Chapter Four Command and leadership

4. Content 4.1. Fighting power 4.2.Command equation 4.3. The physical component 4.4. Leadership the moral component 4.5. The role of organization in leadership 4.6. Integrity and moral courage 4.7. Personal and soldier management Introduction The primary role of an officer is to be a commander, a leader. What does this entail? From a civilian point of view it can be seen as Organizations are only as effective as the people in them. People are only effective as their leaders enable them to be The leadership trust To words emerge from this civilian definition effective and the very non military, but frequently used civilian management word enable. From a military point of view the commanders task is to maximize Fighting Power. This is achieved in three stages: On Arrival a commander, be it as an army commander or platoon commander, should make an initial assessment of the capabilities of his new command. What quality are the soldiers and officers, what is the state of training and finally, what equipment is available? Training for war from the above the commander develops a training plane to bring them up to a state of operational readiness there by doing his best to maximize the potential fighting power available to him and higher commanders. This includes developing new tactical maneuvers, techniques and equipment as well as assessing the performance of his subordinates under actual or simulated operational conditions.
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Committed to operations- the commander is also responsible for producing effective plans orders and control measures to enhance further the potential fighting power of his force.

Objective
After completing this chapter, officers would be able to: Grasp the basic principles of leadership in order to perform duties as leaders or as followers in implementing the program of their unit and there by demonstrate their leadership capabilities. Lead and train their troops effectively and efficiently. Create strong bond of command and respect for unit in commanding and combat. Demonstrate sincerity, objectivity and justice in their military leadership, decision making and implementing capabilities.

Activities one 1. What is commander means to you? 2. What is military leadership?

Leadership refers to those activities aimed at influencing the behavior of others to properly carry out the given tasks. Leadership is the projection of personality and character of an individual, usually the commander, to motivate soldiers to do what is expected from them. A command of leadership skills is one of the most important qualities a commander should have if he is to lead; it is an extremely important precondition for achieving success for a unit at all levels of operations. There is no recipe for leadership. Each commander will motivate his soldiers in different ways using, for instance, his persuasive powers, coercion, the strength of his personality or charm or a combination of these mechanisum.

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4.1. FIGHTING POWER What is this fighting power that we must maximize? Put simple, it contains three fundamental and inter- related compotes that define an Armys ability to fight physical, Conceptual and moral. Physical component- or combat power the total means of destructive and or disruptive force which a military unit can apply against the opposition at a given time. The elements of this are. o Manpower o Equipment o Logistics o Training and readiness Conceptual component: - the thought process behind the ability to fight. As Clausewitz puts it Theory exists so that one does not have to start afresh every time sorting out the raw materials and plough it, but will find it ready to hand and in good order. It is meant to educate the mind of the future commander, or, more accurately to guide him in his self education not accompanies him to the battle field the conceptual component is made up of: o Principles of war o Military doctrine o Development Moral component: - this concerns the ability to get people to fight. Many theorists and all practitioners of war have pointed to the significance of the moral aspect in fighting. But it is often difficult to define. It is often summed up in the term morale which Napoleon quantified by saying that. Morale is to the material as three to one High morale will stem from sound training, confidence in equipment and good administration as well as confidence in commanders, discipline, self respect and clear knowledge of what is going on and what is required. Yet the ability to get people to fight is not just a question of moral. It will involve: o Motivation plays major parts in getting soldiers to fight and depends on a sense of purpose.

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o Leadership military leadership is the projection of personality and character to get soldiers to do what is required of them. o Management this involves making the best use of resources. It is a facet of command and not a substitute for good leadership. As start point therefore the role of the commander is maximize the fighting power that is available to him/her. As can be seen fighting power has three components, namely physicalmanpower, equipment, logistics, training and readiness, intellectual principle of war, military doctrine and development of work, and the moral motivating and leading the men under command. 4.2. COMMAND EQUATION To focus little more on the word command: command is the authority vested in offices and soldiers the oxford English Dictionary goes on to tell us about authority it says that it is the power to enforce obedience Frankly this is far too narrow, and rather legalistic a definition. It seems to have little application to the business of maximizing fighting power. Something more practical more pragmatic is needed: that is a definition that says more about making things happen. At Academy, the following command model, which encapsulates the moral, intellectual and physical components, is used:

LEADERSHIP

COMMAND

SKILL DRILIS

Command =
QUALITIES

+
TOOLS

+
and SOPs

Command equation Higher up the level of command, the scale of operations increases requiring a greater need for staff support to a commander and therefore the way in which command is expressed also changes finely.

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Activity two 1. Discus on the importance of conceptual component. 2. What is fight power mean?

4.3. THE PHYSICAL COMPONENT Looking at each of the component parts of command we will start with the physical component, in the academy command equation - the skills drills, and knowledge. The navy talk about knowing your job, and in many ways this is what is meant here. These can all be taught and the will be, they can all be learnt as they will be. What is meant by skills? The following are low level examples pertinent to junior commander: Firstly, communication. This is a vital skill for a commander. He has to be able to receive information in order to make a plan. Having made his plan, he has to be able to send out his orders. Having done so, he has to use communications system to control his force, and respond to fresh information as it comes in. Map reading is a key skill, as is the associated skill of navigation. Map reading is required to prepare a plan; subsequently, forces must be led into position to start an operation. They must maneuver accurately and other elements of the force must know when they are and where they are heading. Knowledge of weapons is vital. Obviously a commander must be able to play his part in any fighting situation he finds himself in. More important he must be able to make full use of all the weapon systems at his disposal: and know what they can do and what they cannot do. Knowledge of enemy weapon systems and their capabilities is also required. By drills we are not referring to the activity that takes place on a drill square, although that is the historical forerunner of what is meant. A drill pertains to a tactical activity ranging from the attack, to an ambush, to something as basic as trench clearing. It is simply a series of orchestrated moves, expressed in a logical sequence. It is first taught in a classroom, probably practiced on a sports field and they developed on an exercise area. In due course, the actual
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ground layout, the enemy dispositions and the available time will all interact to produce something which is far more sophisticated and akin to tactics By the same token a standard operating procedure is a series of orchestrated moves or actions, designed to provide a support function to a tactical situation. This could be as far ranging as a resupply SOP, or the layout of a line of departure for a night attack There is much for a commander to master this all constitutes military knowledge and it is a key component of command. 4.4. LRADRSHIP - THE MORAL COMPONENT 1. Now to leadership qualities - much of this is also covered in the leadership Theory prcis. To start with some comments made on the subject of leadership by an American President and by two Field Marshals : --------- the ability to get other people to do what they dont want to do and to like it. Truman The will to dominate together with the character that inspires confidence Montgomery Example, persuasion and compulsion, Just plain you FM slim

Group Discussion Discus on the above theories in group.

Look at Truman comment because it starts to highlight the key issue of motivation it that makes men do something when all their senses cry no? From a British Amy view, taken in the second half of the 20th century, the immediate response to the above quotations may well be leadership we need, however, to be aware that it has not always been so and that it might well be different in other countries and cultures.
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---------The ability to get other people to do what they dont want to ------Fear? Religious Fervor? Leadership?

a. Consider fear. There is fear of punishment; the Amy of wellington knew all about this Hanging, flogging and beating were regular occurrences. Even as late as world war one, the British Amy shot deserters in order to encourage the others b. There is also fear of failure. The Japanese code of honors is a good example of this there were very few Japanese taken prisoners in WW2, soldiers preferred to die rather than be shamed. The impact was very real, as the Americans found as they fought from island to island in the pacific campaign and accounts of the fighting at Kohima make it very clear that the Japanese fought to the death. c. What about religious fanaticism? Accounts of the Iran/Iraq war, fought during the 1980s detailed incidents of minefield clearance by young boys marching ahead of the assaulting force and clearing anti personnel mines by blowing themselves up. The Hammas suicide bombers in Israeli have a similar outlook. Death in a holy war- a Jihad-ensures immediate access to heaven. The fervor need not be conventional religion. The Chinese shock troops who threw themselves onto the UN positions in Korea in the 1950s were fighting in the cause of communism; they were imbued with breathtaking resolve, and death did not seem to worry them. Why should any if this matter? The task of any Army is to defeat the enemy. This may involve killing them all but classically it requires only that the enemys will fight is defeated. First then, you need to know why it is that they are fighting. Now to look much more specifically at leadership qualities, there are many source documents, with lists of leadership qualities, around none agree totally. Command lists qualities for a

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commander, which includes leadership, we find the following list: Curiously, professional knowledge is judged to be a quality Taking a slightly different approach, professional journals are often used by officers who wish to explore new approaches to an issue. Leadership Robustness Courage and Resolution Boldness Integrity - Professional Knowledge - Imagination - Judgment - Decisiveness and Flexibility

A commander needs .. To know what best to do To know how best to do it to know the manner to get it done, Thus principal qualities required are: Insight Technical competence determination

Field Marshal Slim a great fighting General and the author of Defeat in to victory lists the following as the qualities of a commander: SLIM Courage Willpower Initiative Knowledge Integrity
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Field Marshal lord Harding, who was chief of the imperial general staff at the time of the Suez Invasion in 1956s has a similar, but more expanded list. Rather more pertinently in the weeks leading up to the battle of El Alamein in 1942 he had just been promoted to Major General in command of the 7thAmoured Division the desert rats. He was a real fighting general and so rather like Slim, has certainly got something to tell us on the subject of leadership qualities. Here is an extract about Hardings contribution to El Alamein. On the first night of that battle, the night of the 23rd/24th October 1942, 22 Armored Brigade of his division had to break through 2 belts of mines, in order to then break out and exploit behind the German positions. In fact on that first night they only got through the first belt of mines, but then stalled the ground in between. They spent a difficult and uncomfortable day on the 24th October. On the second night of battle, the 24th/25th October 1942, they were reinforced by 131 motorized infantry brigade. 2. We shall return to this story later when talking about the position of a commander, but for now lets simply agrees that he great fighting commander. Here is lord Hardings list of leadership qualities alongside Slim list: SLIM Courage Willpower Initiative Knowledge Integrity LORD HARDING - Courage - Willpower - Initiative - Knowledge - Integrity -Fitness -Judgment

It is immediately apparent that some of the qualities listed are common to both lists and that Harding shows some additional qualities. We should not find any of this surprising for, although
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slim was older and had a first world war and Indian Army background, both had had a similar military education formulated largely on the conclusions drawn from world war one. Both were leasers with strong fighting background and instincts The point to note is that we are all made differently and are product of the various experiences we have faced. Then bear in mind that in the future we shall all face different challenges. It does seem that definitive, all embracing lists of qualities are unrealistic and can never fit each individual to meet every type of battle or challenge ahead. The qualities required in a dashing advance, are somewhat different from those required in a grim, stoic defense. Even the level of command is likely to affect our view of which is the most important qualities. Officer Cadets will have the chance to look in some depth at the qualities of some distinguished leaders. Some will be soldiers, but some will also study politicians, business leaders and historical figures. At that time, too, there will be a need to study the work of some leadership theorists such as John Adair, De Bono, Maslow and Belbin and look at some management gurus such as John Harvey Pones. It is Important that officer cadets start to develop a deeper understanding of the psychology of team building and motivation. Right now we need to ask ourselves the question, are you born with leadership qualities or do you develop them? this is the inherent versus acquired debate.
QUALITIES

Inherent? Counsel, role model Advise, encourage. Acquired Teach, develop, Demand

The short answer is certainly a bit of both. Some qualities are inherent, and so can only be developed through counseling role modeling or advising. Other qualities certainly are acquired and so can be taught. Integrity and possible moral courage are good examples of an acquired quality. Standards can be laid down, encouraged, indeed even imposed, explains the way in which officers are expected to behave. On the other hand, inherent qualities such as willpower,
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self-confidence, enthusiasm, probably physical courage and caring nature can best be developed through counseling and role modeling. One needs also to look at the crucially important area of the impact of leadership qualities on the lead as this is a two way process.

Leader -----------------------------------Led Relationship QUALITIES

It is not sufficient to take account simply of the way in which the leader or the commander feels about himself. The process is about the relationship between the leader and the people being led what is crucial is the perception of those who are being commanded. Quite clearly, what happens now, in the present, has an important impact. Here we see the way in which influence, presence, persuasion, caring and personal example in peace and war all have a key role. But also very important in coloring the perception of those being led is their understanding of what has happened in the past. What is the reputation or track record of their leader? Is he an honest man? Does he have a reputation of caring about his soldiers? Is he ambitious and prepared to be so at the expense of the soldiers? The perception from the past as seen in the present will impact upon the way in which those who are being led will expect their commander to behave in the future. The degree of trust and the confidence that they are prepared to place in him will flow from what they see in the present and what they know from the past. To reinforce this point with a quote from one Rifleman Harris, combatant in wellingtons army fighting in the peninsular war. Harris was a very special soldier, one of the few private soldiers of his day to have kept a Journal. In his diary subsequently published as the recollections of Rifleman Harris he says this: - It is singular how a man loses or gains cast with his comrades from his behavior, and how closely he is observed in the field. The officers too are commented upon and closely
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observed. The men are very proud of those who are brave in the field and kind and considerate to the soldiers under them. An act of kindness done by an officer has often, during the battle, been the cause of his life being saved.

Past Present Past

Coming forward to the second world war, here is Montgomerys view all this: The first thing a young officer must do when he Join the army is to fight a battle, and that battle is for the hearts of his men. If he wins that battle, and subsequent similar ones, his men will follow him anywhere; if he loses it, he will never really do any good. Montgomery - Memoirs

What he has to say really emphasizes the importance of the impact a young officer makes on first joining his command and of the way this will carry in to second stage of command, that of training your organization before the first battle- the operational phase, the third stage of command. Coming forward a little further to the early 1950s and to Korea, here is what General Sir Peter de la Billiere says in his recently published book looking for trouble. Aged just nineteen, he was joining 1 DLI in Korea in April 1953: As for myself I had to learn how to command men the hard way. I arrived totally inexperienced, but now I was making plans which involved mens lives. Every day, I had to convince the men that the plans were good, and to ensure that everyone stood by what we had agreed. Commanding men - I began to see- is actually a question of getting them on your side, over a period of time, and working to bring them together as a loyal ,co- ordinate team And finally, here is our view of what can happen if the leader led relationship go wrong --Page | 12

There go my men ---I must follow, for I am their leader!!

COMMAND TOOLS THE CONCEPTUAL COMPONENT Turning now to the conceptual component, the command tools, the chart below list the military terminology on the left and civilian, or what are called the functional terminology, on the right. COMMAND TOOLS Military term Estimate Orders Control function Planning Briefing Controlling - Supporting - Informing Evaluating

Review/Reaction

It can be seen that we are dealing in the business of planning, briefing, controlling and reviewing. To help the understanding of the functional terminology the civilian speak if you like is used in the first half of tern 1 before developing the military way of going about these functions of planning and briefing - First there is a need analyze what it is youre being asked to do. You must be absolutely clear in your own mind what it is you have to achieve and you also be too aware of any limitations that have been imposed upon you. - Next you need to make sure that the rest of your team are aware that there is a task about to take place and that have some sort of notion of what it is they are going to have to do. If theres any obvious administration that can do, get that underway. This is the initial briefing, called in military terminology, the initial warning order. - Once you have achieved an initial warning order, the commander must move apart from the team and get on with the business of planning. You can see from the slide that planning is divided into 2 phases, consulting and consideration.

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The common deficits in command are --- calling conferences in order to pick the brains of subordinates and lack of originality which often leads to doing something which the enemy expects in place of what he does not look for fuller

EXPLOIT EXPERTISE AND GOOD IDEAS BE BOLD

- Consulting is one the most misunderstood aspects of the whole planning process. What consulting is not is a Chinese parliament, nor is it being unable to make a decision for yourself as the commander or being void of any ideas yourself Consulting means consulting experts where that is relevant. If the problem is likely to involve taking tanks down a particular route, then obviously it would be sensible to consult either a map, or experts, on which bridges will take the weight of a tank. If youve got to cross particular terrain with armored vehicles that you are going to have to cross a water obstacle and youve never built a raft before then take advice from someone who has and find out whats involved and what equipment you are lily to need, How long its likely to take to build a raft and so on. So much for consulting, do not let average solutions emerge from Chinese parliaments. Consult experts and then either take their advice or remember that it is your decision. - The job now is to consider all the factors involved in resolving your particular problem. You thee need to work out what realistic courses of action (COA) are available to you. You then need to come to a judgment on which COA looks best. Once its clear that you have next stage which is the best way to proceed, you youve come to the next which is the decision point - Decide which course of action is best. Know what it is youre going to do and how you are going to do it - Having reached the decision point and having a clear view of your plan in your own head, you are in a position to issue a warning order with any further preliminary action that you want taken
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- Having issued a warning order you can then prepare your briefing. This is where even something as simple as a command task should involve a notebook and pencil. - Having prepared your briefing, you can then give orders or give your briefing - With that done and understood, you can get the task started on the command tools chart we have reached this far.

COMMAND TOOLS Military term Estimate Orders Control function = planning = Briefing controlling Supporting Informing = evaluation

Review Reaction

With the started the commander needs to be involved in the control and re evaluation phases.
The commanders role Post briefing/ orders - Control support, inform, influence - Evaluate progress o Decide if changes To original orders Needed. Constantly Refer to mission look ahead to Future tasks with in higher comds intentions

The job of the commander initially in the controlling phase is to support, to inform and to influence. If all is going well it will become obvious that the task is going to be achieved and at some stage the commanders priorities must be changed. He must stop putting his maximum
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effort into the task in hand and start thinking about the next thing that needs to be done. He needs to hand over to his second in command in order to get ahead to look at what that next job might be. It could be something which has been given to him in his orders or he may have to discern that for himself. Inevitably though, in terms of controlling the on-going task and looking ahead at the next task, the commanders position is going to be vital. Re-evaluation- If, during the controlling phase, it is obvious that the task is not going to succeed, it is the commanders responsibility to reach that conclusion and come up with an alternative plan. This has to be worked through and new orders have to be given to the team.

4.5. The Role of Organization in Leadership

Apart from operating with their own groups, army officers are often required to organize ad hoc groups and different resources to achieve a task. The importance of organization in achieves a task should not be underestimated. This prcis is much concerned with leading and organizing in peacetime, but the principles will apply to the organization of operations as well. In looking at civilian companies, management consultants have identified four activities which lead to successful task accomplishment. They correspond closely with Adairs functions: a) Planning b) Organizing c) Directing and Coordinating d) Controlling a. Planning Planning is a major aspect of all military activity. Much effort is put into the teaching of appreciations and the issue of orders on courses throughout an officers career. The Army is particularly good at planning and at the dissemination of information, using its clear chain of command and good communication systems. b. Organization The role of organization is to provide officers with a tool for achieving tasks. The organization is already in place in the form of the unit structure or establishment. Organizations are based upon
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clear principles which are helpful when setting up a special task. Knowledge of these principles is useful to the successful leader. Unit of Command- In an effective organization no-one reports to more than one direct superior. In this way conflicting orders are avoided. Unit of command is a principle of Army organization and can be seen in the structure of the chain of command from MoND down to unit level. Span of Control- There are limits to the amount and type of supervision that a leader can exercise effectively. The factors affecting the span of control are: number of personnel, distance and time. Number of personnel- The mathematics of span of Control demonstrates how direct and indirect relationships multiply as the number of subordinates increases: a span of 7 subordinates produce127 direct + 490 indirect or cross relationships and is generally considered the maximum that anyone leader can manage effectively. On the other hand, fewer than 3 subordinates tend to lead over-supervision. Note how these span of control correspond with unit and sub unit organizations. This principle shows that the leader who has to work with a large group needs to split the group in to sub-groups each with someone in change. Having few subordinates directly responsible to himself, he can deal more effectively with the group as a whole. Distance-distance has to be considered as a factor in span of control. If subordinates are grouped close together there are fewer problems in supervising them than if they are spread out at some distance from each. In the latter case it may be that difficulties of supervision may require the span of control be reduced to 4 or 5. Time Factor- time is an important factor in deciding a suitable span of control within an organization. Some tasks take more supervision by the leader than others. Consequently it may not be possible to supervise sensibly the full span of 7 subordinates. Similarity of Assignment- It makes obvious sense, for the sake of efficiency, to group similar tasks together, as well as to group specialists. Thus in a unit we find drivers in an (x) section, who are closely associated with the mechanics of the Oral, who work in the x garages serving and repairing vehicles.

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Delegation of Authority- The most important point is that only authority can be delegated, responsibilities cannot. c. Directing and Coordinating Especially in an organization larger than just a troop/platoon, say, the running of an adventurous training hut, the directing function is of great importance, It involves all the aspects of leadership, particularly communication and rather more than just the ability to give good tactical order. d. Controlling The earlier that problem can be identified the quicker they can be solved. Under ideal conditions control should be unnecessary. Everyone should know their job and do it to the best of their ability. People, though, are human: they do make mistakes; standards can slip and the unexpected can quickly bring activity to a halt. Leaders, therefore, must always keep a check on progress to make sure that objectives are achieved. Controlling is an important function is setting up any organization and followers naturally from the requirement to plan, brief and motivate effectively. In terms of organizing, use controls as a check on success and then to learn lessons from doing so. On small tasks control can often be exercised by observation and direction, but on large or more dispersed tasks reporting or inspection procedures may be needed. A good leader will: a. Keep reports to the minimum. b. Only initiate new or extra procedures when necessary. c. Keep all reports simple. In controlling work the leader measure the actual performance against the targets originally set. If these targets are not being met the leader may need to repeat the process of planning, organizing, leader can measure the effectiveness of the organization.

4.6. Integrity and Moral Courage

Mach of our future success will depend upon your concepts of Integrity and Moral Courage. Some practical advice about need for these rather abstract qualities is set out below; your need is very real indeed.
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Integrity
You need to know exactly what is expected of you as a person during service as an officer, weather on or off duty. The lectures and platoon discussion suggest a paragon of virtue; serious, responsible and ever-present, an onerous existence, it might seem. You will recall the discussion on integrity and the four principles: a) Being Straight- being honorable; being just and fair; not saying one thing and doing another; avoiding cynicism and sarcasm. b) Being Honest- not stealing or acquiring other peoples property (including MoND stores); not fiddling travel claim; not evading Customs Duty Income Tax; not avoiding fares; not using stores, vehicles and telephones for private use. To set an example in these areas, you yourself must be blameless. c) Being Humble- admitting to and owning up to ones own errors or omissions and not blaming other; not boasting or making snide remarks; being generous in both victory and defeat; thinking of service and not self. Good leader takes a little more than his share of the blame and a little less than his share of the credit. d) Being Sincere- being entirely yourself; knowing your own faults and being prepared to admit them and to try to correct them. Soldiers will follow and help a sincere officer. It is not weak to ask for and receive before making a decision.

Scandal- there are five main areas where your sense of integrity, hopefully learned at
home and school and reinforced at academy, can keep you of trouble: a) Fraud- fraud is rare in the Army as a whole, but every year a few people risk their careers, good name ( and that of their family and Regiment), income and job for related offence is quite another, so is being an alcoholic. Such offences demonstrate a lack of judgment and consideration for others; a lack of integrity. b) Drink- you have already heard that alcohol abuse is a matter of concern in the Army. A good party is one thing; being convicted of, say drunken driving or any drink related offence is quite another, so is being an alcoholic. Such offences demonstrate a basic lack of judgment and consideration for others; a lack of integrity.

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c) Sexual Matters- no matter what the trends in civilian life, the Army takes a serious view of sexual improbability. Soldiers do not expect their officers to be involved in any sexual misconduct. A battalion/regiment is a family and you should never behave in any way which would weaken the family or bring it into disrepute. Commanding officers are required to render a certificate to the effect that nothing in a divorce action impinges upon good order or military discipline. Social misconduct with married officers or their spouses is viewed with disfavor; so too is any improper behavior in an officers Mess which, impropriety apart, will give offence to other members and the staff. d) Drug- you should assume that, as an officer, any involvement with drugs yourself or your failure to report swiftly any knowledge or suspicion or drug taking in your unit, will lead to serious disciplinary action, probably the termination of your commission. e) Security- security in todays terrorist and espionage climate is a major concern in the Army. You might remember the mnemonic AAACD- Army. Ammunition, Access, Cash, Documents. Failure to observe conscientiously the very strict rules and safeguards has to be seen as a lack of integrity in an officer and, of course, a lapse in any of the 4 above areas may well lay you open to threats and have far reaching security implications. Your integrity- short of those areas for disgrace and there are others, there are the day to day matters of integrity, in maintaining standards as a person and as an officer. If in any doubt, ask to yourself: is it right to .? You may like to think of integrity, an abstract quality of total honesty, in a more functional and even mathematical sense. Consider the equation: Assumption of responsibility + the setting of an example = the quality of integrity. Moral Courage Moral courage, whether in peace or war, is all about taking unpopular and difficult decisions often in the face of contrary advice and adversity. It also sometimes requires moral courage to stand up for ones subordinates. In his book Anatomy of Courage Lord Moran wrote: Fortitude in war has its roots in morality; and war itself is but one more test-the supreme and
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final test if you will-have character. Character, as Aristotle taught, is a habit, the daily choice of right instead of wrong; it is a moral quality which grows to maturity in peace and is not suddenly developed at the outbreak of war. It is through having the moral courage in peacetime to take difficult and unpalatable decisions, however small they may be that your character is strengthened. The reverse is also true; every time you fail to take action which to be right, e.g. not admonishing an NCO for not saluting you, your stock of moral courage and thus your character, will be diminished. Leadership Area the following are some areas in which you may have to show moral courage, both in setting your own standards as an example to others and then in enforcing those standards. a. Training Standards never let anything slip in training. Correct poor fire positions, camouflage or vehicle discipline; insist on improvement. b. Administration and Security- never skimp on checks or duties; check up on others; dont let subordinates down through your poor supervision; dont be let down by slackness. Insist on the right standards, even after a later night exercise or on Friday afternoon, no matter how tiresome it may be. c. Appearance and Behavior- your own example will give you extra moral courage. Suppose that, if you are dressed in a careless manner without a coat or tie, you cannot, with any conviction, deal with an incident. Your own standards defeat you. d. Discipline- once in a while you may need every ounce of moral courage you possess dealing with some dishonest or other serious matter. If another officer or an SNCO is involved it will be very difficult, particularly if you are relatively inexperienced, but there is only one course to take; you must act. The straight approach to discipline always gains the respect of soldiers. e. Peace of Mind- all the above area is tests of your moral courage. Meeting the challenge and providing that your integrity and moral courage are more than equal to it will strengthen your character and bring you peace of mind. Failure to do so can only lead to irritating doubts, a weak of your character, a loss of confidence and the knowledge that you are probably being talked about as a soft touch.

4.7. Personnel And Soldier- Management

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Man-management must not be confused with management is largely a civilian term which has come to mean organizing resources as well as people. Man-management is the art of handling men and caring for them; it is an integral part of leadership and much concerned with motivation. To be a successful leader the officer must know and understand his men well. A bond of mutual respect cannot be formed unless the men know that you have their best interests at heart.

Activities 1. What do you understand by the term soldier management? 2. What are the advantages having civilian members of staff on a military establishment? The subject will be deal with two heading: a) Understanding soldiers. b) The officer/soldiers relationship and motivation.

Understanding Soldiers
The need for understanding and knowledge- you cannot deal with material that you know little or nothing about. Your men are tour material; you must know all about them. a) Your soldiers needs- you must be aware of your mens physical and emotional needs under a wide variety of conditions. Your initial training will have given you some idea of their physical needs for they are much the same as your own: commonsense, forethought and detailed planning are required. Understanding their emotional needs is more difficult. Each soldier is unique and will react differently to his environment. It is your job to know each man so that you are able to understand him and so cater for his needs. Each man must feel that he is fulfilling an important role within the platoon and his efforts are not only vital to the success of the platoon, but are appreciated. If you are able to
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communicate this to him he will not only be eager to carry out his job well, but to improve and seek promotion to a more responsible job. b) Reasons why men differ- there are 2 main reasons why men differ from one another: 1. Their genetic inheritance. 2. Environmental influences: home, school, work etc. c) Lead Them like Orchestra- it is your job, as an officer, to bind these men into a single team. Like the conductor of the orchestra, you must know the strong point and weaknesses of your players and you must use each to his best advantage and to the command end. d) Make the Best of Your Material- you will get some peculiar types in your platoon or troop and, at first sight, some them will seem to be below average soldiers; however, you must get the best out of them. Keep looking for their good qualities and try to fit each into the position where he is most suitably employed. You will be amazed to find, after a time, how good they really are. e) Men in the Ranks Perceive Matters Differently to Officers- realize this and make it your business to see their point of view. Be perceptive in considering your soldiers and their well-being. f) Ways of Gaining Knowledge and Understanding this is not easy; it takes trouble, patience and skill. Here are some ways of doing it: 1. Company sport meeting, platoon parties or during a brew after hard training. 2. Informal chats off parade and in the field and subsequently discussing them with the CSM (Company Sergeant Major) and SNCOs (Senior Non Commissioned Officers). 3. Formal interviews in your office, which must include the regular counseling of each soldier. 4. Ordinary observations study each man and see how he reacts in different circumstances. 5. Discussion and current affairs briefings. g. Find points of contact the initiative must come from you. Try and find some point on which you can talk to each man on his own ground. One man may be a football fan, one a chess player and another pigeon fancier; you will be able surprised at the range of your soldiers interests. If

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you can find his main interest, you will be able to get him to talk easily and freely about the things that really matter to him, his family for instance.

Summary
In summary these are the command tools: Command tools Military Term Estimate Orders Control Function = Planning = Briefing = Controlling Review/Reaction = Evaluating Supporting Informing

The overall command equation

Leadership Command + Tools + Skill Drills and SOPs

Command

Quality

All three areas shown here in the command feature large in indeed make up the Commissioning Course at Military Academy. So command is what the Academy is all about and it is what a young officer is required to master. This is an ongoing process and a truly professional officer never loses his interest in this subject. You will need a clear grasp of the basics by the time you leave Major Gen. Hayelom Araya Military Academy, in order to assume command of your first platoon or troop. Junior officer will face many tasks in addition to their primary role of attacking the hill, or taking a convoy from A to B. Other tasks could include guarding Key point, clearing rubbish, or running part of a unit open day; in each case a different organization is likely to be required. The themes of unit of command, a workable span of control, sensible delegation and good coordination are common to any task. These themes correspond exactly with Adairs theory of Functional Leadership.
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Generally these have given you some ideas about understanding your men, to make you realize how big your responsibility is going to be and to show you how fascinating it can be. Nothing said here is to be taken to mean that your men should be pampered. On the contrary, you must be strict, you must work your men hard and you must demand the highest standards in everything. But you must be human, you must see your mens point of view and you must realize that you are responsible for them, not only for their training and turnout, but for every part of their lives, including their time off and even their mental outlook. You are Army to your men. As you are to them, so will they picture the whole organization of the service. To be a soldier is to fill a dignified and important role in the countrys service. Make your men realize this. Fail to follow the main point of this prcis and you will fail as a leader, even though it may take some time for your failure to become apparent. All this may seem an almost impossible task. Being an officer is a hard job with plenty of work to it. Set yourself a high standard, do your best use your commonsense and then you will not fail.

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CHPTER SIX COMMAND AND CONTROL Content 6.1. What is command? 6.2. Aspects of command 6.3. Command on the battle field 6.4. Effective control 6.5. Mission command 6.6. Command and responsibility

Introduction Command and control (C2) is an essential element of the art and science of warfare. No single specialized function, either by itself or combined with others, has a purpose without it. Commanders are responsible for C2. However, C2 is also of great concern to staff officers and some staff specialists. Some understand C2 to be a distinct, specialized function similar to logistics, intelligence, and information operations. C2 does have its own procedures, considerations, and vocabulary. It operates separately from other functions, yet in coordination with them. Through C2, commanders initiate and integrate all military functions and operations toward a common goal mission accomplishment. How one understands C2 depends on the perspective from which one approaches its study. Some study and discuss C2 as technological means and resources. Others see C2 as people only. Still others focus on C2 as an organization. Finally, C2 has been discussed as a set of procedures. In practice, however, C2 is a commander
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and a C2 system a combination of people, organization, technological means and resources, and procedures. Commanders have exercised C2 throughout history. They have performed many of the same C2 functions as long as warfare has existed.

6.1.

DEFINITION OF COMMAND AND CONTROL Activities 1. What is command? 2. What is the relationship between command and control?

Command is the essential task of commanders applying the art and science of war to the command and control of Army forces. The commanders command and control system enables him to use his authority to accomplish the mission and see to the health and welfare of subordinates. Using his Command and control system, the commander directs the actions of his forces and imposes his will on the enemy. Through command and control, the commander initiates the actions of influences, and synchronizes the elements of combat power to impose his will on the situation and defeat the enemy. Command is the authority that a commander in the military service lawfully exercises over subordinates by virtue of rank or assignment. Command includes the authority and responsibility for effectively using Available resources and for planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling the employment of military forces for the accomplishment of assigned missions. It also includes responsibility for health, Welfare, morale, and discipline of assigned personnel Command and control is the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of a mission. Commanders perform command and control functions through a command and control system.

6.1.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMAND AND CONTROL

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Command and control are interrelated. Command resides with commanders. It consists of authority, decision making, and leadership. Command is mostly art but by some aspects science. Control is how commanders execute command. It is mostly science but also art. Science deals with the study and method of a body of facts and processes based on principles from the physical or material world. Art, as opposed to science, requires expert performance of a specific skill using intuitive faculties that cannot be solely learned by study or education. Doctrine contains a science component that deals with the capabilities and limitations of the physical means used in operations. Knowledge of doctrines science component is essential. Coupled with experience and training, it forms the basis for the art in human judgment necessary when applying doctrine to a specific situation. However, doctrine cannot be reduced to science; it is inherently art. Commanders cannot exercise command effectively without control. Conversely, control has no function without command to focus it. Command is primary, but it is insufficient without control. C2 is not a one-way, top-down process that imposes control on subordinates. C2 is multidirectional, with feedback influencing commanders from below, from above, and laterally. Command focuses the practice and organization of the science within control. Control informs the exercise of art within command and regulates the functions of the force. Higher echelon organizations are more complex than lower echelon organizations. Nonetheless, the functions and related requirements of command remain comparatively constant, while control functions increase at each higher echelon. At higher echelons, the impact of commanders is more indirect, while the roles of staffs and other elements of the C2 system are more prominent. This situation requires higher echelon commanders to apply organizational, as well as direct, leadership skills and actions.

6.1.2. COMPONENTS OF COMMAND AND CONTROL C2 consist of two components: the commander and his C2 system. Commanders use their command and control systems to exercise C2 over forces to accomplish missions. a. The Commander In units at all levels; the commander is the key individual in command

and control. Commanders combine the art of command and the science of control to exercise C2. They create positive command climates that inculcate and foster trust and mutual understanding. They train their subordinates in C2. Using their C2 systems, of exercise C2 to direct operations.
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commanders Reorganizing unites for farther combat operation Locate units on key terrains give order to conduct reconnaissance about enemy force activities select command post places synchronize combat formation Preparing and reporting combat execution to higher HQ. Prepare the units to defend the enemy force counter attack. In every commander is the crucial point for penetrating the fog of war, overcoming its unceasing friction, and instilling in soldiers the will to win. Commanders, helped by staffs, visualize operations, describe them in terms of the commanders intent and planning guidance, and direct the actions of subordinates within their commanders intent. Commanders cannot perform these leader actions from a computer screen at the command post. They must directly influence operations by their personal presence at times and places of their choosing, and by skillfully using their C2 systems. b. Control System is Commanders cannot exercise C2 alone except in the

simplest and smallest of units. Even at the lowest levels, commanders need support, however little, to exercise C2 effectively. At every echelon of command, each commander has a command and control system to provide that support. A command and control system is the arrangement of personnel, information management, procedures, and equipment and facilities essential for the commander to conduct operations. Digitized information systems now being fielded will increase the complexity of C2 systems but will provide commanders with more timely and accurate. The C2 system begins with people. Since combat involves soldiers, no amount of technology can reduce the importance of the human dimension. Therefore, commanders base their exercise of C2 on human characteristics more than on equipment and procedures. Success in command is impossible without control within command and control. Control is the regulation of forces and battlefield operating systems to accomplish the mission in accordance with the commanders intent. It includes collecting, processing, displaying, storing, and disseminating relevant information for creating the common operational picture, and using information, primarily by the staff, during the operations process. Control allows commanders to disseminate their commanders intent, execute decisions, and adjust their operations to reflect changing reality and enemy actions. It allows commanders to modify their commanders visualization to account for changing circumstances. Control also allows commanders to identify times and points requiring new decisions during preparation

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and execution. Trained C2 personnel are essential to effective C2 systems the best technology cannot support C2 without them. 6.2. Aspects of Command Commands are the authority that a commander in the armed forces lawfully exercises over subordinates by virtue of rank or assignment. Command includes the authority and responsibility for effectively using available resources and for planning the employment of, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling military forces for the accomplishment of assigned missions. It also includes responsibility for health, welfare, morale, and discipline of assigned personnel. The elements of command are authority, decision making, and leadership. a. Authority Authority is the delegated power to judge, act, or Command. It includes responsibility, accountability, and delegation. Commanders use the art of command in applying authority as they decide (plan how to achieve the end state) and lead (direct their forces during preparation and execution). b. Decision making Decision making is selecting a course of action as the one most favorable to accomplish the mission. It translates the products of the commanders visualization into action. Decision making includes knowing if to decide, then when and what to decide, and understanding the consequences of decisions. It is both art and science. Commanders use visualizing, describing, and directing to determine and communicate their decisions. Leadership is influencing people by providing purpose direction and motivation while operating to accomplish the mission and improving the organization. Commanders lead through a combination of example, persuasion, and compulsion. The leadership of commanders ultimately includes force of will in any command, only one officer commands. This is embodied in the Principle of war, unity of command. Commanders may exercise command through others by delegating authority; however, delegation does not absolve Commanders of their responsibilities to the higher commander. Commanders Initiate action by issuing lawful orders. 6.3. Command on Battle Field
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Battle command (Command on Battle Field) is the exercise of command in operations against a hostile, thinking enemy. Skilled judgment gained from practice, reflection, study, experience, and intuition often guides it. The art of command lies in conscious and skillful exercise of command authority through Visualization, decision making, and leadership. Using judgment acquired from experience, training, study, and creative thinking, commanders visualize the situation and make decisions. In unclear situations, informed intuition may help commanders make effective decisions by bridging gaps in information. Through the art of command, commanders apply their values, Attributes, skills, and actions to lead and motivate their soldiers and units. Well-led units succeed in training and accomplish their missions. As the senior leaders of organizations, commanders apply the leadership element of Combat power. Subordinate commanders and small unit leaders reinforce it. Effective battle command demands decisions that are both timely and more effective than those of the enemy. Success often depends on superior information that enables superior decisions. Effective decision making combines judgment with information as an element of combat power. It requires knowing if to decide, when to decide, and what to decide. It requires commanders to judge information quality. It also requires identifying important information and focusing subordinates and the staff on it. These are tactical, operational, and strategic judgments. Commanders anticipate and understand the activities that follow decisions, knowing that once executed, some commitments are irretrievable. Battle command puts a premium on leader skills and actions that contribute to effective decisions. The volume of available information challenges all leaders. They assimilate enormous amounts of information as they visualize the operation, describe their intent, and direct their subordinates actions. Visualizing the operation is continuous. It requires commanders to understand the current situation, broadly define the future situation, assess the difference between the two, and envision major actions that link them. Commanders accept calculated risks to seize and retain the initiative. They assess the tradeoff between risks and opportunities and apply it to their vision. To translate the commanders vision into action, the staff and subordinates must understand it.

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Commanders describe their vision in succinct planning guidance and the commanders intent, providing enough detail to focus planning and preparation. To command is to direct. Commanders direct the outcome of major operations, battles, and engagements by assigning missions prioritizing and allocating resources, Assessing and taking risks. Battle command is the application of leadership as an element of combat power. It involves four functions: visualizing, describing, directing, and leading. Commanders visualize an operation in terms of METT-TC, The elements of operational design, and their own experience and judgment. Commanders use the commanders intent and planning guidance to describe their vision. Commanders use the concept of operations and the seven battlefield operating Systems to direct their forces. Throughout, commanders apply the art of command to lead their soldiers and organizations to success. It is principally an art that employs skills developed by professional study, constant practice, and considered judgment Commanders, assisted by the staff, visualize the operation, describe it in terms of intent and guidance, and direct the actions of subordinates within their intent. Commanders direct operations in terms of the battlefield operating systems (BOS). They directly influence operations by personal presence, supported by their command and control (C2) system.

6.3.1. THE ART OF COMMAND Command is the authority a commander in military service lawfully exercises over subordinates by virtue of rank and assignment Leaders possessing Command authority strives to use it with firmness, care, and skill. Command remains a very personal function. As such, it is more an art than science, although it exhibits characteristics of both to translate the commanders vision into action, the staff and subordinates must understand it Commanders describe their vision in succinct Planning guidance and the commanders intent, providing enough detail to Focus planning and preparation to command is to direct. Commanders direct the outcome of major operations, battles, and engagements by Assigning missions, Prioritizing and allocating resources. Assessing and taking risks, deciding when and how to make adjustments, Committing reserves, seeing, hearing, and understanding the needs of subordinates and superiors, Guiding and motivating the organization to accomplish the mission.
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6.3.2. PRINCIPLES OF COMMAND Commanders are using the principles of command to guidance how they employ elements of command to fulfill their fundamental responsibilities of command: mission accomplishment and people. A commanders use of the principles of command must fit the requirements of the situation, his own personality, and the capability and understanding of his subordinate commanders. Command cannot be stereotyped. Moreover, the command principles and applying mission command must guide and stay abreast of the capabilities of emerging technology. Mission command reconciles the absolute requirement for unity of effort at all levels with decentralization of execution by emphasizing the commanders intent. Decentralization of execution is sustained by and contributes to timely and effective decision making through subordinates initiative. Mission command can only work in an environment of trust and mutual understanding. Mission command provides a common baseline for command not only during operations but also in peacetime activities. To employ mission command successfully during operations, units must understand, foster, and frequently practice the principles of command during training. Indeed, using command principles during peacetime overcomes institutional obstacles to mission command. The principles of command apply to all levels of command. a. Ensure Unity of Effort Unity of effort is coordination and cooperation among all military forces and other organizations toward a commonly recognized objective, even if the forces and nonmilitary organizations are not necessarily part of the same command structure. Under mission command, commanders give a clear commanders intent to provide sense of purpose and achieve unity of effort within the force. The commanders intent provides a focus for separate but coordinated efforts by subordinates. It describes the limits of the decision making authority the commander has delegated to them. Designating priorities in operations also aids unity of effort and is part of the commanders intent. Failure to achieve unity of effort leads to confusion and missed opportunities; the effects can be catastrophic. The commanders intent provides a unifying idea that allows decentralized execution within an overarching framework. It provides guidance within which individuals may exercise initiative to accomplish overall goals.
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Understanding the commanders intent two echelons up further enhances unity of effort while providing the basis for decentralized decision making and execution. Subordinates aware of the commanders intent are far more likely to exercise subordinates initiative in unexpected situations. Under mission command, subordinates have an absolute responsibility to fulfill the commanders intent. Unity of command is the Armys preferred method for achieving unity of effort. Commanders always adhere to unity of command when task organizing Army forces. Under unity of command, any mission falls within the authority and responsibility of a single, responsible commander. Commanders receive orders from only one superior, to whom they are accountable for accomplishing the mission. In certain circumstances, such as some interagency and

multinational operations, unity of command may not be possible. In addition, Army forces may include contractors, over whom commanders have authority different from command. However, commanders still organize their C2 (command and control) system to achieve unity of effort. When unity of command is not possible, commanders must achieve unity of effort through cooperation and coordination among all elements of the forceeven if they are not part of the same command structure. b. Employ Decentralized Execution Decentralized execution is essential to gaining and maintaining the operational initiative in dynamic operations and environments of high uncertainty. Decentralized execution requires subordinates to act with agility that unbalances the enemy. It leads to disrupting the enemy forces coherence and destroying its will to resist. It requires subordinates to use their initiative to make decisions that further their higher commanders intent. Delegating this authority is especially important if subordinates are to take advantage of unforeseen events or adjust to changes in the situation before the enemy can effectively react. Decentralized execution allows subordinates with current information to make decisions. It reduces the amount of information passed up and down the chain of command. Generally, the more dynamic the circumstances, the greater the need for decisions at lower levels. However, even in situations where a high level of knowledge exists at high levels, commanders must exercise decentralized execution routinely or subordinates initiative will
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disappear as subordinates become used to waiting for detailed instructions from higher headquarters. Decentralized execution, central to mission command, requires delegating specific decision making authority. Determining what authority to delegate is an essential part of the art of command. This delegating may be explicit, as in the specified tasks outlined in orders, or implicit, as in the implied tasks and commanders intent found in mission orders. Delegating authority also provides a means of handling the information produced by modern technology and operations. It reduces the number of decisions made at the higher levels and increases agility through reduced response time at lower levels. Delegation not only applies to subordinate commanders but also to staff members. Detailed command requires more decisions at higher levels, often overloading those commanders. When delegating authority to subordinates, commanders do everything in their power to set the necessary conditions for success by the subordinate. They allocate enough resources for them to accomplish their missions. These resources include information as well as forces, materiel, and time. Forces include combat, combat support, and combat service support units and systems. Information resources include RI, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) assets, and priority of access to higher-level collection means. Because of the need for economy of force, allocating resources is not just a management or scientific matter, but one requiring the art of command. Commanders must still synchronize subordinates activities. Synchronization of

effects during execution results from integrating fragmentary information and complex combat functions during planning and preparation. A single, unifying concept of operations, together with a keen understanding of time-space dynamics, is needed to synchronize effects. Delegating authority to subordinates, who exercise initiative within the commanders intent, allows them to initiate activities that synchronize their units with those of the rest of the force without consulting the commander. Successful integration means that activity is arranged in time and space to achieve desired effects at decisive points. Prudent selection of and attention to the commanders critical information requirements (CCIR) facilitate integrating information. Consider integration as part of the branches and sequels to a plan. Effectively integrating activities requires understanding the capabilities and limitations of systems on the battlefield and
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ensuring coordination among the units and activities participating in an operation. mission command, orders and plans are as brief and simple as possible.

Under

Decentralized execution relies on subordinates making necessary coordination and on implicit communication the human capacity for mutual understanding with minimum verbal information exchange. Decentralizing seeks to increase tempo (the rate of military action) and improve the ability to deal with fluid and disorderly situations. Moreover, reliance on implicit communication makes C2 less vulnerable to disruption of the information flow than centralized execution.

c. Develop Trust Trust is one of the cornerstones of leadership. It is essential to successful mission command. Like loyalty, it must go up and down the chain of command; like respect, it must be earned. To function effectively, commanders must trust their subordinates, and subordinates must trust their commander. Subordinates more willingly exercise the initiative required in mission command when their commander trusts them. They will also be more willing to encourage initiative by their own subordinates if they have learned to trust that their higher commander will accept and support the outcome. Likewise, commanders delegate greater authority to subordinates whose judgment they trust. Commanders must also trust their colleagues commanding adjacent and supporting forces, and must earn their trust as well. When a commander exercises subordinates initiative, mutual trust gives other commanders at the same level the confidence to act to resynchronize their actions with those of that commander. Such actions bring the operation back into synchronization without requiring detailed instructions from higher echelons. Once established and sustained, trust brings its own rewards. It allows each level of command to focus on its overall operations rather than on those of subordinates. There are few shortcuts to gaining the trust of others. Often slowly gained, trust can be lost quickly by mistakes made under pressure and the extreme conditions of war. It is based on personal qualities, including professional competence, personal example, and integrity. It starts with technical and tactical war fighting skills because those are the easiest to demonstrate.
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Soldiers must see values and attributes in action before they become a basis for trust. Trust also comes from successful shared experiences and training, usually gained incidental to operations but also deliberately developed by the commander. During these shared experiences, the interaction of the commander, subordinates, and soldiers through communicating up as well as down, reinforces trust. Soldiers see the chain of command accomplishing the mission, taking care of their welfare, and sharing hardships and danger.

d.

Develop Mutual Understanding

Mutual understanding both supports and derives from trust. However, like trust, it requires time to establish. From their experiences, commanders understand the issues and concerns of subordinates. Professional knowledge and study give subordinates an insight into command at higher levels. Commanders can develop mutual understanding, both implicit and explicit, in their organizations through training. Good commanders ensure that they understand their subordinates and that subordinates understand them. Mutual understanding is essential for conducting successful operations under mission command. Important sources of mutual understanding are nonverbal communication using key, wellunderstood phrases and doctrinal terms, and anticipating each others thoughts. Nonverbal communications are faster and more effective than detailed, explicit

communications. Commanders can aid mutual understanding by exhibiting a demeanor and personal mannerisms that reinforce, or at least do not contradict, the spoken message. Units develop the ability to communicate nonverbally through familiarity and trust, as well as a shared philosophy and experiences. Sharing a common perception of military problems also leads to mutual understanding. Common perception does not imply any requirement to come to identical solutions; under mission command understanding what effect to achieve is more important than agreement on how to achieve it. Activities that can lead to mutual understanding include officer professional development meetings, terrain walks, and professional discussion. 6.3.2 EXERCISING COMMAND AND CONTROL

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Commanders must place their C2 system into action to exercise C2. Exercising C2 takes place dynamically throughout the operations process. The operations-process activities of planning, preparing for, Executing, and continuously assessing are cyclical and continuous. They do not necessarily occur sequentially. For example, while preparing for or executing one operation, units plan branches and sequels for the next operation. At any time, subordinate units of the same Command may be performing different operations process activities. The operations process focuses on executing rather than planning. Modern INFOSYS reduce the time needed to plan. This allows commanders to allocate more time for preparation and to execute sooner. INFOSYS do this in two ways: First, they allow near simultaneous planning collaborative and parallel among echelons. This capability compresses the time needed for all Echelons to complete their plans. Second, because INFOSYS provide nearly continuous updates to a more accurate COP, forces can execute faster with less detailed plans. High quality COP updates make effective incremental adjustments possible during execution. They also allow commanders to act faster to counter emerging threats or seize opportunities as they identify them rather than continuing to execute a plan that does not fit the new situation. In addition, modern INFOSYS allow staffs to rapidly resynchronize forces and functions. This capability allows commanders to adjust plans with a minimal loss of combat power, making Army forces more agile today than previously. Commanders follow a continuous cycle of see first, understand first, act first, and finish decisively decreasing the options available to the enemy and creating or preserving options for their own forces. Commanders, assisted by their C2 systems, aim to see first within the Battle space. Next, collaboration, discussion, and sharing of knowledge related to the COP allow them to understand first. Understanding includes discerning the intent of enemies and others who attempt to shape Army force operations to their benefit or to friendly disadvantage. Seeing and understanding first are necessary but not sufficient without acting first. Commanders, using their C2 systems, synchronize and integrate their combined arms teams while directing execution within their commanders intent and planning guidance. Finally, Army forces finish decisively by applying relentless pressure, following up, and exploiting initial blows throughout operations, subordinate exercise subordinates initiative.
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6.4. Effective Control Success in command is impossible without control. Within command and control, control is the regulation of forces and battlefield operating systems to accomplish the mission in accordance with the commanders Intent. It includes collecting, processing, displaying, storing, and disseminating relevant information for creating the common operational picture, and using information, primarily by the staff, during the operations process. Control allows commanders to disseminate their commanders intent, execute decisions, and adjust their operations to reflect changing reality and enemy actions. It allows commanders to modify their commanders visualization to account for changing circumstances. Control also allows commanders to identify times and points requiring new decisions during preparation and execution.

6.4.1. NATURE OF CONTROL The nature of control, including why it is even necessary, begins with its definition. It involves the elements and principles of control that guide applying the elements of control within command and control (C2). Within command and control, control is the regulation of forces and battlefield operating systems to accomplish the mission in accordance with the commanders intent. It includes collecting, processing, displaying, storing, and disseminating relevant information for creating the common operational picture, and using information, primarily by the staff, during the operations process. Control allows commanders to direct the execution of operations to conform to their commanders intent. Unlike command functions which remain relatively similar among echelons of command and control functions increase in complexity at each higher echelon. 6.4.2. PRINCIPLES OF CONTROL. The principles of control govern how commanders and their C2 systems use the elements of control to carry out functions of control. Control permits a command to adapt to change. Because of feedback, control is cyclic and continuous, not a series of discrete actions.
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It is a process of dynamic, interactive cooperation. Control continues throughout the operations process. The principles of control are: i. Allow subordinates maximum freedom of decision and action. ii. Create, maintain, and disseminate the COP. iii. Use common doctrinal procedures, graphics, and terms. iv. Provide for flexibility and adaptability. I. Allow Subordinates Maximum Freedom of Decision and Action: Effective commanders impose minimum constraints on subordinates. They exercise only the control necessary to give subordinates the guidance and resources needed to accomplish assigned tasks. This principle, however, includes exercising the control necessary for proper, if imperfect, coordination. This principle directly supports exercising mission command. Mission command relies on mission orders, shared situational understanding, open communication and flexible procedural control. These techniques allow subordinates freedom of action to exercise subordinates initiative within the commanders intent. Under mission command, doctrine, established procedures, and the commanders intent provide the basis for implicit coordination. However, essential coordination always requires some control measures. Commanders exercise the least restrictive procedural control, consistent with the capabilities of subordinates and their organizations. In most instances, front-line commanders know the most about their forces and the environment, and have the clearest understanding of their own situations. They are, therefore, better suited than higher commanders to develop those situations. Even two or more subordinate commanders working together may solve a problem better and faster than the higher commander. This type of coordination, involving direct communication among subordinate commanders is critical for effective C2. Commanders emphasize this principle of control, and the implicit requirement to exercise subordinates initiative, at every opportunity. Over control results when commanders establish excessive limits on the subordinates freedom of action. Some commanders try to achieve the massed effects espoused by the Armys operations doctrine by using detailed command methods. Doing this may result in over control. Over control takes two forms: tactical over control and excessive requests for information.
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Tactical over control consists of issuing excessively detailed orders initially or giving excessive direction during execution. It inhibits subordinates initiative and tires commanders by referring too many decisions to them. Tactical over control may also result from emphasis on procedure or process rather than on outcome on efficiency rather than effectiveness. The guiding precept is that minimum essential coordination achieves mission success. Excessive requests for information distract subordinates from executing their operations. They can also affect the requesting unit, because it must process the responses. One cause of excessive requests is the search for perfect situational understanding. No one can predict all information requirements (IRs) before operations begin; however, commanders and staffs must balance new IRs against the effect that finding and providing that information will have on subordinates operations. Excessive and redundant IRs creates unnecessary stress or fatigue for subordinate units. This situation may result in their failing to respond to an important IR and depriving the higher commander of information needed to make decisions. Commanders consider the following precepts when deciding how to exercise control: a. Limit control measures to those necessary to effect essential coordination. b. Limit IRs to the minimum needed to exercise C2.

c. Give subordinates as much leeway for initiative as possible consistent with keeping operations synchronized and maintaining enough situational understanding to restore the situation, if necessary, or to exploit opportunity. II. Create, Maintain, and Disseminate the Common Operational

Relevant information provides the basis for constructing the COP. facilitates collaborative planning and helps commanders at all echelons achieve shared situational understanding allows commanders to visualize the effects of their decisions on other elements of the force and the overall operation and to apply judgment the COP to achieve the situational understanding needed to make decisions Under mission command, subordinates use the COP in combination with the commanders intent to guide their exercise of subordinates initiative. Digital, analog, or mixed digital/analog forces can use the concept of the COP. Each applies the concept differently based on available resources. Commanders achieve situational understanding by applying judgment to the COP. Doing this is neither simple nor automatic. The COP consists primarily of knowledge, which the staff provides through analysis and evaluation.
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Accurate, timely intelligence a major category of this knowledge that the intelligence BOS produces indispensable to a complete COP and achieving accurate situational understanding. Intelligence supported by ISR (intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance). Synchronization is a critical, integrated part of C2. Its contributions to the COP support all Bosses. Sharing of knowledge through the COP contributes to achieving a more complete, timely, and comprehensive shared situational understanding. An accurate COP ensures commanders situational understanding accurately reflects the actual situation. This concept of combining inputs to create a COP applies to both digital and analog CPs. All CPs maintain an operational picture based on information that comes into them. By collaborating and sharing RI, and tailoring it to their needs, separate echelons create their own operational picture or the COP, as the situation requires. The difference between an operational picture and a COP is that, in a digital environment, all CPs draw on a common set of RI available within a shared database. With that RI, they create the portion of the COP that shows what their commanders want to know. Rapidly sharing RI among higher headquarters and subordinate, adjacent, supporting, and supported forces creates a COP throughout the force. In an analog environment, a CP is limited to the information it physically has on hand. Much of the creation of a COP is done manually, and it is harder to update, disseminate, or tailor dynamically to user requirements. Nevertheless, the concept of the COP still applies. The use of reproduced overlays or gathering subordinates around a common map or graphic are examples of applying the COP concept in analog CPs.

III.

Use Doctrinally-based TTP, Graphics, and Terms

Language used in communicating should be simple, clear, and easily understood. An understanding of common doctrinal procedures, graphics, and terms contributes to the simplicity and clarity essential to mutual understanding. Using correct doctrinal procedures, graphics, and terms shortens the amount of explicit communication needed to convey or explain an order or plan. However, during stability operations and support operations, staffs may need to create nonstandard graphics or modify existing graphics to portray the environment, an adaptive enemy, or other elements. They should do this only when standard graphics are unsuitable.
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This principle does not imply unthinking adherence to every aspect of doctrine in inappropriate situations. Rather, it means that commanders consider all levels of doctrinal requirements and limitations before directing a non doctrinal action. When time permits, they explain their reasoning to their subordinates. Soldiers understand a creative, but non doctrinal, solution to a tactical problem when it is explained using doctrinal terms and tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP). IV. Provide Flexibility and Adaptability

Control allows organizations to respond to change, whether due to enemy or friendly actions, or to situations. Control provides flexibility and adaptability (being able to recognize and respond effectively to emerging conditions and to correct for the effects of fog and friction). It provides information that allows commanders to base decisions and actions on the results of friendly and enemy actions, rather than rigid adherence to the plan. Commanders build flexibility and adaptability in their plan. Control supports flexibility and adaptability in two ways. First, it identifies the need to change the plan. It does this through anticipating or forecasting possible enemy actions and by identifying unexpected variances opportunities or threats from the plan. This occurs throughout the operations process. Second, control helps commanders develop and implement options to respond to these changes in a timely manner. Flexibility and adaptability reduce the enemys available options while maintaining or expanding friendly options. Effective control provides for timely action before enemies can accomplish their objectives. Control allows the C2 system to guide modification of plans and actions as the situation and commanders situational understanding change. To help commanders fight the enemy and not the plan, control orients on information about emerging conditions. Control provides flexibility by a) Allowing friendly forces to change their types and forms of operations their task organization, or their plan. b) Producing information about options to respond to changing conditions. c) Communicating the commanders decisions quickly and accurately. d) Providing for rapid BOS resynchronization when the plan changes during execution. e) Allowing collaborative planning to respond to the progress of operations.
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6.5. MISSION COMMAND Mission command is the Armys preferred C2 method. Mission command Emphasizes on the following Timely decision making. Subordinates understanding of the commanders intent clear responsibility to exercise initiative within that intent. Mission command is well suited, if not essential, to achieving success in uncertain and fluid environments. Military operations are complex endeavors they involve struggles between opposing human Mission. Command is the conduct of military opera wills Land combat ads to the complexity of operations through decentralized execution based upon operations. It involves destroying or defeating a mission orders for effective mission accomplishment. Land operations occur subordinate leaders at all echelons exercising decision making This requires commanders to planed initiative within the commanders intent to accomplish missions. It requires an environment of conduct stability and reconstruction operations trust and mutual understanding simultaneously with offensive and defensive operations within the land environment, commanders face thinking and adaptive enemies. They cannot accurately predict how enemies or populations will act and react, or how events will develop. Friction makes even friendly actions difficult to predict Command and Control Time is a critical factor in all operations. It adds to the complex and uncertain nature of operations. Both sides attempt to exploit it. Friendly forces seek to conduct operations fast enough to stay ahead of enemies or changing conditions. Commanders address problems related to civil considerations before situations deteriorate or inaction affects the populations perceptions. Commanders who understand how time and uncertainty affect enemies, friendly forces, and populations develop better plans and accomplish missions more effective Mission command accepts that land operations are inherently uncertain. It requires commanders to act based on available information rather than waiting for desired information. When practicing mission command commanders allow subordinates freedom of action and require initiative on their part. Higher commanders make fewer decisions, allowing them to focus on the most important ones. Mission command tends to be decentralized and flexible. Orders and plans are as brief, clear, and simple as possible.
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They provide only the instructions essential to synchronize forces and war fighting functions Commanders rely on subordinates ability to coordinate and under stand with minimal verbal exchange. The elements of mission command are: Commanders intent, Subordinates initiative, Mission orders, and Resource allocation. Mission order is a technique for completing combat orders that allows subordinates maximum freedom of planning and action in accomplishing missions and leaves the how of mission accomplishment to subordinates. Mission orders follow the five-paragraph operation order format. These include the following: Task organization, Commanders intent, Unit mission, Concept of operations, Subordinates missions and tasks, Essential coordinating instructions. Missions and tasks assigned to subordinates include all normal elements (who, what, when, where, and why). However, commanders and staffs emphasize the purpose (why) of tasks (what) to facilitate understanding the desired results. Along with the commanders intent and concept of operations, the emphasis on purpose guides subordinates initiative. 6.6. Command and Responsibility The commander is responsible for the wartime

readiness of all elements in the formation and is, therefore, the primary trainer. Training soldiers and developing leaders is the commanders number one priority. Commanders observe and evaluate training and leader development at all levels of the organization. They provide feedback as coach, teacher, and mentor. They train to standard, not to time. Commanders/ Leaders are responsible for their subordinates professional development as well as their own. Commanders must provide subordinates with the time and opportunity for self-development programs. The integration of self-development, leader development, and operational assignments comes from the feedback, coaching, mentoring, and guidance provided by leaders. The pattern for Army civilian employees and leaders in operational or institutional assignments following their initial training and education is similar to that of their uniformed counterparts.. Commanders and supervisors must understand why self-development activities are an integral part of their organizational training plan. Senior leaders are often judged by how well their subordinates perform as much as by how they themselves perform.
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6.6.1 Commander's Responsibilities and decisions Plans and orders are the means by which commanders express their visualization, commanders intent, and decisions. They focus on results the commander expects to achieve plans and orders form the basis commanders use to synchronize military operations. About combat planning we will discuss in detail on the on going lesson. This lesson emphasizes on mission analysis. In military decision making process there are sequences of tasks to execute the mission. These sequences and steps of tasks are called Sequences of commanders duties or tasks ". These tasks and duties are the following. 6.6.2. Commanders are Responsible for Combat organization a) Assurance of combat readiness Tasks of combat readiness of the friendly

force are routine task which perform day to day activities. Combat readiness can be defined through tactical, technical and physical efficiency of the friendly force. Full filling materials and equipments for further combat operations. Develop political attitudes such as: identify the aim (objectives) of the combat, developed sense of responsibilities, national defensiveness sense of heroism, develop voluntarily self sacrifices, and develop sense of safe guarding the constitution & constitutional system. b) Receive and understand the mission On the time of Receiving and

understanding the mission commanders and their staffs carry out the following tasks: Understand the higher head quarter (HQ) Intent, How to breach the enemy defense, How can we destroy the enemy, main attack direction, Power allocation, combat drill and his specific position, Adjacent unities, enemy force location. c) Issue warning order (WARNO) Warning order is a preliminary notice of an order or action which to follow; help subordinate units and staffs prepare for new mission under warning order. The following points will be included under warning order, General situation of the enemy force, and the mission of the unit and determine place and time for issue operation order. d) Mission analysis Mission analysis satisfies (includes) METTTC (Mission,

Enemy, Terrain, Troops available, Time available and Civilians consideration).

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(OCOKA) observation and fields of fire, cover and concealment, obstacles, Key terrain, Avenues of approach. e) Decision making In military decision making process first we deal problem solving process Step 1 Recognize & define problem. Step 2 Gather facts & assumptions. Step 3 Develop possible solutions. Step 4 Analyze each solution. Step 5 Compare outcome of each solution. Step 6 Select the best solution (COA).

SUMMARY Army Command has one purpose to produce competent, confident, adaptive soldiers, leaders, and units, trained and ready to fight and win our nations battles. The commander is responsible for unit training and integrates the operational, institutional, and individual self-development domains to train combat-ready units. Commanders are responsible for the wartime readiness of every aspect of their unit, while NCOs train individual soldiers, crews, and small teams.

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Chapter Eight The Principle of War Selection and Maintenance of the Aim
Contents 1. Introduction 2. Definition 3. Selection of the Aim 4. Course of Action 5. The Decision Cycle 6. Maintenance of the Aim Introduction All organization has a purpose, which is communicated in the form of an aim or goal. In the military context it is usually articulated in the form of a mission statement. An organizationincluding a military organization-may have various concurrent goals, all of which will have their own sub-set of objectives and all of which compete for limited resources. It will be your job as a commander to determine which of these objectives is paramount and is the priority to which your
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resources are dedicated. You must consider all available options or courses that will allow the achievement of your tasks and be able to select the best plan. Given that circumstances will almost certainly change, you must be able to consistently revisit your plan, making adjustments where necessary to ensure that all effort are focused towards the achievement of your commanders intent. Objectives After completing this chapter, officers would be able to: Grasp the basic principles of leadership in selection of the Aim. Demonstrate the maintenance of the Aim. Lead and train the decision making cycle to their troops effectively and efficiently.

Definitions Aim- an aim is a broad statement of intent which gives a general picture of a desired end-state. Selection and Maintenance of the Aim is the first principle of war. Mission- a mission is engaged to a subordinate by a commander. It is a clear, concise statement of the task or tasks allocated to the subordinate and their purpose. Task- a task is something that must be done in order to achieve the mission. Tasks are either Specified or Implied. Specified tasks are explicit in the orders that are received from the superior in the order that are received from the superior commander. Implied tasks are those additional activities that are deduced by the subordinate as being essential to the achievement of the mission. Course of Action- a course of action (COA) is a possible path to the achievement of the mission. The chosen course of action will be developed into the plan. 1. Selection of the Aim

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You will rarely enjoy the luxury of having sufficient resources to meet the competing demands of all of your tasks or objectives concurrently. It is the commanders responsibility to consider all tasks and to determine which are essential and which are desirable. The commander must have a clear vision of the desired end state-intent-and be able to identify those tasks that are essential to its achievement. This is the principle of Selection of the Aim. The following mnemonic will assist you in this process: SPECIFIC- the more clearly defined an aim, the greater will be the motivation to achieve it. MEASURABLE- If progress towards the achievement of the aim can be measured against qualitative criteria, motivation towards its achievement will be more readily maintained. ACHIEVABLE- aims must be achievable. This does not mean that mediocrity should be the benchmark, but nor should the bounds of expectation be pushed beyond the realm of possibility. REALISTIC- while virtually and goal may be achievable in a perfect world where there are no constraints on resource, this perfect world rarely exists. The commander must consider whether the aim can be achieved through a realistic appraisal of the available resources and any conflicting commitments. TIME- time will not always be a constraint, but it is a rare luxury not to be working against a deadline. If a deadline is not imposed, you should set one of your own, for without it the ability to measure progress will be difficult. It is essential that any deadline be achievable yet sufficiently robust to maintain momentum through an appropriate sense of urgency. 2. Course of Action Before you can begin to consider potential courses of action, you must have a clear understanding of exactly what is expected of you what role the commander wants you to play in the achievement of the required end state. This is done through a process known as s Mission Analysis. You will become well practiced in this art by the end of the Commissioning Course. Once you have understood your commanders desired end-state and the part that you are required to play in achieving it, you can begin to consider the courses of action open to you. This
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demands a systematic evaluation of relevant factors. In a conventional conflict scenario, the factors may include the enemy, ground, friendly forces, time and space. In a non-operational scenario, budgets and costs may be the critical factors. Through this process- this is referred to as the Estimate- you will identify further tasks and constraints that will shape the development of your plan. By a systematic evaluation of all relevant factors you may determine that one or more of your potential courses of action cannot lead to a successful completion of your mission. You will obviously discard these, wasting no further time or energy in their continued consideration. You may be left with only one option but more often than not you will find that there are a number of courses remaining. As a commander you will be required to consider the advantage and disadvantage of each, in order to select the best. This will become your plan.

3. The Decision Making Cycle The Decision Making Cycle Stage 1- Mission Analysis Stage 2- Evaluation of Factors Stage 3- Consideration of the Course of Action Stage 4- Commanders Decision 4. Maintenance of the Aim

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CHAPTER Nine BATTLEFIELD STRESS AND THE LEADER

Introduction Battlefield stress is not a new problem; the battlefield has always been a violent and stressful place. The problems of stress have become more widely known as a result both of the proliferation of psychological studies and the changing face of war. People remain much the same, perhaps rather more shielded from the brutish said of life these days, but war and weapons have developed at a fierce pace. The pressure of the short, ferocious and highly technological modern war will place heavy demands upon all combatants, producing varying degrees of reduction in their performance. Yet past wars were savage and one may wonder how today a soldier is would cope with 17 Century tactics and battle drills. In addition to the intensity and totality of war, the demands of new weapons and systems will ask much of weapon crews and technicians; the tracking skills required of missile operators and gunners are a case where performance is heavily degraded by stress. The low level leaders will face special demands: young themselves, they will have to lead and make decisions on behalf of other young and inexperienced soldiers, often in isolated circumstances which may also include
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long periods of radio silence. Do not for a moment suppose that you will not be up to it or that a collapse in morale is at the other factors of leadership, how they must be made to combine to bring you and your soldiers to that state of morale where the first shock of battle is overcome; then set about winning. Objectives After completing this chapter, officers would be able to: Grasp the basic principles of stress in order to perform duties as leaders. Lead and train their troops effectively and efficiently under stressful situation. Demonstrate decision making and implementing capabilities in their military leadership.

Activities 1. What is stress? 2. Explain exercise must include stressful activities in order to acclimatize troops. 3. Discus on the consequences of stress?

STRESS War produces emotional tensions caused by fear of the consequences of battle: death, injury, disfigurement, capture, and fear of failure and all the physical stresses of noise, heat, cold, vibration and sleep loss. Mans ability to master or even cope with this stress over what may be indeterminate periods, will lead to eventual reduction in both individual and group effectiveness. Battle shock: battle shock is a specific psychological condition resulting from the intense pressure of war. While the physical signs and symptoms of fear are perfectly normal in everyone during combat, some soldiers will become ineffective from battle shock; leaders must be able to
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recognize this condition and understand its management. It is expected that up to 20% of casualties may be from battle shock, but they respond well to treatment-usually reassurance and supervision at unit and sub unit level. Battle shock casualties have a low relapse rate, as illustrated in the First Aid syllabus. Failure to understand the nature and principles of training battle shock will result in an unnecessary waste of manpower. Studies into Stress: there have been many studies into battlefield stress; many of them are of US origin dealing with various Second World War and Korean War battles. There have also been several useful studies in to the various Middle East wars. Interestingly these studies show some correlation between Israel and the UK as being countries which strongly uphold freedom and in having Armies in which continuity in groups and leadership in much prized. Some interesting facts, culled (gathered) from a wide field of sources, are set out in the ensuring paragraphs to give an impression of men in battle and the effect of stress which all will eventually suffer in varying degree of severity. a) Battle Acclimatization- soldiers may take 5-7 days to acclimatize to battle, during which initials battle shock causalities will occur and be treated. They will reach peak effectiveness 7-14 days after they have become battle wise. Latter, depending upon the intensity of the many stresses which act upon the individual, the group and the situation, performance falls away and stress/psychological casualties start to appear. b) Causalities- the effect of causalities can be very severe. When a total of 65% of an original grouping become casualties, the performance of the remainder seems to reduce more quickly; their anxiety increases greatly at that point. c) The tactical Situation- however, the effect of casualties can be mitigated or exacerbated by the tactical situation and may not alone contribute to an immediate fall in morale and performance. Attacking and advancing, where soldiers have the initiative, promote high moral and less anxiety because of the feeling of participation and getting on with it. Conversely defense and withdrawal and any situation where soldiers feel that they cannot retaliate such as prolonged heavy bombardment or enemy air superiority, create high anxiety; morale slumps and performance drops. The high rate of psychological casualties (60% of those evacuated) at the star of the 1973 Yom Kippur war exemplifies the point:

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the hitherto invincible Israelis were surprised and forced in to an unaccustomed withdrawal, but good treatment resulted in a relapse rate of only 1-3%. d) The Performance of Individual- the statistical findings of research into individual performance in battle are interesting, although no doubt there are many exceptions to prove (or disproved) the following generalities. The effective fighter (all ranks). 1. Stats firing early in an engagement and is involved throughout. 2. Is likely to be actively involved an all engagements. 3. Is more intelligent and better educated. 4. Is a leader or displays leadership qualities. 5. Has a secure family background. 6. Has good health. 7. Is not a first born. e) Fatigue- fatigue is a natural effect of being under fire; just bracing yourself continually in a trench is tiring. In a classic attack by experienced US troops in Korea, officers and NCOs reported difficulties in keeping men awake during the operation which lasted 9 hours and was successful. Once moments of high stress are passed the body demands rest and individuals have to fight exhaustion. Leaders must bear in mind consequences: 1. After a successful attack the leader may have to show much determination to get men to dig in properly. 2. The converse is that the quick counter attack has a good chance of success; the enemys similar tendency to relaxation and fatigue can be exploited. f) Weapons- weapons and fear of them have a distinct effect upon stress and anxiety in battle. Artillery can be thought of as the great persuade in influencing men not to fight on. Short concentrations of fire are most effective in catching men in the open and they are also very frightening because of their random, unexpected nature. The prolonged, heavy bombardment, well understood by the Soviet, has a mind-killing effect upon defenders, reducing the ability to think and the will to defend vigorously. Weapon systems which, in addition to their lethality, produce noise and smoke are even greater inducers of anxiety. On all these grounds there is little comfort to be had from the trend towards 155mm artillery, flame weapons and cluster bombs. The psychological effect of nuclear weapons, with their catastrophic implications for mankind, may be very severe.
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g) Neither should we underestimate the effect of silent, invisible chemical weapons and the physical and mental degradation caused by wearing protective clothing and masks, which can be very serious. Again, tactical consequences result; moments when leaders must act decisively to swing the course of a battle: 1) The lifting of a preparatory bombardment is a moment when an attacking commander must move swiftly to take advantage of the mind- killing effect of artillery. Leaders, at all levels, must show the greatest resolve in recognizing and grasping this moment when the initiative can pass to the attacker. 2) The violence of artillery bombardment will place enormous physical and mental stress on defenders, especially upon commanders who must rally their soldiers to bring weapons to bear upon the enemy as soon as his fire lifts. At no stage in battle will leadership be more crucial to the outcome. The successful rallying of dazed soldiers will break up a determined assault. Failure is to succumb to the persuasive effect of artillery. h) The Group- the importance of the group in alleviating battle stress is universally acknowledged by psychologists and historians. Groups comprised of sociable men with similar backgrounds and aspirations, who are self-disciplined and conscientious are particularly successful in war; surely an advertisement for our regimental system? Groups of 4 have also been found to be particularly successful in maintaining moral in battle, giving added weight to our fire-team organization and the current preference for 4 men battle trenches. The importance of the troop or platoon humorist must not be undervalued. A sense of humor and of the ridiculous is an essential in relieving tension and in keeping a semblance of normality. i) The leader-the position of the leader and his effective performance is also held to be critical in overcoming battle stress. The various studies all endorse, in their own way, the leadership qualities taught at Academy and certainly by implication, the principles of Adairs Functional approach. In terms of the letter, the necessary of realistic training in preparation for war is the prime responsibility of a leader. This training will not make soldiers immune from battle stress, but the familiarity brought about by the repetitive practice of tasks makes troops less vulnerable to initial stress and more effective in the long term. The leader is central to this preparation.
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THE LEADER Given the importance of the leader in war, it is not surprising that his role figures high in the measures which can be taken to reduce battlefield stress. The task falls to a greater extent upon the junior, of whom much is already expected, because it is he who physically leads and trains soldiers. As a person like any other, the leader is subject to all the emotional and physical stresses described earlier (noise, loneliness, fear etc). In addition he will be prey to extra fears; anxiety over the correctness of his judgment and decisions, guilt about casualties, uncertainty about the situation and what to do next and the responsibility faced by all military leaders in sending people, friends, to near certain death. On top of that is the physiological problem of sleep loss and the degradation in performance which it brings; junior leaders often find it hard to make time to rest. On the plus side, the leader is fired with the energy which responsibility gives. You will have seen that effective fighters often lead; it would be a non-sequitur to say that leaders are thus effective, but the implication is that leadership generates energy and that the mental occupation of leading reduces the level of background anxiety, even to the extent that leaders are prone themselves to taking unnecessary risks. Much of this energy must be directed towards keeping soldiers occupied; there is nothing like purposeful activity for preventing brooding and the consequent sapping of morale. Leadership in battle, especially today, is a challenging, demanding and relentless task. Personal preparation- in spite of all the practical training given at Military Academy, leadership is a personal matter. The functions of leadership are demonstrable, but the qualities are personal and must be developed by each individual. Each leader must develop his own approach to the very idea of battle; this must be a personal concept of how to react to the rigorous of war, both physical and emotional. This personal preparation will stem from reading and study, from the experience of training, and from no small measure of imagination. Imagination must consist neither of flights of heroic fancy, nor of melancholy brooding over the terrors of war; it must be a careful analysis of the likely nature of a future operation and how the individual will react to it, particularly a resolve to show the necessary self control in dealing with fear, equally in not taking

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foolhardy risks. The approach is entirely positive, the professional desire to lead in war and to win. Training- all of the research done into battlefield stress shows that realistic training is the best antidote to fear. As you leave the Academy you will have had little opportunity to reflect much upon the real nature of the battlefield. Instruction has concentrated mainly on the mechanics of war and only a few episodes paint any sort of realistic picture of battle; the firepower demonstration you will have taken part in some live firing tactical exercise. In good training stress itself is not presented as a problem; rather that battle will be taken so and that it must be understood and made as familiar as possible in peace in order that we may win in war. Good training will include: a) Briefing- positive briefing and debriefings are essential both to set the scene and to learn lessons. b) Exercise- exercise must include stressful activities or phrases in order to acclimatize troops to pressure. You need to consider: 1. Long exercise, often involving an element of danger E.g. adventurous training. 2. Night training. 3. The inclusion of the unexpected. 4. Decision-making. 5. Pressure of time. 6. Physical demands. 7. Planned logistics deficiencies. 8. Live firing/simulation 9. Realism to provide a taste of the shock of battle; the dead, the disfigured, and the wounded, because these are great causes of psychological trauma. Realistic wound simulation provides more than just training in the mechanics of first aid. c) Training the Leader- the leaders themselves must be professional and welltrained, if soldiers are to be confident in them. The confidence of the whole group is a major factor in morale and thus in success in battle.

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Summary
The leader will be subject to all the stresses of the modern battlefield in the same way as any of his soldiers and he will suffer the extra pressures of responsibility and loss of sleep or rest that come with leadership. The importance of the group and its leader as an antidote to fear in battle is recognized in all studies and histories of warfare. Leaders must prepare themselves for battle by careful study and then by disciplined use of imagination to steel them. Only then will leaders be able to construct that realistic training which is the single most valuable tool in preparing soldiers for battle. This degree of preparation will give leaders the familiarity with their profession to think clearly in battle and then to provide the necessary direction to win.

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