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Unit-VII
[Neutral Grounding]

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7.1 What is Grounding?

The term grounding is commonly used in the electrical industry to mean both equipment grounding and system grounding. Equipment grounding means the connection of a non-current carrying conductive materials such as conduit, cable trays, junction boxes, enclosures and motor frames to earth ground. System grounding means the connection of the neutral points of current carrying conductors such as the neutral point of a circuit, a transformer, rotating machinery, or a system, either solidly or with a current limiting device to earth ground. Figure 1 illustrates the two types of grounding.

7.2 What is a Grounded System?

Grounded System a system with at least one conductor or point (usually the middle wire or neutral point of transformer or generator windings) is intentionally grounded, either solidly or through impedance. IEEE Standard 142-1991 1.2

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7.3 What are the Different Types of System Grounding?

The types of system grounding normally used in industrial and commercial power systems are: 1) Solid grounding 2) Low resistance grounding 3) High resistance grounding 4) Ungrounded IEEE Std 242-2001 8.2.1

7.4 What is the Purpose of System Grounding?

System grounding, or the intentional connection of a phase or neutral conductor to earth, is for the purpose of controlling the voltage to earth, or ground, within redictable limits. It also provides for a flow of current that will allow detection of an unwanted connection between system conductors and ground [a ground fault].

7.5 What is a Ground Fault?

A Ground Fault is an unwanted connection between the system conductors and ground.

7.6 Why is Ground Faults a Concern?

Ground faults often go unnoticed and can cause problems with plant production processes. They can also shut down power and damage equipment, which disrupts the flow of production leading to hours or even days of lost productivity. Undetected ground faults pose potential health and safety risks to personnel. Ground faults can lead to safety hazards such as equipment malfunctions, fire and electric shock. Ground faults cause serious damage to equipment and to your processes. This damage can seriously affect your bottom line.

7.7 What is an Ungrounded System?

An ungrounded system is one in which there is no intentional connection between the conductors and the earth ground. However, in any system, a capacitive coupling exists between the system conductors and the adjacent grounded surfaces.

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Consequently, the ungrounded system is, in reality, a capacitively grounded system by virtue of the distributed capacitance. This is shown in Figure 2.

Under normal operating conditions this distributed capacitance causes no problems. In fact, it is beneficial because it establishes, in effect, a neutral point for the system, as shown in Figure 3a. As a result, the phase conductors are stressed at only line-to-neutral voltage above ground. However, problems can arise under ground fault conditions. A ground fault on one line results in full line-to-line voltage appearing on the other two phases. Thus, a voltage 1.73 times the normal voltage is present on all insulation on the ungrounded phase, as shown in Figure 3b. This situation can often cause failures in motors and transformers, due to insulation breakdown.

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7.8 What Does IEEE Say About Ungrounded Systems?

Ungrounded systems employ ground detectors to indicate a ground fault. These detectors show the existence of a ground on the system and identify the faulted phase, but do not locate the ground, which could be anywhere on the entire system. If this ground fault is intermittent or allowed to continue, the system could be subjected to possible severe over-voltages to ground, which can be as high as six or eight times phase voltage. This can puncture insulation and result in additional ground faults. A second ground fault occurring before the first fault is cleared will result in a phasetoground- to-phase fault, usually arcing, with a current magnitude large enough to do damage, but sometimes too small to activate over-current devices in time to prevent or minimize damage. Ungrounded systems offer no advantage over high-resistance grounded systems in terms of continuity of service and have the disadvantages of transient over-voltages, locating the first fault and burn downs from a second ground fault. IEEE 242-2001 8.2.5

7.9 Why Consider Grounding Your System?

If the ground fault is intermittent (arcing, restriking or vibrating), then severe overvoltages can occur on an ungrounded system. The intermittent fault can cause the system voltage to ground to rise to six or eight times the phase-to-phase voltage leading to a breakdown of insulation on one of the unfaulted phases and the development of a phase-to-ground-to-phase fault. Over-voltages caused by intermittent faults can be eliminated by grounding the system neutral through an impedance, which is generally a resistance, which limits the ground current to a value equal to or greater than the capacitive charging current of the system.

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7.10 What is a Resistance Grounded System?

The intentional connection of the neutral points of transformers, generators and rotating machinery to the earth ground network provides a reference point of zero volts. This protective measure offers many advantages over an ungrounded system, including: Reduced magnitude of transient over-voltages Simplified ground fault location Improved system and equipment fault protection Reduced maintenance time and expense Greater safety for personnel Improved lightning protection Reduction in frequency of faults There are two broad categories of resistance grounding: low resistance and high resistance. In both types of grounding, the resistor is connected between the neutral of the transformer secondary or generator winding and the earth ground.

7.11 What is a Low Resistance Grounded System?

Low resistance grounding of the neutral limits the ground fault current to a high level (typically 50 amps or more) in order to operate protective fault clearing relays and current transformers. These devices are then able to quickly clear the fault, usually within a few seconds. The importance of this fast response time is that it:

Limits damage to equipment Prevents additional faults from occurring Provides safety for personnel Localizes the fault The limited fault current and fast response time also prevent overheating and mechanical stress on conductors. Please note that the circuit must be shut down after the first ground fault. Low resistance grounding resistors are typically rated 400 amps for 10 seconds, and are commonly found on medium and high voltage systems.

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7.12 What is a High Resistance Grounded System?

IEEE Standard 142-1991, Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems (Green Book), defines a high resistance grounded system as follows:

A grounded system with a purposely inserted resistance that limits ground-fault current can flow for an extended period without exacerbating damage. This level of current is commonly thought to be 10A or less. High-resistance grounded systems are designed to meet the criteria RoXco to limit the transient over voltages due to arcing ground faults. Ro is the per phase zero sequence resistance of the system and Xco is the distributed per phase capacitive reactance-to-ground of the system.

7.13 Why Consider High Resistance Grounding?

High resistance grounding solves the problem of transient over-voltages, thereby reducing equipment damage. Over-voltages caused by intermittent (arcing) faults can be held to phase-to-phase voltage by grounding the system neutral through a resistance which limits the ground current to a value equal to or greater than the capacitive charging current of the system. Thus, the fault current can be limited in order to prevent equipment damage and arc flash hazards. In addition, limiting fault currents to predetermined maximum values permits the designer to selectively co-ordinate the operation of protective devices, which minimizes system disruption and allows for quick location of the fault.

7.14 Why Limit the Current Through Resistance Grounding?

The reason for limiting the current by resistance grounding may be one or more of the following, as indicated in IEEE Std. 142-1991, IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems : 1. To reduce burning and melting effects in faulted electric equipment, such as switchgear, transformers, cables, and rotating machines.

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2. To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and apparatus carrying fault currents. 3. To reduce electric-shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground-fault currents in the ground return path. 4. To reduce arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who may have accidentally caused (or who happen to be in close proximity) to the ground fault. 5. To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip occasioned by the occurrence and clearing of a ground fault. 6. To secure control of transient over-voltages while at the same time avoiding the shutdown of a faulty circuit on the occurrence of the first ground fault.

7.15 What are the Requirements for Sizing the Resistor?

The line-to-ground capacitance associated with system components determines the magnitudes of zero-sequence charging current. The resistor must be sized to ensure that the ground fault current limit is greater than the systems total capacitanceto-ground charging current. If not, then transient over-voltages can occur. The charging current of a system can be calculated by summing the zero-sequence capacitance or determining capacitive reactance of all the cable and equipment connected to the system.

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GOOD GROUNDING PRACTICES

A Brief Introduction to the Basics of Electrical Elect ical Grounding G o nding fo for Po Power e Systems

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Int od ction to Grounding Introduction G o nding

TABLE OF CONTENTS 10 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Introduction to Grounding Standard Industrial Grounding Methods and Types of Grounding Grounding System and Design Considerations Open Question and Answer Session

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Int od ction to Grounding Introduction G o nding

The p primary y goal g of the grounding g g system y throughout g any y facility y is SAFETY. Secondary are effective lightning protection, diminishing electromagnetic coupling (EMC), and the protection against electromagnetic pulses (EMP). G Grounding di is i implemented i l d to ensure rapid id clearing l i of f faults f l and d to prevent hazardous voltage, which in turn reduce the risks of fires and personnel injuries. Grounding serves the primary functions of referencing the AC systems and providing a means to ensure fault clearing. 99.5% survival threshold

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116 mA for one (1) second. 367 mA for zero point one (0.1) second.

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Int od ction to Grounding Introduction G o nding

A frequently q y quoted q criteria is the establishment of a one (1) ( ) ohm resistance to earth. A large number of equipment manufacturers have this in their installation guides. The NEC requires only twentytwenty-five (25) ohms of resistance for made electrodes, while the ANSI/IEEE Standard 141 (Red Book) and ANSI/IEEE 142 (Green Book) specifies a ground resistance of one (1) to five (5) ohms. External changes in the grounding system (environment) may effect the ultimate functionality of the entire electrical system. Frequency matters in very complex grounding systems. Leakage currents of equipment do not return to the earth; high frequency leakage currents return to the equipment which generated them, while power frequency f l leakage k currents return to the h d derived d source. The impedance of the system is viewed from the perspective of power frequencies and immediate harmonics (i.e., 60Hz and its associated harmonics) harmonics).
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Int od ction to Grounding Introduction G o nding

Generally accepted electrical wiring practices are not good ground system wiring practices (i.e. no sharp bends or turns). Grounding systems are not meant to last for ever. The best grounding systems need to most attention paid to them as they will corrode the quickest.

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GROUNDING SYSTEMS

There are basically six (6) grounding systems in use. The six (6) systems are the equipment grounds, static grounds, systems grounds, maintenance i t grounds, d electronic l t i grounds d and d li lightning ht i grounds. d
Equipment grounds: An equipment ground is the physical connection to earth of non-current carrying metal parts. This type grounding is done so that all metal part of equipment that personnel can come into contact with are always at or near zero (0) volts with respect to ground. All metal parts must be interconnected and grounded by a conductor in such away as to ensure a path of lowest impedance for flow of ground fault current. Typical items ( (equipment) i t) t to be b grounded d d are; electrical l t i l motor t f frames, outlet tl t b boxes, breaker panels, metal conduit, support structures, cable tray, to name a few. Static grounds: A static ground is a connection made between a piece of q p and the earth for the p purpose p of draining g off static electricity y equipment charges before a flash over potential is reached. This type grounding system is utilized in dry materials handling, flammable liquid pumps and delivery equipment, plastic piping, and explosive storage facilities.

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Standard Industrial System Grounding Methods

Methods of System Grounding

Characteristics Susceptible to Transient overvoltages Under fault conditions (line(line-to to-ground) increase of voltage stress Arc Fault Damage Personnel Safety Reliability Economics' (Maintenance costs) Plant l continues to operates under d single l lineline -to to-ground fault Ease of locating ground faults (time) System coordination Upgrade of ground system Two voltage levels on same system Reduction in number of faults Initial fault current Into g ground system y Potential flashover to ground Ungrounded WORST POOR WORST WORST WORST WORST FAIR WORST NOT POSSIBLE WORST NOT POSSIBLE WORST BEST POOR Solid Ground GOOD BEST POOR POOR GOOD POOR POOR OO GOOD GOOD GOOD POSSIBLE BETTER WORST WORST EEED-BVRIT Low Resistance Ground GOOD GOOD GOOD GOOD BETTER POOR POOR OO BETTER BETTER BETTER NOT POSSIBLE GOOD GOOD GOOD High Resistances Ground BEST POOR BEST BEST BEST BEST BEST S BEST BEST BEST NOT POSSIBLE BEST BETTER BEST www.jwjobs.net 7 EEED-BVRIT

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TYPES OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS

Ungrounded System:
The ungrounded system is one that has no intentional connection between the neutral or any phase and ground. Please note that an ungrounded system is grounded through the concept of capacitively coupling coupling. The neutral potential of an ungrounded system, with balanced loading will be close to ground potential due to the capacitance between each phase conductor and ground.
Low ground fault current. Very high voltages to ground potential on unfaulted phases. Sustained faults lead to system line line-to to-line voltages on unfaulted line. Insulation failure. Failure due to restrike ground faults. Continued operation p of facility. y
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TYPES OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS

Solidly Grounded System:

The solidly grounded system is one that has the neutral connected to ground without an intentional impedance. In contrast to the ungrounded system the solidly grounded system will result in a large magnitude of current to flow (Aids in coordination), but h no increase has i in i voltage lt on unfaulted f lt d phases. h
Low initial cost to install and implement, but stray currents then become a possible consequence consequence. Common in low voltage distribution systems, such as overhead lines. typically feeds to transformer primary with high side fuse protection. Not the preferred grounding scheme for industrial or commercial facilities due to high magnitude fault currents.

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TYPES OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS

Low Resistance Grounded System:

The low resistance grounded system is one that has the neutral connected to ground through a small resistance that limits the fault current. The size of the grounding resistor is selected to detect and clear the faulted circuit..
The resistor can limit ground currents to a desired level based on coordination requirement or relay limitations. Limits transient overvoltages during ground faults. faults Low resistance grounding is not recommended for low voltage systems due to the limited ground fault current. This reduced fault current can be insufficient to positively operate fuses and/or series t i units. trip it Ground fault current typically in the 100 600 Amp range.

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TYPES OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS

High Resistance Grounded System:

The high resistance grounded system is one that has the neutral connected to ground through a resistive impedance whose resistance is selected to allow a ground fault current through the resistor equal to or slightly more that the capacitive charging current of the system.
The resistor can limit ground currents to a desired level based on coordination requirement or relay limitations. Limits transient overvoltages during ground faults. Physically large resistor banks. Very low ground fault current, typically under 10 Amps. Special relaying methods utilized to detect and remove ground faults. High resistance grounding is typically applied to situations where it is essential l to prevent unplanned l d outages. Recent trend has been to utilize high resistance grounding methods on 600 volt systems and lower.

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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
System grounds: A system ground refers to the point in an electrical circuit that is connected to earth. This connection point is typically at the electrical neutral. The sole purpose of the system ground is to protect eq ipment This equipment. Thi type t pe ground g o nd also l o provides p o ide a low lo impedance imped n e path p th for fo fault f lt currents improving ground fault coordination. This ensures longer insulation life of motors, transformers and other system components. Maintenance grounds: This type ground is utilized for safe work practices, and is a temporary ground. Electronic and computer grounds: Grounding for electronic equipment is a special case in which the equipment ground and the system ground are combined and applied in unity. Electronic equipment grounding systems must not only provide a means of stabilizing input voltage levels, but also act as the zero (0) voltage reference point. Grounding systems for the modern electronics installation must be able to provide effective grounding and bonding functions well into the high frequency megahertz range. Lightning protection: Lightning protection grounding requirements are dependent upon the structure, equipment to be protected, and the level of lightning protection required of desired.
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS

Several factures should be considered in the initial design of the grounding system.
The area available for installation of the g grounding g system. y This could lead to the requirement and utilization of chemical rods, or wells. Water table and seasonal changes to it. Soil condition and resistivity, Please see chart of typical results. Also elevation above sea level and hard rocky soil are concerns that would need to be addressed. Available fault currents (i.e., three (3) phase, lineline-to to-ground, and line line-to toline-to ground, lineground etc etc.). ) NEC and ANSI/IEEE requirements. Also include here the requirements of the process equipment to be installed. Consideration to the number of lightning strikes and thunder storm days per year. Utility ties and/or service entrance voltage levels. Utilization of area were ground system is to be installed, (i.e., do not install under paved parking lot).
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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
(Approximate Ohm-Meters) Median Description1,2 Topsoil's, loams 26 Inorganic clays of high plasticity 33 Fills-ashes, cinders, brine wastes 38 Silty or clayey fine sands with slight plasticity 55 Porous limestone, chalk 65 Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixtures 125 Fine sandy or silty clays, clays silty clays, clays lean clays 140 Clay-sand-gravel mixtures 145 155 Marls3 Decomposed granites, gneisses4, etc. 300 Clayey gravel, poorly graded gravel 300 Silty S ty sa sands, ds, poorly poo y g graded aded sa sand-silt d s t mixtures tu es 300 Sands, sandstone 510 Gravel, gravel-sand mixtures 800 1,500 Slates, schists5, gneiss, igneous rocks, shales, granites, basalts Quartzite's, crystalline limestone, marble, crystalline rocks 5,500
Notes: 1 N 1. Low L resistivity i i i soils il are highly hi hl influenced i fl d by b the h presence of f moisture. i 2. Low resistivity soils are more corrosive than high resistivity soils. 3. Crumbly soil composed mostly of clay with a high limestone content. 4. Metamorphic rock formed by recrystallization of granite, separated into bands. 5. Metamorphic rock much coarser than gneiss. This chart compiled from data published in: IEEE Standard 142-1991 142 1991, Recommended Grounding Practices British Standard Code of Practice, CP-1013: 1965, Earthing Megger: A Simple Guide to Earth Testing Biddle: Getting Down to Earth EEED-BVRIT

SOIL RESISTIVITIES

Min. 1 10 6 30 30 50 80 40 10 100 200 100 00 20 600 1,000 1,000

Max. 50 55 70 80 100 200 200 250 300 500 400 500 1,000 1,000 2,000 10,000

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GROUNDING SYSTEMS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 6 7. 8. 9 9. Parity sized grounding conductors. Grounding symmetry in all parallel feeders. Zones of equipment with localized transformers to isolate the equipment and control leakage current. current Limiting the quantity of devices grounded by any single conductor. Utilizing specialty transformers to limit ground interference. Faraday cage design concepts. concepts Use different networks throughout the facility as opposed to a single ended data network. Reference grids in all computer, data processing and information technology rooms.

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Perimeter ground ring bonded to the service entrance. 10. Intentional continuity of structural steel. 11. Bonding of all communication cables to structural steel. 12 Architectural steel treatment for lightning 12. protection. 13. Ufer ground treatment per NEC for all main vertical steel footers. 14. Grounding grid below moisture barrier. 15. Bonding horizontal steel pans to structural steel.

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Several factures can degrade initially good grounding systems. These factors indicate the importance of continuous periodic testing (Typically once per calendar l d year unless l problems bl arise). i ) A change h (lower) (l ) in i the th water table across the USA would lead to a degrade in the grounding system. Another consideration in the ground system would be in facility growth and the addition of nonnon-metallic piping and conduit which do not provide low resistance ground connections. Along with the these concerns are the increase load and associated increase in available fault currents. currents The better the ground system system, the more attention should be paid to corroded electrodes. All these could result in the need for a decrease in the grounding resistance.
Testing: Periodic testing should be done to assure grounding system effectiveness.

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