not r o t a t e n o r f o r m b a n d s ; the 7 - 7 c u r v e Iikewise did not d e v i a t e f r o m the a v e r a g e c u r v e . Since our crysta2 did h a r d e n l e s s r a p i d l y than the o t h e r c r y s t a l s , we have c o r r e c t e d the T-7 plot u s i n g the t h e o r e t i c a l v a r i a t i o n of M a s shown in Fig. 3(c). Although it is an o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n (other r o t a t i o n s e v i d e n t in the pole figure also tend to lower M), the adopted p r o c e d u r e should r e p r e s e n t the m a j o r c o r r e c t i o n . C r y s t a l 3--(111) [110]. If the c r y s t a l is free to s h e a r , i.e 9 , if c Y . -.Y = 0 s is the -only c o n s t r a i n t , six slip s y s t e m s a r e f a v o r e d at (111) [110] and M = 1.5 f6, Table I. flowe v e r , if t h e s h e a r s t r a i n s a r e r e s t r a i n e d , then eight s y s t e m s o p e r a t e and M is i n c r e a s e d to (5/3) 4~-. In e i t h e r c a s e , the o r i e n t a t i o n is u n s t a b l e and r o t a t e s to o r i e n t a t i o n s of lower M. The d e c l i n e in M is evident in u n c o r r e c t e d T- 7 plot of Fig. 2 w h e r e the c u r v e for c r y s t a l 3 f a l l s below that for c r y s t a l s 4 and 5 which do not r o t a t e . A pole figure, Fig. 6, i n d i c a t e s the r o tation a f t e r a s t r a i n of 0.59~ The r o t a t i o n is m o r e c o m p l e x than in p r e v i o u s c r y s t a l s which were s i m p l e r o t a t i o n s about the x or y axis. The pole figure can be a p p r o x i m a t e d by two {110} (112) c o m p o n e n t s with cons i d e r a b l e s p r e a d toward ~ (358) [523]. The m i c r o s t r u c t u r e was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by m a n y c o m p l e x d e f o r m a t i o n bands. P r o m i n e n t t r a c e s c o n s i s t e n t with slip e i t h e r on (111) o r on ( l i l ) were o b s e r v e d . The a r g u m e n t s for one of these c o m p o n e n t s apply to the other and we will d i s c u s s only p r i m a r y slip on ( l i l ) .

Slip on 10, 12, with no widening s = 0, will rotate the c r y s t a l to (101) as shown by path (1) in the pole f i g u r e , Fig. 6. D u r i n g r o t a t i o n , M d e c r e a s e s a s shown by c u r v e 1 in Fig. 3(d). [The c o m p l e m e n t a r y c a s e for (ill) i s slip on 7, w l e a d i n g to (011)]. A r a t h e r l a r g e Cxy would o c c u r and this s h e a r should be r e s t r a i n e d by the square cross section imposed by the channel w a i l s and the p l a t e n s . A c o m b i n a t i o n of s y s t e m s which p r o d u c e s l e s s ~xy s h e a r is 10, 5 which r o t a t e s the c r y s t a l to a p p r o x i m a t e l y (358) as i n d i c a t e d by the b r o k e n l i n e - - p a t h (2)--in the pole f i g u r e , Fig. 6. M d e c l i n e s d u r i n g t h i s r o t a t i o n but not as m u c h a s if exy were u n c o n s t r a i n e d , c u r v e 2, Fig. 3(d). If exy i s c o m pletely s u p p r e s s e d , slip o c c u r s on 10, 5, a n d 2 with a higher i n i t i a l M, (5/3) 4~, c u r v e 3, Fig. 3(d), but a r o tation s i m i l a r to 10, 5. Rotation stops a f t e r about 20 deg at ~(358) when slip on 10, 3 o r 10, 3, 2 b e c o m e s favored 9 The T-7 c u r v e f a l l s n e a r e s t to c r y s t a l s 4 and 5 if the M c o r r e c t i o n , Fig. 3(d), curve 2, b a s e d on l i m i t e d exy s h e a r , that is, 5, 10, is u s e d , Fig. 4. The other two m e c h a n i s m s , s l i p on 10, 12 or 10, 5, 2, y i e l d e d c u r v e s too high and too low, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The actual d e f o r m a t i o n m a y be m o r e complex than t h e s e t h r e e s i m p l e choices. One p o s s i b i l i t y is that slip b e g i n s on 10, 12 with the exy s h e a r not c o m p l e t e l y s u p p r e s s e d by the channel. A f t e r s o m e d e f o r m a t i o n , the Crxy exe r t e d by the c h a n n e l r e a c h e s a s u f f i c i e n t l y high level to c o n s t r a i n f u r t h e r exy and slip then o c c u r s by 5, 10 or 5, 10, 2. Such a p r o c e s s would y i e l d an M vs c u r v e between c u r v e s (1) and (2) and the 7 - 7 plot would be shifted upward toward the c e n t e r of the envelope of the other c u r v e s . An i n t e r e s t i n g outcome is an explanation of the s t a bility of the (358) o r i e n t a t i o n due to c o m p e t i n g slip on 10, 5 and 10, 3 at this o r i e n t a t i o n . S e v e r a l w o r k e r s have r o i l e d copper single c r y s t a l s and found this to be a stable o r i e n t a t i o n .2~ When c o r r e c t i o n s a r e thus made for o r i e n t a t i o n change d u r i n g the t e s t , the r - 7 c u r v e s for the six o r i e n t a t i o n s t e s t e d f~tllinto a r e a s o n a b l y n a r r o w band even to ~ ~ 2, a s shown in Fig. 4. In Fig. 7 the e n v e lopes of the band a r e plotted together with the T-V c u r v e s obtained by Saimoto 2a u s i n g t e n s i l e t e s t s . F o r the two single c r y s t a l s , the M values a r e 1.5~/B-and

20 COPPER

I
foe a
2
ffl

g,o
5

E,oo]

Fig. 6---~111) pole figure of copper crystal deformed in plane strain compression, exx = --0.59. Triangles indicate the original (111) [110] orientation. Solid arrows, 1, represent rotation calculated for slip on 10, 12 with considerable ~xy shear. Broken arrows marked 2 indicate rotation calculated for slip on 10, 5 or 10, 5, 2 with less ~xy shear and no exy shear, r e spectively. Unmarked arrows are the analogous rotations _ from the symmetrical counterparts, i.e., 8. 7; 8, 4; and 8, 4, 1, respectively. METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS

0,2

0.4 0.6 0.8 SHEAR STRAIN

1.0

1.2

Fig. 7--Comparison of plane strain compression results (shaded band) with tensile results for a polycrystal and two single crystals of multiple slip orientations. VOLUME 1. OCTOBER 1970-2719

30

NO. ORIENTATION
,

5 . ~ 2: J 4 ~ "

,,,'~ NO. ORIENTATION t 2 3 4 5 6 (t~O) (ill) (ill) (llo) (llOl (oot) DTO] [H21 CTio] [Tiz] [001] [T[o]

200

( , , o ) [,To] ( I l l ) [i[2]

3
4

(ill) [TIo]

]~I"/ /.4" /

..;~/
. - ' _..'"
,

.-

/20

s 6

(ItO)[it2]

_//

/ . " ./
~+~.,o

(,,o}[oo,]
(oo,) [no]

/~" /./.."///./~'//

SILVER-TIN

2O

I//..';/"
o"t 9

A~

_.../L~
I00

%
IOO 10 A,., 9 / S"

/
I I I I zd7 i I 2
Xd), i

I 2

Fig. 9--Shear-stress : shear-strain curves adjusted for rotation during deformation. Ag-4wt pct Sn.
z

Fig. 8--Shear-stress : shear-strain curves adjusted for rotation during deformation. Cu-6wt pet A1.

h,,~

x/B- for [111] and [100], r e s p e c t i v e l y . F o r the p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e m a t e r i a l , Saimoto u s e d an M = 2.66 r a t h e r than 3.06 a p p r o p r i a t e for r a n d o m l y o r i e n t e d m a t e r i a l s i n c e the s a m p l e was b e l i e v e d to exhibit a weak <100> t e x t u r e . If M = 3.06 is u s e d , the c u r v e f a l l s j u s t below the band. The c u r v e s d e t e r m i n e d by other w o r k e r s 24-26 fall with the band if M = 3.06 i s used. T h e r e f o r e , we can conclude that the T a y l o r t h e o r y gives r e a s o n a b l e c o r r e l a t i o n between p o l y c r y s t a l and single c r y s t a l t e n s i o n t e s t s and plane s t r a i n c o m p r e s s i o n for copper. Cu-A1 AND Ag-Sn RESULTS The s h e a r - s t r e s s : s h e a r - s t r a i n c u r v e s for the two low s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y a l l o y s a r e p r e s e n t e d in F i g s . 8 and 9. C o r r e c t i o n s for r o t a t i o n w e r e made u s i n g Fig. 3(a) to (d) with the exception of c r y s t a l 6 for Ag-4 pct Sn a s noted below. C o m p l i c a t i o n s a r o s e f r o m m e c h a n i c a l twinning not exhibited in the copper c r y s t a l s . P o l e figure and m e t a l l o g r a p h i c o b s e r v a t i o n i n d i c a t e d m e c h a n i c a l twinning in c r y s t a l s 1, 2, and 6 of the low s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y a l l o y s in a g r e e m e n t with an e x tended T a y l o r a n a l y s i s J 5 T w i n n i n g was m o s t p r o n o u n c e d in Ag-Sn, but was e v i d e n t in the l a t e r s t a g e s of d e f o r m a t i o n of the Cu-A1 alloy. O r i e n t a t i o n 2 shows t w i n n i n g in the section of the c r y s t a l which r o t a t e d toward ( 1 1 2 ) [ 1 i l ] . The b e h a v i o r of t h i s c r y s t a l has been a n a l y z e d in d e t a i l p r e v i o u s l y , la T w i n n i n g was p r o n o u n c e d in the (001) [ l i 0 ] (no. 6) Ag-Sn c r y s t a l . A {111} pole f i g u r e taken after Exx = - 0 . 2 7 is i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 10. The o r i e n t a t i o n i s c o n s i s t e n t with a 13 deg r o t a t i o n about the y axis due to s l i p , followed by twinning on (111) [112] and (111) [112]. The o r i e n t a t i o n of the twinned m a t e r i a l would be v e r y close to {110} (001> (7 deg away) and would have an M factor for slip within the twin of about 0.95~E. Since M thus r e m a i n s n e a r l y x/E with this a s s u m p t i o n of i n i t i a l slip followed by twinning, we have u s e d a c o n s t a n t M = ~/E in c o n s t r u c t i n g c u r v e 6 for Fig. 9. T h i s p r o c e d u r e r e s u l t e d in a negative d e v i a tion (softening) f r o m the a v e r a g e , e s p e c i a l l y in the i n i t i a l s t a g e s of d e f o r m a t i o n . The softening may have come f r o m e a r l y twinning, s i n c e for the (001) [110]
2720-VOLUME 1, O C T O B E R 1970

Fig. 10-~111} pole figure of Ag-4wt pct Sn crystal no. 6 deformed in plane strain compression. ~xx = -0.27. Original orientation (001) [110]. Open symbols indicate orientation after a 9 13 deg rotation about the y axis due to slip. The solid symbols indicate the corresponding twin orientations. o r i e n t a t i o n the twin s y s t e m s a r e m o r e f a v o r a b l y o r i ented than the s l i p s y s t e m s , i . e . , they s u s t a i n a h i g h e r r e s o l v e d s h e a r s t r e s s (see Fig. 4 of Ref. 15). The rotation of the Cu-A1 (001) [110] i s e s s e n t i a l l y that due to slip, so M was adjusted a c c o r d i n g to the o b s e r v e d r o t a t i o n , Fig. 5, as in the c a s e of the copper c r y s t a l s . Weak i n t e n s i t y in the twin o r i e n t a t i o n could be detected in the l a t t e r s t a g e s of d e f o r m a t i o n . The r e m a i n i n g c r y s t a l which had t w i n n e d was (110) [ i l 0 ] , no. 1. The c o n v e r s i o n f r o m the a - e c u r v e to the T-~, c u r v e was m a d e in the s a m e way as for copper, s i n c e a q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s of s e p a r a t i n g the i n d i v i d ual effects of slip and twinning could not be provided. As m a y be s e e n in F i g s . 8 and 9, the T-7 c u r v e s of this o r i e n t a t i o n (no. 1) show e x t r a h a r d e n i n g in the i n i t i a l portion, m o r e so with Ag-Sn. C h i n e t a l . 15 had
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

p r e v i o u s l y o b s e r v e d a very s e v e r e h a r d e n i n g for this o r i e n t a t i o n in Co-8 pct Fe, which exhibited even m o r e p r o n o u n c e d twinning than Ag-Sn. The e x t r a h a r d e n i n g undoubtedly c o m e s from the c o m p l e x twin and slip i n t e r s e c t i o n s i m p o s e d on this o r i e n t a t i o n . With the exception of c o m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m twinning, the s c a t t e r of the ~'-y data is about the s a m e a s that for c o p p e r . Hence, the b a s i c v a l i d i t y of the T a y l o r a p p r o a c h i s r e a s o n a b l y c o n f i r m e d in the low s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y m a t e r i a l s also. DISCUSSION In the p r e s e n t work, we have gone c o n s i d e r a b l y b e yond p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s in a n a l y z i n g the s t r e s s - s t r a i n b e h a v i o r of C r y s t a l s s u b j e c t e d to c o n s t r a i n e d d e f o r m a t i o n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , a c c o u n t was taken of the effects of c o n s t r a i n t r e l a x a t i o n and of l a t t i c e r o t a t i o n on the T a y l o r f a c t o r , and hence the c o n v e r s i o n f r o m the a-~ c u r v e to the r - y curve. With s u c h a p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i o n s , the s c a t t e r in the data i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d e s p e c i a l l y at l a r g e s t r a i n s . The s u g g e s t i o n f r o m e x a m i n i n g the r - y c u r v e s of Figs. 4, 8, and 9 is that except for twinning, the b a s i c T a y l o r a s s u m p t i o n of equal h a r d e n i n g r e m a i n s e s s e n t i a l l y valid to low stacking f a u l t e n e r g y m a t e r i a l s . This means that any unequal hardening brought about by extended dislocations, if indeed occurring, is obscured by the band of scatter in the data (~ :L I0 pct). In recent years, a number of latent hardening experiments have been conducted to gain insight about slip system interactions. Most of these experiments involve the technique of first causing slip in one system and then measuring the flow stress on a previously inactive (latent) system. The general conclusion is that prior slip on one system hardens all other systems more than itself. An exception is the coplanar system, where the hardening is about equal. For aluminum in stage III, the e x t r a h a r d e n i n g i s about 20 pct; 27 for copper in stage H, about 40 pct; 2a and for s i l v e r in stage III, about 40 pct. 2s T h e r e is thus a suggestion that n o n c o p l a n a r h a r d e n i n g i n c r e a s e s with low SFE. However, s i n c e these e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d by f i r s t a c t i v a t i n g one s y s t e m and then the other, they a r e l e s s a p p l i c a b l e to the m u l t i p l e slip situation w h e r e s e v e r a l slip s y s t e m s b e c o m e a c t i v e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . The g r e a t e r n u m b e r of slip i n t e r a c t i o n s in the l a t t e r is expected to p r o v i d e a m o r e u n i f o r m d i s l o c a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n and hence the d i s l o c a t i o n s of each s y s t e m , active o r not, would face s i m i l a r h u r d l e s in t h e i r m o v e m e n t s . T h i s idea is s u p p o r t e d by N a k a d a ' s obs e r v a t i o n s of l a t e n t h a r d e n i n g in the t e n s i l e d e f o r m a tion of a l u m i n u m c r y s t a l s o r i e n t e d for m u l t i p l e slip. 3~ He o b s e r v e d that c r y s t a l s p u l l e d along [111] continued to d e f o r m at the s a m e r e s o l v e d s h e a r s t r e s s when s u b s e q u e n t l y pulled along [100]. Six slip s y s t e m s w e r e active in the [111] d e f o r m a t i o n , and eight s y s t e m s , with only two p r e v i o u s l y active and two in the r e v e r s e s e n s e , b e c a m e active d u r i n g the s u b s e q u e n t [100] d e f o r m a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , t h e r e w a s no change of s t r e s s when the c r y s t a l was f i r s t d e f o r m e d along [100] and then in the [111] o r i e n t a t i o n . It should be pointed out, h o w e v e r , that although the r e d u c e d l a t e n t h a r d e n i n g m a y not show up beyond n o r m a l s c a t t e r of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n data, it is expected to i n f l u e n c e the d e v e l o p m e n t of d e f o r m a t i o n t e x t u r e s , al METALLURG|CALTRANSACTIONS

The l a t t e r depends s e n s i t i v e l y on which of s e v e r a l n e a r l y e q u i v a l e n t c o m b i n a t i o n s of slip s y s t e m s a r e active d u r i n g d e f o r m a t i o n . As for m e c h a n i c a l twinning, the o b s e r v e d i n i t i a l a c t i v a t i o n of the a p p r o p r i a t e twin s y s t e m s i s in a g r e e m e n t with an e x t e n d e d T a y l o r a n a l y s i s . 15 However, any i n c o r p o r a t i o n of s u c h twinning into a n a l y s i s of the l a t e r s t a g e s of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e is at b e s t q u a l i t a t i v e at p r e s e n t . In addition to changing t w i n n e d v o l u m e d u r ing the test, little i s known about the m e c h a n i s m of twinning, and even l e s s so about s l i p - t w i n and t w i n twin i n t e r a c t i o n s . It is hoped that these i s s u e s will be c l a r i f i e d in f u t u r e s t u d i e s . SUMMARY The T a y l o r t h e o r y of c o n s t r a i n e d d e f o r m a t i o n was e x a m i n e d by p l a n e s t r a i n c o m p r e s s i o n of s i n g l e c r y s t a l s of copper, Cu-6 pct Al, and Ag-4 pct Sn. The r e s u l t s and c o n c l u s i o n s a r e s u m m a r i z e d a s follows: l) M e t a l l o g r a p h i c o b s e r v a t i o n s of a c t i v e slip s y s t e m s and X - r a y pole f i g u r e s t u d i e s of l a t t i c e r o t a t i o n , a r e c o n s i s t e n t with p r e d i c t i o n s of the b a s i c T a y l o r theory. 2) The s h e a r - s t r e s s : s h e a r - s t r a i n d i a g r a m s obtained f r o m plane s t r a i n c o m p r e s s i o n a r e in good a g r e e m e n t with single c r y s t a l and p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e t e n s i l e data for copper a v a i l a b l e in the l i t e r a t u r e . 3) Twinning o c c u r r e d m o s t e a s i l y in Ag-4 pct Sn, l e s s so in Cu-6 pct A1, and was not d e t e c t e d in copper. The active twin s y s t e m s and t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n d e p e n dence a g r e e with an extended T a y l o r a n a l y s i s . 4) Twinning in low s t a c k i n g fault e n e r g y m a t e r i a l s c o n t r i b u t e s e x p l a i n a b l e s c a t t e r to the s t r e s s s t r a i n c u r v e s . However, q u a n t i t a t i v e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of twinning to the d e t a i l s of the s t r e s s s t r a i n c u r v e s could not be made at p r e s e n t . 5) The b a s i c T a y l o r a s s u m p t i o n of e q u a l h a r d e n i n g among all slip s y s t e m s r e m a i n s b a s i c a l l y valid to the low stacking fault e n e r g y alloy c r y s t a l s .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The a u t h o r s wish to thank M e s s r s . D. D o r s i and R. R. Hart for t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e in the e x p e r i m e n t s . M e s s r s . T. D. Schlabach and J. H. W e r n i c k kindly r e viewed the m a n u s c r i p t .

REFERENCES
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21. C. A. Verbraak: ActaMet., 1958, vol. 6, pp. 580-97. 22. W. R. Hibbard, Jr. and W. R. Tully: Trans. TMS-AIME, 1961, voL 221, pp. 336-43. 23. S. Saimoto, Ph.D. Thesis, 1964, p. 17. 24. R. P. Carreker, Jr. and W. R. Hibbard, Jr.: ActaMet., 1953, vol. 1, p. 654. 25. G. Mayer: Ph D. Thesis, 1967, p. 52. 26. A. KochendSrfer and M. Swanson: Arch. Eisenhuettenw., 1960, vol. 31, pp. 549-53. 27. U. F. Kocks and T. J. Brown: ActaMet., 1966, vol. 14, p. 87. 28. P. J. Jackson and Z. S. Basinski: Can. J. Phys., 1967, vol. 45, p. 707. 29. B. Ramaswami, U. F. Kooks, and B. Chalmers: Trans. TMS-AIME, 1965, vol. 233, p. 927. 30. Y. Nakada: Bell Telephone Laboratories, Allentown, Pa., 1970, unpublished research. 31. G. Y. Chin: Textures in Research and Practice, J. Grewan and G. Wassermann, eds., pp. 51-79, Springer-Verlag Co., Berlin, 1969.

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1, O C T O B E R 1970

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