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298

MONSOON!
HE WORD MONSOON T comes from the Arabic word for season, and refers to the seasonal rainfall pattern that occurs in the tropics. This seasonal change from hot and dry to hot and wet has a marked influence on the life of millions of people throughout south and south-east Asia, giving a marked wet and dry season (Figure 1). Monsoon rains provide vital irrigation for Indian agriculture, allowing the planting of the staple crop, rice. This unit looks specifically at the causes, consequences and effects of the 2002 Indian monsoon on the lives of the people living in and around the Ganges plain.
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by Ian Hunt

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Causes
Three interrelated factors cause this seasonal climate pattern and intense summer rainfall in India and southern Asia:
the shift of wind and pressure belts northwards and southwards caused by the apparent movement of the sun pressure changes due to differential heating of land and sea the relief rainfall effect of the Himalayan mountains.

0 J F M A Latitude 25N Longitude 83E Av. daily max (C) Rainfall (mm) J 23 23 F 27 8 M M 33 14 J A 39 1 J M 41 8 A S O N S 32 261 D O 32 38

J J A 39 33 32 102 346 240

N 29 15

Figure 1: Climate data for Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh in India

In summer the apparent movement of the sun north to the Tropic of Cancer at 231/2N causes the wind and pressure belts to move with it. The inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ), where winds from the northern and southern hemisphere meet, moves with this movement of the sun. The intense heating of the ground where the sun is overhead causes the air to rise and creates an area of low pressure. The air rises, cools and condenses before falling as convectional rainfall (Figure 2).

This area of low pressure is dragged further north by the differential heating of land and sea. In June when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the land masses of central Asia and the Indian subcontinent heat up faster than the waters of the Indian Ocean. This also creates low pressure, as the air above the heated land mass rises rapidly and warm moist air is sucked in from the Indian Ocean, bringing heavy rainfall (Figure 2). The influence of the Himalayas further increases the rainfall due to the relief effect as the air is forced to rise as it passes over them (Figure 2).

As the sun moves south to the Tropic of Capricorn in winter, the land cools faster than the sea. This causes air to cool and subside (sink) over central Asia, creating high pressure. The air warms as it sinks and is able to hold more moisture within it, so clouds evaporate leaving clear skies and dry conditions. This air then flows outwards in a southerly direction across the Indian subcontinent. The air is also dry because it has its origins over land. These conditions prevail across India from midSeptember through to June. Rainfall occurs when the moist winds blow over land after crossing the warm Indian Ocean. In the Indian subcontinent this is in June, July and August, and in northern

Series 15 Autumn issue Unit 298 Monsoon! 2003 Nelson Thornes This page may be photocopied for use within the purchasing institution only.

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Australia in December, January and February. This pattern gives rise to alternating dry and wet seasons. Highest rainfall occurs where the warm moist air is forced to rise over high ground, eg the Himalayas. Annual variations in the intensity of heating and the pressure gradient between central Asia and the Indian Ocean, together with other global climatic factors such as an El Nio event (ENSO El Nio Southern Oscillation), combine to create variations in the position of the ITCZ. These variations therefore affect the length and the intensity of the monsoon rains, bringing floods or drought. This greatly affects the lives of the people living and working in the area.

wide. Millions of people live and work within the plain, in both the industrial centres of Allahabad, Lucknow and Kanpur, and in the rural villages. The onset, duration and intensity of the monsoon rains determines when crops are planted and harvested and whether they are successful. Sufficient rain may mean a good harvest and regular food supplies. Insufficient rain means drought and harvest failure, creating a lack of food and loss of income. If the rains are too heavy, however, the floods will damage crops and homes, make communications difficult or impossible, and may cause loss of life. Both drought and floods therefore lead to debt. Floods also bring malaria and other diseases from contaminated water.

In the week leading up to 17 May, 450 people died, mainly in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh. Elsewhere the heat caused roads to melt, wells to dry up and wildlife to die. By 17 July the rains still had not arrived. The states of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh were the worst affected. Rice (the main staple) is planted in May in nurseries and 30 days later transplanted by hand into the paddy fields ahead of the expected rains. Many of these plantings failed due to the delay in the rains. In some states the delay in the rains also led to a serious power shortage with hydro-electricity plants unable to operate.

Case Study
Ganges plain
The floodplain of the River Ganges is 1,400 km long and up to 200 km

2002 monsoon
Before the onset of the 2002 monsoon, temperatures within India had reached a blistering 49C.

The economy

The lack of rains also affected peoples jobs, as many agricultural labourers were left without employment. A drop of 0.25% in

low pressure 2

Movement of the sun north to Tropic of Cancer in June 1

JUNE

Central Asian land mass heats rapidly. Air rises due to intense heating from below, creating low pressure.

Air returns south at high level, descending over northern Australia as high pressure

3 Himalayas create a relief effect as air is forced to rise to pass over, bringing relief rainfall.

Descending air high pressure

Rain shadow

Central Asian land mass heats rapidly in summer

1 Intense heating of ground as sun is overhead. This creates low pressure as air rises, cools and condenses causing convectional rainfall.

Warm moist air sucked in from above Indian Ocean

Indian subcontinent

Indian Ocean Water warms more slowly than the land 2

Low pressure

Low Intense heating 2 pressure from sun overLand heats head. Air rises, rapidly, condenses, rain air rises falls

High 3 pressure Moist air sucked in from Indian Ocean Sea heats slowly Air forced to rise, cools, condenses and rain falls

Himalayas Orographic (relief) effect

Movement of the sun overhead (June)

Differential heating of land and sea

Figure 2: Causes of the Indian wet monsoon

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Series 15 Autumn issue Unit 298 Monsoon! 2003 Nelson Thornes This page may be photocopied for use within the purchasing institution only.

the growth of the GDP of the country was forecast and targets for growth were revised downwards from 6.5%. The failure of the monsoon also had an effect on curry lovers worldwide, because the belowaverage rainfall 30% lower than average by mid-August dramatically affected production of the specialist pure Basmati rice. It was reported that crop production was 25% down on 2001/2002 and at a seven-year low. The world market price of Basmati rice rose by 10%. On a more local scale, workers involved in micro-finance with Womens Committees Savings Groups reported that the small amounts saved over long periods had been used up and the rural poor, unable to borrow from the banks, were being forced to borrow from money-lenders at interest rates of up to 250% a month, leading to serious rural debt.

effect. In the eastern state of Bihar, people were forced to leave their villages as rivers breached their banks. Water levels in the Ganges and Gaddhak surged as water was released from the Balmikinagar Dam in Nepal, which was threatening to overflow, and road links between Gopalganj, Patna and other areas were cut. As many as 24 of Bihars 38 districts were flooded, and hundreds of thousands of hectares of crops were washed away. The death toll from floods and water-borne diseases rose to 352 in Bihar alone.

In India, the monsoon fails. In Europe, it rains without mercy. Is this more than a coincidence?
By Steve Connor, Science Editor
IT was coursing down in Corsica, pouring in Prague and soaking in Salzburg. The umbrella-weather of Umbria was matched by rain in Spain and torrents in Turin. There was almost nowhere in central and southern Europe that escaped this summers record downpour. Majorca suffered its wettest August for more than a quarter of a century. In just one day violent storms dumped three times the average monthly rainfall for August on Palma, and on neighbouring Ibiza five times the months average fell over 24 hours. Massive flooding in central Europe claimed more than 100 lives and caused billions of pounds of damage to some of the continents most historic sites. Earlier this week, flooding killed at least 20 people in the south of France, which was hit by some of the most violent weather in living memory. As the heavens opened this summer and thousands of Britons sat shivering in their holiday villas, another devastating phenomenon was taking place on the other side of the world with even greater consequences only a third of the expected rainfall fell during this years Indian monsoon. Scientists now believe that these two events are related. The failure of the monsoon in India, which is so vital for crops, may have led directly to a breakdown in the normally settled summer weather of southern and central Europe. Professor Brian Hoskins, a meteorologist from Reading University, said yesterday that there was now convincing evidence that the poor summer in Europe resulted from changes in atmospheric pressure caused by the failure of the Indian monsoon.

Reasons for the failure of the Indian monsoon global consequences

The strength of the monsoon rains depends on the pattern of atmospheric pressure within the region. Professor Brian Hoskins, a meteorologist from Reading University, has put forward the theory that changing pressure patterns as a result of a change of wind and ocean current currents in the Pacific Ocean (El Nio) was the ultimate cause of the failure of the 2002 Indian monsoon. In a normal year huge volumes of air rise above India and the Himalayas, causing condensation and heavy rainfall. This air then pushes north and west and descends over Europe and the Mediterranean. This allows the development of high pressure over Europe, bringing clear, settled weather. In 2002, however, the uplift of air over the Indian subcontinent was weaker than usual and as a result the rainfall was substantially less overall and also more varied. Because the uplift was weak, the corresponding descending air over Europe was also weak and high pressure systems over Europe failed to become established, allowing low pressure systems (fronts) to pass across central Europe and the Mediterranean. These in turn brought floods to central Europe at a time when settled high pressure weather patterns are normally expected (Figure 3).

Floods
By contrast, whilst the monsoon failed in some areas, in other regions when the rains did arrive they came with a vengeance.
On 6 July the north-east state of Assam was hit by torrential rains and flash floods, making 250,000 people homeless. In the district of Dhemaji, 30,000 people were displaced from villages, and emergency relief camps had to be established and food relief distributed by the government. Army units were put on alert and repair work on damaged roads started. In Northern Bihar another 200,000 people had to move to higher ground as rivers reached danger levels. By 16 August torrential monsoon rains were estimated to have killed 900 people and displaced or trapped 25 million people in India, Bangladesh and Nepal. A total of 323 people were killed in India, 157 in Bangladesh and a further 424 in Nepal, either swept away or crushed by mudslides. In the state of Bihar the Punpun River overflowed, flooding areas around the state capital of Patna. By 27 August heavy rainfall in the Himalayas was having a dramatic

Figure 3: Newspaper report from The Independent, 13 September 2002

The strength of the Indian monsoon therefore has an effect at local, national and global scales, influencing debt, poverty levels, international rice trading prices, rural consumer purchasing power and also weather prospects for summer holidays in central Europe and the Mediterranean.

Series 15 Autumn issue Unit 298 Monsoon! 2003 Nelson Thornes This page may be photocopied for use within the purchasing institution only.

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Activities
1 Using an atlas, locate India. On a copy of Figure 4: (a) Name countries I, P , Bd, B, N. (b) Name cities Ka, Pa, V , Al, L, K, D. (c) Shade in the regions Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Assam. (d) Locate and label the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. (e) Locate and shade the areas of the Himalayan Mountains and Western Ghats. 2 (a) Copy and complete the climate graph Figure 1, using the data supplied. (b) Using your completed graph, describe the distribution of rainfall throughout the year. (c) Describe temperature fluctuations throughout the year. What is the annual temperature range, and how does this vary with the seasons? Include specific figures and months in your answer. (d) Compare temperature and rainfall fluctuations throughout the year. Is there any relationship between them? Give reasons for your answers. 3 (a) Using the text and information from your completed climate graph, describe what the word monsoon means. (b) Use your climate graph to
1 June 18 September

1 2 3 4 5 6 P 3
G R. g an es

Bihar Uttar Pradesh Haryana and Punjab Rajasthan Assam Andhra Pradesh

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Figure 4: The Indian subcontinent

explain why Varanasi has a monsoon climate. 4 Use Figure 2 and the text to explain in detail the reasons why India has a monsoon climate. 5 Study Figure 5. How did the 2002 monsoon differ from the normal course of events? 6 Create a star diagram with the
Normal

title: The effects of the 2002 monsoon. Include effects on people, the environment, the local and national economy, on rice supplies and prices, and on weather patterns in Europe. 7 Write an essay with the title: The causes and effects of the Indian monsoon. Include specific information about the 2002 monsoon.

Key Rainfall (mm/day) > 20 520 25 02

Key % departure from normal 0 20 40

Figure 5: Cumulated rainfall pattern

Source: www.met.rdg.ac.uk/cag/MOL/index.html

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Series 15 Autumn issue Unit 298 Monsoon! 2003 Nelson Thornes This page may be photocopied for use within the purchasing institution only.