Radio Broadcasting

RADIO BROADCASTING
A PROJECT REPORT Submitted by

ANUJ DHIMAN In partial fulfilment of the award of the degree Of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES BADDI

HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY

JUNE-JULY 2010

Radio Broadcasting

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report RADIO BROADCASTING is the work of ANUJ DHIMAN who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

SUPERVISOR

Radio Broadcasting

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project involved the collection and analysis of information from a wide variety of sources and the efforts of many people beyond me. Thus it would not have been possible to achieve the results reported in this document without their help, support and encouragement. I will like to express my gratitude to the following people for their help in the work leading to this report: Engg. Head SH. P.S. CHAUHAN(Asst Engineer) and SH. JATINDER GUPTA (Asst. Engineer) Er. VIKRAM CHAUHAN, Er. SUMAN KANT and Er. JITENDRA KUMAR YADAV for their useful comments on the subject matter and for the knowledge I gained by sharing ideas with them.

Radio Broadcasting ABSTRACT

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Radio broadcasting is considered as powerful way of mass communication. Radio has grown very quickly. The biggest organisation of RADIO BROADCASTING in INDIA is ALL INDIA RADIO. Radio has its own special characteristics. Its vast reach covers almost the entire country, and it has a big audience. All India Radio has the latest technology used in the field of Radio Broadcasting. We enjoy the radio programmes and but there is a lot of engineering involved in the back end of that programme. First of all the programme is generated in the studio and then passed to the control room, there it is processed, modulated and then uplinked and after this we receive the programme. RADIO is the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air. Information is carried by amplitude, phase or pulse modulation techniques. And at the receiving end it is again decoded into the actual signal.

Radio Broadcasting

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE......................................................................................................................2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.....................................................................................................3 ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................4 TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................................5 1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................6 2. STUDIO SETUP..............................................................................................................8 2.1. STUDIO CHAIN........................................................................................................8 2.2. OUTSIDE BROADCASTING...................................................................................20 3. TYPES OF AUDIO..........................................................................................................25 3.1. MONO........................................................................................................................26 3.2. DUAL MONO...........................................................................................................26 3.3. STEREO.....................................................................................................................26 3.4. SURROUND SOUND...............................................................................................26 4. NEED FOR MODULATION..........................................................................................26 5. TYPES OF MODULATION...........................................................................................26 5.1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION..................................................................................26 5.2. ANGLE MODULATION...........................................................................................27 5.3. PULSE MODULATION............................................................................................29 6. CAPTIVE EARTH STATION........................................................................................35 7. TRANSMITTER..............................................................................................................38

Radio Broadcasting
8. REFRENCES....................................................................................................................51

1. INTRODUCTION RADIO BROADCASTING is a media of mass communication. Radio Broadcasting is the one of the earliest way of the mass communication. Radio systems used for communications will have the following elements. With more than 100 years of development, each process is implemented by a wide range of methods, specialized for different communications purposes. Each system contains a TRANSMITTER. This consists of a source of electrical energy, producing alternating current of a desired frequency of oscillation. The transmitter contains a system to modulate some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it. This modulation might be as simple as turning the energy on and off, or altering more properties such as amplitude, frequency, phase, or combinations of these properties. The transmitter sends the modulated electrical energy to a tuned resonant antenna; this structure converts the rapidly changing alternating current into an electromagnetic wave that can move through free space. Electromagnetic waves travel through space either directly, or have their path altered by reflection, refraction or diffraction. Noise will generally alter the desired signal; this electromagnetic interference comes from natural sources, as well as from artificial sources such as other transmitters and accidental radiators. Noise is also produced at every step due to the inherent properties of the devices used. If the magnitude of the noise is large enough, the desired signal will no longer be discernible; this is the fundamental limit to the range of radio communications. The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna; this structure captures some of the energy of the wave and returns it to the form of oscillating electrical currents. At the receiver, these currents are demodulated, which is

Radio Broadcasting conversion to a usable signal form by a detector sub-system. The receiver is "tuned" to respond preferentially to the desired signals, and reject undesired signals.
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Early radio systems relied entirely on the energy collected by an antenna to produce signals for the operator. Radio became more useful after the invention of electronic devices such as the vacuum tube and later the transistor, which made it possible to amplify weak signals. Today radio systems are used for applications from walkie-talkie children's toys to the control of space vehicles, as well as for broadcasting, and many other applications. 2 .STUDIO SETUP A broadcasting studio is a room in studio complex which has been specially designed and constructed to serve the purpose of originating broadcasting programs. Whenever any musician sings and we sit in front of a performing musician to listen to him, we enjoy the program by virtue of the superb qualities of our sensory organs namely ears. However, when we listen to the same program over the broadcast chain at our home though domestic receivers, the conditions are entirely different. Broadcasters are continuously engaged in the task of ensuring the maximum pleasure for the listener at home when the artists are performing inside the studios. The science of sound is often called Acoustics.

2.1. STUDIO CHAIN A STUDIO CHAIN represents how the data transfer takes place from one place to another place in a studio and how it is transmitted. First of all the programmes are generated in the different studios with the use of tape deck recorders, computers and CD players and then that audio signal is passed to the control room. There it is processed and amplified at different levels. There is a switching console in the control room which decides which programme to be transmitted. After such processes the signal is passed to the transmitter. And then after transmission we receive the programme.

Radio Broadcasting

The science of sound is often called Acoustics. It would be thus prudent to understand the field of acoustics as applied to broadcasting. ACOUSTIC TREATMENT Good acoustics is a pre-requisite of high quality broadcasting or recording. Acoustic treatment is provided in studios, control rooms, and other technical areas in order to achieve the acoustic conditions which have been found from experience to be suitable for the various types of programmes. In this section problems and design aspects of internal acoustics of a broadcast studio are explained. A) PROPAGATION OF SOUND WAVES Sound waves emanating from a sound source are propagated in all directions. These sound waves are subject to reflection, absorption and refraction on encountering an obstacle. Extent to which each of these phenomenon takes place depends upon the structure and shape of the obstacle, and also on the frequency of sound waves. In close rooms, the sound would be reflected and re-reflected till the intensity weakens and it dies down. Physical characteristics of sound waves are thus modified in various ways before they reach the human ear. These reflected waves can create echo effect in the room. To achieve the desirable effects of the reflected sound, the dimensions and shape of the room are decided with due care and acoustic treatments are also provided on the various surfaces. b) REVERBERATION TIME(R/T)

Radio Broadcasting In any enclosed room when a sound is switched off, it takes a finite length of time to decay to inaudibility. The hanging-on of the sound in a room after the exciting signal 9 has been removed, is called reverberation and the time taken for the sound to decay to one millionth of its initial value, i.e. 60 dB, after the source has stopped, is termed Reverberation Time(R/T). c) FACTOR COVERING REVERBERATION TIME R/T of a room depends upon shape and size of room and on the total absorption offered on boundary surfaces.

For a room of given volume and surface area, the R/T can be derived by Eyrings formula
R/T = 0.049 V S ln (1 )

where V S

R/T = = =

Reverberation time in seconds

Volume in cubic ft. Total surface area of room in Sq.ft. Average absorption coefficient

Average absorption coefficient ( ) is given by

= S1 1 + S 2 2 + ......... + S n n S1 + S 2 + ....... + S n

Where S1, S2.Sn are the areas (in sq. ft.) of different materials provided, and 1 , 2 n are the absorption coefficients of these materials. of acoustic material is defined as the ratio of absorbed sound to the total incident energy of sound. An open window absorbs/allows to pass all of the sound energy striking it and reflects none. Thus it has of unity. of practically all acoustic materials vary with frequency. d) EFFECTS OF REVERBERATION ON PROGRAMME Reverberation is the most important single parameter of a room. influences the audio programs in following ways:It

Radio Broadcasting Volume of program increases due to reverberation of sound. This is a desirable feature, however, too much of reverberation may impair the quality of program and, therefore, should be controlled. 10 Reverberation results in prolongation of sound inside the room. This leads to blending of one sound with the next and produces a very pleasant continuity in the flow of music. Too much of prolongation, however, may create loss in intelligibility of program due to decrease in clarity. Reverberation time of a room is dependent on frequency. Therefore, it modifies the frequency characteristics of the total sound field inside the room. High R/T at mid and high frequencies lead to increased liveness and that at low frequencies increases warmth. This effect can be used judiciously for desirable qualities. OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIME R/T value at each frequency of sound is fixed for most desirable results for different type of programmes .Larger the room size the longer it takes for the sound to travel to the boundary surfaces and get reflected. Therefore, optimum R/T increases with the increase in the room size. Generally Morris & Nixons curve (Fig. 1) is followed for optimum R/T at 1 kHz as a function of room size.

e)

Fig. Reverberation Time vs. Volume

Radio Broadcasting Optimum R/T values at other audio frequencies are dependent mainly on the type of programme for which the studio will be used. These values have been decided after detailed study and subjective listening tests. 11 Optimum R/T for talk studio is generally flat, whereas for music, studio, Morris & Nixons recommendations are followed in AIR. For drama programmes, the optimum R/T is taken as an average of talks and music values at each frequency.

Fig. Recommendation MORRIS & NIXON F) ACOUSTIC ABSORBERS Acoustic absorbers are provided on the inner surfaces of the room to achieve optimum R/T characteristics. Different absorbers have different absorption characteristics. No single absorber generally provides uniform absorption over the complete frequency spectrum. Some of the commonly used absorbers are: i. Porous Materials: Mineral wool, glass wool, etc. are members of this class. These materials are very good absorber and are most effective in mid and high frequencies, however, these cannot be used without some facing material. Carpets and curtains also fall in this category. Fibrous Materials: Celotak, insulation boards, perfotiles, jollylowtone tiles etc. fall in this category. Absorption of these materials depends upon their softness. Absorption efficiency of these materials depends upon the trapping and dissipation of sound energy in tiny pores. Absorption gets reduced if the surface pores are filled with paints etc. These materials have very poor absorption on low frequencies. However appreciable improvement at these frequencies is possible by providing air-gap behind.

ii.

Radio Broadcasting iii. Panel Absorbers: Panel absorbers are thin sheets/membranes with an air cavity behind. The mass of the panel and the springiness of the air in the cavity resonant at some particular 12 frequency. Panel absorbers with 3mm teak ply-facing + 50mm air gap + 25mm mineral wool resonate at about 125Hz. This is generally used as low frequency absorber (LFA). Perforated Panel Absorbers: Perforated hardboard (PHB) spaced from the wall constitute a resonant type of sound absorber. The absorption can be considerably enhanced by inserting suitable porous/fibrous damping materials in the air cavity. The absorption pattern can be varied by adjusting the front and rear air gap from the damping material. Absorption coefficient of this absorber depends on the percentage open area of PHBs also.

iv.

G) DESIGN OF ROOM ACOUSTIC Design for correct reverberation time consists of estimating the total absorption which must be present in the studio. This is calculated by Eyrings Formula, some of the absorption is offered by windows, doors, flooring and artists inside the studio. For the balance requirement sound absorbing materials are provided on walls and ceiling surfaces. Calculations are generally made at six spot frequencies of 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000 and 4000 Hz. Quantities of materials of known absorption coefficients are selected by trial and error method so that R/T requirements are met within +5% of the optimum R/T at all these frequencies. Computer aided design for the same has also been evolved. Thereafter these acoustic materials are distributed on various surfaces for proper diffusion of sound in the studio. Typical acoustic treatment for a studio is given in Appendix. After completion of acoustic installation as per the theoretical design, R/T measurements are carried out and if the achieved R/T figures are found to be very much different than the designed values, then acoustic corrections are also applied. SOUND INSULATION The unwanted sound or noise in the studios spoils the quality of recorded programmes. Sound insulation of walls doors etc. and layout of the studio building is therefore, decided for acceptable background noise level in the studios.

Radio Broadcasting A) ACCEPTABLE BACKGROUND NOISE LEVEL It is not possible to specify an acceptable background noise level in the studios as a single weighted figure, because the noise normally present is 13 spread over a wide range. An excessive noise energy over a small bandwidth could be very disturbing without very much affecting the weighted noise figure. Therefore, the acceptable background noise level is specified as a graph of band level in octave bands against frequency, usually over the range 68 Hz to 4 kHz. These acceptable limits have varied widely between different authorities. In AIR NC 20 curve is followed for studios (Refer Figure 3 for NC Curve), which corresponds to following values. Frequency Band (Hz) Noise Level (db above 0.002 dynes/cm2) 37.75.1 75.150.1 150.300.1 300.600.1 600.1200.1 1200.2400.1 2400.4800.1 4800-9600 54 43 35 28 23 20 17 10

Fig. Noise Criteria Curve B) SOURCE OF NOISE AND SOUND INSULATION Noise in studios may be either air-borne or structure borne. Background noise in a studio can originate from

Radio Broadcasting Outside the building Inside the studio itself and /or Outside the studio but within the building

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C) NOISE ORIGINATED FROM OUTSIDE THE BUILDING Noise from outside the studio building are mostly due to aircraft, road and rail traffic etc.These noise can be avoided/minimised by locating the studio building in a quiet environment away from the railway lines highways and aerodromes. In case studio centre is located in noisy street, sufficient set-back distance is provided between the street kerb and the main building. Sometimes a multi-storeyed office building is built in between the studio building and the sound source to act as a sound barrier for the studio building. D) NOISE FROM INSIDE THE STUDIO Noise from inside the studio itself consist of air-conditioning noise due to air flow, the noise from fluorescent lights, from cooling fans in tape recorders etc. Noise due to airflow in the studios is controlled by creating slow diffusions of air. To avoid noise of fluorescent lights, ballast chokes are not mounted with the light fittings in the studio. These are mounted separately in a ballast nitch outside the studio. Cooling fans in tape recorders are generally of low noise type. E) CONTROL OF AIR-CONDITIONING GENERATOR AND LIFT NOISE AND DIESEL

Noise due to air-conditioning plants can transfer to the studios as structural borne noise as well as air borne noise. The structural borne noise is avoided by providing the a.c. plants in a separate block isolated from the main studio mook. A structural isolation gap of 75 mm width right from foundation level up to the roof height is provided between the two blocks. This gap is filled with damping materials, such as asphalt, to avoid bridging by stone, cement mortar etc. Wherever required, only flexible connections are used for linking these blocks for running electrical cables, duct etc. These plants are mounted on vibration isolation pads and water pipes for condenser cooling are also isolated from the walls with resilient packing materials so that transmission of the vibration to the building is

Radio Broadcasting avoided.To avoid transferred structural vibration through ducts, the main supply and return ducts from the plants are connected to the studio ducts through flexible canvass connection.
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To avoid transfer of airborne noise from the a.c. plants, the plenum chamber and the entire length of supply/return duct is insulated internally with sound absorbing materials e.g. glass wool. Also speed of the blower is kept low (about 750 rpm) as the noise at source itself is controlled. Similarly diesel generator is either installed in this structurally isolated block or in a separate building away from the studio. The generator is mounted on anti-vibration mounting so that vibration due to the same is minimised in the structure. F) SOUND INSULATION FROM FOOTFALL, DRAGGING OF FURNITURE ETC. Noise due to footfall, dragging of furniture, falling of paper weight etc. is transmitted at long distance as structure borne noise. Transmission of this noise is much more in steel framed buildings than in load bearing structure. Therefore, studios are generally made in load bearing single storied buildings. In case of steel-framed building and/or multi-storeyed buildings, floating construction i.e. box within the box is recommended for broadcasting studios. G) SOUND INSULATION FROM ADJACENT ROOM/CORRIDOR NOISE High level of programme/ monitoring in adjacent rooms and conversation in corridors may cause leakage of this sound in a studio. This leakage may be due to poor sound insulation of intervening walls or due to flanking paths. Sound insulation of a single solid wall (generally known as transmission loss, TL) against airborne noise is determined by its mass per unit area. TL of a 115 mm brick wall, plastered on both sides, is 45 dB. A 225 mm plastered wall has a TL of 50 dB, which is a very poor return for the extra mass. Though the TL figures are much better for cavity walls (with air gaps), however, their construction is very difficult. Therefore these cavity walls are avoided in AIR, all studio walls have been standardised as 340 mm thick. Additional insulation, whenever required, is achieved by proper positioning of various sources of noises (at the planning stage) so that either the high level studio/room is not very close to another

Radio Broadcasting studio or by providing a buffer room (such as musical instruments room, store room etc.) between the high level source and the studio.
16 TL of a specially designed sound proof door is about 30 to 35 dB only. This is much less than that of a 300 mm wall. Therefore, a sound lock, heavily treated, is placed at the entrance of the studio so that corridor noises do not leak to the studio through the entrance door. Similarly the observation windows are constructed with double glass so that TL of the wall is not reduced with the provision of this window.

Leakage of sound in a studio may be through cracks in walls, holes made for running ducts etc. and/or through a.c. ducts and conduits. To avoid leakage through these flanking paths, all the partition walls in the studios are erected up to the real ceiling height. Walls are plastered on both sides without any crevices/gaps. Holes made in walls for a.c. ducts are closed tightly by ramming high density mineral wool into the hole and applying a layer of plaster to the outer faces. Similarly all holes made for running conduits are sealed properly. To avoid leakage of sound through the a.c. ducts, the layout of ducts is decided judiciously and all the ducts (supply as well as return) are lined internally with mineral wool after running cables. CONCLUSION It hardly needs to be over-emphasised that broadcasting studios should be free from noise and be designed for optimum R/T requirements. For international exchange of programmes, it is essential that the condition of noise and acoustics are as per international standards. These requirements are duly taken care of at the design and installation stage, however sufficient precautions should be taken during maintenance i.e. painting etc. and/or at the stage of making any additions/changes in the studios so that these characteristics are not altered.

Radio Broadcasting

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2.2 OUTSIDE BROADCASTING Introduction Outside Broadcasts (abbreviated as OBs) form a substantial portion of programmes radiated from a Radio Station. Major events that occur at different parts of a country, such as sports events, important functions of political, cultural and national important and other such programmes that originate from outside the broadcast studio are covered as OBs.

Radio Broadcasting Different Types of OBs OBs can be classified into two types : i) Live Broadcast
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Events of national importance such as Independence Day Celebrations, sports events etc. are generally radiated as Live programme. ii) Spot Recordings Most of the OB programmes are recorded at the OB spot with the help of a portable, battery operated OB amplifier and or an Ultra Portable Tape Recorder (UPTR) or a cassette tape recorder. Some programmes, depending on their importance are recorded at the studio end. In this case, it is necessary to book telephone lines, from the OB spot to CR. Normally three such lines are booked. One for feeding the programme to CR, one for inter communication between the OB spot and CR using a magneto telephone, and one as a standby programme line. Equipments Normally used in OBs i) OB Amplifier

An OB amplifier is a portable mixing unit. Normally four low level microphone inputs and one high level input from a PTR or UPTR, can be mixed and controlled by this unit. The individual channel output levels as well as the level of the programme after mixing can be controlled by rotary step attenuators. A tone generator providing three spot frequencies (75 Hz, 750 Hz or 1 kHz, 7.5 kHz) is incorporated in this unit so that the frequency response of the telephone line on which the programme is fed can be quickly checked at CR end and equalisation done, if found necessary.

The auxiliary output can be used for random operation or for feeding a public address system. Thus two OB amplifiers can be cascaded, and nine programme sources can be controlled. A portable mixer has recently been developed by M/s Meltron which can be used with Nagra or Meltron UPTRs. This mixer enables use of three microphones and has a high level input. The main feature of this mixer is that it is of light weight and takes power supply from UPTR itself.

Radio Broadcasting ii) Microphones

The choice of the correct type of microphone and its proper handling and 19in placement is very important for the success of an OB. The microphones used OBs must be robust, insensitive to wind noise and popping effects, and having a good front to back ratio to avoid feedback. Hence, when choosing a microphone, for OB operations the directional characteristics of the microphones should be considered carefully. Suitability of different microphones for OB recording is discussed below. Omni directional Microphones Omni-directional microphones are sensitive to sound from all directions equally and hence they are preferred in studio recordings. But dynamic cardiod microphones are better suited for OB recordings. Short Gun Microphones In OB situations such as cricket test match or athletics coverages, the sound is to be picked up from a distance and hence we require a microphone with a narrow acceptance angle. Gun microphones are used on such occasions. Its constructional structure is such that all sounds other than those from the wanted direction, arrive in such a manner as to produce a very low output from the microphone. Hence, shot-gun microphones are used when the microphone must remain at some distance from the sound or good rejection of sound from the sides and rear is desired.

Radio/Wireless Microphones In sports coverages, there may be situations such as in a big stadium where different athletic events take place simultaneously where it is not possible to lay cables. Radio microphones are best suited for these locations. In a radio microphone, the microphone is connected to a miniature FM transmitter (held in hand) and the audio is picked up from the demodulator output of a FM receiver.

Radio Broadcasting Such radio microphones are used in locations where long cable distances are involved or where it is not possible to lay the cable. Use of Wind shields
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When microphones are used out of doors, in windly conditions, wind shields are used. But wind shields tend to have adverse effect upon the frequency and directional response of the microphones. Hence, they should be selected with care, and used only when necessary and suitable corrections are to be made to the frequency response and operational techniques. iii) Tape Recorders

Spot interview and glimpses of the various events taking place in a particular city, are covered by spot recordings done with Ultra Portable Tape Recorders (UPTRs) and cassette tape recorders. They are light weight battery operated recorders and are provided with only headphone monitoring facility in order to avoid the drain on the batteries. Generally two sets of either dry cells or chargeable cells are taken for the OB recordings, so that atleast 30 minutes of recorded programme is made feasible. Major studio centres such as the BH, New Delhi are provided with a number of such UPTRs and cassette tape recorders so that more than twenty different event can be covered with the help of such UPTRs. The recorded tapes are brought back to the BH, and a composite news capsule is made with the help of console tape recorders, in the dubbing room. The edited programme is used in the programmes such as Radio News Reel, Agricultural Programmes, special features etc.

Important Guidelines for coverage of OBs Cassette tape recorders in our network are not of uniform quality. Each cassette recorder should be thoroughly tested for satisfactory quality before sending it for OB recording. For VIP recordings, Portable tape Recorders (PTRs) are used. A PTR is mains operated, provides good quality and is also sturdy enough to withstand continuous operation. PTRs can also be taken to those OB spots where AC power supply is available. It is preferable to take a variance to take care of power supply voltage fluctuations. Where more than one microphone is needed for an OB, proper phasing, correct placement, proper balancing and mixing of the

Radio Broadcasting microphones is essential to get the desired sound quality. Microphones should be so located as to avoid direct pick up from strong external noise sources e.g. public address loudspeakers, generators, viscinity of heavy traffic etc. Strong sources of 21 RF radiation in the viscidity of the equipment will also adversely affect the quality. The commentators mike should be unidirectional and should have minimum possible pick-up from external sound sources. It should also be kept away from sound reflecting surfaces. The connecting cables for microphones and for other equipment should be carefully laid so that these do not get disturbed during the progress of the OB. Spare cables should be provided wherever possible. If the effects microphones are at considerable distance from the equipments, these may be connected through battery operated booster amplifiers located near the mikes. The equipment should be set-up well before the start of the OB and the entire chain from the microphone to the receiving end should be thoroughly tested for reliability and satisfactory sound quality. The equipment should not be disturbed after testing and any last minute changes and adjustment must be avoided. For the coverage of various functions and sports events etc. it is essential to provide adequate sound effects. If the sound effects are not available in the background of the running commentary, it becomes an extremely dull coverage, uninteresting to the listeners. The engineer on duty should ensure that the sound effect do not override the main commentary and proper balance is maintained. Proper selection of the microphones for coverage of an OB is very important. Apart from good quality, the microphone should be rugged and capable of withstanding transit hazard. It should always be carried in a proper case to avoid damage due to improper handling. It is always essential to take standby equipment, spare batteries, spare components and essential tools for the coverage of an OB. A portable battery operated receiver should also be taken for monitoring purposes.

OB Van AIR has acquired a few OB Vans recently. The vans are of the size of a matador vehicle and incorporate equipment of latest technology. Each van has been provided with a 6 channel audio mixer 3 UPTRs and a Public Address Amplifier. The interior is acoustically treated and airconditioned. A portable diesel generator can be housed in the body. It is possible to record talks and interview inside the van. All microphones inputs are terminated on a panel and cable drums provided for laying of the cables for recording the outside programmes and placement of effects mikes in the field. Provision is available to meet most of the requirements of production, recording, editing and dubbing etc. The van

Radio Broadcasting can also meet the requirements of a live coverage. Provision will be kept for installing a VHF/FM transmitter and a video camera along with a monitor inside the van in case these are required for certain types of 22 coverage.

3. TYPES OF AUDIO
There are various types of audio which can be transmitted from a studio: 3.1MONO 3.2 DUAL MONO 3.3STEREO 3.4SURROUND SOUND 3.1 MONO: In mono audio system all the audio is fed at the single channel. We receive the same audio at all the speakers. 3.2 DUAL MONO: In this system two separate speakers are used when signals are to be fed. When we receive the signal there is stereo effect is produced. 3.3 STEREO: In this system very good sound effect is produced. We can even identify the different- different instruments sound when we are listening to music in a stereo system. 3.4 SURROUND SOUND: In surround sound there is a two or more speakers and a woofer. A woofer amplifies the low frequency audio signals. Before the transmission the audio signal is made that much capable by modulation so that it can be transmitted easily and nicely. 4. NEED FOR MODULATION Antenna size can be reduced by modulating the signal over higher frequency. among transmissions (stations) Maximum to minimum frequency ratio can be reduced to minimum by modulating the signal on a high frequency.

Radio Broadcasting 5 .TYPES OF MODULATION Modulation is of three types mainly: i. ii. iii. i. AMPLITUDE MODULATION ANGLE MODULATION PULSE MODULATION
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AMPLITUDE MODULATION If the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal, it is called amplitude modulation. This modulation has been shown in a figure below
E0 0

RF Carrier

0 Modulating signal Emin Emax

m+ = m = m = Degree of mod ulation m+ = m = Emax Eo Eo Eo Emin Eo

E0 0

AM signal

Fig . 1 Amplitude Modulation.

ii.

ANGLE MODULATION Variation of the angle of carrier signal with time results in angle modulation. It is of two types: a. FREQUENCY MODULATION b. PHASE MODULATION

a. FREQUENCY MODULATION
The type of modulation in which the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is varied according to amplitude of modulating signal is called frequency modulation. Frequency modulation is widely

Radio Broadcasting used in VHF communication systems e.g. FM broadcasting, transmission of sound signal in TV, Satellite Communication etc.
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Fig. 2 Frequency Modulated wave The instantaneous frequency varies about the average frequency (carrier frequency) at the rate of modulating frequency. The amount by which the frequency varies away from the average frequency (carrier frequency) is called frequency deviation and is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.

b. PHASE MODULATION
If the Phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal (information), it is called phase modulation.

Analysis of Phase Modulation Signal Let carrier,

Vc ( t ) = Ec Cos w c t )

Radio Broadcasting Modulating Signal

Vm ( t ) = Em Cos m t
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Then, Phase Modulated Signal

V( t ) = Ec Cos ( w c t + ) where = o + k p Em Cos m t

Phase of carrier is varied as per amplitude of modulating signal.

V( t ) = = Ec Cos ( w c t + k p Em Cos m t ) Ec Cos ( w c t + d Cos m t )

where d = k p Em = Modulation Index

PM f FM and PM FM f

Vm

fm

Fig.3

Phase Modulation

In FM, modulation index is directly proportional to modulating signal amplitude and inversely to modulating frequency. In PM, modulation index is directly proportional to modulating signal amplitude but independent of modulating frequency. iii. PULSE MODULATION A set of techniques where by a sequence of information-carrying quantities occurring at discrete instances of time is encoded into a corresponding regular sequence of electromagnetic carrier pulses. Varying the amplitude, polarity, presence or absence, duration, or occurrence in time of the pulses gives rise to the four basic forms of pulse modulation: pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse-code modulation (PCM), pulse-width modulation (PWM, also known as pulse-duration modulation, PDM), and pulse-position modulation (PPM). ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION An important concept in pulse modulation is analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion, in which an original analog (time- and amplitude-continuous) information signal s(t) is changed at the transmitter into a series of

Radio Broadcasting regularly occurring discrete pulses whose amplitudes are restricted to a fixed and finite number of values. An inverse digital-to-analog (D/A) process is used at the receiver to reconstruct an approximation of the 26 original form of s(t). Conceptually, analog-to-digital conversion involves two steps. First, the range of amplitudes of s(t) is divided or quantized into a finite number of predetermined levels, and each such level is represented by a pulse of fixed amplitude. Second, the amplitude of s(t) is periodically measured or sampled and replaced by the pulse representing the level that corresponds to the measurement. According to the Nyquist sampling theorem, if sampling occurs at a rate at least twice that of the bandwidth of s(t), the latter can be unambiguously reconstructed from its amplitude values at the sampling instants by applying them to an ideal low-pass filter whose bandwidth matches that of s(t). Quantization, however, introduces an irreversible error, the so-called quantization error, since the pulse representing a sample measurement determines only the quantization level in which the measurement falls and not its exact value. Consequently, the process of reconstructing s(t) from the sequence of pulses yields only an approximate version of s(t). PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION In PAM the successive sample values of the analog signal s(t) are used to effect the amplitudes of a corresponding sequence of pulses of constant duration occurring at the sampling rate. No quantization of the samples normally occurs (Fig. 4a, b). In principle the pulses may occupy the entire time between samples, but in most practical systems the pulse duration, known as the duty cycle, is limited to a fraction of the sampling interval. Such a restriction creates the possibility of interleaving during one sample interval one or more pulses derived from other PAM systems in a process known as time-division multiplexing (TDM).

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sine wave. (a) Analog signal, s(t). (b) Pulse-amplitude modulation. (c) Pulse-width modulation. (d)Pulse-position-modulation. PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION In PWM the pulses representing successive sample values of s(t) have constant amplitudes but vary in time duration in direct proportion to the sample value. The pulse duration can be changed relative to fixed leading or trailing time edges or a fixed pulse center. To allow for time-division multiplexing, the maximum pulse duration may be limited to a fraction of the time between samples (Fig. 4c). PULSE-POSITION MODULATION PPM encodes the sample values of s(t) by varying the position of a pulse of constant duration relative to its nominal time of occurrence. As in PAM and PWM, the duration of the pulses is typically a fraction of the sampling interval. In addition, the maximum time excursion of the pulses may be limited (Fig. 4d).

PULSE-CODE MODULATION

Radio Broadcasting Many modern communication systems are designed to transmit and receive only pulses of two distinct amplitudes. In these so-called binary digital systems, the analog-to-digital conversion process is extended by 28 the additional step of coding, in which the amplitude of each pulse representing a quantized sample of s(t) is converted into a unique sequence of one or more pulses with just two possible amplitudes. The complete conversion process is known as pulse-code modulation. Figure 5a shows the example of three successive quantized samples of an analog signal s(t), in which sampling occurs every T seconds and the pulse representing the sample is limited to T/2 seconds. Assuming that the number of quantization levels is limited to 8, each level can be represented by a unique sequence of three two-valued pulses. In Fig. 5 b these pulses are of amplitude V or 0, whereas in Fig. 5c the amplitudes are V and V.

Pulse-code modulation. (a) Three successive quantized samples of an analog signal. (b) With pulses of amplitude V or 0. (c) With pulses of amplitude V or V. PCM enjoys many important advantages over other forms of pulse modulation due to the fact that information is represented by a two-state variable. First, the design parameters of a PCM transmission system depend critically on the bandwidth of the original signal s(t) and the degree of fidelity required at the point of reconstruction, but are otherwise largely independent of the information content of s(t). This fact creates the possibility of deploying generic transmission systems suitable for many types of information. Second, the detection of the state of a twostate variable in a noisy environment is inherently simpler than the

Radio Broadcasting precise measurement of the amplitude, duration, or position of a pulse in which these quantities are not constrained. Third, the binary pulses propagating along a medium can be intercepted and decoded at a point 29to where the accumulated distortion and attenuation are sufficiently low assure high detection accuracy. New pulses can then be generated and transmitted to the next such decoding point. This so-called process of repeatering significantly reduces the propagation of distortion and leads to a quality of transmission that is largely independent of distance. TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING An advantage inherent in all pulse modulation systems is their ability to transmit signals from multiple sources over a common transmission system through the process of time-division multiplexing. By restricting the time duration of a pulse representing a sample value from a particular analog signal to a fraction of the time between successive samples, pulses derived from other sampled analog signals can be accommodated on the transmission system. One important application of this principle occurs in the transmission of PCM telephone voice signals over a digital transmission system known as a T1 carrier. In standard T1 coding, an original analog voice signal is band-limited to 4000 hertz by passing it through a low-pass filter, and is then sampled at the Nyquist rate of 8000 samples per second, so that the time between successive samples is 125 microseconds. The samples are quantized to 256 levels, with each of them being represented by a sequence of 8 binary pulses. By limiting the duration of a single pulse to 0.65 microsecond, a total of 193 pulses can be accommodated in the time span of 125 microseconds between samples. One of these serves as a synchronization marker that indicates the beginning of such a sequence of 193 pulses, while the other 192 pulses are the composite of 8 pulses from each of 24 voice signals, with each 8-pulse sequence occupying a specified position. T1 carriers and similar types of digital carrier systems are in widespread use in the world's telephone networks. BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS Pulse modulation systems may incur a significant bandwidth penalty compared to the transmission of a signal in its analog form. An example is the standard PCM transmission of an analog voice signal band-limited to 4000 hertz over a T1 carrier. Since the sampling, quantizing, and coding process produces 8 binary pulses 8000 times per second for a total of 64,000 binary pulses per second, the pulses occur every 15.625 microseconds. Depending on the shape of the pulses and the amount of intersymbol interference, the required transmission bandwidth will fall in the range of 32,000 to 64,000 hertz. This compares to a bandwidth of only 4000 hertz for the transmission of the signal in analog mode.

Radio Broadcasting APPLICATIONS PAM, PWM, and PPM found significant application early in the 30 development of digital communications, largely in the domain of radio telemetry for remote monitoring and sensing. They have since fallen into disuse in favour of PCM. After the all these processes the signals are to uplinked to the satellite and EARTH STATION is used as a uplink center from which from which the signals are fed to the satellite for distribution in a specified area covered by the satellite. The signal is uplinked from the earth station and received by many downlink centers in RADIO broadcasting. Lets study the CES briefly: 6. CAPTIVE EARTH STATION As mentioned earlier that the captive earth station is meant for the up linking of the signal to the satellite. It is designed as that it also amplifies and modulate the signal. The basic components that a captive earth station has are: PDA (Parabolic dish antenna) FEED LNBC WAVE GUIDE HPA UPCONVERTER MODULATOR ENCODER MULTIPLEXER IRD(Integrated Receiver Decoder) CES receiving system is used for monitoring of the up-linked programme .C-BAND uplink frequency range is from 5.850 GHz to 6.425 GHz & downlink frequency range is from 3.7 GHz to 4.2 GHz. Transmitted power is 400W.

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Radio Broadcasting

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Captive Earth Station is utilized to uplink its Radio programs for distribution in its network through satellite. Programs up-linked by these Captive Earth Stations are to be received at other ALL INDIA RADIO stations their RADIO NETWORKING (RN) Terminals and used for recording or retransmission through their terrestrial transmitters.

Radio Broadcasting CES uplinks the programs using both analog as well as digital chain. The Transmit chain is in C BAND while receive chain is in C BAND and S BAND. Each CAPTIVE EARTH STATIONS has facility to Transmit Two digital carrier and one analog carrier.
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Digital Carrier undergoes QPSK Modulation of digital audio while for Analog carrier Analog FM Modulation of Mono Audio is done. 9. TRANSMITTER After the whole of these processes the signal is fed to the transmitter. The FM signal is fed to the FM TRANSMITTER and AM signal is fed to the AM TRANSMITTER. The AM signal is fed either by the captive earth station to the HIGH POWER TRANSMITTER or by the STL i.e. STUDIO TO TRANSMITTER LINK. STL is a microwave link between transmitter and the studio. In ALL INDIA RADIO SHIMLA transmitter used for MW is THALES transmitter which is a digitalized instrument. And also NEC is used for the stand by. There is a MAST for which is a tower antenna of 120 metre height and it has a impedance of 50 ohm. The impedance of the feeder lines coming from the various transmitters is 230 ohm. Therefore for the impedance matching the tuning is to be done. For that purpose ATU i.e. ANTENNA TUNING UNIT is used so that maximum power transfer can take place. A mast is supported by the wires which are grounded and the air cored coils are used in between the wires. So that when there is a lightening then all the current is fed to the ground and no damage is done. The RF signal is not grounded by those wires because that is an AC signal and the coils do not allow the AC pass through them. Other components which are attached to the mast are spark discharge and austein transformer. Spark discharge is used as safety precaution during the lightening and transformer is used to give the supply to the aviation lights. austein

THE basic structure of a transmitter is same whether it is a SW or MW transmitter. First of all a crystal oscillator generates a frequency and that is amplified at various stages and an audio signal is passed and amplified at different stages then both the audio signal and the RF signal generated by the oscillator are mixed in a modulation transformer and from the modulation transformer the signal is passed through the feeder lines of copper to the ATU and then to the MAST and from there it is transmitted. The transmitter used nowadays for MW transmission is THALES transmitter. It is completely a digital device which works on 300 V dc.

Radio Broadcasting A THALES transmitter has 80 modules of power amplification. Each gives a power of 1.25 KW and so after the 80 modules the power becomes 100 KW. A Thales transmitter looks like
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The SW TRANSMITTER used in ALL INDIA RADIO SHIMLA has the power of 50 KW. The MW transmission is used for the short distance transmission and the SW transmission is used for the long distance transmission. In AIR SHIMLA the SW frequency used at the day time is 6020 kHz and in the night time is 4965 kHz. When the signal from the various transmitters comes in six line transmissions line and we need to pass that to antenna or mast then a concept of impedance matching is used. The impedance of the antenna is 50 ohm and that of the transmission lines is 230 ohm. So we need to match the impedance to transfer maximum power to the antenna. For that purpose the ATU is used i.e. Antenna Tuning Unit.

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MAST

ANTENNA TUNING UNIT

Radio Broadcasting Antenna Tuning Unit (ATU) is to match the feeder line impedance to the mast impedance of MW Transmitters for maximum transmission of power. So ATU is located between the mast base and the feeder line and is very close to the 36 mast base. Commonly Feeder Unit which is located in the aerial field, houses the ATU. Generally the mast impedance (aerial impedance) is obtained in a complex form i.e. the real part (resistive) and the imaginary part (reactive) component. When the mast impedance is expressed in polar form then negative angle indicates the mast is capacitive and positive angle indicates the mast is inductive. Whether the mast impedance is inductive or capacitive depends on the height of the mast in terms of wave length (). If the height is less than /4, it will be capacitive and inductive if more than /4. This can be measured with impedance bridges. ATU can be designed in a number of ways. The method used may be different in different conditions. Criteria depend on the requirements. Especially when directional antenna system is employed by splitting power to different antenna, the phase angle of the network is the most important parameter. In other cases mostly, simplicity and safety against lightning is important. One of the methods adopted in the past was the reactive component of the mast impedance is neutralised, by putting opposite reactive component of same value in series at mast end side, to make the mast impedance purely resistive (i.e. for inductive mast the series reactance should be capacitive and vice versa). Then the resistive part of the mast impedance can be matched to the feeder line impedance by selecting a suitable matching network. This matching network can be L, T or network, and can be designed as phase lag or phase lead type. In these cases if a capacitor is put in series, there is every possibility of puncturing of capacitors due to lightning. Hence this method is being discouraged.

The second method, which is most commonly used now, is first to convert the antenna impedance into a parallel combination. Most of the bridges used to measure the mast impedance measure it in the series form. This series impedance can be converted into a parallel impedance using the following formula: -

Rp = Rs 1 + ( Xs / Rs )

Radio Broadcasting

1 Rs = Rp 1 + ( Rp / Xp) 2 Xs = Xp 1 1 + ( Xp / Rp )
2

Xp = Xs 1 + ( Rs / Xs)

),

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Fig. Series to Parallel Conversion

After the conversion we find that the mast impedance has a resistance in parallel with a reactance which could be either capacitive or inductive. This reactance can be neutralised with the help of a reactance of same magnitude but opposite in phase. These two reactances which are equal but opposite in polarity resonate and offer pure resistance. Further this resistance Rp can be matched to the feeder line with the help of any network. The advantage of this method is that whenever the mast is capacitive we can neutralise with a parallel inductive reactance. This reactance in addition to matching, also provide a static leaks for the lightning. This will eliminate the separate provision of static leaks. Besides the coils being sturdy will be a more appropriate solution for lightning protection.

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The third method employed is shunting the mast impedance with a high Q coil irrespective of whether the mast is inductive or capacitive. This will alter the net impedance offered by the antenna and can be manipulated to the desired value by varying the inductive reactance. In effect the coil impedance alters the mast impedance. This method is used to bring down the higher value of mast impedance to a manageable level for designing suitable network. This method is often known as Pre-Tuning FM TRANSMITTER One other transmitter is FM transmitter. The AIR SHIMLA has a FM frequency of 100.9 MHz. The FM transmitter used here is 1 kW which is 2*500W

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INTRODUCTION The new generation FM transmitters in the AIR network can be classified according to their output powers as follows : 3 kW FM Transmitter 2x3 kW FM Transmitter The Salient features, principles of working and RF block schematic of these three types of FM transmitters have been outlined in this chapter. SALIENT FEATURES a. Completely solid state.

Radio Broadcasting b. c. d. e. f. g. Local/remote operation capability Forced air-cooled. Digitally synthesized crystal oscillator which can be set in steps of 10 40 kHz in the frequency band of 87.5 to 108 MHz. Frequency can be selected internally by BCD switches or externally by remote control. Broadband VHF Power Amplifiers require no tuning. Full power output just by pressing a single button. Automatic output power reduction in the following cases : Mismatch (VSWR > 1.5) o Excessive heat sink temperature of output RF transistors (> 80oC). o Absorber temperature 70oC due to failure of one or more power amplifier units. An automatic switch-over circuit ensures operation in the passive exciter standby mode. This means that either of the two exciters can be selected to operate as the main unit and the other exciter waits to be taken over. The switching and operating status of the system is indicated by LEDs. RF power transistors of power amplifiers are of screw-in type and no soldering is required during replacement. Additional information such as SCA or RDS can also be transmitted. Parallel operation of two transmitters in active standby mode is possible using a combining unit. If one of the transmitters fails, 1/4th of the total nominal power goes on the air so that continuity in service is maintained. Fault free transmitter can then be selected manually on antenna during suitable pause in programme with the help of U-link panels provided on the combining unit front panel. High overall efficiency of the order of 55 to 60%.

h. i. j. k. l.

m.

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING The principle of working of a modern FM Transmitter is given in block diagram in fig The L and R audio signals are converted into the stereo signal by a stereo coder. The stereo signal, also called the MULTIPLEXED (MPX) signal, then frequency modulates the VHF oscillator which is a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) of the phase locked loop (PLL). The PLL is an automatic frequency control (AFC) system in the FM transmitter is maintained within the specified tolerance limits of + 2 kHz. In this arrangement, the phase of the VHF oscillator is compared with that of a reference crystal oscillator operating at 10 MHz. The frequency of the reference oscillator is

Radio Broadcasting divided by 1/1000 with the help of three decade counters in cascade to bring it down to the audio range (10 kHz). The VHF oscillator frequency is also divided by a factor
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N to scale it down to 10 kHz. As the VHF oscillator can operate at any assigned frequency in the FM Broadcasting band of 87.5 to 108 MHz, the factor N will vary from 8750 to 10800. the phases of the outputs from the two frequency dividers are then compared in a phase comparator and the resultant error voltage is amplified, rectified and filtered to get a DC error voltage of positive or negative polarity which corrects and drift in the VHF oscillator frequency.

L STEREO CODER R

VHF OSCILLATOR AND MODULATOR

Antenna WIDE BAND POWER AMPLIFIER

RECTIFIER AND FILTER

PROGRAMMABLE DIVIDER 1/N

FRQUENCY CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR 10 MHz

FREQUENCY DIVIDER 1/1000

10KHz

PHASE DETECTOR

10KHz

Fig. Block Diagram of Modern FM Transmitter

The operating frequency and the variable factor N are synthesised with the help of digital frequency synthesis techniques. Thus any frequency of high stability (same as that of the reference crystal oscillator) can be generated by using the same crystal oscillator of 10 MHz. The FM signal obtained at the output of VHF oscillator is then amplified in a VHF Power Amplifier with an output power of 1.5 kW. This amplifier is the

Radio Broadcasting basic building block in the series of FM Transmitters. It is a wideband amplifier so that no tuning is required when the operating frequency is changed.
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3 kW, 2x3 kW FM TRANSMITTER I) 3 KW FM TRANSMITTER RF block schematic of 3 kW FM transmitter is shown in figure 2. low level modulation of VHF oscillator is carried out at the carrier frequency in the Exciter type SU-115. The RF output of the exciter is split up into two halves using a splitter network called input coupler. Thus two VHF power amplifiers type VU 315 are driven by one Exciter. The RF outputs of these amplifiers are passed through harmonic filters and combined in the power coupler to get an output power of 3 kW. RF switch connects the selected exciter to the input coupler and the standby exciter to dummy load and AF switch feeds the audio to the selected exciter. Nominal output power of the Exciter in a 3 kW transmitter is 6 W. All the modules are mounted in a single rack. Transmitter output is taken from the top and can be connected either to antenna or dummy load with the help of a U-link.

2.5 W

VHF AMPLIFIER

HARMONIC FILTER

1.5K W

5W INPUT COUPLER OUTPUT COUPLER

3K W 50

2.5 W 10 W FROM RF SWITCH INPUT COUPLER

VHF AMPLIFIER

HARMONIC FILTER

1.5K W

5W

Fig. RF signal flow of 3 kW FM Transmitter ( A or B) II) 2 X 3 KW FM TRANSMITTER RF block schematic of 2 x 3 kW FM Transmitter is shown in figure 3. It may be seen that the outputs of two 3 kW transmitters are combined in a combining unit to get an output of about 5.5 kW.

Radio Broadcasting The nominal output of exciter in this transmitter is about 10 to 12 W because there are four PA units and the input power requirement of each PA is about 2.5 to 3 W. The exciter output is split into 4 43 equal parts in two stages of power splitting using three couplers. These four outputs drive four power amplifiers, each amplifier developing an output of 1.5 kW which is filtered in a harmonic filter (low pass filter with cut off frequency of 110 MHz). Two 1.5 kW outputs of each transmitter are then combined in output coupler to get an output of 3 kW for each transmitter. Both the transmitter outputs (3 kW each) are then combined in the combining unit to get an output of about 5.5 kW.

Fig. RF block schematic of 2 x 3 kW FM Transmitter The modern FM transmitters are compact, versatile, easy to install and operate. Their design incorporates in-built flexibility to provide different output powers using identical modules. This also adds to redundancy thereby increasing the reliability of the transmitter.

REFRENCES
The training material provided by ALL INDIA RADIO.

Radio Broadcasting

www.sci-tech.com.

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