Published by the ‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications SI Units Third Edition 2005 Interim Revisions {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,“Aincrican Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials HE North Capitol Street, NW Suite 249) ‘Washington. DC 2000) 202-624-580) plione/202-624-5806 fn. ‘wwe transportation. org 1; 2005 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, All rights reserved, Duplication is a violation of applicable law ‘Cover photo courtesy of the Michigan Department af Transportation. {© 2005 by the Armrican Assocation of State Highway and Transporation Ofcials. ‘allngnts reserved, Duplication 4 wolation of appieable lew. Puplication Code: LRFDSI-3+11 ISBN: 1-56051-273-3PREFACE AND ABBREVIATED TABLE OF CONTENTS The -LISHTO LRED Bridge Design Specifications, 3x1 dition contains the following 14 sections and dan ind: 1. Introduction 2. General Design and Location Features 3. Foods and Load Factors 4. Siryotural Analesis anu valuation 5. Conerete Structuees Sigel Structures Alumina Structures Wood Sirnciures Decks and Dock Srstems Foundations Abuinents, Piers, und Walls buried Siuetures and Tunnel Liners Railings Joints and Hearings Ines Detaled “Tables of Contents provde cach sovtion, References Follow exch section, listed alphabetically by author Figures. eles, and equations ate denoted by thir home artiele number and an eséension, for esample 123.4 5-1, Ihut shen they are referenced in theie hone article or its counienlary, thes are Menbitied only by the extension. For example, in Anicle 1234.5, Hg. 12345-2 would simply be called “ig. 2” When iis equation ig veferensed lanesshere else other than its howe sticks, it i identified by its whole nomenclatine: i other words, “Tg. (2.4.52 “The sume convention appligs to Figures and tables lose note that the AASIIUO materials specifications (starting with M or T)eited throughout the LRED Spucitications can be found in Skandand Specifications for Fransporiation Materuas nnd Methods of Sampling ana Testi, adoplel by the AASHTO Highway Subsommitice on Materials Unkess ofhersise indicated, these cilaions riar to the curtent 234d edition, ASTM materials specifications are alan eited {© 2008 bythe Arerien Assoction of Sate Highway and Transporation fi Ar gts reserved. Dupeaten vlstion oF apc ewPREFACE AND ABBREVIATED TABLE OF CONTENTS The -LISHTO LRED Bridge Design Specifications, 3x1 dition contains the following 14 sections and dan ind: 1. Introduction 2. General Design and Location Features 3. Foods and Load Factors 4. Siryotural Analesis anu valuation 5. Conerete Structuees Sigel Structures Alumina Structures Wood Sirnciures Decks and Dock Srstems Foundations Abuinents, Piers, und Walls buried Siuetures and Tunnel Liners Railings Joints and Hearings Ines Detaled “Tables of Contents provde cach sovtion, References Follow exch section, listed alphabetically by author Figures. eles, and equations ate denoted by thir home artiele number and an eséension, for esample 123.4 5-1, Ihut shen they are referenced in theie hone article or its counienlary, thes are Menbitied only by the extension. For example, in Anicle 1234.5, Hg. 12345-2 would simply be called “ig. 2” When iis equation ig veferensed lanesshere else other than its howe sticks, it i identified by its whole nomenclatine: i other words, “Tg. (2.4.52 “The sume convention appligs to Figures and tables lose note that the AASIIUO materials specifications (starting with M or T)eited throughout the LRED Spucitications can be found in Skandand Specifications for Fransporiation Materuas nnd Methods of Sampling ana Testi, adoplel by the AASHTO Highway Subsommitice on Materials Unkess ofhersise indicated, these cilaions riar to the curtent 234d edition, ASTM materials specifications are alan eited {© 2008 bythe Arerien Assoction of Sate Highway and Transporation fi Ar gts reserved. Dupeaten vlstion oF apc ewSECTION 1 (SI): INTRODUCTION ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS, 1.1 SCOPE OF THE SPECIFICATIONS. [2 DEFINITIONS 1.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 13.1 General 1.3.2 Limit States, 1.3.2.1 General, os 1.3.2.2 Service Limit State 13.2.3 Fatigue and Practare Limit State ca 1.3.2.4 Strength Limit State. 1s [3.2.5 Extreme Event Limit States, Ie 13.3 Ductility 13.4 Redundancy . “ 1.3.5 Operational Importance. 17 ry {© 2005 by the Armrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,Seenon 1 (SD INTRODUCTION 1.1 SCOPE OF THE SPECIFICATIONS “The provisions of these Specifications ar intended for the design, evalttation, and rehabilitation of both fixed and movable highway bridges. Mechanical, cleeiical, and special vehicular and pecistrian safety aspects of movable bridges, however, are mot covered. Provisions are not Included forbridges used solely forvatlway, rail-iranst. or public utilities. For bridges not fully covered hein, the provisions of these Specifications may be applied, as ‘auggnentes with additional design criteria where required ‘These Specifications are not intended 10. supplant proper training or the exercise of judginent by the Designer, and state only the minimum requirements necessary to provide for public safety, ‘The Owner or the Designer may require the sophistication of design or the (quality of sateriais and consicaction lo be higher tan the ‘inimam oqaizemens. ‘The concepts of safely through redundancy and ductility and of protection agains! scour and collision are emphasized. ‘The design provisions of these Specifications employ the Load and Resistance Factor Design (URED) methodology. The factors have been developed fram the theory of reliability based on current statistical knowiesige of loads and siaccaral pesformance, ‘Methods of analysis otter than those included in previous Specifications and the modeling, techniques inherent inthem are included, and their use fs encouraged “The commentary isnot intended ta provide aceite Historical backgroud concerning the development of these tr previous Specifications, nor i it intended to provide a detailed sunmsrary of the studies and research data reviewed in formulating the provisions of the Specifications. Hlowever, references to some of the research data are provided for those who wish o study the background material in depth, ‘The commentary directs attention to other documents that provide suggestions for canyying aut the: requirements and intent of these Specifications. Tlowever, those documents and his commentary are not intended to be @ part of these Specifications ‘Construction specifications consistent with these design specifications art the LISHYO LRED Bridge Construction Specifications. Uniess othenaise specified, the Material Specifteatfans. referenced hercin are the AASHTO Standard Specifications jor Transportation Materials and Methods of Nawpling and Testing. {© 2005 by the Armrican Assocation of State Highway and Transporation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, LL cu Llorizontally curved concrete gircers ace not fully ‘covered! and were not part ofthe ralibration data base. ‘The term “notional” is often used in those specifications 10 indicate an idealization of a physical phenomenon, 2s in “notional load” or “notional resistance.” Use of this term strengthens the separation of ‘an enginees's “notion” or perception of the physical world Jn the context of design fromthe physical reality self ‘The term “shall” denotes 2 requirement for ‘compliance with these Specifications. “The term “should” indicates a strong preference fora given csitesion, ‘The ter “may” indicates actesion that ts usable, bat ‘ther local and stitably documented, verified, ‘and approved criterion niay also be ase ina manner consistent wilh the LRPD approach to bridge design12 AASHTO LRED Brioce Dasten SercinicaTtoNs ($1) 1.2 DEFINITIONS Bridge—Any structure having an opening not Tess than 6100 tan that forms part of a highway or that ts located over or ander a highway Collapse—A major change in the geometry of the bridge rendering it unit for use Componont—Tither 4 diserete element of the bridge or & combination of elements requiring individual design consideration Destgn—Proportioning and detalling the components and comtections af abridge Design Lile—Peviad of lime on which the staistcal derivation of transient loads is base: 75 years for these Specifications Dactilty Property of a component or connection that allows inelastic response. Engineer —Porson responsible for the design of the bridge andor review of design. related field submittals such as ercetion plans. Evataation—Determination of load-canying capacity of an existing bridge. Exireune Event Limi Staies—Linit sates eelating io events such as earthquakes, ice load, and vehicte and vessel collision, with return periods in excess ofthe design life of the bridge. Factored Lond—The nominal loads multiplied by the appropriate load factors specie forthe load combination under consideration Factoned Resistannce—The nominal resistance multiplied by 2 resistance factor Fixed Bridgo—A bridge with a fixed vehicular or navigational clearence Force Elfeet—A dolormation, sess, or stress resullant (Le. axial force, shear force, torsional, or flexaral aoruent) caused by applied loads, imposed deformations, or volumetnic changes, Limit State—A condition beyond which the bridge or component ceases to satis the provisions for which it was designed. Load and Resistence Factor Design (LRED)—A reliabilty-based design melhodology in which foree effects caused by factored loaris are not permitted 10 exceed the faciored resistance of lie componenis. Load Factor—A statistically-based mullipicr applied to force effects accounting primarily forthe variability of koa, the lack of accuracy in analysis. an the probability of sirmaltancous occurrence of different loads, but alsa celated tothe. siatistics of the resistance through the calibration process. Load Modifer—A factor accounting for ductility, redundancy. and the operational importance of the bridge ‘Model—An idealization ofa structure forthe purpose of analysis, Movable Bridge bridge with a variable vehicular or navigational clearance. Mutiple-Load-Path Siructuro—A structure capable of supporting the specified loads follosving loss of @ main load: canying component or connection ‘Nominal Resistemce— Resistance of component or connection to force effecs, a invicated by the dimensions specified in the comiract documents anc by permissible stresses, deformitions, or specified strength of materials, Gwner Person or agency having jurisdiction over the bridge.SecTION 1 (SD): INTRODUCTION 13 Regular Service—Condition excluding the presence of special permit vehicles, wind exceeding 90 knivh, and extreme events, including scour Rehabilitation —A process in which the resistance of the brkdge Is eer restored or inezwased Resistance Factor—A statstically-besed multiplier applied to nominal resistance accounting primarily for variability of taterial properties, structural dimensions andl workmanship. and uncertainty in the prediction of resistance, but also related to the statistes ofthe loads through the calibration process, Service Life—The period of lime that the bridge is expected 1o be in operation Service Limit States—Limt states relating to stress, deformation, and cracking under regular operating conditions Strength Lint States —Linit slates celating to strenglh and stability during the design life. 13 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 13.1 General Bridges shall be designed! for specific ltt states to achieve the objectives of construcibility. safety, and serviceability, with due regard to issues of inspectabilly economy. and aesthetics, as specified in Article 2.5. Rogardiess ofthe type of analysis used, Bq. 13.2.1-1 shall be satisfied for all specified force effects and combinations thereof, 1.32 Limit States 13.2.1 General ach component and connection shall satisfy Eq, 1 for ‘cach init state, unless oltenwise specified, For secviee arid extreme event limit states resistance Factors shal be Laken 5 1.0, except for bolts, for whict te provisions of Article 6.55 shall apply, and for concrete columns in Seismic. Zones 3 and 4, for which the provisions of Article 5.10.11.4.1h shall apply. All limit states shall be considered of equal importance, sat) in which: For loads for which a maxinnann value of y, ts appropriate: n= nonan, 2 0.95 i323) For loads for which a mininim value of y,is appropriate: 1 S10 3.2.13) aman {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, C134 ‘The limit siatcs_specified_herein_are_intended_1o provide for a buildable, serviceable bridge, capable of sally camying design loads for a specified lifetime The resistance of camponents and connections is termined, in many cases, on the basis of inelastic bohavior, although the force effects are determined by esing clastic analysis. This inconsistency is common 10 most cacren bridge specifications a a result of incomplete knowleige of inelastic structural action. C1324 Bg, 1 is the basis of LRFD methoriology: Assigning resistance factor @= 1.0 to all nonstrengtht Tint sia fsa temporary measure: development work is 5 progress, Ductility redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspecis affecting the margin of safety of bridges. Whereas the frst two directly relate to physical strength the last concerns the consequences ofthe bridge boing out of secvice. The grouping of these aspects on the load side of iq. 1 is, therefore, arbitrary, However. it constitu a first effort al codification. In the absence of more procise information, each effect, except that for fatigue and fracture, Is estimated ‘as 5 percent, accumulated geomirically, a clearly subjective approach, With lime, improved quantification of cetlily. redundaney, and operational importance, and their Snleraction and system synergy, may be attained, possibly Jeading io. reanrangement of Bg, 1. fn which these eects may appear on cither sie of the equation or on both sides, NCHRP Project 12-36 is currently addressing the Issue of redundaney.1 AASHTO LRED Brioce Dasten SercinicaTtoNs ($1) where yy = ond factor a sttistically based muliplior applied to faree effects $= resistance factor: a slatstically hased muliplier applied 0 nominal resistence, 35 specified in Sections 5.6. 7.8.16, 1, and 12 ty = lead modifier: a factor relating to ductility. redundancy, and operational importance no = a factor relating 10 ductility, as specified in Adicle 133 ne = a factor relating 10 redundancy as specified in Article 134 ty = a factor relating ta operational importance as specified in Article 1.3.5 G@ = force effect Ry = nominal resistance Re = factored resistance: 4, 1.3.22 Service Limit State ‘The service limit state shall he taken as restrictions on siress, deformation, and crack width under regular service conditions. 1.3.2.3 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State ‘The fatigue Tit state shall be taken as resiletions on siressrange sa es ofa single design truck occurring the nuznber of expected stress range eyetes. The fracture limit state shall be taken as a set of smatesil toughness zequireents of the AASHTTO Material Specifications. ‘The influence of n on the reliability index, B, can be estimated by observing its effect on the minimum values of B calculated in a dalabase of gitder-type bridges, For discussion purposes, the girier bridge data ased in the calibration of these. Specifications was. avdified by rmutplying the total factored loads hy «= 0.95. 1.0, 1.05. and 1.10. The resulting minimum values of f for 95 ‘combinations of span, spacing, and type of construction were determined to be approximately 3.0,3.5,3.8, and 4.0, respectively A further approximate representation ofthe effect of 1 values can he abtained by considering the percent af anita notsral data loss that oF eqtal f0 the sean vale plus 2.0, where } is 2 multiplier, and o is the standard 1.05 for important bridges = 100 for iypteal bridges 10.95 for relatively less important bridges. For all other limit states: {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, C135 Such classification should be based on social/survival andor securityéefense requirements. The commentary to Asticle 3.10.3 provides some guidance on selecting importance categories as they relate to design for ‘earthquakes, This information can be generalized for other situations, Three levels of importance are specified in Anticle 3.10.3 with respect t0 seismic design: “critical,” “essential,” and “other.” For the purposes of this article, Ihridges. classified as “critical” or “essential” in Article 3.[0.3 should be considered of “operational Importance.”REFERENCES AASITTO. 2004. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 24th Edition, HIM-24. Amertean Assoclation of Stale Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. Frangopol, D. M., and R. Nakib, 1991. “Redundancy in Highway Bridges.” Engincertag Journal. Araerican lastitate of Steel Consinuction, Chicago, IL,Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 45-50. re BE or onpeserin rats raw rants inn gn eae eeAASHTO LRED Bains Dest ‘This page is intentionally left blank. i {© 2004 by the Amencan Astocation of State Hghay and Tarmpartaton OF ‘Alghs reserved, Oupicaton is 9 lta o appt lan, SprcinteatiossSECTION 2 (SI): GENERAL DESIGN AND LOCATION FEATURES. ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS, 2 SCOPE oa 2.2 DEFINITIONS. 2.3 LOCATION FEATURES. 241 Rowe Location, 2.3.11 General 2.3.1.2 Waterway aad Floodplain Crossings. 2.3.2 Bridge Site Arammgerncat 23.2.1 General... 23.2.2 Trac Safety 23.2.2.1 Protection of Stmetures 232.22 Protection of Users 23223 Geometric Standards. 2.32.24 Rowel Surfaces. 2.2.25 Vessel Collisions 2.3.3 Clearances, 2.3.3.1 Navigational 2.33.2 Highway Vertical 23.33 Highway Horizontal 2.3.34 Railwoad Overpass. 2.3.4 Environment 2.4 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION 2A Genet 2.42 Topographic Studies 2.5 DESIGN OBJECTIVES 25.1 Safety 2.5.2 Sorviceability Sell-Protccting Measures “Inspectabtli. Maintinability Ridesbiliy Uiities Deformations *sz61 Gener! 25.2.6.2 Criteria for Deflection, 2.52.63 Optional Ceteria for Spa 2.52.7 Consideration of Future Widening, 2.52.7.1 Exterior Beans on Multibeam Bridges, 2.52.72 Substructure. 253 Corsinietiility.. 2.54 Econocuy 254.1 General 2.5.42 Allernative Plans 2.5.5 Bridge Aesthetics. 2.6 HYDROLOGY AND KYDRAULICS, 26.1 Goreral 246.2 Site Date. 26.3 Hydrologic Anal sis. 2.6.4 Hydraulic Analysis 26.4.1 General 26-42 Stream Stability 26.43 Bridge Watensay 2 {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Trenspoctation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,2a AASHTO LRED Baince: Drsiess Sevcine cross (SD) 2664 Bridge Foundations: sess . : : sond20 2644.1 General 2-20 2644.2 Bridge Scour 2.6.4.5 Roadway Approaches (0 Bridge 265 Culvert Location. Length. and Waternay Arca 26.6 Roadway Drainage 2.66.1 General 2.6.6.2 Design Stom, 2.6.6.3 Type. Size. and Number of Drains. 2.6.64 Discharge from Deck Drains. 2.6.6.5 Drainage of Structures,si 1ON2 (SD, GENERAL DESIGN AND LOCATION FEATURES. 2.1 SCOPE cud Minimum requirements ure provided for clearances, ‘This section is intended zo provide the Designer with environmental protection, aesthetics, geological studies, sufficient information co determine the configuration and economy. rideability, durability. construcebility, overall dimensions of bridge. inspectabitiy, an! maintainability. Minimum requirements for tuffie safety are yetoreneod. ‘Minimums requirements for drainage facilities and self protecting measures aguinst water, ice, and water-borne salts are included. In recognition that muny bsidge failures have been ‘caused by scour, hyelrology and hylraulies are covered in detail 22 DEFINITIONS: Aggradation—A general and progressive buildup or raising of the longinulinal profile ofthe channel hed as a result of sediment deposition, (Check Flood for Bridge Scour—Check flood tor sear. The flood resulting trom storm, storm sarge, andor te having a flow rate in excess of the design flood for scour, but inn case a lol with a recurrence interval exceeding the typically ted 500 years. The check Mood For bridge scour is wee in che investigation and assessment ofa brie foundation 6 determine whether the foundation can withstand that low and its associated scour and remain stable wih ao reserve. See also superfine Clear Zone—Aa unobstnicted, relatively flat area beyond the edge ofthe traveled way forthe recovery of exrant vehicles. The traveled way does not inchide shoulders or auxiliary lanes. Clearaice—An waobsirected horizontal or vertical space, Degrasiorion —A general are progressive lowering of the longitudinal profile of the channel bed as a result af long erosion, Desig Discharge —Maximam flow of water a bridge is expected to accommodate without excoeding the adopted design Design Flood for Bridge Scour—The flood flow equal t or les than the 100-year flood that ereates the Geepest scour at bridge foundations. The highway o bridge may be inundated at the stage ofthe desiga flood for bridge scour. The worst ‘case scour eondition may oceur for the overtopping flood as a result of the potential for pressure flow. Desig Flood for Waterway Opening—The peak discharge, volume, stage. or wave crest elevation and its associated prohubility of excesdence that ane sclected for the design of & highway or bridge over a watercourse or londplain. By definition, the higheray or bridge will noc be inundated atthe siage of the design flood for the wacerway opening. Detention Basin—A stormwater management facility that impounds runoff and cemporarily discharges it through hydraulic outlet structure to a downstream conveyance system, Drip Groove—Linesr depression in the botiom of eomiponents to eause waiter flowing on the surface zo drop. Five-Hundred-Year Flood —The flood duc to storm arafor tide having a 0.2 percent chance of being equaled or excveded in any given year, General or Contvaction Scoui—Scour ina channel or on a floodplain that is not localized ata pier or other obstruction «© flow. In a channel, general/contraction scour usually affects all or most ofthe channel width and is typically caused by 3 ‘contraction of the flow. 2a £2006 by the AreseanSusousbien of State Highvey and Tarapetaton Off Alright reserved. Dupcatr i vlan of appa a,22 AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) Uydrauties The nce concerned with the behavior and flow of liquids. especially in pipes and channels Hydrology —The science concerned with the occurrence, distribution, snd circulation of water on the earth, including precipitation, runoff, and groundwater, Local Sceur—Scour in a channel oF on a Nloodploin that is localized at a pier. abutment, or other obstruction to Mow, Miseal Population Flood —Flood Hlows derived from ¢wo or more eatsative factors... spring side deiven by hurricane: generated onshore winds or rainfall on a snowpack: One-thundred-Year Flood —the flvod dae to storm andor tide havi any given year | pervent chance of being equaled or exeeoded in Overteppiing Floud—The flood flow that, iT exceeded, results in ow over a highway or bridge. over a watershed divide, or through structures provided for emergency reli, The worst-case scour condition may be caused by the overtopping Feo. Relief Rridge—An opcning in an embankment on a floodplain lo permit passage of everbank flow. River Training Srructure—Any configuration constructed in a stream or placed on, adjacent to. or in the vicinity of a streambank to deficet current. induce sedtnaei deposition. induce scour. oF in some other way alter the Now and sediment regimens of the steam, Seupper—A device to drain water through the deck Sidewalk Widhh—Unobsiructe space for exclusive pedestrian ase between barriers or between a curls and a barvier. Spring Tide—A tide of increased range that occurs about every nwo works when the moon is full or new. Stable Chaonet—A condition that exists when a stam has a bed slope and cross-section that allows its channel «© Uwansport the water and sediment delivered from the upstream watershedl without significant degradation, aggradation. oF bank erosion. Stream Geomorphotogs—The study ofa sttcam and its Flooaplain with regard to its land forms, the general configuration of its surface, and the changes that tke place due to erosion and the buildup of erosional debris, Superslevation—A tilting of the roadway surtace to partially counterbalance the centitigal forces on vehicles on horizontal curves, Superftood—Any flows or tidal low witha flow rate greater than that of the 10-year Hood but not greaier than a 00-year food ‘The perindie rise and fall of the earth’s ecean that results from the effect of she mwon and sun aesing on s rotating Watershed —An area confined by drainage divides, and of ‘contributing runoff to a single point savin only one outle for discharge: the cota drainage area Watereay—Any stream, river, pond, lake, oF ocean Waterway Opening —Widlh or area of bridge openin How, specified stage, and measured normal to ps 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaReSheTION2 ($1): GENFRAL DEEN AND LOCATION FEATURES 2s 23 LOCATION FEATURES 23.1 Route Location 2.3.1 General “The choice of location of bridges shall be supported by analyses of altervatives with consideration given to ‘economic engineering. social, and environmental concerns as well as costs oF maintenance and inspection associated with the siructanes and wih the relative importanes of the above-noted concerns Attention, commensurate withthe risk bvvolved, shall be directed toward providing tor favorable bridge locations that: ‘+ Fit the conditions exeated by the obstacle b cexosseds ng + Facilitate practical cost ‘coastruction. operation. maintenance: celfective design. inspection ax! ‘* Provide forthe desired level of traffic service and safety: and * Minimize adv Jhway impacts 2.3.12 Waterway and Floodplain Crossings Waterway crossings shall be located with regatd to tal capital costs of construction and the optimization of (otal costs. including river channel raining works and the maintenance measures mecussary o reduce erosion, Studies of alternative crossing locations should include assessments of ‘+ The hydrologic and bydraulic characteristics of the waterway and its oodplain, including channel stability. ood history. and. in esaarine crossings. fidal ranges and eyeless ‘¢ The effect of the proposed bridge on flood flow patterns and the resulting scour parental at bridge Foundations: ‘* The potentis! for creating new or augmenting ‘existing flood hazards and fronnvsneal impacts on the sucerway andl ies loodplain. Brid(ges and thelr approaches on floodplains should be located and designed) with regard to the goals and objectives of floodplain. managemveat including: + Prevention of uneconomic, hazardous. or 23.12 Derailed guidance on procedhses for evaluatiog the location of bridges ard their approaches on floodplains is contained iy Federal Regulations and the Placing and Location Chapter of the AASHTO Model Drainage Manual (see Commentary on Aricle 2.6.1), Bnginoers with knowledge and experience in applying the guidance and procedures in the AASHTO Madet Drainage Mental enerlly safer and more cost effective to avoid bydraalie problems through the selection of favorable crossing lvcations than co attempt fo minimize the problems at a later tinw: in the project evelopment process through design measures. Experience at existing bridges should be part of the calibration or verification of hydraulic models, if possible Evaluation of the performance of existing bridges ching, [past floods is often helpful in selecting the type. size. and Teeation of new bridges £2006 by the AreseanSasoustion of State Highvey and Tarapetaton Off Alright reserved. Dupcatr i vlan of appa a,AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) compatible use and development of flocuplains: + Avoidance of significant iransverse and Tongitudinal encroachments, where practicable: + Micimizotion of adverse highway inipaets ond twitigation of unavoidable impacts, where practicable: © Consistency with the inwent of the standards and criteria of the National Flood Insurance Program, where applicable: + Long-term aggradation or degradation: and = Commirmenis made te ebisin envirnmenial approvals, 23.2 Bridge Site Arrangement 2.3.2.1 General ‘The locazion aed the alignment of the bridge should be selected to satisfy both or-bridge and under bridge traffic requirements. Consideration should be giver « possible foiure variations in alignment or width of the waterway. highway. or railway spanned by the bridge. Where appropriate, consideration should be fiorure addition of mass-transit facilities or bridge widening, 2.3.2.2 Traffic Safety 2AZ2LL Protection of Structures Consideration shall be given to safe passage of vehicles ono7 under a bridge. The haratd (o errant vehicles within the clear zone should be minimized by locating ‘obstacles at a safe distance from the tavel lanes. Pier columns or walls for grade separation structures should be located in conformance with the elear zone concept as contained in Chapter 3. of the AASHTO. ©2321 Although the location of a bridge seructure over a ‘waterway is usually dctermined by other consideratioasthan the hazanls of vessel collision, the Following preferences should be considered where possible and practical © Locating the bridge away ftom bends ia the ppavigation channel. The distance to the bridge should be such that vessels can line up before passing the bridge, usually cight times the length of the vessel, ‘This distance should be increased further where high currents and! winds are ‘prevalent a the site © Crossing the navigation channel near right angles and symimettically with respect 10 the navigation ch ‘¢ Providing an adequate distance from locations with ‘congested navigation, vessel bertbing maneuvers ‘07 other navigation problems, = Locating the bridge where the waterway i shallow ‘ornarraw andl the bridge piers coal he located out or vessel reach, (23.220 Vhe intent of providing structurally independent barriers isto prevent transmission of force effects from the bartice to the structure to be protected, 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaReSheTION2 ($1): GENFRAL DEEN AND LOCATION FEATURES 2s Roudside Design Guide, 1996. Where the practical limits of structure costs, type of structure, volume and design speed of through traffic, span arrangement, skew, and terrain make conformance with the AASHTO Rewdsidle Design Guide impractical, the pier or wall showid he protected by the use of guardrail or other barrier deviees, ‘The guaudrail or ofher device should. if practical. be independently supported, with its roadway face atleast 600 mm from the face of pier or abutment. unless a rigid harrier is provided. "The face of the guardnit or other device should bo as least 600 mm outside zhe normal shoalder line. 2.3.2.2.2 Protection uf Users Railings shall be provided! along th: edges of structures conforming to the requirements of Section (3. All protective stnucnires shall have adeghate surface feanures and transitions to safely redirect errant traffic, Ine the ease of movable bridges, warning signs. lights. “bells. gates, harriers, anu other salety devices shal provided for the protection of pedestrian, eyelists and vehicular traffic, These shall be dsigned eo operate before the opening of the movable span and to renin operational tuntl the span has been camplescly elosed. ‘The deviews shall conform co ake roquirements for “Traffie Control at Movable Bridges” in the Manual on Unijorie Traffic Comtrut Devices or as shown on plans. Where specified by the Owner protected by barticrs sidewalks shall be 2.3.2.2.3 Geometric Standards Requirements ofthe AASHTO publieation A Potiey on Geometric Design af Highways and Streets shal either be satisfied oF exceptions thereto shall be justified and documented, Width of shoulders and geometry oF traffic barrens shall moot zhe specifieations of the Owner 2.3.2.2.4 Road Sunfces Read surlaces on a bridge shall be given antiskid characteristics. crown, drainage, and superelevation in accordance with A Policy on Geometrie: Design of Highwerys end Streets of local requiremeens. 2.3.2.2.5 Vessel Collisions Bridge stnictures shall either be protected against vessel collision forces by fenders. dikes. or dolphins as spevitied in Anicle 3.14.15, or shall be designed to Withstand collision foree effets as specified in Acticle 314.1. (23,222 Protective stmenires include those that provide a safe ‘and controlled separation of traffic on multimodal facilities ising the same righ-oF-¥ay, Spocial conditions. such as curved alignment, impeded visibility. cte.. may justly barrier protection. even with low design velocities €2.3.2.2.5 The need for dolphin and fender systems can be inated ue sore bridges by jadiciors placement of bridge piers. Guidance on use of dolphin and Fender systems is included in the AASHTO Highway Draiuage Guidelines. Volume 7: Hyulraulic Analyses forthe Lacation and Design of Bridges: und the AASHTO Guide Specification and Commenuiry for Vessel Collision Designs of Highway Budges. £2006 by the AreseanSasoustion of State Highvey and Tarapetaton Off Alright reserved. Dupcatr i vlan of appa a,26 AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) 233 Clearances 2.3.3.1 Navigational Permits for construction of a bridge over navigable wocerways shall be obiained from the US. Coast Guard andor other agencies having jurisdiction. Navigational both vertical and horizontal, shall be ‘established in cooperation with the ULS. Coast Guard clearances. 2.3.32 Highway Vertical ‘The vertical clearance of highway structures shall be in conformance with the AASHTO publication A Policy’ on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets tor the Functional Classification of the Highway or exceptions thereto shall be justified. Possible roduetion of vertical clearance, due t settlement of an overpass structure, shall be investigated. If the expected settlement exceeds 25 nam, it shall be added to the specified elosance. ‘The vertical clearance to sign supporis and pedesirian overpasses should be 300 mm greater thar the highway structure clearance, and the vertical clearance trom the rouchvay to the overbead cross bracing of thzough-ouss structures should not be less than 5200 mam, 2.3.33 Highway Horizontal ‘The bridge width shall not be less shan thot of the approach roadway section. inching shoulders or ears. guiters, and sidewalks. Horizontal clearance under a bridge shoald meet the roguiremunis of Article 2.3.22. Xo object on or under a bridge, other than a barrier, should be located closer than 1200 mm to the edge of a designated traffic lane. The inside Face of barier should not be closer than 600 mmo cither the face of the objector the edge of a designated traffic lane. 2.3.34 Railroad Overpass ‘Strenares designed io pass over a railroad shall be in accordance wit standards established and used by the affected railroad in its cosmal practice. These overpass simetures shall comply with epplicable feddaral, stat, ‘county. and sninicipal Jaws Regulations, codes, and standards. shoud. ininimumn, mee the specifications and desiga standards of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of ay Association (AREMA). the Association of American Railroads, and AASHTO. 233.1 Where bridge permits arc required. carly coordination should be initiated withthe U.S, Coast Guard to evaluate the reeds of navigation and the corm ‘design requirements For the bridge Procedires for addressing navigational requirements for bridges. inctuding coordination with the Coast Gard, are set forth in the Code of Federal Regulations, 23. CER. Part £650, Subpart H, "Navigational Clearances tor Bridges.” and USC. 401491, ST Let seq) ©2332 ‘The specitied minimum clearance should! include 150 mm for possible firture overlays. If overlays are not contemplated by the Owner, this requirement may be rallied, Sign suppor, pedestrian bridges. and overhead cross bracings require the higher clearance becanse oftheir lesser resistance (0 impact ©2333 ‘The usable width of the shoulders should generally be taken as che paved width, The specified minimum distances beween the edge of the traffic lane and fixed object are intended to prevent collision with slightly a wide loads. ©2334 Actention is particulary called tobe following chapiers in the Manual for Railway Engineering (AREMA 2003) (Chapter 7—Timber Structures, (Chapter § Concrete Structures apd Voundations, ‘Chapter 9— Highway: Railroad Crossings. Chapter 15— Steel Structures, and ‘Chapter 18 Clearances The provisions of the individu! railroads and the AREMA Munual should be used to determin 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaReSecHON 2 (SI): GeXEKAL DEstG AND LOCATION BFATURES, 234 Environment ‘The impact of a bridge and its approsches on local communities, wetlands, and other aesthetically, environmentally, and ecologically sensitive areas shall be considered. Compliance with siate water laws: federal and state regulations ceneroachment on floodplains, fish, and wilde habitats: und the provisions of the National Mood Insmrance Program shall he assured. Steam) geomorphology. consequences of riverbed scour. removal of embankment stabilizing vegetation, ‘estuarine tidal dytamics shall be consielered. historie site 2.4 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION 24.1 General A subsurface investigation, including borings and soil tests, shall he conducted in accordance with he provisions of Article 104 10 provide pertinent and sufficient {information for the design of substructure units. ‘The type tard cost of foundations shoul! be considered) in the ‘ecoomic and aesthetic studies for lveation and bridge alternate selection, 242 Topographic Studies Cument topography of the bridge site shall be established via contour maps and photographs. Such studies shall include the history of the site in terms of ‘movement of earth masses, soil and nck erosion, and meandering of waterways. 2.8 DESIGN OBJECTIVES 251 Safety ‘The primary esponsibility of the Engineer shall be providing for the safety of the public 2 Clearances, = Loudings, ‘+ Pier prowecion. * Waterproofing. and ¢ Blast protection. 0234 Stream, Le. thuvial, geomorphology is a study of the structure and formation of the earth’s Features that result from the forces of water. Fer purposes ofthis section, this involves evaluating the streams, potential for aggradation. egraclation. or lateral migration. 25. ‘Minimum zeguicements to ensure the structural safety of bridges as conveyances are included in these Specifications. ‘The philosophy of achieving adequate structural safety is coutlined in Article 1.3 [© 2004 by he Amarin Asscition of Seat High and Transeorason Of ings reserves. upieatin is vleton ef apace a,2s AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) 23.2 Serviceability 2.8.21 Durability 25.241 starerials "The coneeaet documents shall call for quality mscarats ard for the application of high standards of fabrication and ‘erection, ‘Scrueniral stcel shall be selF-proweeting. of have fons life coating systems or cathodic protection. Relnforeing bars axl presiressing strands in eonereie components, which may be expected to be exposed to aicborne or waterborne salts, shall be protected by ar appropriate combination of epoxy andfor gulvanized ‘coating. conerete cover, density, or chemical composition of concrete, incloding airentrainment and a nemporous painting of the concrete surface or eathodic protection Prestress strands in cable ducts shall he grouted or otherwise protected against comosion ‘Attachments and fasteners used in weod constmetion shall be of stainless steel, malleable iron, aluminum, or steel chat is: galvanized, cadmivm-piated, or otherwise coated, Weod components shall be meaced with preservatives. Aluminame products shall be elect steel and conereee components, Protection shall be provided to macerials susceptible to ‘damage from solar radiation and/or ait pollution Consideration shall be given (© the durability of materials im direct contact with soil andfor water. ly insulated trom 25.2.1.2 Self Protecting Measures Continuous drip grooves shall be provided along the underside of a conerete deck at a distance not exceeding 250 wim tron) the fascia edges. Where the deck is interrupted by a scaled deck joint, all surfaces of piers and abutments, other than bearing seats, shall have anuiaimam Slope ofS percent toward their edges. Foroper deck joints, this minimnm slope shall be increased to 15 percent. lathe ‘case of open deck joints, the earings shall be protected ‘against eoncaet with sale and debris, ‘Wearing surfaces shall be intorrupked atthe deck joints ‘and shall be provided with a smooth transition tthe deck joint device. ‘Steel rormwork shalt be protected avainst corrosion in saeeordance with the specifications of the Owner C2521 The intent ofthis Artiele is to reagnize the significance ‘oF corrosion and deterioration of structural maerials to the long-term performance of a bridge. Other provisions ropording durabifity can be founel in Article 5.12 ‘Other than she decerionation of the concrete deck itself. the single most prevalent bridge nwintenance problems the isintegration of beam ends, bearings, pedestals, piers. andl abuiments due 1 percolation of waterborne road salts through the deck joints. Experience appears to indicate that a structurally continuous deek provides the best protection for components helow the deck. The potential consequences fof the use of road salts on statcnures with uofilled steel decks and unprestressed wood decks should be taken into account These Specifications permis the use of disconsinaous ecks in the absence of substantial wse of road sak. Transverse saw-cnt relief joints in castin-place concrete decks have Been founk! 0 be oF no practi value where ‘composite aevion is present. Heanomy. che to structural ‘continu andl the absence of expansion joines, will asually favor the application of continuous decks, regardless of eeation, ‘Struigets made simply supported by sliding joints, with ‘or without slotted bolt holes. tend to “Ireeze™ due « the accumulation of comosion products and cause maintenance problems. Because of the general availability of computers, analysis of continuous decks is no longer a problem, Experience ingieates that, trom the perspective of arability. ull joinis should be considered! subject tn some ‘Gegtoe of movement and leakage 25.212 Ponding of water has ofien heen observed on the seats ‘ofabutments, prohably as a result of construction tolerances and/or cling. The 15 pereent slope specified in conjunction with open joints is intended te enable rains to wash away debris and! salt. Im the past, for many smatier bridges, no expansion Gevice was provided at the “fixed joint,” and the wearing surface was simply rin over the joint to give a continous riding surface, As the rotation center of the superstructure is always bulow the surface, the Fixed joint” actually moves ve to load and environmenzal effects, causing the wearing surface to crack, eak, and disintegrate 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaReSECTION? (SD: Generar Desicn aND Location FeaTures 25.22 Inspectability Tnspectton ladders, walkways, catwalks, covered access holes, and provision for ighting, i necessary, shall be provided where other sicans of inspection are sot practical. ‘Where practical, access to permit manual or visual Inspection, including adequate headroom in box sections, shall be provided to the insie of cellular components and to interface areas, where relative movement may accu. 2523 Maintainability Sicuetural systems whose maintenance is expected t0 be difficult should be avoided. Where the eliatic and/or traffic cnvizenment Is such that 2 ridge deck may need 10 be replaced hefiore the reed serve life, provisions shall de shown on the conireet dacaments fo '* a contemporary or future protective overlay, + a future deck replacement. or ‘+ sapplemenzal structural resistance. ‘Areas around hearing seats and under deck joints, should be designed to facililae jacking, cleaning, repay and. replacement of beaings and joints, Jacking points shall be indicated on he plans. and the structure stall be designed for jacking forces specified in Article 8.43 inaccessible cavities anel corners shou be avoided. Cavities. thal may. tavite humnan or animal inhabitants shall either be avotced or made secu. 252A Rideability ‘The deck of the bridge shal be designed to permit te smooth mavernent of traffic. On paved roads, a sructural transition slab should be located henween the approach roadway ane the akutinent of the bridge. Construction tolerances, with regard to the: profile ofthe fisted deck shall be indicated on the plans or in the specifications or special provisions. ‘The number of deck joinis shall be kepl to a practical ‘minimum, Edges of joints in concrete decks exposed 10 traffic should be protected from abrasion and spalling, The plans for prefabricated Joints shall specity that che joint assembly be erected as a unit, Where concrete decks without an initial overlay arc tase, consideration should be given to providing an additional thickness of [0 men to permit correction of tie deck profile by grinding, and lo compensate for thickness loss due fe abrasion 25.25 Utilities Where required, provisions shall be made (o support and maintain the conveyance for utlites. {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, C2822 ‘The Cine Specifications for Design ame onstruction af Seammental Concrete Bridges requires external access Fates with a minimra size of 750 thin 1260 ann, anger ‘openings at interior diaphragans, and venting by drains or screened vents at intervals of no more than 15 000 ar “Those recommendations should be ase in bridges designed under these Specifications 2623 Maintenance of taffie during replacement should be provided cither by partial width staging of replacement or by the utilization of an adjacent paral! siructure Measures for inereasing the durability of concrete ancl swoad decks include epoxy coating of ccinfareing bars, past ing ducts, and prestresing slrands in the deck Microsilica and/or calcium nize additives in the deck concrete, watexproofing membranes, and overlays may be used to protce! black steel See Article §.14.2.3.100 for240 AASHTO LRED Brioce Dasten SercinicaTtoNs ($1) 2.5.2.6 Deformations 25.261 Generat Bridges should be desigeed to avoid undesirable structural or psychological effects due 10 their deformations, While deflection and dept limitations ate rade optional, except for orihotropic plate decks, any lage deviation from past successful practice regarding slendemness and deflections should be cause for review of the design to determine that it will pexform acenuately. TFynamic analysis is used. it shall comply wich the principles and requirements of Article 47 For_sirafght_skewed steel _gieder bridges and horizontally curved slcel_ginder bridges with or without upports. westigal shall be considered: + Plastic vertical, lateral, and rotational deflections i considered to ensure satisfactory service performance of bearings, joinis, integral abutments, and piers 028261 Service load deformations aray cause deterioration of wearing surfaces and local cracking in concrete slabs ane in metal bridges tal could impair serviceability and cubility, even if solf-limiting and nota potential source of collapse As early as 1905, atlempts were made fo avoid these effects by limiting the depth-to-span ratios of trusses and sirers, and staring in the: 1830s, ve load deflection leis swore prescribed! for the same purpose. Ina siudy of deflection linttations of bridges (4SCF #258, an ASCE: committe found numerous shoricomings in these trational approaches and noted, for example, ‘The limited survey conducted by the Committee revealeci na evidence of serious siructunal dainage that could he attributed to excessive: deflection, The few examples of damaged stringer connections of cracked concrete floors could probably be corrected more effectively by changes in design than by more restrictive limitations on Geflection. On the other hand, both the historical study and the resalts from the survey indicate clearly thal unfavorable psychological reaction io bridge deflection is probably the most frequent ard important source of concem regarding the flexibility of bridges, However, those characteristics. of Bridge vibration which are considered objectionable by pedestrians or passengers in vehicles eannot yet be defined. ince publication of the study. therehas been extensive research on harman respons 9 mation. Its now generally agreed thatthe primary factor affecting hurnan senstivity is, acceleration, rather Uian deflection, velocity, or Uhe zat of change of acceleration for bridge structures, hu the problem isadifcaltsebjective one. Thus, there areas yet no simple definitive guidelines for the limits of tolerable state deflection "or dynamic notion. Among current specifications, the Ontario Higlnray tiridee Design Cade of 1991 contains the mast comprehensive provisions regarding ‘ibrattons tolerable to huerans Ulorivontally curved steel bridges are subjected to {ossion resulting in Jagger lateral éeflections and twisting ‘han tangent bridges, Therefore, roatfons dco dead load and thermal forces tend to Have a larger effect on the performance of bearings and expansion joints of curved bridges. ‘Bearing rotations during construction may exceed the dead load rations compute forthe completa bridge, tm parlicular_al_skewed suppors. Identification of this, temporary situation may be critical locasure the bridge can ‘be_buill-without_damaging the bearings or expansion devices {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,SECTION? (SD: Generar Desicn aND Location FeaTures 2a = Computed gider rotations at bearings should be accumulated over_the Engineer's assumed construction sequence. Computed rotations at ‘earings shall nol exceed the specified rotational capacity of the bearings for the accumulated [aciorey loads corresponding (0 the stage investigated, ‘+ Camber diagrams shall satisfy the provisions of Article 6.7.2 and may reflect the computed accumulated deflections due to the Engineer's assunied Construction sequence 2.5.2.6.2 Criteria for Deflection ‘The criteria in this section shall be considered optional, except for ihe following: ‘+The provisions for orthotrapte decks shall be considered mandatory ‘+ The provisions in Asticle 12.14.5.9 for precast reinforced concrete three. sided structures shall he considered mandatory. + Metal grid decks anc other lightweight mctal and conercle bridge decks shall be subject to the serviceability provisions of Article 9.5.2. Tn applying these criteria, the vehicular load shall Include the dynatni load allowance. fan Oswner chonses ta invoke deflection control, the following principles may be applied! + When investigating the maxim absolute deflection for straight girder systems, all design Tones. should te loaded, and all ‘supporting components should he asstaned ta detect equally, ‘+ For curved steel box and L-girder systems, the deflection of cach girder should be determined individually based on its response as part of a slo ‘+ For composite design, the stifness af the design cross-section useefor_the_ determination of deSlection should clude the entire width of fe roacinay and the structurally continuous portions of the railings, sidewalks, and median barriers {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, 25.262 ‘These provisions permil bul do not encourage, the use of past practice for deflection conttcl. Designers were permitted to exceed these limits al their discretion in the past. Calculated deflections of structures have often been Found to be dificult to verify inthe fickd duc to numerous sources of sliffness not accounted for in calculations. Despite this, many owners and designers have fouad como in the pas! requirements oli the overall sfiffness of bridges. The desire for continied availabilty of some guidance inthis rea, often stated dering the development of these Specifications has resulted in the retention of optional criteria, excepl for orthotropic decks, for which the criteria ace reqiired, Deflection criteria are also. mandatory for lightweight decks comprised of metal and concrete, such 25, filled and partially filled grid decks, and unfilled grid decks cotnposite with reinforced concrete slabs, as provided tn Antic 852 Additional guidance rogenting deflection of stecl bridges can be found! in Wright ane Walker (1977), Additional considerations and recommendations for deflection in timber bridge components are discussed in more detail in Chapters 7.8, and 9 in Rider (2990), For a straight multibeam bridge, this is equivalent to saying that the disrtution factor for deflection ts equal to the number of lanes divided by the number of bearns, For curved steel girder systems, ie deflection limi is applied to cach individual ginler because the curvature ‘causes €ach gider to deflect difecently titan the adjacent sginer so that an average deflection has Tittle meaning, For carved sice! girder systems, the span used t0 compute the flection Ilmall should he taken as the arc girder longth between hearings2a AASHTO LRED Brioce Dasten SercinicaTtoNs ($1) + For_siaight_giner_systoms, the composite bending stiffness of an individual girder may be taken 2s the stiffness delermined as specified above, divided by the number of girders: When investigating maxims relative displacements, the number and position of loared lanes should be selected to provide the worst differential effect: ‘= The tive load portion of Loa Combination Service I of Table 34.1-1 should be used, Including the dynamic Igad allowance, IM: +The live load shall be taken from Article 361.32; ‘+The provisions of Article 3.6.1.1.2 showld apply: anc ¢ For skewed bridges, aright cross-section may be tased, and for curved andl carved skewer bridges, a radial crass-sectlon ray he used. Tn the absence of olher extterta, the following deflection Hints may be considered for steel, aluraimu, ancor concrote construction: + Vehicular load, general... Span800, ‘+ Vohieular and/or podestrian loads... Spanv1000, ‘*Voktcttlar load on cantilever arin. Spen/300, and + Vehicular andor pedestrian toads on cantilever BIT en Spani375. For steel [shaped beams and gicders, and for sfee! box and tub girders, the provisions of Anticles 6.10.42 and 6.11.4, respectively, regarding the control of permanent deflections through flange siress controls, shall apply. Tn the absence of aller criteria, the following deflection its may be considered for wood construction: + Vehicular and pedestrian loads... Spaw/425, and ‘© Vehiewlar Ina on wood planks and panels extreme selative deflection between adjacent ge) a - 25 mm ‘The following provisions shall apply to orthotropic plate decks; + Vehilar load on deck plate... Spanv300, + Vehicttlar load on ribs of orthotropic metal decks ‘Spean/1D00, ancl Froma sinclar viewpoinl, large deflections in wood ccomponenis cause fasteners 1 loosen and brittle material, such a8 asphalt pavement, to crack and break. In edition, rmemhers that sag below a level plane present @ poor appearance and can give the public a perception of sirictural inadequacy. Deflections from moving vehicle loads also produce vertical movesnent and vibrations that annoy motorists and alarm pecestians (Ritter 1990}. Excessive defonration cam cause proaattce deferiration of the wearing surface and. affect the performance of fasteners. but Fimils on the latter have not yet heen established. The intent of the relative deflection criterion is to protect the wearing staface from debonding and fracturing due fo excessive Flexing of the deck. {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,SECTION? (SD: Generar Desicn aND Location FeaTures zag ‘+ Velicular load on ribs of anhotropie metal decks (extreme relative deflection between adjacent ribs) - 12.5 mum 2.52.63 Optional Criteria for Span-to-Depth Ratios nloss_otherwsise_speciffed_horein, if an Owner chooses f0 Jnvoke controls on span-to-depth ratios, the Tienitsin Table . in which Sis the slab span length and Lis the spain length, both i amin, may be considered in the absence of oles criteria. Where used, the limits in Table 1 sitll be laken 10 apply to overall depth unless noted. For_curved sieel gitder systems, the span-to-depth ratio, L/D of each scel girder should not exoeed 25 when the succifiod_miinimom yield strength of the girder in gions of posilive lexi is 345 MPa or ks, and + Whonthesprsified minimumyictstrengnofthe ‘girder is 185 MPa or [ess in regions of negative flexite. or + Whon hybrid sotions sasfying the provisions of Aulile 6.10.1 3 are used in royions of noative Toxic, theccarvets ofDotcachsioal sider sould no excce! the following se 252635 where: Ex = mayicld st \ ‘compression flange (MPa) D_= depth of sice! grder (am) Lg = amare girder length defined as fallows (ram): ‘= arc span fo simple spans, ‘+ 0.8 times the are span for continous end-spans; © 0.8 times the are span for continuqus incerlo spans. {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, ‘The 2.5 mm relative deflection limitation is tentative. 25.263 Traditional minimum depths for constant depth supersirictices, contained in previous editions of the AASHTO Standard Spee fications for ighaxay Bridges, are given in Table 1 with some inoditieations. A larger profecred minimum ginder depth is specified for curved steel gitders to reflect the Fact thatthe outermost carved girder ceccives 2 disproportionate share of the load stifles frame_forces are directly related to the_cclalive girder deflections. Tacteasing the depth and stiffness of all the girders Ina curved skowod brtdge leads to snallor relative differences in_the deflections and_saller_eross-frame forces. Deopor pincers also result in recuced out-of plane rotations, which may make the bridge easier to erect ‘An inercase inthe preferred! mjajanom girder cepit for el gliders not i herein is recommended accozding (o Eq, {, In such cases, the girders will end to he significantly: more flexibfe and less sioe! causes increases deflections without an increase in the giror depth, ‘A Sheliower curved girder might be used if the ‘Engineer evaluales cffecis such as cross-frame forces and bridge deformations, including giréer rotations, and finds the bridge fovces and goometrle changes within acceptable ranges. For curved composite ginfors, the recommended ratios apply ta the steel glider portion of the composite section,2s AASHTO LRED Brioce Dasten SercinicaTtoNs ($1) ‘Table 25.2.63-1 Traditional Minimum Depths for Constant Depth Supersteuctuves Minima Depth (ncleding Deck} ‘When variable depth members are used. values may be adjusted 0 account for changes in relative sifiness of positive and negative Superstructure sections Material Type ‘Simple Spans Continuous Spans ‘Slabs with main 1268 = 3000) S300 roinforcement parallel to —D 216500 Reinforced — | traffic Concrete T Beats ‘O0TOr. 0.065). Box Beams ‘0.0601. 0.0551. Pestestrian Structure 0351. 0.033%. Beams Slabs CO30.= 165 mm | OO27LE TES mm ‘CIP Box Beans O0g51. 0.0404, Prestressed | Provast [-Beams ‘00851. 0.0401, Conerete Podestvian Stueture (10331. 0.030). Beams Adjacent Box Beams 0.0301. 0.0251. Overall Depth of 0.0401, 0.0824, Composite I-Bears Steel Depth of F-Beam Portion ‘00837. ‘oneTi cof Componite [Bean Trusses 0.1008, 1007. 2527 Consideration of Future Widening 25.221 Pxterior Beams on Multibeam Bridges Unless future widening is virtually inconceivable, the load carrying capacity of exterior beams shall not be Tess than the Joad carrying capacity of an interior beam, 25.222 Substructure When future widening can he anticipated, consideration shold he given fo designing the substruciare for the widened consition. 2.83 Consteuctibility Constructibility issues shoul include, but_not_he lizyted to, consideration of deflection, strength of sive] and " r cl C28.221 This provision applies ¢9 any longitudinal flexural snombers traditionally considerecito be stringers, beams, or ines, C253 An example of a particular seguence of constructton would be where the designer requires 2 steel girder to be supported while the concrete deck is. cas, so thatthe girder and the deck will act composite Lor dead load as well as live load {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,SECTION? (SD: Generar Desicn aND Location FeaTures eas Bridges should be designed in a aanner such that fabrication and erection can be performed without unde difficalty or distress and that focked-fn eonstraction force effects are within tolerable iis ‘Wher the designer has assuined a particular sequence of construction in order to induce certain stresses under dead cad, that sequence shall be defined in the comiract docaments Where there are, or are likely (0 be, constraints Imposed on the method! of construction, by environmental considerations or for other reasons, attention shall he dren {o those constraints in the contract documents ‘Where the ridge is of unusual complexity. such that it would be unreasonable toexpect an experienced contractor to predict and estimate a suitable method of constriction ‘while bing the project, at least one feasibie consincction| method shall be indicate i the contract documents TE the design veggies some. strengthentag andor temporary bracing or support during erection by the selected methad, indication of the need thereof shall be Inecated in the contiaet documents, Details thal require welding in restricied areas or placement of concrete theoxgh congested reinforcing should be avoided! ‘Climatic aed hydraulic conditions thal may affect the consiruxction of the bridge shall be considered 254 Economy 2.54.1 General Slevetural types, span longlhs, and seaterals shall he selected with ce consideration of projected cost The cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the bridge should be considered. Regional faciors, such as availabilty of material, fabrication location, shipping, and rection constraints, shall be considered, 2542 Alternative Plans Iniinstances where economic studies do not indicate a clear choice, the Owner may require that aliemative contract plans he prepared and bid competitively. Designs foraltcrnatve plans shall he of equal safety, serviccabilty an aesthetic value. ‘Movable bridges over navigable waterways should be avoided t0 ihe extent Feasible. Whece movable bridges are proposed. at least one fixed bridge aktemative should be included in the economic comparisons. {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, An example of a complex bridge might be a cable- stayed bridge that has limitations on what it will carry, especially i terms of constivetion equipnient, while itis under eonstruction. I these limiatfans are nol evident foan ‘expertenced contracior, the contractor may be requited to ‘do more prebid analysis than is reasonable. Given the usual constraints of time and budget forbidding, this may not be feasible fr the contractor to do ‘This article does not require the designer to educate a conteactor on how to consinct a bridge: i is expecied that the contracior will have the necessary expertise, Nor {5 intended! to resirict a contracioe front using innovation £0 gal an edge over the competitor. All other factors being equal, designs that are selt- supporting or ust standardized falsework systems ace romally preferred to those requiring unique end complex. falsework “Temporary falsework withis the clear zone should be adequately protected from traf 25.4.1 If dala for the iconds in kebor and material cost Suetuation are avzilabe, the effect of such trends shoud be projected to the time the bridge will likely be construed. Cost comparisons of structural altematives should be based on long-range considerations, including inspection, maintenance, repair, andor replacement. Lesvest frst cost does not necessarily [ead to lowest total cost22 AASHTO LRED Bripce Desicn SeeciricaTions (SD. 2.5.8 Bridge Aesthetics Bridges should complement their surroundings, be race tm form, and present zn appearance of adequate sirengeh, C255 ‘Significant improvements in appearance can often be anade with simall Changes in shape or position of siractural snemibers. at negligible cost, For prominent brkeges, however, adcilional cost to achieves improved! appearance is often justified, considering that the bridge will likely be @ fezture ofthe fendseape: for 75 oF more years ‘Comprehensive guidelines for the appearance of hsiges are beyond the scope of these Specifications, Engineers way resort to such documents as the ‘Transportation Research Board's Bridge Aestheues Arouna ‘The semincer ofthis page is imentionally lef lank, (© 2005 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Cc all eghis reserves. Duplicatin is a viobton of applicable lv.SheTION2 ($1): GENFRAL DEEN AND LOCATION FEATURES 2s Engineers should seck more pleasant appearance by improving the shapes and relationships of the structural ‘component themselves. The application of extraordinary and nonstructural embellishment shonld be avoided, ‘The following guidelines shoul! he considered: ‘¢Attomative bridge designs without piers or with ew piers should be studied during the site selection ane! location stage and refined during the preliminary design stage. ‘+ Picr form should be consistent in shape and detail, ith the superstructure. ‘¢ Abrupt changes in the form of components and structural type should be avoided. Where the interface of different structural types cannot be avoided. a smooth transition in appearance from, ‘one type to another should be attained, + Auertion 10 details, such as deck downspouts, should not he overlooked aie ‘¢ if the use of a theongh stmcture is dictated by performance andor economic considerations. the structural system) should be selected ro provide a ‘open und uncluztered appearance. ¢ The use of the bridge as a support for message of directional signing or lighting should be avoided wherever possible ¢ Tramwerse web stiffeners other than these located at bearing points. should not be visible in cckevation, + For spanning deep ravines, areh-type structures should be preferred ‘the World (1991) for guidan The most admired mevlera structures are those that rely for their good appearance om the forms af the structaral ‘component themselves: © Components are shaped to respond! to. the stnicniral fucetion, They are thick where the stresses are greatest and thin where the snesses are smaller, ‘©The furetion of each part and how the function is perforined is vise, © Components are slender and widely spaced. preserving views through she structure ©The bridge is scen as a single whole, with all hemibers consistent and contributing (0 thot whole: for example, all elements should come from the same family of shapes, such as shapes vwith rounded ealges, bridge fulfils ts fonction with a minimunt of material and misimum number of elements. ©The size of cack member comparcd with the ‘oxhers is clearly related co the overall structural ‘concept and the job the component does, an! ©The bridge as @ whole has a clear anid logical relationship @ its surroundings. Several procedures have been proposed 0 integrate ‘esthetic thinking into the design pracess (Gottemweller 1990). Bccause the major structural components ane the largest parts of a bridge anc ate seen first they determine the appearance of bridge. Consequently. engineers should sock exeellent appearance in bridge parts in the Following ‘order of importance: © Horizontal and vertical aligament and! position in the environments + Superstructure ype. ie. arch, girder. ete. = Pier placement: © Aboement placement and height: © Supertrucaure shape. ie. fiaupched. tupered. epi: © Pier shape: © Abuement shape: © Parapet and railing details: £2006 by the AreseanSasoustion of State Highvey and Tarapetaton Off Alright reserved. Dupcatr i vlan of appa a,216 AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) 26 HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULICS 2.6.1 General Hydrologic and hydraulic studies and assessments of bridge sites for stream crossings shall be completed as part of the preliminary plan development. ‘The detail of these studies should be commensurate with the imporwace of an risks associated with the structure, ‘Temporary structures for the Contractor's use or for accommodating tattic during construction shall be designed with regard to the safety of the tnaveling public and the adjacent property owners, 2s well as mipimization lf impact on floodplain natural resources. ‘Te Owner may permit revised design requirements consistent with the intended serviee period for, and flood bazard posed by. the temporary sirueture, Contract documents for temporary structures shall delineate the respective responsibilities and risks to be assumed by the highway ageney and the Contractor. Evaluation of brdige design alternatives shall consider stream stability, backwater, flow distibution, stream velocities, scour potential, Nlood hazards, tidal dyoamies where appropriate and consistency with established criteria for the National Hood Insurance Program, © Surface colors and textures: arst + Croament. The Designer should determine the likely position of the majority of viewers of the bridge. then use that information as a guide in judging dhe importance of various ‘elomencs in the appearance of the structure. Perspective drawings of photogruphs taken from the important viewpoints can he used co analyze the appearance ‘of proposed smictares. Mads ue alse useful ‘The appearance of standard decails shoutd be reviewed tes make sure they fie the bridge’s design eoneeps. 26.1 The provisions in this Anicle incorporate improved. practices and procedures for the bydranlic design of bridges. Deailed guidance for applying these practices and procedures are contained in the AASHTO Medel Drainage Manso. This document contains guidance and references ‘on design proceduees andl computer softwace for hydrologic and bydranlic design. It also incorporates guidhince and references ttom the AASHTO Darinage Guidelines. which isacompanion documento the AASHTO Model Drainage Manet Information on the National Hood Insurance Program is contained in 42 USC 4001-4128, The National Mood Insurance Act (see also 44 CFR 99 through 77) and 23 CER 650. Subpar: A, Location amd Lydrautic Design of Encroachment on Floodplain Hydrologic, hydraulic, scour, and stream stability studies ane.concerned with the prediction of flood flows and frequencies and with the complex physical processes involving the actions and interactions of water and soil during the occurrence of predicted flood flows. These studies should be performed by the Engineer with the knowledge and experience « muke practical judgments regauding the scope of the studies to be performed und the Significance of the resulis obtained. The design of bridge foundations is best accomplished! hy an interdiseiplinary team of structural, hydraulic, and geotechnical engineers. The AASHTO Model Drainage Manual also consins seuidance and references on: ‘© Design methods for evaluating the uccwacy of hydraulic studies, including elements of a data collection plans Guidance on estimating Mood flow peaks and Volumes, inciading requirements For the design of Interstate highways as per 23 CHR 650, Subpart A. “Ineroutchnents.” + Procedures or referenves for analysis. of cidol regulaied streams, and urban 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaReSecHON 2 (SI): GeXEKAL DEstG AND LOCATION BFATURES, 2.62 Site Data A site-specific data collection plan shall include ‘consideration of * Collection of aerial ancVor ground survey data for appropriate distaices upstream and dowestream, ‘rom the bridge for the main stream channel and its floodplain: ‘¢ Estimation of roughness elements for the stream fand the floodplain within the reach of the stream, tunder study: © Sampling of steambed material to a depth sufficient t ascertain material characteristics for scour analysis, © Subsurface borings: © Gactors affecting water stapes, inchiding high ‘water from steams, reservoirs. detention basins. tides, and flood control structures and operating procedures: + Gxisting studies and reports, including those conductad in accordance with che provisions of the National Flood Insurance Program or other food ‘control program © Avtiluble historical informationor the behavior of the seam und the performance of the structure during past floods, including observed seour, hank erosion, and structural damage due to debris orice flows: snd + Possible peomozphie changes in channel flow. 217 watersheds: + Evaluation of stream stability: © Use of recommended design procedures and software for sizing bridge waterways: ‘© Location and desiga of bridges to resist damage from scour and hydraulic loads created by stream ‘current, fee, and debris: ‘+ Calculation of magnitude of contraction scour, Focal scour, and countermeasures thereto: Design of rulif bridges, mae overtopping. guide ‘banks. and other river training works: and Procedures for hydraulic design of brid culverts, 26.2 The assessment of hydraulics necessarily involves many assumptions. Key among these assumptions ore the roughness coetticients and projection of long-term flow magnitudes, e.. the $00-yeur flood or other superfoods. ‘The runoff from a given storm can be expected to change with the scasons, immediate past weather conditions, and fong-term) natural and man-made changes in surface cordiions. The ability t statistically project long Yecurrenes interval Hoods is a function of the adequacy of the database of pust floods, and such projections often change a8 a result of news experience. The above factors make the check flood investigation of scour an important, but highly variable. safety criterion thot may be expected in be difficult to reproduce, unless all ‘of the Designer‘s original assumptions are used in a poste design scour investigation, Obviously, those original assumptions mast be reasonable given the data, conditions, fan projections available at che kine of the original design. [© 2004 by he Amarin Asscition of Seat High and Transeorason Of ings reserves. upieatin is vleton ef apace a,2a AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) 26.3 Uydrologic Analysis, The Quer shall determine the extent of hydrologic stulies oa the basis ofthe functional highway classification, the applicable federal and state regnirements. and he ood hhavards ac te site "The following flood flows should be investigated, 3s appropriate, in the hydrologic studies: * For assessing flood hazards and meeting floodplain management requizements—the 100- sear Mood, 4¢ For assessing risks to highway asers and damage to the bridge and its roadway approaches—the overtopping flood andlor the design flood tor bridge scour: 4¢ For assessing catastrophic flood damage at high risk sites—a check flood of a magninule selected by the Owner. as appropriate for the site ‘conditions ond the perceived tisk: + For investigating the adequacy of brig foundations «0 resise seour—the check flood for bridge scours ‘+ To satisty agoney design policies and eriveria— design floods for waterway opening and bridg scour for the various functional classes of highways + Tocalibrate waver surface protiles and to evalnate the performance of existing stenctares—historical foods, ard ¢ To evaluate environmental conditions—low or base flow information, and in estarine crossings, the spring and tide range Investigation of the effect of sea level rise on tidal ranges should be spocitied for stractres. spanning arinelestuarine resources, 264 Hydraulic Analysis 26.4.1 General The Lngincer shall utilize analytical models and Fechriques tac have beet: appeoved by the Owner and that are consistent with the eeguited level of analysis. 26.42 Stream Stability ‘Studies shall be curvicd our to evaluate the stability of the waterway and z0.asuass the impact of eonstaetion on the swaxerway, Tho following items shall be considered 263 ‘The return period of tidal flows should be correlated to ‘the hurricane of storm tide elevations of water as reported insnudies by EMA or other agencies, Particular atention shoutd be given to selecting design and checking flood discharges for mixed population Nook ‘events. For example. flowin an escuary may consist of buh tidal flow and eof from the upland watershed, IC mixed popelation flows are dependent on the occurence af & myjor meicorologieal event. such as a hurricane. the rolagive timing of the individual peak flow ‘events necds to he evaluated and considered in selecting the design discharge, This is likely 00 be the ease for lows in san estuary If the events tend to be independent, as ovight be the cease for fonds ina monimtainous region caused by rainfall ninoff or snow melt, the Desigoer should evaluate both ‘events independently and then consider the probability of| their ncearrence af the same time. 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaReSheTION2 ($1): GENFRAL DEEN AND LOCATION FEATURES 219 ‘¢ Whether the stream reach is legrading, eggradiog. orn equilibrium: + Forstreamerossing near confluences, che effect of the main steam and the tributary on the flood stages, velocities. flow distribution, vert Fateral moves of the stream. ane! the the foregoing conditions on the hydraulic design, of the bi + Location of favorable stream crossing, taking into account whsther the stroum is. straight. meandering, braided. or érinsitional, or control devices to protect the bridge from existing or anticipated furure stream conditions +The effect of any proposed channel changes: + Theetfeet of agere in the channel; ¢ mining or other eperations + Poretaial changes in the rates or volumes of runotf due co land ase changes ‘¢ The effect of natura geomorphic stream pattern ‘changes on the proposed structure: and +The ctfect of geomorphic changes on existing structures in the vicinity of, and caused by, the proposed sirucrate, For unstable streams or flow conditions, spacial sais shall he carried xr to assess the probable future chunges the plan Form and protile of the stream and t0 dexermiine ‘couniermessuns 18 be incorporated in the desiga, or at fire time. for the safety of the bridge and approach roadways 2.64.3 Bridge Waterway ‘The design process fr sizing the brdige waterway sball clude: +The evaluation of tlood flow paterns ie the mai ‘channel and flocuplain for existing conditions, and ‘+ The evaluation of ial combinations of highway profiles. alignments, and bridge lengths. for ‘consistency wide design objectives. Where use is made of existing flood stadies, their accuracy shall be derermiioed, ©2643 ‘Trial combinations should take the following into account: ‘Increases in flood water surface elevations caused by the bridge. ‘© Changes in flood flow patterns and velocities in the channel and on the flsoaplain, + Location of hydraulic controls affecting flow through the structure or long-term stream stability, © Clearances berween the flood water elevations and ow sections of the superstructure to allow passage of ice and debris, ¢ Need for protection of bridge foundations and stream) channel bes! and banks, and £2006 by the AreseanSasoustion of State Highvey and Tarapetaton Off Alright reserved. Dupcatr i vlan of appa a,220 AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) 2.644 Bridge Foundations 2644.1 General The suuctural. hydraulic, and geotechnical aspects of foundation desiga shall be coordinated and differences resolved prior to approval of prelinsnary plans. © Svahation of capital costs und flood hazards associated with the candidate bridge alternatives Tough isk assessment or risk analysis procedures. (26441 To reduce the vulnerability of the bridge tw damage from scour and hydraulic loads. consideration should be igven to the following gencral design comcepts: + Set deck elevations as high as practical for the igiven site conditions to minimize inundation by Floods. Where bridges ate subject to inuadation, provide for overtopping of roadway approach Sections. and streamline the superstructure (0 minimize she area subject to hydrate loxds and the collection of ice. debris, anil drifts + Utilize relief bridges. guide banks, dikes, and other river training devices to reduce the turbulence and hydraulic forces acting at the bridge abutments © Utilize continuous span designs. Anchor superstructures to their substructures where subject to the effects of hyelanlie loads, buoyancy. ice, of debris impacts oF accumulations. Provide ing of the superstructure ‘+ Where practical, limit the number of piers in the channel, streanline pier shapes, and align piers ‘with the direction of flood flows. Avoid pier types ‘that collectice and debris, Locate piers beyond the immediate vieinity of stream banks. © Locate abutments back from the channel banks where significant problems with iee/ebris buildup, scour, or chatnne stability are anticipated, oF where special environmental or repulawory needs must be met, e4. spanning wetlands + Design piers on Nloadplaias as river piers. Locate their foundations atthe appropriate depth if there is a likelihood that the siream chanel will shift daring the ‘cucofts are likely 40 occur (of the stricture or that channe! © Whore pructical, ase debris racks or fee beams 10 siop debris and ice before it reaches the bridge. Where significant ice or debris buildup is, unavoidable, is effects should be accounted forin scout depths and hydraulic loads, 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaReSheTION2 ($1): GENFRAL DEEN AND LOCATION FEATURES 221 2644.2 Bridge Scour ‘As required by Article 3.7.5, scour at bridge fonndations is investigated for ewo conditions ¢ For the design flood for scour, the streambed ‘material in the scour prism shove the foral scout Tine shall be assumed to hve heen removed for design conditions. ‘The design floed storm surge. tide, or mixed population flood shall be the more severe of the 100-year events or from an overtopping flood of lesser recurrence interval + For the check Mood for scour, the stability of bridge foundation shall be investigated for scour ‘conditions resting ftom a designated flood ssorm surge. tile, or mixed population flood noc % ‘exceed the 500-year event or from an overtopping Flood af lesser recurence interval, Excess reserve beyond! that regnired for stability uncler shis condition is rot necessary. The extreme eveat limit state shall apply. Ifthe site conditions. due co iee or debris jams. anc! Tow tail water conditions near stream confluence dictate the ws of a more severe Mood! event tor either the design or check flood for scour. the Engineer may ase such flood event Spread footings on soil or erodible rock shall be located so that the bottom of footing is below scour depths determined for the check Hood for scour, Spread lootings ‘on scour-resistunt rock shall he designed and constructed to ‘maintain the integrity of the supporting rock. Deep foundations with footings shull be designed #0 place the top of the fooring below the estimated contraction seour depth where practical so minimize abstmiction £0 food flows ancl resulting local scour, Evea lower elevations should be considered for pile-supported footings where the piles could be damayed by erosion and corrosion from ‘exposure £0 stroam ements, When conditions dicts a rnovd to construct the top ofa footing to an elevation above the streambed, attention shall be giver to the scour potential ofthe design. When fendcring oF other pier protection sys used. theireffvet on pier scour and collection of debris shall be taken inte consideration in the design, 2.64.42 A majority of bridge failures inthe United States and elsewhere are the result of seonr. The added! cost of making a bridge less valncruble to Gamage trom scour is small in comparison © the total cost of abridge failure. ‘The design flood for soour shall be determined on the basis of the Lngincer's judgment of the hydrologic and hydraulic flow conditions at the site. ‘The recommended proceshire is 19 evaluate scour due 10 the specitied flood ‘lows and to design the foundation forthe event expected ‘cause the deepest total scour “The recommendod procedure for deserminig the coal scour dopih at bridge fourdations is as follows: ‘© stim the long-term channel profile aggradation ‘or degradation over the service life ofthe bridge: ‘+ Estinace the long-term chanoe! plan form changes ‘over the service life of the bridge: © Asadesiymcheck, adjust the existing channel and Sloodplain ‘upsteam and ownstream of bridge as necessary to reflect anticipated changes in the channe] profile und plan form: r0ss-sections ‘© Determine the combination of existing oF likely future conditions and flood events that might be ‘expected to result in the deepest scour for design conditions: © Determine water surface profiles for a stream seach that extends both upstream: and downstream ‘of the bridge site for the various combinations of conditions and events under consideration: © Determine the magnizade of contruction seour and oval scour at pers and abuemenss: anc © Evaluate the results of the seour analysis, taking. {nto account the voriablesin the methous used. the available information on ihe behavior of the ‘watercourse, and the performance of existing structures during past floods, Also consider present and anticipated future flow patterns in the ‘channel and is Floodplain, Visualize the effect of Ue bridge on these flow patterns and the effect of the flow on the bridge. Modify the bridge design where necessary (0 satisfy Gonceras raised by the scour analysis and che evaluation of the channel plan form, Foundation designs should be based ore the total scour depths estimated by the above provedure, taking into account appropriate geotechnical safety fuctors. Where necessary, bridge modifications may include: £2006 by the AreseanSasoustion of State Highvey and Tarapetaton Off Alright reserved. Dupcatr i vlan of appa a,222 AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) ‘The siability of abuiments in areas of surhualeet Now shall be thoroughly investigated. Exposed cmbankment slopes should be protected with appropriate scour ‘equaermessures 2.6.45 Roadway Approsches to Bridge ‘The design of the bridge shall be cootdinated with the design of the roadway approaches to the bridge on the loodplain so thatthe entire ood flew pattern is developed ane analyzed! as a single, interrelated entity. Where roudway approaches on the floodplain obstruct overbank flow. the highway segment within the floodplain limits shall be designed zo-minimize Flood hazards ‘Where diversion of flow to another watershed! occurs as ‘result of backwater and obstruction of flood flows, an ‘evaluation of the design shall be carried out 1 ensure ‘complisnce with legal requirements in regard to flood hazards inthe other watershed ¢ Relocation or redesign of pers oF abutments 10 avoid areas of desp scour or overlapping Scour holes from adjacent foundation elements. Addition of guide bunks, dikes, or other river taining works to provide for smoother flow transitions or co control [ateral movernent of the channel ¢ Enlargement of the waterway area, oF + Relocation ofthe erossin location, oavoid an undesirable Foundations should be designed to withstand the conditions of scour for the design flood and the check flood. In general this will result im deep Foundations. The design of the foundations of existing bridges that are being rehabilitated should consider underpinning if scour indicates the need! Riprap and other scour countermeasites may be appropriate if underpinning is not east effective. Available technology has not developed sutticiony t0 ‘provide reliable scour estimates for some conditions, such _ bridge ubuinsents located in areas of turbulence due 10 converging or diverging flows, C2645 Highway embankments en Noodplains serve te redirect ‘overbank flow, causing it to low generally parallel to the combankment and return to the main channel wt the bridge For stich cases, the highway designs shall include countermeasures where necessary 0 limit damage to highway fills andl bridge abucments. Such countermeasures may include: © Relief ridges, ‘+ Retarding the velocity of the overbank flow by promoting growth of tees and shrubs oa the Aoodplain and highway embankment within the highway right-of-way oF constructing small dikes along the highway embankment, ‘= Protecting fll slopes subject to erosive velocities by use of siprap or other erosion protection materials on highway fills and spillthrough abutments, and © Use of guide hanks where averbank law is farge to protect abutments of main chanel ard relief bridges from turbulence and resulting scour Although overtopping sy resule in failure of the ‘embankment. this consequence is preferred to failareof the bridge. The low point ofthe overtopping section should nct be located immediately adjaceat co the bridge. because its failure at this location could cause damage tw the bridge 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaReAND LOCATION FEATURES ‘SreTION? (SI): GENFRAL DE 26.8 Culvert Location, Length, and Waterway Area In addition tothe provisions of Articles 2.6.3 and 2.6.4, the following corditions should be considered ¢ Passage of fish and wildlife, + Effet of high outlet velocities and Mow concentrations on the culvert outlet, the downstream channel, and adjacent property, '* Buoyancy effects at culvert inlets. + Trafic safery. and The effects of high tail wuter conditions as may be ‘eaused by downstream controls or storat tides, 2.6.6 Roadway Drainage 2.6.6.1 General ‘The bridge deck aac! its highway approaches shall be designed 10 provide safe and efficient conveyance of surface runoff trom the traveled way in a manner that minimizes damage to the bridge and maximizes the safety ‘of passing vehicles. Transverse drainage of the deck, Including mpadway, bieycle paths, and pedestrian walkways, shall be achieved by providing a cross slope or superelevation sufficient for positive drainage. Gor wide briuges with mone than three lanes in each direction, special design of bridge deck drainage and/or special rowigh road surfaces my be needed 10 reduce the potential for hydropluning. Water flowing downgrade in the roadway guste section shall be inwereepred and nox permated vo rue tonto the bridge, Drains at bridge ends shall have sufficient ‘capacity to carry all coetributing eunoft. In those whique cavionmentally seasitive instances where it is not possible to discharge into the underlying watercourse, consideration should be given to conveying the water in a Jongicudinal storm drain affixed 10 the underside of the bridge and discharging it ato appropriate fheilities on gatural ground at bridge ene ‘abutment. LF the low point of the ovextopping 8 be located close w the abutment, due to geontetie constraints, the scouring effect of the oxextopping flow should be considered in the design of the abutmeat. Design studies for overopping should also include evaluation of any flood hazards created by chunges 10 existing flood flow patierns or by flaw concentrations in the vieiaity of developed properties. C265 ‘The discussion of sce investigations and hydrologic and hydraulic analyses fr bridges is generally applicable large eulvert installations classified as bridges. The use of safety grates on culvert ends to protect, vehicles that run off the road is generally discouraged for large culvers, including those classified as bridges, because ff the potential for clogging and subsequent unexpected increase in the flood hazard to the roadway and adjacent properties. Preferred method's of provicing for trate safety Include the installation of harciers or the extension of the ccalvert ends 20 increase the vehicle recovery zone at the site C2661 Where feasible, bridge decks should be watertight and all of the deck drainage should e eartied to the ends of the brid ‘A longitudinal gradient om bridges should be Inaintained. Zero gradients and sag vertical curves should be avoided. Design of the bridge deck and the approuch roaway drainage systems should be coordinated. Under certain conditions, open bridge railings may be desirable for maximum discharge of surface runoff From bridge decks. ‘The “Storm Drainage” chapter of the AASHTO Model Drainage Manual consias guidance on recommended vallags for eross slopes, £2006 by the AreseanSasoustion of State Highvey and Tarapetaton Off Alright reserved. Dupcatr i vlan of appa a,22 AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) 2.6.62 Design Storm ‘The design storm for bridge deck drainage: shall not be less than the storm used for desiga of the pavement drsinage system of the adjtcent roudway. unless otherwise speeitied by the Owner 26.6.3 ‘Type, Size, and Number of Drains ‘The mimber of deck drains should be Kept i a rmicimum consistent with bydraulic requirements, Inthe absence of other applicable guidance, for bridges where the highway design speed is less than 75 kav’ the size and number of deck diains should be such that the spread of deck drainage «oes not encroach on more than one-half the width of any designated waffic lime. Vor bridges where the highway desiga speed is aot less than 7S knvh, the spread of deck drainage should not encroach on any portion of the designated tratfie lanes, Gutter How should be insarcepted at crass slope tanicions fo prevent flow aeross the bridge deck ‘Scuppers or inlets of adeck drain shall be hydraulically efficient and acvessible for cleaning. 26.64 Discharge from Deck Drains eck drains shall be designed and located such that surface water from the bridge deck or road surface is dirccted away from the bridge superstructure elements anal the substruenire If the Gener has no specific requirements. for ‘conirolling the effluent front drains and pipes, consideration should be given to: ¢ A minimum 100 mm projection befow the lowest adjacent superstructure component, + Location of pipe outiets suet that 4 45° cone of splash will not touch structural components. + Use of free drops or slots in parapets wherever practical aod permissible, + Use of bends not greater than 45°, and * Use of cleanouts. Runoff from bridge decks and deck drains shall be disposed of ina manner consistent with environmental ant safety requirements, 2.6.6.5 Drainage of Structures Cavities in seructares where there is a likelihood for €26.63, Hor further guidance or design erizeria an bridge deck drainage. sve the “Storm Drainage” chapter of the AASHO Model Drainage Manual, Poliey on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, and AASHTO/HWA, Research Repo RD-87-O14. Bridge Deck Drainage Guidelines. ‘The minimwm internal dimension of a downspout should not normally be Tess than 150 mm, but nos fess than 200 mum where ice accrezion on the bridge deck isexpected, 26.64 ‘Consideration should be given to the effeet of drainage systems oa bridge aesthetics. For bridges where free drops are not feasible, atention should be given ta the design of the eutlet piping system to: + Minimize clogging amd other maintenance problems and © Mininuize the inrusive etfeet oF te piping on the bridge symmeay and appearance. Free drops should be avoided where runoft eretes problems with eraffic, sail, or shipping lanes. Riprap or pavement should! he provided under the tree drops «w prevent erosion, C2668 ‘Weep holes in concroxe decks andl drain holes in stays 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaRe‘SreTION? (SI): GENFRAL DE AND LOCATION FEATURES 225 ‘entrapment of water shall be drained at their lowest point. in-place forms can be used to permit the egress of water: Decks and wearing surfaces shall be designed to prevent the ponding of water, especially at deck joints. Kor bridge docks with eonintegeal wearing, surfaces or stay-ineplace forms, consideration shall be given to the evacuation of ‘waver that may necumelace at the interface £2006 by the AreseanSasoustion of State Highvey and Tarapetaton Off Alright reserved. Dupcatr i vlan of appa a,REFERENCES AASIITO. 1991. Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges, GVCB-1 American Association Siate Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. AASIITO. 1981. Modof Drainage Manual, MDM-1. American Association of Siate Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. AASITTO, 2002. Roadside Design Curide, RSDG-3. American Association of Sate Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. AASIITOIFIIWA. 1887. ‘Bridge Deck Drainage Culdelines.” Research Report RD-87-014, American Association of Sate Highway and Transportation Oiticials'Fedecal Highway Administration, Washinglon, DC AREMA, 2003, Manual far Rail ay Engineering. American Railway Engineers Association, Washington, DC. ASCE. 1958, “Deflection Limitations of Bridges. Progress Repos of the Committee on Deflection Limitations of Bridges of the Sinictaral Division.” Journal of she Structural Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY. Vol. 84, No. ST 3, May 1958 FIIWA. 1991. “Evaluating Scour at Bridges.” IIWA.1P-90.011. iiydraulic Engineering Circular 18. Federal Highway Aduinistration, U.S. Depactinent of Transportation, Washington, DC. FITWA. 1991. “Steeam Stability a ighway Structures.” FLIWA-1P.90-014. Iycbaulie Engineering Circular 20 Federal Highway AGminisraion, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washingion, DC. Goltemociler, F. 1991, "Aestheties and Engineers: Providing for Aesthetic Quality in Bridge Design.” Bride Aesthetics ‘Around the Workd. Teansporlation Research Boas, National Research Council, Washington, DC, pp. 80-88. Highway Engineering Division. 1981. Ontario Flighway Bridge Design Code, ighsvay Engincering Division, Ministry of ‘Transportation and Coramnteations, Toconto, Canada Location and Hydeantic Design of Encroachment on Floodplain, US, Coxle,23 CFR 650, Subpart A.US. Government Printing Ofice, Washington, DC. Notional Flood Insurance Act, US. Code, Title 42, Secs. 4001-28, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washinglon, DC. NRC. 1991. Bridge Aesthetics Around the World. Transpostation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC. Ritler, M. A. 1990. Tiniber Bridges, Design, Construction, lnspection, and Maintenaaice. EM7700-B, Forest Service, US, Departinent of Agricaltare, Washington, DC. Weight, RN, and W. IT Welker. 1971, "Criteria for the Deflection of Stee! Bridges.” AIST Bulletin, No. 19, November 1971, Washington, DC. ea BE or opeserie reat cen ws rang inn gen ee eeSECTION 3 (SI): LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS, 3.1 SCOPE DEFINITIONS. NOTATION 3.3.1 General 53.2 Lond and Load Designation 34 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS, 3.3.1 Lond Factors and Load Combinations 3.4.2 Load Factors for Construction Loads, 3.2.1. Svaluation at the Sirongth List State 34.2.2 Evaluation of Deflection atthe Service Limit State... 5.4.3 Loud Factors for Jacking and Post-Tensioning Forces. 34.3.1 Jacking Forces 3.43.2 Pome for Post-Tensioning, Anchomage Zones, 3.5 PERMANENT LOADS, 3.5.1 Dead Loads: PC. DIT. and HT 3.5.2 Bath Loads. Ait. AS, and DD. 3.6 LIVELOADS 3.6.1 Gnvity Loads: //-and P.. 3.6.1.1 Velioular Live Load. 3.6.L.L.1 Number of Design Lanes, F 3.6.1.2 Multiple Presence af Live Lond. 36.1.2 Design Vehicular Live Lond. 36.1.2. General 36.122 Design Tack. 56.123 Design Tandem. 36.1.24 Design Lane Load, 36.128 Tie Contact Area 3.6.1.26 Distribution of Whee! Loads Through Earth Fils, 3.6.1.3 Application of Design Vebicular Live Loads 3.6.13. General 3.6.1:3.2 Loading for Optional Live Load Deflection Evaluation 3.1.3.3 Design Loads for Decks. Deck Systems. and the Top Slabs of Bax Culverts 3.61.34 Deck Overiang Load... 36.14 Fatigue Load 3.6.14. Magnitude and Configaration 36.142 Froquenes 36.143 Load Distribution for Fatigue 3.6.14.3a Refined Methods... 3.6.14.3b Approximate Methods 36.15 Rail Transit Load. 3.6.1.6 Pedestrian Loads 3.6.1.7 Leads on Railings. 36.2 Dynamic Load Allowance: 14. 3.62.1 General. 36.2.2 Buried Components. 3462.3 Wood Components 3.63. Conteifugal Forces: CF 36-4 Braking Force: BR. 3.65 Vehicular Collision Force: C7 3.65.1 Protection of Smcires 305.2 Vehiele and Railway Collision with Stntctures. 3.65.3 Vehicle Collision with Barriers 3 {© 2005 by the Armrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,Bait AASHTO LRED Baince: Drsiess Sevcine cross (SD) 3.7 WATER LOADS: th: 3.7.1 Statie Pressure. 3.72 Buoxaney 3.73 Stream Pressure 3.73.1 Longitudinal 3.7.3.2 Lateral 3.74 Wave Load, 3.7.5. Change in Foundations Due to Limit State for Scour 3.8 WIND LOAD: IL, AND W'S, 3.8.1. Horizontal Wind Pressure 3A.1.1 General 3.8.1.2 Wind Pressare or Strsctures: 1S 38.1.2. General 3.8.1.2.2 Loads from Superstiuctites wr. . 3.8.1.2.3 Forces Applied Dizectly to the Substructure, 3.8.1.3 Wind Pressure on Vehicles: 1. 3.82 Vertical Wind Pressure 3.83 Aeroelastic Instability 383.1 General 3.83.2 Acroclastic Phenomena 3.83.3 Control of Dynamic Responses. 3.8.3.4 Wind Tunnel Tess 3.9 ICELOADS:£C.. 3.9.1 General 3.9.2 Dynamic lee Forces on Piers 3.9.2.1 Bffeative lee Strength 3.92.2 Crushing and Flexing, 3.9.2.3 Small Streams 3.9.2.4 Combication of Longitudinal and Transverse Forces 3.9.24.1 Piets Parallel t0 Flow 3.9.2.4.2 Piers Skewed to Flow 3.9.2.5 Slender and Flexible Piews. 3.9.3 Static Ice Loads on Piers 3.9.4 Hanging Dams and Tec Jams 3.9.8 Vertical Forces duc to iee Adhesion 3.9.6 lee Acoretion and Snow Loads on Supersiractures. 3.10 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS: £0, 3.10.1 General 3.10.2. Acceleration Coefficient 3.10.3 Impontance Categories 3.10.4 Seismic Performance Zones 3.103 Site Elles, B1OS.0 Generales 3.1052 Soil Profile Tepe T 3.10.53 Soil Profile Type I M054 Soi Profile Type 5 Soil Profile Tspe 1V. 3.6 laste Susu Reapres Coefficient 3.10.6. General. 3.10.62 Exceptions 3.10.7 Response Modification Factors 3.10.7. Genera, 3.10.72. Application, 3.108 Combination of Seismic Force Effects. 3.10.9 Calculation of Design Forces.Tam on Conran (8D 3.10.9.1 General 3,10.9.2 Seismic Zone | 3.10.93 Seismic Zone 2 310.9 4 Seismic Zones 3 and 4 3.10.9.4.1 General 3.10.9.4.2 Modified Design Forces 5.10.91. Inelastic Hinging Forces 3.109432 General 3.10.9.4.3b Single Columns and Picts... 3,10.9.4.3¢ Piers with Two or More Columns 3.10.9.43d Column and Pile Bent Destgn Forces. 3.10.9 £3¢ Pier Design Forces, 3.10.9.4.31 Foundation Design Forees. 3.10.95 Longitudinal Restaines. 3.10.96 Hokd-Down Devices 3.10.10 Requirements for Temporary Bridges and Stage Construction. 3.1] BARTH PRESSURE H/.P8.8. AND DD 3.11.1 General 3.11.2 Compaction. 3.113 Presence of Water 3.11.4 Effet of Earthquake 3.113 Enth Pressure: £7 3.11.5.1 Lateral Earth Pressure BILS2 AtRest Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient. 3.11.53 Active Lateral Banh Pressure Coefficient. 3.11.5 4 Passive Lateral Barth Pressure Coeificiemt,é, 3.11.55 Equivalent-Flaid Method Of Estimating Rankine Lateral Barth Pressures 3.11.56 Lateral Earth Pressures For Nougrav ity Cantilevered Walls : 3.11.57 Appareet Earth Pressures For Anchored Walls 3.11.5.7.1 Cohesionless Soils 3.11,5.72 Cohesive Soils 3.115.7.22 Stiff 10 Herd 3.11.3.7.2b Soft fo Medium StI... 3.11.58 Lateral Barth Pressures for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls RISA General nn ees 3.11,5.8.2 Internal Stability . 3.11.59 Lateral Earth Pressures For Prefabricated Modular Walls 3.11.6 Surcharge Loads: Sand LS 3.1.6.1 Uniform Surefwrae Loads (5 3.1.6.2 Point. Line And Strip Loads (#S)—Walls Restrained From Movement. 3.11.63 Strip Loads (H8)—Flenible Walls : 3.11.64 Live Load Surcharge (2.8) 3.11.65 Reduction of Surcharge. 3.11.7 Reduction due to Earl Pressure 3.11.8 Downds 3.12 FORCE EFFECTS DUE TO SUPERIMPOSED DEFORMATIONS. 78. 76.977. CR. SH 3.12.1 General 3.12.2 Uniform Temperature 3.122.1 “Temperature Range for Procedure A 3,122.2 Temperature Range for Procedure B. 3.12.23 Design Thermal Movements... 12.3 Ternperatnre Gradicnt 12.4 Differential Shrinkage 3.12.5 Creep 3.12.6 Settlement... 60 25 ye aman etn of Se tf Totten a saa race roBiv AASHTO LRED Baince: Drsiess Sevcine cross (SD) 3.13 FRICTION FORCES: / 3.14 VESSEL COLLISION: CI 3.14.1 General 3.14.2 Owner's Responsibility 3.143 Importance Categories, BV Desig Vessel se 5.14.5 Amal Frequency of Collapse... B.IGS.L Vessel Frequency Distribution 3.14.52 Probability of Aberrancy 3.14.5.2.1 Conor. 3.14.5.2.2 Statistical Method 3.14.5.23 Approximate Method 3.14.33 Geometric Probability 3.14.34 Probability of Collapse. 3.14.6 Design Collision Velocity 3.14.7 Vessel Collision Energy 3.148 Ship Collision Force on Pier 3.14.9 Ship Bow Danmage Length 3.14.10 Ship Collision Force on Supersinuctare 3.14.10,1 Collision with Bow 3.14.10.2 Collision With Deck House 3.14.10:3 Collision with Mast 3.14.1] Barge Collision Force on Pict 3.14.12 Barge Bow Damage Length 14.13 Damage at the Extreme Limit State 14.14 Application of Impact Force BILE Substructure Design. 3.14142 Supersinuctare Design 3.14.15 Protection of Suibstructures 397 3.98 3-98 3.09 3-99 3.99 3-100 3-101 3-102 3-102 3-102 3-102 3-10:Seen0n3 (SD. LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS. 3.1 SCOPE ‘This ection specifies nintaraa requirements fr loads and forces. the limits oftheir application, load factors, and Toad combinations used forthe design of now bridges. The fond provisions may also be applied to the structural ‘evaluation of existing bridges ‘Where multiple performance levels are provided, the selection of the design performance level is the responsibilty of the Owner. ‘A aninisatn load factor is specified for force effects that may develop during construction. Additional requirements. for construction of segmental concreie bridges are specified in Article 5.14.2. 32 DEFINITIONS, cat ‘This section includes, inaddision fo traditional loads, the force effects due 10 collisions, earthquakes, and settlement and distortion of the structure. Vehicle and vessel collisions, cactiquakes, and aeroclaslit insability develop force effects that, are ependent upon structural response. Therefore, such foece effects cannot be determined without analysis andor testing With the exception of sega concite briges, construction loads are not provided, but the Designer shoulé obtain pertinent information from prospective contractors. Active Earth Pressure—Lateral pressure resulling from the retention of the earth by a structure or component that is tending to move away from the soil mass. Active Earth Wedgo—Wedge of earth witha tenconey to become mobile if not retained by a structure or component Acroclastie Vibration Periodic, elastic response of a structure to wind, Axle UnttSingle axle or talon axle Berm—An earthwork usc to redirect ar lowe down impinging vehicles or vessels and to stabilize fll, enibankment, or soft ground and ext slopes. Conuritagel Forco—A la rel force resulting from a change inthe direction ofa vehicle's movernen Danypor—A device that transfers and reduces forces between superstructure elements and/or superstructure and substructure clement, while permiting thermal movements. The device provides damping by élssipating energy under seismic, braking or other dynaraic loads. Deep Drati Watervays—A navigable waterway used by merchanl ships with loaded drafts of 4200-18 000+ mam, Design Lane—A notional tralic lene positioned transversely of the roadway. Design Thermal Movement Rango—The structure movemen! range vesulting froma the difference between the maxiinum design temperate and minimum design tomperatue as defined In Article 3.12 Design Water Deptl—Depth of water at mean high water Distortion —Change in structural geometry. Dolphin—Protective object thal may have its own fender system and thel is usally cireutar in plan and stncturally independent fiom the bridge Dynamic Load Altowance—An increase In the applied static force effects to account for the dynam Interaction between the bridge and moving vehteles. Equivaent Fluid—A notional substance whose density i replace for computational purposes. uch thal it would exer he same pressure as the soll! isseen to Pa otiorgemmian secon sactigen ns targa ocaee. RE Asan arta ar32 AASHTO LRED Brioce Dasten SercinicaTtoNs ($1) Exposed—A conditionin which a portion ofa bridge's substructure or superstructure is subject to physical conlac by any partion of a colliding vessel's how, deck house, or mast Erireme—A maxtinain or a mintinuan, Fender—Provection hardware attached (o the structural component to be protected or used to delineate channels oF to rexlirect aberrant vessels, PrauilIeo—Iee resulting from turbelent water flow. GiobetPestinent to tho entire supersiruette or 1 the whole bridge Influence Surtace—A continuous or discretized fanetion over a bridge deck whose value ata pata, wnitiped by a load acting nomral tothe deck a that point, yields the force effect being sought Lame —The aren of deck receiving one vehicle or one nifon load line. Lever Rulo—The stattcal summation of maments ahout one point to caleulate the ceaction at a second point Liquefaction —The loss of shear sirengih in a saturated soil due fo excess hytirostatic pressure. In saturated, cohesionless soils, such a strength loss can result fram loads that are applied instantaneously or cyclicly, particulary in loose fine 10 medium sands that are uniformly graded. Load—The effect of acceleration, inclading that due to gravity, imposed deformation, or volumetric change Local—Pestinent to a component or subassembly of componenis Megagram (Mfg) 1000 kg (a unl of mas). ‘Mode of Vibration—A shape of éynamic deformation associated with a frequency of vibration Navigable Waterway—A walerway, defernined by the US. Coast Cut as being suitable for interstate or foreign comamerce, as described in 33CFR205-25. Nominal Load—An arbitrarily selected design Ioad level Nornially Consolidated Soit—A soil for which the current effective overburden pressure is the same a8 the maxim pressure that has been experienced, Gvorconsolideted Soit—A soil that has been undec greater overburden peessare than currently exists Overall Stability Stability of the entire retaining yall or abutment structure and is determined by evaluating potential slip surfaces located qutside of the whole structure. Overconsalidatton Ratio—Ratio ofthe maximum preconsolidation pressure tothe overburden pressure, Passive Earth Pressure—Lateral prossare resulting from the earth’ resistance to the lateral movement ofa structure or component into the soil mass. Permanent Loads—Loads and forces thal ae, or are assumed to be, constant upon completion of construction, Pevinit Vohicke—Any vehicle whose right to Iravel is administratively restricted in any way duc to its weight oF size Reliability index—A quanlitetive assessment of salety expressed asthe ratio ofthe difference between the mean resistance and mean force effect to the combined standard deviation of resistance and force effect.SECTION ($1): Loans AND LOAD FACTORS 38 Resicainers—A system of high-strength cables or rods that iransfers forces between superstructure elements and/or superstructure and substructare clements under seismic or ther dynamic loads after an intial slack is taken up, while permitting thestnal movernents, Roadway Width—Clear space hetwean barriers andor curbs. Soning Temporsturo—A sinactue’s average temperature, wich is used fo determine te dimensions ofa structure when a component is added or set in place. Shallow Draft Waterways—A navigable waterway uscd primarily by harge vessels with ioaded drafts of less than 270019 3000 mm, ‘Shock Transmission Unis (STLI—A device: that provides @ temporary tigi link between superstructure elements andor superstructure and substructure elements under seismic, braking or other dynamic loads, while permitting thermal movements. ‘Sieucturally Conitnuous Bacrfer—A barrier, or any part thereof that fs interrupted! only at ceck joints, ‘Subsiructure—Stroctural pans ofthe beidge that support the horizontal span. Supeastructare—Stouctural pacts of the bridge that provide the horizontal span, Surcharge—A load used to model the weight of cant fill o otter Ioads applied (othe lop of the retained mtaterial Tandem —Two closely spaced axles, usually connected to the same «mder-carviage, hy which the equalization of load beween the axles is enhanced! Wall Friction Angle—An angle whose arctangent zepresents the apparent friction between a wall and a soil mass. Hheot—Single or dual tire at one end of an axic Whee! Line—A transverse or Longitudinal grouping of wheels, 3.3 NOTATION 3.3.1 General A= planarea ofice fle (mim): seismic acceleration coefficient depth of temperature gradient (mm) (C3.9.2.3) @.10.2) 8.12.3) AF = annual frequency of bridge element collapse (numther/yr) (C3.14.4) @ = _lengghof uniform deceleration a braking (ann). truncated distance: (ne); average bow datnage Teng (mr) (C364) (C3.9.5) (C3.148) ae bow damage length of standart! hopper barge (ene) (3.14.11) a bows damage length of ship (mm) (3148) E ‘equivalent footing width (im) (3.11.6.3) B Width of excavation érnm} 3.11.5.7.2b) Bu bear (wich for barge, barge tows, and ship vessels érim) (C3.14.5.19 By width of bridge pier tran) @.14.5.3) BR vehicular braking force: hase rate of vessel aberrancy (3.3.2) (3.14.5.2.3) 6 braking force coefficient; widih of a discrete verical wall element (toi) (C364) (3.11.5.6) by Width of applied load or footing (ae) (3.11.63) c coeilicient to compute centrifugal forces. constant for terrain conditions in relation fo wind approach (3.6.3) (3.8.1.1) G coctficient for foece due to crushing of tee (3.9.2.2) Gy drag coefficient (sec.? Nim’ (3.7.3.1) Ca hydrodynamic mass coefficient (3.14.7) G laleral drag coefficient (C3.7.3.1)Bo AASHTO LRED Baince: Drsiess Sevcine cross (SD) C, = cvefficient for nose inclination to compute Fi, (3.9.2.2) Cox = elastic seisinic response coetMicient for the mn!" mode of vibration (3.10.1) ¢ sail cohesion (MPa) (3.1.5.4) & distance from back ofa wall face to the frort of an applied load or Footing (mn) (3.11.6 3) P= éeplhoF embediment for permanent nongravity cantilever wall with discrete vertical wall elements (em) 115.6) Dy ‘bow depth (inn) (C3.14.5.1) Dy ‘minimum depth of earth cover (mm) (3.62.2) D, = calculated embedment depth to provide equilibrium for nongravity cantilevered with continuous vertical elements by the simpliice method (mm) (3.1.5.0) DIT = sizeof wesse! based on deadweight tonnage (Mg) (C3.14.1) Dy effective width of applied lond at any depth (mmm) 3.11.63) d= éeplhof potential base falure surface below base of excavation (nie): Norizontal distance fromthe back of ‘wall face to the centestine of an applied foad (nia (3,11,5.7.2b} 3.1.6.3) & ‘Young's modulus (MP2) (C3.9.5) Ey deformation energy (J) (C3.14.11) = cecentricity of load on Footing (am) (3.11.6,3) # = _ longitudinal force on pier duc ta ice floe (N): force requited to fail an ice sheet (N/mm): Saree at base of rongavity cantilevered wall required to provide force equilibrium ¢M/nun) (3.92.2) (C3.9.5)3.11.$.6) horizontal force due to flue of ice flow dus to bending (N) (3.9.2.2) hrizonial force defo enshing of ice (N) G.9.2.2) actor of safely against basal heave (C3.11.5.6) ‘ransverse force on pier due t ice low (N) 3.9.2.4 1) vertical ice force dac to adhesion (N) (3.9.3) = lateral force due to earth pressure (W/m) G.11.6:3) = Inter foree dac to traffic surebarge (Nintay G.11.6.3) {= constant applied in calealating he coefficient "used to compete centrifugal forews, taken equal 10-413 for (oad combinations ater han faigue and 10 for fatigue (3.6.3 = speeiiod compressive strength of concrete for use i design (MPa} 3.5.1) _Brwitational acceleration (nvseo."}(3.6.3) = mate bridge element strengit (N: fra height of retaining wall (nme: total excavation dept (ms resistance of bridge component to a horizontal force (N) (C3. 11.1) GL S.7.1)3.1h.5.4) Mt, = depthof barge head-block omits bow: (nny (3.14141) Mt, ‘ultimate bridge pier resistance €N} (3.14 5:4) # nce (N) (3.14.5.4) m, cistance from ground surface to uppermost ground anchor (mam) (3.11.57.0) Bos distance from base of exeavation co towermost ground anchor (mmm) (3.11 5.7.1) a notional boight of earth pressure diagram (run) @.L1.5.7) hy equivalent eight of soil for vehicular bead (nu) (3.11.6:4) uh dynamic load allowance (C3 6.12.5) we design impact encegy of vessel collision J) (3.14.7) ky ive force reduction factor for small steams (C3.9.2.3) r cociicicnt of later! cart pressure (3.11.6.2) he coeiicient of active lateral earth pressure 3.11.5.1) & coeilicient of at rest lateral earth pressure @3.11.5.1) fy = coefficient of passive lateral earth pressure (3.11.5.1) é coet¥iciont of earth pressure duc to surcharge (3.11.6.1) 1 = perimeter of pier (mn): Keng of soil weinforcing elements in an MSE wall (mim): length of footing ¢rucm): expansion length (rua) (3.9.5) (3.11.5.8) G.11.6.3) G.12.23) ' eeharaceristie length (mmm). center-ta-center spacing oF vertical wall clewsents (ron) (C3.9.5) 3.11.5.6) fos length overall of ship or barge tos including te tug or tow boat éenm) (3.14.8) M snnss of vessel (Mg) (3.14.7) ™ multiple presence factor 3.6.1.1.2) X nuuber of one-say passages of vessels navigating through the bridge (number!) (3.14.5) , sabilty mamber (3.11.5 6) OCR = oxereorsolidation ratio (11.2)SECTION ($1): Loans AND LOAD FACTORS 35 saxittuan vertical force for single ice wedge (N): load resulting from vessel impact (X): concentrated wheel Toad (\); live oad intensity; point load (N) (C3.9.5) 14.5.4) (C3.6.1.2.8) (C3.11.6.2) (3.11.6.1) probability of vessel aherrancy (3.14.5) force resultant por unit width of wall (Niram) (3.11.5:8.1) bange collision impact force for heac-on collision between barge how and a sigld object (Nj: base wind pressure corresponding to a wind speed! of 160 kavbr. (MPa) (3.14.11) {3.8.1.2) average equivalent static barge impact force resulting from Meir-Dernberg Study (N) (C3.L4.11) ship collision impact foree between ship bow and a rigid supersincciare (N} (3.14.10.19 probability of hridge collapse (3.14.5) design wind pressure (MPa} @8.1.2.1) ship collision impact force between ship deck house anc a rigid superstructure (M) (3.14.5.4) gcomelcic probebibily of vessel collision with bridge piexispan 8.14.5) Inleral force dac to superstructuse or other concentrated lateral loads ¢N/imm) (3.11.63) hocivontal component of resultant earth pressure on wall (Wn) (3.1.5.5) ship collision impact force between ship mast and a rigid superstructure (N) (8.14.5.4) passive earth pressure (Wann 3.11 5.43 Ship collision impact force: for head-on collision between ship boss and 2 rigid object (N) 8.14.54) Vertical component of resultant earth presse on wall (Vira; [oad per linear wn of stip footing (Wine) G.115.8) 8.1163) {oad on isolated reciangular footing or point load (N) (3-11.6.3) cllective ice crushing strength (MP2); stream pressure (MPa); hasic earth pressure (MPa); fraction of truck traffic in a stagle lane: load intensity (MPa) 3.9.2.2) (3.7.3.1) G.11.5.1) 8.6.1.42) G.116.1) apparent earth pressure (MPa). maximum ordinate of pressure diagram (MPa) (3.11.5.3) (.11.5.7.1} passive earth pressure (MPa) (3.11.5.4) total factored load: load intensity for infinitely Long line loading (Win) (3.4.1) (3.11.62) force effects (8.4.1) surcharge pressure (MPa) (11.6.8) uniform stccharge pressare (MPa) (3.11.6.1) radius of curvature (oan): radius of circular pier (tam), seismic response modification factor, reduction factor of lateral passive earth pressure; radial distance from point of load application to a point on the wall (mim), reaction foree t0 bee resisted hy subgrade below base of excavation (mmm) (3.6.3) (39.5) (3.10.7.1) 8.1154) G116.1) 8.1157.) PA corsection factor for bridge location (3.14.5.23) ralio of exposed supersinectare depth to the total ship bow depth (3.14.10.1) PA correction factor for currents paralel to vesse!iransit pat (3.14.5.2.3) PA correction factor for vessel traffic density (3.14.5.2.3) reduction factor for ship deck house collision force (3.14.10.2) PA correction factor for cross-currents acting perpendicular fo vessel transit path (3.14.5.2.3) radius of pier nose (mm) (C3.8.2.3) cocificient relates to site conditions for use in determining seismic loads (3.10.51) frcering index (C39.2.2) shear strength of rock mass (Ma) (31 1.5.6) undrained shear strength of coltesive soil (MPa) (3.11.56) undrained strength of soil Below excavatton base (MPa) (3.11 5.7 2b) Vertical spacing of reinforcements (nmi) @.11.5.8.1) mean daily air temperature (°C) (C39.2.2) horizontal load is anchor (aren) (3.11.5.7.1) period of vibration for mi" mode (ee) (3.10.1) applied load to reinforcement in a mechanically stabilized earth wall (Nétnm) (3.115.8.2) fi i ‘ rc siniium design temperature used for thermal movement effects thickness of ter (mm). thickness of dock (ram) (39.2.2) (3.12.3) design velocity of water Gnser.}: design impact speed of vessel fnisee:) (37.3.1) (3.14.6) hase wind velocity taken as 160 krevhr. (3.8.1.1) Waterway cucrent component acting paalle] tothe vessel transit path (kine) (3.14.5.2.3) design wind velocity at design Elevation Z (kvbr} (3.8.1.1) 12.2.1) (3.12.2.2) (3.12.23)3 AASHTO LRED Baince: Drsiess Sevcine cross (SD) Hige = minimum design impact velocity taken not less than the yearly mean current velocity for te bridge location ‘kawit) (3.14.6) 1} = vessel tmnsit speed in the navigable chanel (km) (3.14.6) Ve ‘watenvay current component acting perpendicular to the vessel transit path (kinvhr) (3.14.5 2.3) Fy = friction velocity.» meteorological wind chaniceristie for various upwind surface charweterstics (kt) 81D) Fy —-= wind speed at 10 000 mm above low ground or water level (kan/x:) (3.8.1.1) v= highway design speed (m/soc.) 3.6.3) w = width of clear roadway (nun); width of picr at level of ice action {mum density of water (kg/m?) (3.6.1.1.1) 8.9.2.2)(C373.)) X= Torizontal distance froin back of wall to point of load application cmm dstmee to Bridge element from the cericrline of vessel trast path (mm) @.11,6.2) (3.14.6) = distance (0 edge of channel from conterfine of vessel trast path (rum) (3.14.6) distance from centerline of vessel tnsit path equal to 3 x L024 (rum) 3.14.6) distance from the back oF the wall to the stat of the Tine Toad (mm) G.11.6.2) length ofthe line toad (um) (3.11.62) = structure etal aboxe Tow ground oF water Fevel > [0 060 mam (mm): depth below surface oF soil (nem): depth from the ground surface to a point on the wall under consideration (mr): vertical distance from point (of loa application to the elevation of a point on the wall ursler consideration (mum) (3.8.1.1) G.11.63) 43.11.62) te hetion kength of upstream feich, a meteorological wind characteristic (sam) (3.8.1.1) 4s depth where effective width intersects back of wall face (rau) @.11.6.3) z depth below surface of backlll (mm) G.11.5.1) @ = _cotstant for terrain conditions in relation to wind approach: coefficient for local ice condition: inclination of pice nose with respoct to a vertical avis °): inclination of back of wall with respect to @ vertical axis (°): angle between foundation wall and a lin connecting the point on the wall under consideration and» point on te bottoms comer of the footing nearest to the atl ad): coefMicent of Merial expeasion (rnvinC) (C3811) C3922) B9.2.2)(C3115.3) 3.1162) 21229 B= _otional slope of backfill () G.11.3.8.0) B= safety index: nose angle in horizontal plane used to caloulate transverse ive Forces (slope of backfill surface behind retaiing wal: {4 for slope up from wall: —forslope dowa fromwall} (°)(C3.4,06.9 24.1) 1153) f= slope of ground surface infront ofwall {+ for slope up fom wall ~forslope down from wall} °) (3.11.56) Y= Toad factors: density of materials (kg/m’): density of water hyn" density of soil Akgin') (C34 1) 8.5 1) (C39. G.115.1) Y= eensity of soil kyon) 3.11.5.1) y effective soil dcnsity (ke/m'» (3.11.56) wee Toad factor for live load applied sinatancously with seismic fonds (34.1) Ye equivalent-uid unit weight of soil (kg/m) (3.11.58) y load factor 8.4.1) Ye = load factor for permanent foading (3.4.1) Ye = [oad factor for setiement (3.4.1) Yes load factor for temporature gradion: (3.1.1) A= movement of top of wall quired to reach miimam active or maieutm passive pressure by tilting o ater translation (am) (C3.11.1) G.ALSS dp = corslan hotirontal earth pressine ce to union surcharge (MPa) (3.21.6.1), Am = cotstant horizontal pressure dstibation on wall resulting ftom various ty pes of surcharge loading (MPa) 6.1162) r= design thermal mavement range (nm) (3.12.2.5) oy = _horivontal stross due to surcharge load (MPa) 3.11.6.3) as, vertical strss duc to surcharge load (MPa) (3.11.6.3) 3 angle of mancated ice wedge °): friction angle between fll and wall (2: angle between formation wat and 2 line connocting the point om the wall under consideration and a poiat on the battam corner of the footing furthest from ths wail (ed) (C3 9.3) 6.11.53) 6.1.6.2) ny = load modifier specified in AMicke L.3,2: wall Face batter (3.4.1) G.11.5.9) 0 = angle of back of wall to the horizontal (°). angle of channel tar or berd (°). angle Between direction of streant flow and the longitudinal asis of pier ¢%) (3.11.5.3) (3.14.5.2.3) (3.7.3.2)SECTIONS (SI): LoaDs AND LOAD FACTORS. 37 0, friction angle berwcen ice floc and pier ()} (8.9.24.1) o standard deviation of normal distribution (3.14.5.3) or = tensile strength of fee (MPa} «C3.8.5) y Poisson's Ratio im) (3.11.6.2) $= tesistance factors (C34.1) 4 angle of internal friction (°}(3.11.5.4} We = effective angle of internal friction (°) (3.11.52) % Intel friction angle of reinforced fill () 11.6.3) & ‘angle of internal Iriction of retained soil @) (3.11 5.6) 332 Load and Load Designation The following permanent and transient Toads and Forces shall be consicired! + Pestmanen! Loads downdrag, dead load of structural components anc nonstnuctural atachments ead load’ of wearing surfaces and utilities horizontal earth pressure load accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from the constriction process, including the secondary forces from post-temsioning ‘eth suchange load vertical presse from dea! load of earth fill = Transient Loads vehicular braking force vehicular centrifugal force creep vehicular collision force vessel collision force earthquake fitetion ice load vehicular dynaintc load allowance vehicular live load live load surcharge pedestrian live load settlement shrinkage Aemperature gradient uniform temperature waler load and sticam pressure wine on live load sein! Joad on structure 3.4 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS 3.4.1 Load Factors and Load Combinations coat ‘The total factored force effect shall fe taken as: ‘The background forthe load Factors specifies here, andl the resistance faclocs specified in other sections of O=En1e (4.1.1) these Specifications is developed in Nowak (1992) cwipueancermmrcenne —g38 whee: ty load modifter specified in Aniefe 1.3.2 @ = force effects from loats specified herein yi = toad factors specified in Tables I and 2 Components and connections of'a bridge shall satisfy Bq, 1.3.2.1-1 for the applicable combinations of factoret extreme foree effects as specified at each of the following isnt states + STRENGTITI—Basic load combination eelating to the normal vehicular use ofthe bridge without wind. # STRENGTIL II—Load combination relating (0 the use ofthe bridge by Orner-speciie spl design vehicles, evaluation peril vehicles, or both without win. ¢ STRENGTH 11—Load combination refating 10 the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding 90 bow, + STRENGTH 1V—Load combisation relating to very high dead load to live load force effect ratios. AASHTO LRED Brice DESICK SPECIFICATIONS (SD) A reduced valuc of 0.50, applicable (all strength load combinations. specified for TU, CR. and SH used shen calculating force effects other than éisplacemenis at the strength limit sate, represents. an expected reduetton ofthese force effects in eonjenction with the inelastic response of the structure. The calculation of Aisplacements foc these loads itlizes a factor greater than 1.010 avoid undersized joints and bearings. The cffect and significance of the temperature gradicnt reavains unclear at this writing, Consult Article €3.12.3 foe fuather information ‘The penlt vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the bridge unless so assared by lrafic control. See Article 4.6.2.2.4 regarding other talfic on she ridge simultaneously Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities Therefore, high winds prevent tke presence of signiftcan live load on the bridge ‘The standard calibration process for the strength frit slate consists of trying oul various combinations of Joad and resistance factors on a number of bridges and their components. Combinations that yield a safety Index close 10 the target value of f= 3.5 are retained for potential application. From these are selected’ ‘consiant load factors y and correspondiag resistance factors @ for each lype of siructural component reflecting its u (© 2005 by the American Assocation of State Highway and Transportation Officials. [All ngs reserved, Dupbeation 6 @ woltion OF apsieable lveSECTION ($1): Loans AND LOAD FACTORS 39 + STRENGTH V—Load combination relating to formal vehicular ase oF the bridge with wind of 90 kava, velocity. EXTREME EVENT 1—Lotd combination Sncludting earthquake, © EXTREME EVENT [—Load combination relating to ice foad, collision by vessels and vehicles, and certain hydraulic events with a reduced live load other than that which is past of the vehicalarcolliston load, CT. {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, This calibration process had been carried out for a Targe number of Bridges with spans not exceeding 60.000 mm, These cafelations were for completed Iuidges. For the primary components of lange bridges. the ratio of dead amd lise Toad force effects is rather high, and could result in a set of resistance factors different from those found acceptable for stmall- and rmedium-span bridges. It is believed 10 be more practical lo investigate one aiitional load case than io require the use of two sets of resistance factors with the load factors provided in Strength Lead Combination I depending on other permanent Ioads present, Spot checks had heen mace on afew bridges ‘with up (0 183.000 mun spans, and it appears that ‘Stength Load Combination IV will govern where te dead! load to live load force effect ratio exceeds about 7.0, This_load_combination_can_control dering investigation of construction tages Although tis init stale includes water loads, WA, the effects ce to HWA are consserahly less significant thar the effects on the structure stahilty due to degradation. Therefore, unless specific site conditions. dictate atheewise, local pier scour and contraction scour depts should not be included inthe design. However, the effects due to degradation of the channe! should be considered, Live load coincident with an eanliqake is discussed elsewhere inthis aiticle. “The recurrence interval of extreme ovents Is thought to exceed the desig life “The join probability of these events is extremely low, and, therefore, the events are specified to be applied separately. Uncer these extreme conditions, the structure is expected to undergo considerable inelastic deformation by which lockedin force effects de 10 TU, TC, CR, SH and SE are expected to be relteved “Thee 0.50 live load factor signifies alow probability of ‘he concurrence of the maximum vehictla live Load (olher thant C7 and tne extreme events.310 + SERVICE J—Load combination relating 10 the normal operational use of the bridge with a 90 knvhr. wind and all Toads taken at their nominal values. Also related to deflection control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and thermoplastic pipe, 10 conteol crack width in reinforced concrete siructures. ane for answers analysis relating to tension in concrete segmental ites. This load combination should also be sed forthe investigation of slope siability + SERVICE Tl—Load combination intended 1 control yielding of steo! siructaces ane slip of slip-crtical connections due 10 vehicular live load. + SERVICE Ml—Load combination for longitudinal _analysis relating 10 tension in prestressed concrele superstructures. with the objective of crack control and fo principal fension in the webs of segmenial concrete girders. + SERVICE [V—Load combination relating only {o tension in presiessed conereie substructures vwith the objective of crack contol © FATIGUE—Fatigue and facture load comination relaitng to repetitive gravitational velicular live load and dynamite responses tneier 2 single desig truck having the axle spacing specified in Article 3.6.14.) AASHTO LRED Brice DESICK SPECIFICATIONS (SD) Compression in prestressed concrete components is Investigated using this load combination, Service IH is used 10 Investigate tensile stresses in prestressed conerete eoanponents, ‘This load combination comresponds 10 the overload provision for steel siructures in past editions of the AASIITO Specifications, ad itis applicable only 10 steel sirctces. From the point of view of load level, this combination ts approximately halfway between ‘that used for Service | and Strenglt [Linn States, ‘The live load specified in these Specifications reflects, ‘among other things, curent exclusion weight limits mandated by various jurisdictions. Vehicles permitted under these limits have heen in secvice for many years prior to 1993. Por longitudinal loading, there 18 no nationwiée physical evidence that these vehicles have caused detrimental cracking in existing prestressed conctefe components. Theslaistca significance ofthe (0.80 factor om live load is thal the even is expected to ‘occur about once a year for bridges with two traffic Janes, [ess often for fvikges with more than two traffic lanes, and about once a day for bridges with a single traffic lane, Scivice [ should be used for checking tension related to_transverse_analysis_ of concrele sogmental piccrs, ‘The principal tensile siress chock is introduced inorder fo verify the adequacy of webs of segmental concvere ier bridges for longttudinal shear and torsion, ‘The 0.20 factor om wind copreseats a 135 kant. wine This should resull in zero tension in. prestressed concrete substructures for ten-year mean reoceutrence winds, The prestressed concrete substructures must still meet strength requirenients a5 set forth in Loa Combination Strength II in Article 3.4.1 1k iS ot recommended that thermal gradient be combined with high sind forees. Superstructure ‘expansion forces ace included. ‘The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflecis Toad [evel ford (o be representative of the truck popolation with respect to a large aurater of ‘ctu cycles of stresses and to their cuinulativecelfects in steel elements, components. and connections. (© 2005 by the American Assocation of State Highway and Transportation Officials. [All ngs reserved, Dupbeation 6 @ woltion OF apsieable lveSECTION ($1): Loans AND LOAD FACTORS 3.40 “The load factors for various loads comprising a design {oad combination shall he taken as specified in Table 1. All relevant subseis of the load combinations. shall. be investigated. For cach load combination, every Toad that is indicated to be taker ato account and that fs germane to the component being cesigned: including all significant cllects due 10 distortion, shall be nultiplied’ by the ‘appropriate load factor and multiple presence factor specified in Article 36.1..2, i applicable. The products shall be summed as specified in Eq. 1.3.21-1 and tnuiplied by the load wnoditiers specified in Article 1.3.2. ‘The factors shall he selected ta prosuce the tal ‘extreme factored force effect. For eaci load combination, both positive and nogative extremes shall be investigated In load combinations wheze one force effect decreases, ‘nother effect, he minimum value shall be applied tothe load reducing the force eect. For permanent forcecifecs, the load factor that produces the more critical combination shall he selected fs Table 2, Whore the permanent load incceases the siability or load-carrying capacity of a ‘component or ridge, the minimum value ofthe load factor for that permanent load shall alsa be investigated. “The larger of tke two values provided for load factors of TU. CR ane ST shall be used for deformations and the smaller values forall other effects ‘The evaluation of averal stability of retained ills, as Well as earth slopes with or without a shallow or deep foundation unit should be investigated atthe service limit state based on the Service T Load Combination and an ‘appropriate resistance factor as specified in Article 10.5.2 and Article 11.56. For structural plale box structures complying with the provisions of Article 12.9, the live load factor for the Vehicular live loads LL and taf shell be (2ken a 2.0. {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, ‘This Article reinforces the traditional method of selecting load combinations to obtain realistic extreme ceffecisand Istntended to clarify the issue of the variability ‘of permanent loads and their effects. As has always been the: ease, the Owner or Designer stay determine that aot al of the loads in @ given load combination apply to the situation under investigation, It is recognized herein thal the actual magnitude of permanent loads may also be less than the nominal value. ‘This hocomes important where the permanent load reduces the effets of transient loads Tr has been observed that permanent loads are more Iikely 10 be greater thar the nosinal value than f0 be: less than this value Inthe application of permanent foads, oree effects for cach of the specified six load types shotld be computed separaicly. 111s unnecessary to assume that one type of Joad varies by span, length, or component within a bridge. For example, when investigating uplift at a bearing in a —]— TaTiGurit, |—|ame;—|}—-|,{—- )—-}| — |-|-|-}-|-|— MM & CEONLY “Table 8.4.1.2 Load Factors for Permanent Loads Toad Factor Type of Load Maxam [Mina ‘DG. Component and Attachments 125 090 DD: Downcirag, 0 0.45, DIV. Wearing Surfaces and Unites 30 065, EFF Horizontal Barth Prossave + Active 1.50 090 + _AtRest 135 990 El: Locked-in Exoction Siesses 1.0 1.00 EVE Veatteal Bauth Pressure + Overall Steblily 1.00 Nia ‘+ Retaining Walls and Abutments 135 1.00 + Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 090 + Rigid Frames 138 090 + Plexible Buried Structures other 1.85 080 than Metal Box Culverts, 4+ Flexible Metal Box Culverts 180 090 ES Bari Surcharge 150 a7SECTION ($1): Loans AND LOAD FACTORS 343 Where prestressed _componenis_are_used _in conjunction with steel gidess, the force effects from the following sources shall_be considered as consiruetion leads, EE: ‘+ In.conjunction with lonpitudinal prostmssing ofa 7 r composite with the girders, the friction between the procast deck soctioas and the sie giners ‘+ When Jongitudinal post-tensioning is performed aller the deck boromes composite with the 7 _gitders and shoar connectors, + Thoclfects of differential creep and shrinkage of ‘hie concrete. + The Poisson effect ‘The load! factor for live load in Extceme Event Load Combination I. tq. shall be determined on a. project specific sis, 34.2 Load Factors for Construction Loads 3.4.2.1 Evalvation at the Strength Limit State st i Table 34.1-1, modified _as specified horein, shall_be investigated ‘When investigating Strength Load Combinations I. and curing consiniction, load factors for the weight of the structure and appurtenances, DC and DW stall nol be taken to be less than 1.25, Unless otherwise specified by the Owner. the load factor for construction foads and for any associated dynamic eTocs shall not be fess than 1.5 in Strength Load Combination I. The load factor for wind in Sirngth Load Cornfsination IT shall not be less than 1.25, {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, ‘The_most_conunon applications of _presteessed ‘concrete in_stcel_girdor hrléges are_iransvarse_post- tensioning of the deck and integral pier eaps in whéch the tendons penetrate theginder webs. When a composite deck sprestressod longitudinally, the shear connectors transfor Sorce to the slee/. The effect of shrinkage and long-(crn ‘cep around the shear connectors should be evaluated 19 censure thal the composite girder is able to recognize the prestressing over the life ofthe bridge. The contribution of long-term deformations in closure pours herween precast deck panels which have been aged io refuce shrinkage and ‘aeep inay need evaluatlon ‘Tho Poisson effect recognizes the bulging of concnete when subjected fo presiressing, When used in pier caps, posl-tensioning causes 2 transverse Poisson lensile stress resulting in a longttudinal stress inthe steel girders Past editions ofthe Standard Specifications ust y= 0.0, This Issue 15 not resolved, The possibility of partial live load, ic. yeo < 1.0, with carihquakes shouk! be ‘considered. Application of Turksira’s rule for combining tuncorrelaied loads indicates that, = 0.50 is reasonable for a wide range of values of average daily truck traffic {ADTT}, A Toad factor for passive lateral earth pressure fs not given in Table 2 because, strictly speaking, pessive later ‘eacth pressure isa resistance and nota load. For discussion of tie selection of a passive lateral earth pressure resislance factor see Article C10.5.4 ‘The [oad factors presented here should not relieve the contactor of responsibly fr safety and damage contol Gang constriction, ‘Construction loads are permanent loads and other loads that act on the sirutete only dusing constriction Construction loads include the mass of equipment such as ‘Geck finishing machines or loacs applied ic the sticture through falsework or other temporary supports. Often the cconstuctton Toads are_not accurately known at desiga time: however, the magnitude and locaton ofthese loais ‘considered in the design should he noted an the contract oct ments,aad AASHTO LRED Brioce Dasten SercinicaTtoNs ($1) 34.2.2 Evaluation of Deflection at the Service Limit State In.the absence of special provisions 10 the contrary, where evalualion of construction deflections are cequired by the contract documents. Load Combination Service | shall apply. Consicuction dead loads shall be considered as part of the permanent Toad and eonsiruction transient loads considered pact of the live load. The associated permitted deflections shall be Included in the contract documents 3.43 Load Factors for Jacking and Post:Tensioning Forces 3.43.1 Jacking Forces Unless otherwise specified by the Owner, the design forces for jacking inservice shall aot be Less than 1.3 times the permanent load reaction a the bearing, adjacent to the point of jacking, ‘Where the bridge will not be closed to traffte dining the jacking operation, the jacking load shall also contain a live Toad reaction consistent with the maintenance of traffic plan, multiplied by the load factor for ive load. 3.4.32 Force for Post-Tensioning Anchorage Zones ‘The design force for post-tensioning anchorage zones shall be taken as 1.2 times the maxsmem jacking fore. 3.8 PERMANENT LOADS. 35.1 Dead Loads: DC, DW, and EV Dead load shall include the weight ofall components of the structure, appurtenances and ullities attached thereto, earth cover, Wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widenings Tn the absence of more precise information, the densities, specified in Table 1, say be wsed for dead loads, ny a C351 ‘Table 1 provides traditfonal densities. The density of ‘granular malcrials depends upon the degree of compaction and water content, The density of concrete is primarily affected by the density of the aggregate, which varies by {geological location and increases with concrete compressive strength. The density of reinforced concrete is generally taken as 72 kyl’ greater than the density of Blain concrete, The values provided for wood include the mass of mandatory preservatives, The mass of transit alls, ele. 35 to be ase only for preliminary design. Densities shown with the units kg/m and kg/mm are in mass unils, nol force units. To convert to force units of Mim? multiply by the gravitation at constant g = 9.8066 rnisee.* and collect the units kg nsec? as a Newton, {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,SECTION ($1): Loans AND LOAD FACTORS ‘Table 35.1-1 Densities, Baad Density Material kyle’) ‘Akuninum Alloys 2800 Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 Cast Iron 7200 Cinder Filing 360 i. Sil, or Clay 1925; Low-denst 775 Sand-low-density 1925; Normal Density with 7-35 MPa 2320 Norinal Density with 39 < f= 105 MPa | 2240 + 2.207 Loos Sand, Si or Gravel 1600 Soft Ca 1600 Rolled Gravel, Macadam, or Ballast 2250 Sicel 7850 ‘Sione Masonry 2125 ‘Wooti Tard 960 Soft 800 Water ‘Fresh 1000 ‘alt 1025 ‘Mess per Unit om Length (cma) “Transit Rails, Ties, and Fastening por Track 0.30 3.52 Earth Loads: EH, ES, and DD auth pressure, earth surcharge, and downeirag loads shall be as specified im Article 3.11 36 LIVE LOADS 36.1 Gravity Loads: Zand PL. 36.1.1 Vehicular Live Load 261.11 Nanbor of Design Lanes C8601 Generally, the number of design lanes should. be determine by taking the integer part ofthe ratio w/3600, where wis the clear roadway width in mn Beton curbs andlor hartirs. Possible Faure changes inthe physical or functional clear roadway with of the bridge should be consider Tncases where the traffic lanes are fess than 3600 mae wide, the number of design lanes shall he equal to the umber of trafic Tenes, ane the width of the design Tane {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, Itis not the intention ofthis Articleto promote bridges ‘with narrow traffic lanes. Wherever possible, bridges should be built o accommodate the slandard design TeneBuz AASHTO LRFD Baroce Desicn Srecications (SD ‘This page intentionally ef bank, ‘Al eights resereed. Dupiestion is @vilabon of appicable love[SECTION 3 (SI): LOADS AND Loan FACTORS as shall be taken as che width of che trafic lane Roadway widths from 6000 to 7200 mm shall have two design lanes, cach equal to one-half the roadway) width, 3.6.1.1.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load ‘The provisions of this article shall aos be applied v0 the fatigue limit stare for which one design track is uscd regardless of the number of design lanes. Where the single: lane approximate disaibution faciors in Articles 4.6.2.2 and 4.6.2.3 are used, other than the lever rule ard staical method, the force effects shall he divided by 1.20. Unless specified orherwise herein, the extreme live load force effvct shall he determined by considering each possible combination of number of loaded lanes multiplied by w correspon multiple presence factor to accomnt for the probability of simuleaneous lane occupation by the fll HLL93 design live load. In liew of site specific data, the values in Tale 1 * Shull be used when investigating the effect of one lane loaded, + May be used wher investigating the effec of theee oF more lanes loaded, For the purpose of determinivg the number of lanes when the loading condition includes the podestsian loads specitied in Article 3.6.1.6 combined with one or more lanes of the vehicular live load, the pedestrisn loads may be taken to be one loaded lane ‘The factors specified in Table 1 shall not be applied in conjunction with approsimare [oad distribution factors specified in Anioles 4.6.2.2 and 4.6.2.3, except where the lever rule is used or where special requicements tor ‘exterior beams in heam-slah bridges. specified in Article 46.22.24. are used ‘Vable 3.6.1.2.2-1 Multiple Presence Factors ae. Numiberof | Multiple Loaded | Presence Lanes | Paeiors me 1 1.20 2 1.00) 3 085, 33 0.65, ‘and appropsiate shoulders. C3612 ‘The multiple presence factors have heen included in he approximate equations for distribution actors. in Articles 4.6.2.2 and 4.6.2.3, boil for single and rouliple Janes loaded. The equations are based on evaluation of several combinations of loaded lanes with theirappropriate ‘multiple presence factors and are intended account for the worst case scenario, Where use of the lever rule is specified in Article 4.6.22 and 4.6.2.3, the Eogincer must determine the number and location of vehicles and lanes, ane, therefore, must include che multiple presence, Stated another way, if 9 sketch is required to determine load istibution, the Engincer is responsible for including. multiple presence factors and selecting the wost design ease. The factor 120 fiom Table I bas already been inchuled in the approximate equations and should be ‘removed for the prrpose of fatigue investigations, ‘The entry greater thar 1.0 in Table | resules from statistical calibration ofthese Specitications on the basis of pairs of vehicles instead of 2 single vebicle. Therelore, ‘when a single vehicle is on the bridge, t can he heavier than each one of a pair of vehicles and still have the same probability of occurreace. ‘The consideration of pedestrian loads counting as a “loaded lane” for the purpose of determining a multiple presence factor (Ww) is based on the assumption that simultaneous eccupaney by a. dense loading of people combined with a 75-year design live load is renvete, For the parpose of this provision, i has been assanncd that if bridge is used as a Viewing stand for eight hours each year for a total time of about one month, the appropriate live oud 1 combine with it would have a one-nionth ocamience interval. This is reasonably approximated by uuse ofthe multiple prosenee factors. even though they ate ‘originally developed for vehicular live Toad, Thus. if a component supported a sidewalk aod one Jane. it would be investigated for the vehicular live load alone with and forthe pedestrian Loads combined with the vehicular live load with in = 1.0. Ifa component supported a sidewalk and to lanes of vehicular live load, it would be investigated for: © One lane of vehicular live toad, wi = 1.20: +The greater of the more significant lanes of vehicular live load and eh pedestrian loads or 0 lanes of vehicular five Toad. m= 1.0, applied to the governing eases and + Too lanes of whicular live load and the pedestrian ads, » = 0.85, «© 2004 by the Arnencan Associaton of Sate Hignvay and THansporatin Cte "Al ihe sewed. Duplo sa vation of appease16 AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) 3.6.1.2. Design Vehicular Live Load BOL21 General Vebicalar five loading on the mudways of bridges or incidental seructures. designated HL-93, shall eonsise of a combination of the: *Desiga eruek or design sanclem, and ¢ Design lane load Except as movified in Anicle 3.6.1.3.1, eaeh design lane uncle? consideration shall be aceupied by either dhe design tuck oF tandem, coincident with the Lane load. The multiple presence factor of 1.20 fora single kane does not apply to the pedestrian loals. Therefore. the ease ‘ofthe pedestrian loads without the vehicular live load isa subset of the second bulleted item. The multiple presence factors in ‘Table | were developed on the basis of an ADTT of $000 trucks in one M SUPPORT = Mw Figure €3.6.1.2.1-1 Moment Ratias: Exclusion Vehicles to S20 ctruck of lane} oF To 110 000-N Axles at 1200 ram. Figure €3.6.1.2.1-2 Shear Ratios: Exelusion Vehicles to S20 truck or Lane} or Two 110 000-8 Axles at 1200 mm. Figures C3 and C4 show comparisons Between the foree effects proxuced by a single exclusion anuck per kane and the notions load model, except for negative moment. ‘where the tandem exelusion vehicles were used. Inthe ease ‘of negative moment ata supper, the provisions of Article 3.6.3.1 requiring investigation of 90 percent of the etfect fof two design trucks, plus 90 percent of the design lane toad, has been included in Figures C3 and CS. Compared ‘with Figures C1 and C2. the range of ratios can be sen as sore closely grouped: © Over the span range, Both for shear and momant. and {Both for simple span and continents spans The impication of close gronping is that the noional oad model with a single-foud factor has general applicability 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaRe[SECTION 3 (SI): LOADS AND Loan FACTORS Eat) wont, a woe MoM aie i igure €2.6.1.2.1.3 Moment Ratios: Exclusion Vehicles 10 ‘Notional Model. 14 ul ‘ean Ran a > #7 + ¥eb-P0S veh -NEO + Vou-NES. Figure €3.6.1.2-4 Shear Ratios: Exeluslon Vehicles 10 Rotional Model, Figures C5 and C6 show the ratios of force effets produced by the notional Joad niodel and the greatest of the HS20 tuck or lane Loading. or Alternate Military Loading. 2004 by the Arevesn hesacton of Sate Hight sod Tanapatation Otc, ‘alr resoved. Dupeation 3 elation of spplcabe se.20 3.6.1.2.2 Design Truck The weights and spucings of axles and whoe's for the design truck shall be as specified in Figure 1. A dynamic loud allowance shull be eonsidoved as specified in Article 362 LExceptas specified in Articles 3.6,1.3.1 and 3.6.1.4.1 the spacing between the 660 145 000-N avles shall be varied between 4300 and 9060 mm to produce extreme force eftvcts. AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) = wpos oct tu Nesom om SUPPORT = ee Figure €3.6.1.2.15 Moment Ratios: Notional Model to S20 (track or lane} or Two 110 000-N Axles at £200 mm, ; gi Fe SPAN WC ASTERS Figure €3.6.1.2.146 Shear Ratios: Notional Medel (o HS20 (Gruck and late} or Toyo 110 000-N Axles at 1200 mm. in reviewing Figures CS and 06, & should be noted that the coral design force effect is also a function of foad factor, load modifier, load distribution, and dynaraic Load allowance. 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaRe[SECTION 3 (SI): LOADS AND Loan FACTORS aa So 35000N 145 000N 145 000N 4300mm | 4300 to 9000mm, Ly 600mm General: 300mm Deck Overhang Design Lane 3600 mm ‘4800mm gure 36.L.2.2e( Characteristics of the Design Truck. 3.1.2.3 Design Tandem ‘The design tandem shall consist oF 3 pair of 110:000- ‘ axles spaced 1200 mina apart The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1800 mn. A dynamic load allowance shall becorsidered as specified in Article 3.6.2. 361.24 Design Lane Load ‘The design lone toad shall consist of a load! of 9.3 ‘Nh uniformly distributed in she Tongivadinal dineetion. “Transversely, the design lane Ipad shall he assumed eo be uniformly distributed over 2 3000-ma width. The force ‘effects from the design fans Toad shall not be subject co a dynamic lozd allowance. 3612.5 Tire Comact Area ‘The tire contact area of a wheel consisting of one or two tres shall he assumed tp bea single reetangle, whose ‘width is S10 mm and whose length is 250 mn, Te tire pressure shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the contact area, The tre pressure shall be assumed be disnibured as follows © On continuous surfaces. uniformly over the specified contact area, ad + Onimerupted surtaces, unitoraly over dhe actual ‘contact area within the footprint withthe pressure inereased in the ratio of the specified ¢@ actual ‘contact areas C35. ‘The area load applies only to the design truck andl tandem. Vor other design vehicles, the tire contact area should be determined by the engineer As at guideline for other tick loads. the tre area in mim” may be ealeaoeed from the following dimen “Tivo width = P/142 Tire longth = 16Sy(1 + 182/100) ‘where: Y load factor IM = dysamic load allowance percent 2004 by the Arevesn hesacton of Sate Hight sod Tanapatation Otc, ‘alr resoved. Dupeation 3 elation of spplcabe se.3.22 AASHTO LRED Brioce Dasten SercinicaTtoNs ($1) 316.1.26 Disiributton of Whee! Loads Through Earth Pils ‘Where ihc depth of Nis less than 600.nm. live Joadis sill be distributed to tie top slabs of culver as specified in Article 46.2.10. Thlicu of a more precise analysis, or the use of ether acceptable approximate methods of load. distribution permitied in Seetion 12, where the depth of fl is 800 xm ‘ongreater, whee! loads may he considered fo be uniformly discibuied over a rectangular arca with sides equal 10 the dimension of the tire contact area, 2s specified in Anicle 3.6.1.2, and increased by eier 1.15 limes the depth of the fll select grantlac back o the depth ofthe fll in all other cases. The provisions of Articles 3.6.1.1.2 and 3.6.1.3 shall apply. ‘Where such areas fiom several wheels overlap. the tofal load shall he uniforely distrusted over the area. For single-span culverts, the effecis of live load may be neglected wire the depth of fil is more than 2400 am and exceed the span length; for melliple span culverts, the effects may be neglected whese the depth of fill exceeds the distance heiwwoen faces of end walls ‘Where the live load a inipact siosient is concrete slabs. based on the distribution of the wheel [oad through carth fills, exceeds the live Toad and impact moment calculated according to Atticle4.6.2.10, the latter moment shall be used. 3.6.1.3 Application of Design Vehicular Live Loads BELB I Coneval Unless otherwise specified, the extreme force effect shall be taken asthe larger of the following: ‘+The effect of the design tandem combined with the effeet of the design lanc load, or ‘+ The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing specified in Article 36.1.2. combined with the effect of the design lane load, and + For both negative moment between points of contvaflexure under a uniform load on all spans, and reaction at intertor piers only, 90 percent of the effect of two design racks spaced a miniaraa ny a P= design wheel load (MI C3612.6 Blastic solutions for pressures produced within an infinite ll-space by loads on the ground surface can be found in Poulos and Davis (1974), NAVFAC DM-7.1 (1982), and soil mechanics textbooks. ‘This approximation is similar to the 60° re foun! in thany texts on soil mechanies, The dinensions of the tire contact area are deterinined at the surface based on the dlynainic load allowance of 33 percent at depth = 0, They ate projected through the soil as specified. The pressure intensity on the surface is based on tte wheel load without dynamic load allowance. A dynamic load allowance is ated to the pressure on the projeciet area, The dynarnic load allowance also varies with depth as specified in Article 3.6.2.2. The design lane load is applied where appropriate and multiple presence factors apply. “This provision applies to releving sls below grade and (0 op slabs of hox calves. “Traditionally, te offect of fils es than 00 mm deep on live load has beon ignored. Research (MeGrath. ot al. 2004) has shown that in design of box sections allowing distribution of live load through fill ia_the direction parallel io he pan provices a mon: accurate esgn al 10 predict moment, thrust, and shear forces. Provisions in Article 46.210 provide a means to-adéress the effict of shallow fills. C36.13.1 “The effects of an axie sequence and te fant Load are superposed in order lo obtain extreme values. This is a evialion from the iradtional AASHTO approach, in ‘which ether the truck or the lane load, with an ational concentrated load. provided for extreme effec The lane load is nol interrupted to provide space for the axle sequences of the design tandem or the design truck: interruption is neesied only for patch loading paticrns ( produce extreme force elfets ‘The notional design loads were based on the information Geseribed in Article C3.6.12.1, shich conta! dataon “low hoy” type vehicles welghing up 10 hou $90 000 N. Wheze multiple lanes of heavier veisions Cf this type of vehicle are considered probable, consideration should be given to investigating negative {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,SECTION ($1): Loans AND LOAD FACTORS 323 of 15.000 mm betwcen the lead axle of one truck and the rear axle of the other truck, combined with 89 percent of the effect of the design Tane load. The stance between the 145 OOD-N axles of each tek shall e taken as 430 sn Axles that do not contribute to the extreme forew effect under consideration shall be neglected. Bath the design lanes and the 3000-mm loaded width In cach lane shall be positioned to pinduce extreme force clfeets, The design truck or tandem shall be posttionest transversely such that the center af any wheel [aad is no! closer than, = For the design of the deck overhang —300 mmm ‘rom the face of the curb or railing, and ‘+ Forthe design ofall other componenis—800 ma from the edge of the design lane. Unless otherwise specified, the lengths of design lanes, or pars thercof, that contribute to the extreme force tfect under consideration, shall be loaded with the design Tane load, 361.32 Loading for Optional Live Load Deflection Evalwation TE he Owner invokes he optional five load deflection via specified in Aticie2.5.2.5.2 he deflection should bre taken as the larger of. ‘+ That resulting from the design truck alone, oF ‘+ That resulting from 25 pescent ofthe design truck. taken together with the design lane load. 461.33 Design Loads for Docks, Deck Systems, anid she Top Slabs of Box Culverts ‘The provisions of this article shall not apply fo decks designed! under the provisions of Article 87.2, "Empirical Design.” {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, moment and reactions al inlerior supports for pairs of tke design tandem spaced from 8008 mm to 12000 mm apart, combined with the design lane load specified tw Article 3.6.1.2.4. One hundred percent of the combined effet of the design tandems and the design lane load should be used. This is consistent with Anicle 3.6.1.2.1 and should not be considered! a replacement forthe Strengut Il Load Combination. Only those areas or parts of areas that contribute to the same extreme being sought should he loaded. The loaded length shoul be deterred by the points where the influence sarface meets che centerline of the design lane, Where sidewalk is not separated from: the roadway by a crashwortity treffic barier. consideration should be given to the posstbility that vehicles can mount the sidewalk C36132 As indicated in €2.5.2.6.1, live load deflection is a service issue, nol a strength issue. Experience wilh bridges designed under previous editions of the AASITTO Siandard Specifications indicated no diverse effoctsof live Toad deflection per se. Therefore there appears ta he litle reason (0 requite that the past criteria be compered toa flection based upon the heavier live load required by these Specifications. “The provisions of this article are intended to produce apparcat live load deflections similar (@ those used in the past. The current design taick is identical to the 11520 Intek of past Standard Specifications. For the span lengths ‘where the design lane [oad contrls, the design fane foad logether with 25 percent of the design truck, Le. theee concentrated loads totaling 80 600 Nis sitar tothe pas! lane load with is single concentrated load of 80.000 N) C3B133 ‘This article clarifies the selection of whee! loads tobe used ia the design of bridge decks, slab bridges, and top slabs of box culverts. “The design load is always an ale load: single wheel loads should not be considered Py a324 AASHTO LRED Brioce Dasten SercinicaTtoNs ($1) Where the approximate strip method is used to analyze decks ané top slabs of culveris, force effects shall be determined on the following basis: ‘* Where the slab spans primarily in the transverse diction, only the axles of the design iruck of eS i Acticie 3.6.2.3 shall be applied to the icck slab cx the top slab of hox culverts, ‘* Where the lab spans primarily in he [ongrtudinal direction: © Forlopslabs of box culverts ofall spansand Yor_all_other_cases._tncluding_slab-lype hbridges where the span_docs nol exceed 4600 mm, only the axle Toads of the design ‘rack or desigh tandem of Articles 3.6.1.2.2 sand 3.6.1.2.3, respectively, shall be apples, © For all other cases, including slab-type bridges (exclading top slabs of box culver) whe the span excosels 4600 mm, alj of the ‘oad_spocified in Article 3.6.12 shall be applied, ‘Where the refined methods are used 1o analyze decks, force effects shall be determined on the following basts ‘+ Where the slab spans primavily in the wansverse direetion, only the axles of the design truck of Anticie “36.122 or design tandem of Article 36.1.2.3 stall beappiled tothe deck slab, . q i m direetion (including sla-type ridges), all of the loads specified in Article 3.6.1.2 shall bo applied, ‘Wheel loads shall be assumed to e equal within an axle unit, and amplification of the wheel loads duc 10 centrifugal and braking forces need’ not be considered for the design of decks, 38.134 Deck Qverkang Load For the design of deck oveshangs with a cantilever, not exceeding 1800 min from the centerline ofthe exterior girder to the face of @ structurally continuous concrete railing, dhe outside rovr of wheel loads may be replaced. with @ uniformly distributed line load of 14.6 Wnm Intensity. located 300 an from the face ofthe railing. Vorizontal loads on the overhang resulting from Vehicle collision with baitiers shall be i acoorlance: with the provisions of Section 13. ny a “The design truck and tandem without die lane load and with a multiple presence factor of 1.2 results in factored forco effects that ave sinflar io the factored force effects using earlier specifications for typical span ranges of box eulveris, Individval owners may choose 1 develop other axle ‘weights and configurations to capture the load effects of the actual loads in their jurisdiction hased upon local legal- [oad and permilting policies. Triple axde configurations of single unit_vehicles have been observed 1o have load offecis In excess of the HL-93 tandem axle load. tis theotetically possible that anextreme foree effect could result from @ 145 000-N axle in one lane and a 220 -O00-N tandem in a second lane, but such sophistication is not warranted in practical design C3BLBE Structurally confinuousbarriers have been observed to be effective in distributing witeel loads in the overiang, Implicit in this provision is the assumption that the 116 000-N half weight of a design tandem fs distributed cover a longitudinal length of 7600 mim, and that there isa ‘ross beam or other appropriate component at the end of ‘he bridge supporting te harrier which is designed for the hall tancer weight. This provision does not apply ifthe brarier is not structurally continuous {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,SucTIoN3 (SD; Loans axp Loa Factors 6.1.2.2, but with a on the 145 000-N a load allowance specified in Anticle re I ‘The frequency of the Fatigue load shal be taken as the single-lane average daily truck aflic (ADIT). Thi frequency shall be applied to all components ofthe bri even to those located under lanes that cary a le: number of trucks. In the absence of bet average daily truck traffic shall be taken a information, the single-lane B.6.14.2-1) jgue and fracture limit state is de ‘accumulated stress-range cycles, specification of Joad alone is not adequate. Load should be specified lon ‘with the frequency of load occur For the purposes of this article any vehicle with more than ¢ wheels The single-lane ADTT is that for the traffic lane in which the majority of the truck traffic crosses the brid On a typical bridge with no nearby entrancevexit ramps the shoulder lane carries most of the truck traffic, Since future traffic patterns on the bridge are uncertain, the frequency of the fatigue load for a sin Jane is noe the ined in terms: a truck is def ther two a ned as or four sumed fo apply to al Lanes.Buz AASHTO LRFD Baroce Desicn Srecications (SD ‘This page fs intentionally left blank: ‘Al eights resereed. Dupiestion is @vilabon of appicable love[SECTION 3 (SI): LOADS AND Loan FACTORS ADITy, = the number of tucks per day ina single-lane averaged over the desige life » ‘akon as speciied in Table 1 “Table 3.6.1.4,2-1 Fraction of Truck ‘Vealfiein a Single Lane,p. Sumber of Lanes Available w Teucks |p L 1.00 2 08s Jor more 0.80 BOL Load Distribution for Fatigue 314.30 Refined Methinds Where the bridge is analyzed by any refined method. fas spevitied in Arvicle 4.6.3. a single design truek shall be positioned swnsversely ane! longitudinally <9 mesimize stress range atthe detail under consideration, regardless of the position of traffic or design lanes on the deck 36.14.36 Approximate Metherds Where the bridge is analyzed by approximate load distribution, as specified in Amticle 4.6.2. the disnibution actor for one traffie Jane shall he used 3.6.1.5 Rail Transit Load Where a bridge also carries rai-transit vebicles, the (Owner shall specify the ansit load characteristics and the ‘expected interaction between transit and highway tratlic. physically limited to about 20 009 ve} day under normal conditions. This limiting value of traffic should be considered when estimating the ADTT. The ADIT can be determined by rmultiplying the ADT by the fraction of cueks in the tratfic. 1n lieu of sice-specitie faction of ouck traffic dita, the Values of Table C1 may’ ‘be applied for routine bridges. ‘Table C36.14.2-1 Fraction of Trucks in Braetion of Class of Highway | Trucks in Traffic: Rural Inersiate 020 Ushan lexerstave os Other Rural ous (Other Urban ee CLI Aa I if were assumed that the tatfic lanes would Fe fs they are indicated at the opening of the bridge throughout ies entire serview Tite, i would be more appropriate t place the truck at che center of the aaftic lane that pradoces maximum stress range in the detail Under consideration. But because future traffic paterns on the bridge are uncertain and in the interest of minimizing the number of calculations required of the Designer, the position of the rack is made independent ofthe lecation of both che tatfic lanes and the design lanes. 36.15 If rail cansivis designed to oceupy an exelusive lane, twansit loads should be included in the design, but the bridge should! ot have less strength than if it had been designed as a highway bridge of the sare width. Tf the rail wansit is supposed to mix with segular highway traffic, the Owner should specify or approve an appropriate combination of transic and highway loads for the design, ‘Transit load characteristics may include: © Leas, + Lost! distribution, © Lene! frequency, | 2004 by the AraccanAetcelton of State Highway and Taneporation Cela "Aah saved. Dpleation 3 vlavan of appease i.3.26 AASHTO LRED Baince: Drsiess Sevcine cross (SD) 36.1.6 Pedestrian Loads A pedestrian load of 36x10 *MPa shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 600 mm ord considered sintaltaneonsiy with the vehicular design five load Bridges foronly pedestrian and/orbicycle trae stall be designed fora live Joad of 4.110 "MPa, Where sidewalks. pedestrian and/or bicycle bridues are intended to he used by maintenance and/or other incidental vehictes, these loads shall be considered in the design, The dynamic load allowance need not be ‘considered for these vehicles, Where vehicles can a walk, sidewalk pesiestrian Toad shall not be considered concurrently 36.1.7 Loads on Railings Loads on sailings shall be taken as specified in Section 13, 3462 Dynamic Load Allowance: IM 3.6.2.1 General Unless othenvise permitted in Articles 3.62.2 anv 3.6.2.3. the static effects of the design truck or tandem. ‘other than centifugal and braking forces. shall be increased by the percentage specified in Table 1 for dynamic load allowanes, ‘The factor to be applied to the static fond shall be taken as: (1+ J84'100), ‘The dynamic load allowanee shall not be applied to pestesirian Toaels or to the design lane Toad, Table 34.2.1 Dynamic Load Alawance, IM ‘Component a Deck Joins — All Lint States 73%, All Other Components © Fatigue and Frcture | 15% Limit State ¢ All Other Limit Siaies 33% ‘The application of dynamic load allowance for busted components, covered in Section (2, shall boas specified ia Anicle 3.6.2.2 Dynamic Toad allowance need not be applied 10 ‘¢ Retaining walls not subject 10 vertical reactions from the superstructure. and ny a © Dynamic allowanee, and © Dimensional requirements 3.6.1.6 ‘See the provisions of Adtiele 3.6.1. 1.2 Forapplying the pedestrian loads in combination with the velucular five load, ‘The conservatism in this anicle reflects the unpredictable nntare of pedestrian load. which gains significance where it becomes a primary Toad. Snow removal and otcr maintenance vehicles sometimes have access 10 pedestrian bridges. The slow speed of such vehicles justifies the omission of dynamic effects, 3.621 Page (1976) contains the basis Tor some of these provisions The dynamic load allowance (Af) in Table 1 is an increment to be applied to the static whe! load to account For wheel lod impact from moving vehicles, Dynamic effects due to moving, vehicles may be altrbuted 10 wo sources: Hammering effect isthe dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surfice discontinaities. sich ¢s dock joints, cracks. potholes, end delaminations. and © Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles. whieh muy be die 19 long undulations in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of fill, oF to resonant excitation as a result oF siewlnr Frequencies of vibration between bridge and vehicle Field tests indicate that in the majority of highway bridges. the dymarnic component of the response does not exceed 25 percent of the staic response to vehicles. This is the basis for dynamic foad allowance with the exceptionof dock joints, However, the specilied live load combination of the design truck and lane load. represents s group of exclusion vehicles that are af [east 4/3 of those caused by the design teuck alone on shoet-and mediuin-span bridges, {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,SECTION ($1): Loans AND LOAD FACTORS 327 ‘+ Founsiation components that are entirely below ground level. ‘The dynamic load allowance may be reduced for components, other tan joins, if justified by sufficient evidence, in accordance with’ the provisions of Article 47.2.1 36.2.2 Buried Components ‘The dynatnic load allowance for culverts and other buries structures covered by Section 12 i percent, shall de taken as: IM = 83(1,0-4.1%10"D,) 20% (86221) where: Dg = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (ni) 3.6.2.3 Wood Components Dynamic (oad allowance need not be applied 10 woot components, {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, ‘The specified value of 33 percent in Table | is the produc (of 4/3 and the basic 25 percent Generally speaking, the dynatnte amplification of tacks follows the fllosving general trends + As the weight of the vehicle goes up, the apparent amplifiation goes down + Multiple vehicles produce a lower dynamic ‘amplification than a single vehicle. © More axles result amplification. in a lower dynamic For heavy permit vehicles which have many axles compared to the design truck, a reduction in the dynamic load allowance may be warranted. A study of dynamic llects presented ina ceport hy the Calibration Task Group (Nowak 1992) contains details segacding the relationship between dynamic load allowance and vehicle configuration ‘This article recognizes the damping effect of soll ‘when in contact with some burried structural components, such as footings. To qualify for relief from impact, the entire component must be buried, For the punpose of this atlicle, a retaining type component is considered (0 be buried to the top ofthe fil 3.6.23 Wood sinictures ace knoven lo experience rechuced iynemiic wheel load effects due to internal friction between the components and the damping characteristics cof wood. Additionally. wood is stronger for short duration Toatis, as compared to longer duration loads. This increase in strength ts greater than the increase tm force effects resulting from the dynamic load allowance,38 AASHTO LRED Baince: Drsiess Sevcine cross (SD) 3.63 Centrifugal Forces: CE or the purpose of computing the dial force or the overuming effect on whos! loads, the centrifugal effect on live load shall be taken as the product of the asic weights ‘of te design truck or tandem and the factor C: taken a: . Gost) where Y= higimay design speed (msee.) {= 403 for oad combinations other than fatigue ant 1.0 for fugue g gravitational acceleration, 9.807 (m/see.*) R= radius of curvature of tai lane (m) Highway design speed shall not bc taken to be less than the value spoeified in the_cunent edition of the AASHTO publication. A Policy of Goosncirie Design of Highsays and Streets. “The mukiple presence factors spocified in Article 3.6.1.1.2 shall apply. Centrifugal forces shall be applied horivontally at a distance [800 mirabove the roadway surface. A foed path {0 cart the radial force to the substructure shall be provided, overturning effect of centrifugal forse on vertical whesl loads may be considered 3.64 Braking Force: BR ‘The braking force shall be taken as the greater of: + 25peroent of the axle wseighis of the design truck, or design taser or, ‘© S percent of tie design track plus lane load or 5 percent of the design tandem plus ane load ny a 363 Centrifugal force is not required ta Be applied to the design re load, as the spacing, of vehicles a high speed 's assumed ta be large. resulting in a low density of ‘elucles folowing andlor preceding te design truck, For all other consideration of live load ether than for ftiguc. the design lane load is still considered even though the cenlrifugal effet is not applied to it The specified live load combination of the design track and anc load. however. represents a group of exclusion vehicles that produce fore effects of at east $ ‘of those caused by the design truck alone on short and smediutspan bridges, This rat a indicated st Eq. 1 for the sem ice and strength Hinut states. For the fatigue and Fracture lim state, the factor 0 is consistent with cumulative damage analysis. Tho provision is not technically pesfect. yet it rcasonnbiy models the ropreseniativa exclusion vehiole traveling at design speed ‘wil large headway $10 other vehicles. The approximation atebuted (otis convenient representation s acceptable in the framework ofthe uncertalety oF centrifagal force from random taflic patterns, 1.0 msec, = 3.60 kav Connifugal force also causes an overtuming effect on the_wvheel_ fonds because the radial force is applied 1800 sum above the top of te dock Thus. conifugal toward th f the bridge and an unloading of the shoe! mathe inside of her Superclevation helps to balance the overtumingeffect das to the centrifugal force and this beneficial effect my be considered, ‘The effects due 10 vehicle cases with the eflects duc to vehicle eases with ap coulnifugal force. and the worst case selected. C364 Based om energy principles. and assuming uniform oceleration, the braking force determined as. finction of vehicle weight is an (C364-1) {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la,SECTION ($1): Loans AND LOAD FACTORS “This braking force shal be placed in all design lanes witch are considered to he loaded in accordance with Article 3.6.1 1.1 and which am canrytng trafic headed tn the satne direction. These foreesshall he assumed to aet horizontally at a distance of 1800 sun ahove the roadway sanface Int cither longitudinal direction to cause extreme force effects. Al design lanes shall be simultaneously loaced for bridges likely to become one-irectiowzal in the future ‘The multiple presence [actors specified in Article 3.6.1.1.2 shell apply. {© 2005 by the Ammrican Assocation of State Highway and Transportation OMcials. ail ngnts reserved, Duplication 8 ulation of appieable la, 3.281 where ais the length of uniform deceleration and fis the fraction. Calculations using a hraking length of 122 mand 8 speed of $0 krivhr. (25 ruse.) yield b = 026 tor a horizontal force that will act for a period of about 10 seconds, The factor applies to all lees in one direction Fpecause all vehicles may have reacted within this ime frame. For short. and mesium-span bridges, the specified braking force can be significantly larger than was required inthe Standard Specifications. The breking force specified in the Standard Spocitteations dates back to at least the carly 1940's without any significant changes to adidress he ‘inproved braking capacity of mnodera ticks, A review of cther bridge design codes in Canada and Europe shoved that the “braking force required by the Standard Specification is much lower then Ihat specified in other design coves for most typical bridges. One such comparison is shown in Figure C13282 AASHTO LRFD Baroce Desicn Srecications (SD ‘This page fs intentionally left blank: ‘Al eights resereed. Dupiestion is @vilabon of appicable love[SECTION 3 (SI): LOADS AND Loan FACTORS BraingFece HB [oes reo aca ses Brting re OHBDC= _taeiored braking force as specified in he iS | 8 [=o $8 [cen 18 |e ‘100, ‘200 [—onwoo aro « wove 25a, og [ow ura Sescaea tases Wor ay Factored Braking Force (1 Lane Loaded) ee =a 28 Soe 285°. Nes HOF Datance antes ap Jit Factored Braking oree (2 Lanes Loaded) tro Beraees ens MPP tence See ap.) Eactored Braking Foreo (3 Lanos Loaded) 10a 1s 20050 oan ‘tana Between a done) Factored Braking Force (4 Lanes Loaded) 00 |S eo os wo 150 700 750 20350, ene ence Figure €3.64-1 Comparison of Braking Force Models. where: edition of the Ontario Highway Bridee 2004 by the Arevesn hesacton of Sate Hight sod Tanapatation Otc, ‘alr resoved. Dupeation 3 elation of spplcabe se.a0 AASHTO LRED Being# Destex SexCTEICATIONS SD) 3468 Vehicular Collision Force: C7 36.5.1 Protection of Structures The provisions of Article 3.6.52 need not be ‘considered for structures which are protected by: ¢ Anembankment: +A structurally independent, crashworthy ground mounted! 1370-mm high barrier, located within 3000 mm from the component being protected: or +A 1070-nm high bortier focated at a1ore than 3000 mm from the component being protected, In oxlerto quality for skis exemption, sach barrivr shall be structurally ard geometrically capable of surviving. the ‘ash test for Test Level 5. as specified in Section 1 Design Code LID = factored braking force as specified in the AASHTO Standard. Specifications (Load Factor} LRED = factored braking force ax specified i previous versions of the LRED Specifications (ap to 2001 Interim edition LRED' = factored braking force as specified in Seetion 364 CHBDC= factored braking foree as specified in the Conadion Highway Bridge Design Code ‘The sloping portion of the curves represents the braking foree that includes a portion of the lane load. This represents the possibility oF having multiple lanes of vehicles contributing co the same brakiag event on a long bridge. Although the probability of such an event is likely tw be small, the inclusion of a portion of the lane load znives such an event consideration for bridges with heavy tnlek trattic and is consistent with other desiga codes Becanse the LRED braking foree is significunety higher than that required in the Standart) Specitications.. This issue becomes important in rehuhilizaion projects dlesigoed under previous versions of the design eode. In ceases whore substructures are found te be inadequate (> resist the increased looginudinal torees. consideration should be given to design and detailing strategies which distribute the braking force to additional substrictuze units daring a braking event. 3.65.1 For the purpose of this article. a baner may Be considered seructarally independent it does noe transmit, Toads to the bridge. Full-seale erash costs have shown shat some vebicles havea greater tendency w lean over or partially cross over 8 1070-nmbigh barrier than a 1370-naia high barrie. This ‘behavior would allow a sigaificant collision ofthe vehicle ‘with the component being protected if the component is located within a meter or so of the barrier. (F the component is more thae about 3000 mm behiad the ‘panier, the difference benween the two barrier heights is.10 longer important. 18 2004 by the Amencan Asotin of Ste Highuay and Trenspotabon Cans “alors exerted, Dupeation 9 Walaton & appKaRe