Variable Armature Leakage Reactance in SalientPole Synchronous Machines

BY VLADIMIR KARAPETOFF1
Fellow, A. I. E. E.

Synopsis.-The electrical performance characteristics of a polyphase synchronous machine, that is, its voltage-current relations under load, depend essentially upon the nature and the extent of the magnetomotive forces of the armature currents. Broadly speaking, the effect of these magnetomotive forces is two-fold; i. e., (a) they oppose and distort the field magnetomotive force and (b) they create leakage fields linked with the armature conductors. The first influence is known as the armature reaction, and the second as the armature reactance. More specifically, in a machine with salient poles, the armature reaction may be resolved for purposes of computation into the direct reaction (along the center lines of the poles) and the transverse reaction, midway between the poles. In polyphase machines of usual proportions, the armature leakage reactance, x, usually plays a secondary role, and for most purposes is assumed to be constant and independent of the power factor of the load. The vector of the reactive drop, Ix, is simply drawn in a leading time quadrature with the current I. However, in machines with considerable armature reactance, or where higher accuracy is required, the assumption of a constant x leads to noticeable discrepancies between the computed and observed data. This is of particular importance in problems which involve hunting, instability, etc., and in which the torque (or displacement) angle must be predicted. This angle depends to a considerable

degree upon the leakage reactance of the machiine. It has been previously proposed by others to use two distinct values of leakage reactance, one when the leakage paths around a group or belt of armature slots are closed through the center of a pole face (maximum reactance), and the other when such slots are midway between the poles (minimum reactance). However, no account has been taken apparently of a gradual change in the reactance between the two extreme positions, nor have the results been properly correlated with the rest of the factors which enter in the performance of the machine. In the present paper, the leakage inductance is assumed to consist of two parts, one of which is constant (the average inductance), and the other, varying harmonically at a double frequency, reaches a maximum opposite the centers of the poles. A magnetic linkage equation is written, and its derivative with respect to the time angle is taken to obtain the induced voltage. The result shows that the foregoing assumption leads to two reactive drops, one, the usual average Ix drop and another a supplementary drop, leading Ix by an angle 2 ,, where t is the internal phase angle at which the machine is operating. These quantities are introduced in the usual Blondel diagrams for the generator and the motor, and the relationships among the various quantities are established both graphically and analytically.

consideration the influence of salient poles on the armature reaction2. These discrepancies may be accounted for, at least in part, by taking into consideration the variations in the value of the permeance of the armature leakage flux during a cycle. At zero power factor of the load, the armature leakage flux reaches a lower maximum value than with the same armature current at unity power factor, because in the latter case the armature slots, in which the current reaches its maximum, are almost opposite the centers of the poles, and the permeance of the leakage paths is greater. Hence, at high values of power factor, the machine should be expected to behave as if its leakage reactance were greater than that obtained from a shortcircuit test. Often such is actually the case. Moreover, the torque (or displacement) angle3 often comes
and Engineering General Department, General Electric Co. 2. For a theory of Blondel's diagram, see V. Karapetoff,

IN the performance characteristics of synchronous machines with salient poles, there are certain discrepancies between the computed and the measured electrical quantities, even when the usual Blondel diagram is used which is supposed to take into

1. Professor of Electrical Engineering, Cornell University,

transverse armature rea,ction is also trea,ted in detail in Chaps.

The Magnetic Circuit, Arts. 48 and 49. The subject of direct and

noted by 6 in F'ig. 2 of this paper.

Vol. II, 3rd ed., now going through the press. Extensive literature references will be found there. 3. :Mag. Civ., the angle A3 -+ 4 in Fig. 40; this angle is de-

47 and 48 of the author's Experimental Electrical Engineering,

out from test larger than from computation. This also indicates an actual increase in the equivalent reactive drop ix, as would be expected theoretically at higher values of power factor. Several authors have pointed out the fact that the armature leakage reactance varies during the cycle, and some have used two values of reactance, one opposite the poles, the other midway between the poles4. However, to the writer's knowledge, gradual changes in the reactance have not as yet been considered quantitatively in their effect upon the Blondel diagram and the latter is usually drawn with a constant ix drop. An attempt is made below to develop a method whereby such cyclic variations in the reactance can be taken into consideration in Blondel's theory of two armature reactions. Of course, a similar correction could be applied to the less accurate Potier diagram, but it would seem hardly logical to correct for the effect of salient poles upon the leakage reactance in a diagram in which the effect of salient poles on the armature reaction is disregarded altogether. I. AVERAGZE REACTANCE AND SUPPLEMENTARY REACTANCF In Fig. 1, the curve A B C D F values of the arma1,ture leakae idcAnBCDE rplotedswith raleferenc teamtr ekg nutnepotdwt eeec to the axis of abscissas X X. The time angle is denoted by ae, where
4. See, for example, C. P. Steinmetz, A-C. Phenomnena, Chapter on Armature Reactions in Alternators.

Presented at the Regional Meeting of District No. 1 of the A. I. E. E., Niagara Falls, N. Y., iMay 26-28, 1926.

t being time and f the frequency. When at = 0, let the

a-27ft=c a rft=c

1 1

729

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KARAPETOFF: VARIABLE ARMATURE LEAKAGE REACTANCE

Transactions A. I. E. E.

group of armature conductors under consideration be opposite the center of a pole. The tooth-tip leakage is then at a maximum, and hence the leakage inductance reaches its maximum value. When a = 90 deg., the same group of conductors is midway between the poles and the leakage inductance is a minimum. Thus, the leakage inductance varies at twice the frequency of the main induced voltage of the machine, and, as a first approximation, the inductance curve in this discussion will be assumed to be a sine wave of
A

\
iAL

X\' B

L/

/t
/

| C//|

gives [j ia LX = LI Cos (a- ,) + A LI Cos2aCos (a- t')

XX

,V is assumed to be positive when the current reaches a maximum after the corresponding group of conductors has passed by the center of a pole (although the current may be leading with respect to the terminal voltage). In a motor, A is greater than 90 deg., and may even be greater than 180 deg. when the motor is under-excited. Thus, in equation (3), the case of; = 0 corresponds to the generator working at such a power factor that the current I reaches its maximum when that group of conductors, through which I is flowing, is directly opposite the center of a pole. It can be shown that under these conditions the current is slightly leading with respect to the terminal voltage, but this fact is of no particular importance in this discussion. # D/ \ equations (2) and (3) term by term, in tlMultiplying order to obtain the instantaneous magnetic linkages,

IN

Lx

ll

___ *

In the last term, the product of the cosines can be rer placed by their sum and difference. Namely |s Lmin.LmaxiJ Cos 2 a Cos(2 a- /1) =0.5 Cos(a+qV)+0.5 Cos(3 a- t1) Leaving only the fundamental term containing a, and __ 1disregarding the term with 3 a (the third harmonic), ___ ------- J Electrical Degrees approximately,
903A.

(4)

FIG. 1-VARIABLE ARMATURE LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE La AND ITS AVERAGE VALUE L

IX

double frequency. Even when an actual test gives a curve departing from a sine wave, this experimental curve can be replaced by an equivalent sine wave, because higher harmonics in the inductance can produce only higher harmonics in the terminal voltage or in the current of the machine, and in this paper only the quantities of fundamental frequency are considered. The variable value of inductance, La, at an instant of time corresponding to the electrical angle a, shall therefore be expressed as La = L + A L cos 2 a (2) Here L is the average value of the inductance over a cycle, and A L is the greatest departure from the average, that is, the amplitude of the sine wave with respect to the axis X' X'. Assuming the armature current to be sinusoidal, it can be written in the form ia = I Cos (a- 1) (3) where I is the amplitude of the current, and 1 = Q 0 G, Fig. 2, is the internal phase angle at which the machine is operating. The angle f,t characterizes the interval of time between the instant when a group Of armature conductors is opposite the center of a pole and the instant when the current in the same group of conductors reaches a maximum5. For a generator,
marked in the diagrams there.

D
C

E'
t

180-29p0O0'P 90D'N\
\ A

I(x-xt

/ V

GENERATOR

FG OIIDBODLDARMO YCRNU WITH THE AVERAGE REACTIVE DROP, IX, AND SUPPLEMENTARY REACTIVE DROP, Ixs

FIG.

2A'MODIFIED BLONDEL

DIAGRAM OF A SYNCHRONOUS

ia La = L I Cos (a - V) + 0.5 A L I Cos (a + Thevoltagedrop dueto theselinkagesis

4/)

(5)

ez = d (la La)/~d t = X. d (ja La)/d ae (6) Hence, taking a derivative of equation (5), ex = - L ISin (a - ,6) -0.5 coA lL ISin (a P6) (7) The term - L I Sin (a - ,6) represents a sine voltage

which leads the current wave by 90 deg. and corresponds

X =oL (8)

5. The MagnetiC CirCuit, pp. 154 and 155; the angle i{

toteaeaecntnAecac

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May 1926

KARAPETOFF: VARIABLE ARMATURE LEAKAGE REACTANCE

731

such as ordinarily used in the theory of synchronous machines. The last term in equation (7) corresponds to a supplementary reactance (9) x, = 0.5 c A L + The corresponding voltage drop, xs I Sin ( Ag), leads the main reactance drop I x by the angle 2 A because (10) (ae + {) = (ae- ,6) + 2 ,6 Thus, the following expression is reached for the vector of total reactive voltage drop in the armatuire = + Ix/90 + 2 Reactive rop (1) Ix/9 The quantities x and x, are expressed by equations (8) and (9); the values of L and A L are shown in Fig. 1. The angle notation in equation (11) means that I x leads the vector I by 90 deg. and I x, leads I by 90 deg. + 2 A. In other words, I x, leads I x by 2,6.
II. A MODIFIED BLONDEL DIAGRAM An application of these results to the Blondel diagram is shown in Figs. 2 and 3 which are generalized Figs. 40 and 41 in the "Magnetic Circuit." Fig. 2 represents a generator at a lagging current and Fig. 3 a motor at aleading current6. The current I is shown in both cases from the point of view of the machine itself (and not of the line) so that the phase angle 4, when the machine is operating as a motor, is greater than 90 deg. This method of representation is of advantage in that the same diagram and the same set of formulas cover operation both as a generator and as a motor. Beginning with the line voltage E, Fig. 2, the ohmic drop A B = I r is added in phase with the current, and the average reactive drop B D = I x in leading quadrature with it. The supplementary reactive drop, I x. = D D', is added at an angle 2 t to B D, in the positive (counter-clockwise) direction. In the case of the motor, A1 is greater than 90 deg., and 2 A1 is greater than 180 deg. Eo = 0 D' is the total induced electromotive force. The direction 0 C is that of the induced electromotive force at no load, or the center line of the pole. Hence, by constructing a right-angle triangle D' G 0, with 0 D' as hypotenuse, the net voltage 0 G = En induced by the real poles is obtained, and the voltage G D' = Et induced by the fictitious (transverse) poles. From equations (83) to (85) on p. 156 of the "Magnetic Circuit," it will be seen that instead of drawing Et normal to 0 C, a vector D' C = Et' can be drawn parallel to I x. This procedure is necessary when the angle k is not known, and in fact can bse used to determine this angle, namely, by completing the parallelogram
6. The current a.nd voltage notation has been changed from i and e to i and E; the induced volta.ge is denoted by Eo in place of E. I has been defined above as the amplitude of the current. There is no objection, however, to considering I and E in the diagram as vectors of the effective va,lues.

D D' C H and extending D H to its intersection with 0 C at K7. In the triangle K H C the angle at H is equal to 2 VI by construction; the angle at K is equal to 90 deg. - 4,, because 0 Q K is a right triangle, and the angle at 0 is equal to 41. Thus, in the triangle K H C the remaining angle, at C, is also equal to 90 deg. The triangle is isosceles and consequently H K = xi. This gives the following construction for the angles {and 0: Lay off 0 A and A B, and draw the direction B K, normal to the current. Lay off B K = I x + Et' + I xs, and connect point K to 0. This will give both the internal phase angle VI and the displacement of torque angle 0. The latter is the electrical angle by which the pole structure. of the loaded machine is advanced (or retarded) with respect to an identical unloaded machine connected to the same bus bars.

IXS

366
A
Q

20 s18

Et= Ixt /
E't

IX,

lb-9oa

goo

Xs

<

Eo

0 \

E'=

FIG. 3-A MODIFIED BLONDEL DIAGRAM, SIMILAR To FIG. 2, FOE SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

If it is required to compute the required excitation, complete the diagram by laying off B D" = I (x - x,), and through D" draw the straight line N N normal to 0 K. This will determine the net induced electromotive force 0G = En; from the noload saturation curve, the corresponding net excitation, Mn, can be found. To this excitation, the direct armature reaction, Ma, is added [or subtracted, if sin A,t is negative, ibid., equation (79)]. This will give the
reuedfldxctio,M,athtptclrla.
7. The point K is of considerable importance inl diagrams of synchronous mQchines, and Blondel uses the term Joubertian e. m. f. for the value of 0 K. It -is convenient to call K the Joubertian point.

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Transactions A. I. E. E.

+ l

8. Two Cis opera.tors are multiplied by simply angles; that is, Cis a. Cis & = Cis (a + b). This follows directly from the exponential expression in equation (l2a); see also V. Karapetoff, The Electric Circuit, p. 93, equation (154).

Most of the construction lines and angles indicated computed from either equation (17) or (18). When f in Fig. 2 are also shown in Fig. 3, and the description is near zero, it is preferable to use equation (17); when given above, with slight modifications, may also be & is nearly 90 deg., equation (18) will give more accurate results. followed in Fig. 3. A graphical interpretation of equations (17) and (18) III. ANALYTICAL SOLUTION is shown in Fig. 4. This diagram is identical with Fig. The heavily drawn polygon in Fig. 2 can be repre- 2, except that a line, G W, is drawn perpendicular to sented in the cissoidal complex form by the equation GQ. The lengths D' R and R G are each equal to E Cis 0 + I r Cis 0 + I x Cis 90 deg. + I x, Cis (90 deg. 0.5 Et'. Equation (17) then simply means that O W = O Q-W(19) Q Cis 2 O) + I xt Cis 90 deg. = (E,, + I xt Sin W) OQ (12) while equation (18) states that where WG=RG+WR(0 (20) WG = RG + WR CisX = Cos + j Sin 0 = e-j (12a) Whether or not this graphical relationship will prove to and also (13) be of further practical interest, remains to be seen. It I Xt = E,' = I k, kb m n v [Maanetic Circuit, p. 156, equation (84)], so that the has been deemed advisable to note it here, as a check transverse reactance, corresponding to the transverse on the formulas. armature reaction, is (13a) x, = ktkbmnv 4T Equation (12) expresses the fact that the geometric sum of OA,AB,BD,DD' and D'Cisequ-ltoOG + GC. 2) To solve this equation for 46, multiply both sides by Ix C Cis (90 deg. -' )5. The real part of the resultant B iS expression ) IrSinV-I x CosVt -I x3 Cos VI AIrr D E Sin T G (14) Ft 90-RQ -I xt Cos A = 0 Dividing throughout by Cos 4p and solving for tan VI, (15) tan ,= (ESin +xoI)/(ECosq5+Ir) 90 W where x0 is the total equivalent reactance: (I5a) / Xo = X +Xt+Xs A reference to Fig. 2 will show that equation (15) could be written directly from the triangle O Q K, since in 0 this triangle (16) FIG. 4-A GRAPHICAL INTERPRETATION OF EQUATIONS (17) tan t' = Q K/O Q AND (18) However, a derivation from equation (12) has been deemed to be of sufficient interest to be included in this The theory deduced above has been checked on a paper for the sake of illustrating the general method of solution of such problems. This method is entirely machine with an exceptionally high leakage reactance. automatic, while the particular geometric relations The assumption of a constant leakage reactance, dein a given problem may or may not be evident. The duced from the short-circuit test and from the design displacement angle 0 is determined from the relationship data of the machine, led to a wide discrepancy between (16a) the observed and computed performance character0 = A-- i istics. On the other hand, by assuming reasonable for a motorO is negative. Equating separately the real and the imaginary values of the average and supplementary leakage parts on the two sides of equation (12), and solving reactances, the current and voltage relations, as well as the torque angle 0, were found to agree quite closely each for the term with En, we obtain: with the test data9. E, Cos E= Cos k + I r - I (x, + 0.5 xt) Sin 2 V/ (17) In conclusion, the author wishes to express his appreciation to Mr. R. E. Doherty, Consulting EngiEn Sin Qt = E Sin f + I (x 0.5 xt) + I (x8 0.5 Xt) Cos 2 AP (18) neer of the General Electric Company, for suggesting Knowing the angle 'P from equation (15), En can be this investigation and for encouragement while it was progress. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~in adding the _____
Drehfeldmnaschinen mit verdnderticher Reaktanz, Arch. f. Elekt.,
1924, Vol. 13, p. 12.

9. For a different treatment of the subject see R. Bruderlin,

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May 1926

KARAPETOFF: VARIABLE ARMATURE LEAKAGE REACTANCE

733

Discussion
P. M. Lincoln: It would have added to our information if Prof. Karapetoff had gone a little further into the details of the amount of departure of this particular machine which he cites in the last part of his paper. The reactance of our large machines is becoming very much larger than it was ten or fifteen years ago. At that time, internal reactance of generators was something of the order of 10 per cent -from 8 per cent to 12 per cent; nowadays, on account of the very much greater capacity of the machines, it is necessary to limit the amount of short-circuit current that will occur in order to secure safety in switching devices. And the best method of limiting, of course, is to limit the reactance. The internal reactances of our large generators have gone from a matter of 10 or 12 per cent up to 15 to 25 per cent. It has more than doubled. Now Prof. Karapetoff has indicated that this much larger internal reactance can be properly divided into two factors. One of them is a reactance which is independent of the position of the phase of the current-carrying coils with respect to the poles, and the otber factor is a factor which depends upon that relationship. I think it would add to the paper if Prof. Karapetoff would indicate the amount of departure between the tests and the assumption that the reactance is constant-how much is A L, what is the value of A L that he has discovered, what that relation is that it bears to the L. E. B. Shand: Referring to Blondel's theory of two reactions, assume that the armature conductors of an alternator are carrying current of which the phase relation may be represented by the accompanying Fig. 1; the armature turns are concentric with the field winding so that they will either add to, or subtract e
o

J. F. H. Doudlas (communicated after adjournment): Professor Karapetoff s article shows clearly how many factors must be considered in theory when accurately predicting the performance of a synchronous machine, factors which do not enter into the performance at zero power factor. His treatment of linkages of flux has the merit of rigor which
2 ' X N
G

(X-XB)
B

FIG. 3-ILLUSTRATION TO PROVE THAT THE BLONDEL TwoREACTANCE DIAGRAM IS IDENTICAL WITH THE DIAGRAM INCLUDING A SUPPLEMENTARY REACTANCE DROP

the arbitrary assumption of two "reactances" seems to lack. His equations (8) and (9) in conjunction with his Fig. 1 lead to an important relation (1) XS/X = A L/2 L < 1/2
onehieh it would be interesting to have an experimental check. He shows clearly that by considering theoretioally derived constants Xe and Md, and the more usually known reactaance, (X - Xs), values of the torque angle 0 and of the internal phase angle 1 may be considerably in error. The graphical construction given in his Fig. 3 follows along lines advocated by me in the discussion of an article in the
E,

3 <3
O o o
0 0 o a
00

0 0
o
0

0 0

FIG. 1

from, the ampere-turns of the field. This component of current is that of direct magnetization. When the current is 90 deg. out of phase from the above condition, as is indicated in Fig. 2, the flux produced by the armature magnetizing force will pass into one side of the pole and out the other side. Thus flux has always presented some difficulty to me in the way of definition. If the ordinary transformer conception is adhered to, this flux, which

AIR B

FIG. 4-BLONDEL DIAGRAM FOR CONDITION OF No DIRECT REACTION

FI G. 2

does not interlink with the field winding, will be called leakage flux. On the other hand, the armature ampere-turns modify very materially the main flux of the machine and also may produce saturation effects so that it has always seemed to me that the definition "cross-magnetizing flux' in accorda,nce with Blondel's ideas is the better term for it. Any analysis of the kind given in this paper is greatly dependent upon where the line is drawn between armature cross magnetization and armature leakage reactance. I should like Professor Karapetoff to give us his ideas on this matter and the assumptions he has made in connection with the paper.

A.I E. E. JOURN-AL for Jan. 1925,1 with the added advantage, of course, of including the factor X8. Fig. 2 of his article is susceptible of interpretation in several ways. It is important to note that one interpretation is not inconsistent with the two-reactance theory in general and that of Dr. C. P. Steinmetz noted in Footnote 4 in particular. Consider the accompanying Fig. 3, which is Fig. 2 in the article with the point S added. The lines D S and B S are D S = I (X + X3) Cos t = It (X + Xs) (2) ~X -X) Sin- -Id (X -X)(3 B S -I 3 _ (- 4 RA-d(- S Wte may locate the I X drop a.s B D +r D D', or as B S + S D'. The latter interpretation of the figure is that the I X drop consists of two separate components, (a) one caused by the direet component of the current Id acting with a reactance, Xa = X - X, and (b) one caused by the transverse cUrrent fl acting on the reacetance (X + X8). 1. Douglas,Engeset and Jones, Complete Synchronous Motor Excitation Characteristics.

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KARAPETOFF: VARIABLE ARMIATURE LEAKAGE REACTANCE

Transactions A. I. E. E.

known. For example, the whole effect could be attributed to an error in the theoretical derivation of the constant Xt. Stated in a somewhat different way, I could, with a single value of armature reactance X0, and a somewhat larger value of Xt than Prof. Karapetoff uses, predict the same performance characteristics that be does, with the use of the three constants X, X, and Xt. (I am referring to the phase angles 0 and i, for the field current another constant, that of direct armature reaction would have to be used.) Vladimir Karapetoff: In reply to Mr. Shand's question, I should say that from a physical point of view we have in an alternator a doubly excited magnetic circuit, which is excited by the field v and by the combination of the windings a on the armature. There is a complicated flux which varies in space and in time, and only part of which moves synchronously with the poles, the rest corresponding to harmonies moving at useful would be to load. a machine as an altefator,with alead-different velocities, some in the direction of rotation of the *usefu w ulh toad a achie as an atator,with alurread machine, some against it. Any division into various armature in curret such that With nt reactions and leakage reactances is only a practical makeshift the anl as , the thatvocltage is,thterminal the crreE wholly transverse. this loading, the torque angle 0, and the field current should be measured' which perhaps is not rational from the physical point of view. Fig. Fig. 4 The best we can do here is to play the game straight and not Filg. 2 of the article then becomes the accompanying aUccompanying Filg. fiueothesmflxswc.2 fgr u h aefuewc. below, and the reactance XO and En can be computedl by The particular makeshift which Blondel proposed many years = (X + X, Xt) = (E Sin 0)/1 Xo (5) ago consists in resolving the armature currents into two compoEn = E Cos 0 + I R (6) nents in time, one component which reaches its maximum when The value of E,, should check with field current If if the theory that particular group of conductors is opposite the center of a is correct, and the value of XO could be obtained. pole and the other group which reaches its maximum in the I wish to record the conviction that the attempt to separate position midway between the poles. The magnetomotive forces Xo into components X, X, and Xt, will be very difficult. First, due to these two components are considered separately and also physically, where shall we picture the (X + X,) linkages as end- in combination with the field m. m. f. For details see the ing and the Xt linkages as beginning? Experimentally XO alone references given above.

Another viewpoint might be to regard S B as above and consider S G as a sort of total transverse voltage drop, due to the transverse current It acting on the reactance XO = X + X, + Xt using the notation of Karapetoff's equation (15a). Inasmuch as (4) X, = Xa + 2 X, + Xt it will be seen that to consider X0, and Xt and neglect X, may result in considerable error. The graphical construction is in no way influenced by these interpretations but the theory becomes very much simpler when we consider the constants Md, Xo, and X, and disregard their components X Xs and X t. an Xe , the and d zero their copone . s curve ' X,siS well egr full-loadl cand As Known, saturation can be used to evaluatebthdirectreactionadarmaturret. use to evlut bot diec recinadamaueratne The reactance evaluated is, I believe, that reactance I have called X, namely (X - Xs). It would he most desirable to have an experimental method for the evaluating of the reactance X= (X + X + Xt); the experiment which would he most

windingf

polypDhase

can be measured.

data, and the residual X + X8 is small, then there will arise the question whether our transverse coefficient is accurately

If we calculate Xt theoretically from design

Synchronous Machines, presented at A. I. E. E. Annual Convention,

White Sulphur Springs, June, 1926.

2.

V. Karapetoff, "The Magnetic Circuit," p. 150; Doherty and Nickle,

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