Week 6 Theory Study Guide

Understanding the language used in IT:

Software versus hardware:
Software has a major impact on individuals and orgs. In the 50s, when computer hardware was rare and expensive, software costs were a small percentage of total IS systems costs. Today, software can represent 75% or more of the total cost of a particular info system for three major reasons: advances in hardware technologically have reduced hardware costs, increasingly complex software takes more time to develop and is therefore more costly, and salaries for software developers have increased. Costs for software are expected to increase in the future. However, software provides critical functions that are worth it for organisations.

An Overview of software:
Software consists of computer programs that control the workings of computer hardware. Computer programs: are sequences of instructions for the computer. Documentation: describes the program functions to help the user operate the computer system. The program displays some documentation on the screen, while the other forms appear in external resources, such as printed manuals. People using commercially available software usually have to read and agree to an end-user licence agreement (EULAs). Systems software: Systems software: Is the set of programs that are designed to coordinate activities and functions of the hardware and various programs throughout the computer system. Each type of systems software is designed for a specific CPU and class of hardware. The combination of a hardware configuration and systems software is known as a computer system platform. Application software: Application software: consists of programs that help users solve particular computing problems. Mostly, application software resides on the computers hard disk before it is brought into the computers memory and run. This software can also be stored on CDs, DVDs, even USB or flash devices that can be plugged in. Before anyone decides on the best approach for acquiring application software, they should analyse their needs carefully. Supporting individual, group and organisational goals: While every organisation relies on the contributions of the people to achieve its business objectives, these people rely on the organisation to support them with specific application software and information systems. As info systems expand, it also continues to reshape our lives. Info systems are changing virtually every method for capturing, storing, transmitting, and analysing knowledge,

including books, newspapers, magazines, movies, television, phone calls, musical recordings, and architecture drawings. One of the ways to classify the many potential uses of info systems is to identify the scope of problems and opportunities addressed by a particular org. This is called the sphere of influence. For most companies, these are personal, workgroup, and enterprise. Info systems that operate within the personal sphere of influence serve the needs of an individual user. These info systems enable their users to improve their personal effectiveness, increasing the amount of work they can do and the quality. Such software is often referred to as personal productivity software. There are many examples of such applications, such as a word processing application to enter, check spelling, edit, copy, print, distribute, and file text material; a spread sheet application to manipulate numeric data; a graphics application to perform data analysis; and a database application to organise data for personal use. A workgroup is two or more people who work together to achieve a common goal. It may be large, formal permanent organisational entity such as a section/department, or a temporary group formed to complete a specific project. For example, a formal workgroup would be the entire human resources department of an organisation. An info system that operates in the workgroup sphere of influence supports a work group in the attainment of a common goal. Users of such applications must be able to communicate, interact and collaborate to be successful. Applications unclose systems that support information sharing, group scheduling, group decision making and conferencing. Info systems that operate within the enterprise sphere of influence support the firm in its interaction with its environment. The surrounding environment includes customers, suppliers, shareholders, competitors, special-interest groups, the financial community, and government agencies. This means the enterprise sphere of influence includes business partners such as suppliers that provide raw materials, retail companies that store and sell a companys products, and shipping companies that transport raw materials to the plant and finished goods to retail outlets. Every enterprise has many applications that operate with the enterprise sphere of influence. The input to these systems is data about, or generated by, basic business transactions with someone outside the business enterprise. These transactions include customer orders, inventory receipts and withdrawals, purchase orders, freight bills, invoices, and cheques. One of the results of processing transaction data is that the records of the company are instantly updated. The order entry, finished product inventory, and billing information systems are examples of applications that operate in the enterprise sphere of influence.

Systems software:
Controlling the operations of computer hardware is one of the most critical functions of systems software. Systems software also supports the application programs problem-solving capabilities. Types of system software include operating systems, utility programs, and middleware.

Operating systems:
Operating system (OS): is a set of computer programs that controls the computer hardware and acts as an interface with applications. They can control one or more computers, or they can allow

multiple computers to interact with one computer. The various combinations of OSs, computers and users include: A single computer with a single user: This system is commonly used in a personal computer or a handheld computer that allows one user at a time. A single computer with multiple users: This system is typically of a larger, mainframe computers that can accommodate hundreds or thousands of people, all using the computer at the same time. Multiple computers: This is typical of a network of computers, such as a home network with several computers attached or a large computer network with hundreds of computers attached around the world. Special-purpose computers: This system is fairly typical of a number of computers with specialised functions, such as those that control sophisticated military aircraft. The space shuttle and some home appliances.

The OS, which plays a central role in the functioning of the complete computer systems, is usually stored on disk. A storage device that contains some or all of the OS is often called a rescue disk, because you can use it to start the computer is you have problems with the primary hard disk. Many computers allow for a dual-boot feature, which allows you to select the OS you want to use before the boot process is completed. The set of programs that make up the OS performs a variety of activities, including the following: Performing common computer hardware functions. Providing a user interface and input/output management. Providing a degree of hardware independence. Managing system memory. Managing processing tasks. Providing network capability. Controlling access to system resources. Managing files.

The kernel, as its name suggests, is the heart of the OS and controls the most critical processes. The kernel ties all of the components, of the OS together and regulates other programs. Common hardware functions: All application programs must perform certain hardware-related tasks, such as the following: Get input from the keyboard or another input device. Retrieve data from disks. Store data from disks. Display information on a monitor of printer.

Each of these basic functions requires a detailed set of instructions. The OS converts a basic request into the instructions that the hardware requires. The OS acts as an intermediary between the application program and the hardware.

User interface and input/output management: One of the most important functions of any OS is providing a user interface. A user interface allows people to access and command the computer system. The first user interfaces for mainframe and personal computer systems were command based. A command based user interface requires you to give text commands to the computer to perform basic activities. Many mainframe computers still use command based user interfaces. In some cases, a specific job control language (JCL) is used to control how jobs or tasks are to be run on the computer system. The use of command based user interfaces has declined over time. A graphical user interface (GUI) uses pictures (called icons) and menus displayed on screen to send commands to the computer system. Many people find that GUIs are easier to use because users intuitively grasp the functions. GUIs have contributed greatly to the increased use of computers because users no longer need to know command-line syntax to accomplish user tasks. In addition providing a user interface, todays Oss manage all aspects of computer input and output. Input management includes controlling a keyboard or mouse, touch-screen, and many other input devices. Output management includes controlling the display screen, printers, plotters, and other output devices. Hardware independence: To run, applications request services from the OS through a defined application program interface (API). Programmers can use APIs to create application software without having to understand the inner workings of the OS. If APIs didnt exist, the application developers might have to completely rewrite the application to take advantage of the new, faster hardware. Memory management: The OS also controls how memory is accessed and maximises available memory and storage. The memory management feature of many OSs allows the computer to execute program instructions effectively and speed up processing. Most OSs support virtual memory, which allocates space on the hard disk to supplement the immediate, functional memory capacity of RAM. Virtual memory works by swapping programs or parts of programs between memory and one or more disk devices-a concept called paging. This reduces CPU idle time and increases the number of jobs that can run in a given time span. Controlling how memory is accessed allows the computer system to efficiently and effectively store and retrieve data and instructions, and to supply them to the CPU. Memory management programs convert a users request for data or instructions (called a logical view of the data) to the physical location where the data or instructions are stored, and the techniques needed to access it. A computer understands only the physical view of data that is, the specific location where the data/instructions are stored. This concept is described as logical versus physical access. The user prompts the application software for specific data. The OS translates this prompt into instructions for the hardware, which finds the date the user requested. Having successfully completed this task, the OS then relays the data back to the user via the application software.

Processing tasks: The task management features of todays OSs manage all processing activities. Task management allocates computer resources to make the best use of each systems assets. Task management software can permit one user to run several programs at the same time (multitasking), and allow several users to use the same computer at the same time (time sharing). An OS with multitasking capabilities allows a user to run more than one application at the same time. Without having to exit a program, you can work in one application, and go back and forth. While youre working in the foreground, in one program, one or more applications can be working in the background. Time sharing allows more than one person to use a computer system at the same time. The ability of the computer to handle an increasing number of concurrent users smoothly is called scalability. This feature is critical for systems expected to handle a large number of users, such as a mainframe computer or a web server. Networking capability: Most operating systems include networking capabilities so that computers can join together in a network or send and receive data and share computing resources. Operating systems for larger server computers are designed specifically for computer networking environments. Access to system resources and security: Because computers often handle sensitive data that can be accessed over networks, the OS needs to provide a high level of security against unauthorised access to the users data and programs. The OS usually establishes a logon procedure that requires users to enter and identification code, such as a user name and matching password. The OSs require that a user changes passwords frequently. If the user successfully logs on, the OS restricts access to only portions of the system for which the user has been cleared. The OS records who uses the system and for how long, and reports any attempted breaches of security. File management: The OS manages files to endure that files in secondary storage are available when needed and that they are protected from access by unauthorised users. Many computers support multiple users who store files on centrally located disks or tape drives. The OS keeps track of where each file is stored and who may access it. The OS must determine what to do if more than one user requests access to the same file at the same time. Even on stand-alone personal computers, file management is needed to track where files are located, what size they are, when they were created and who created them. Operating systems also specify how files can be organised in folders or subdirectories. Organising files into multiple folders or subdirectories makes it much easier to locate files, instead of having all files in one large folder/directory.

Current operating systems:

Personal operating systems: Personal operating systems such as Windows 7/Vista from Microsoft, Macintosh OS X from Apple, are all designed specifically to be used on any personal computer. These OSs are all designed to be

user friendly and to support easy use of the computer from novice to expert user. These personal operating systems not only cater for individual users, but also are designed to facilitate the networking of small groups of computers together, making them and ideal OS for businesses. Workgroup operating systems: The rapid increase in communication and data-processing capabilities pushes the boundaries of computer science and physics. Workgroup operating systems include Windows Server 2008 from Microsoft, OS X Server from Apple, and the open source Linux. Powerful and sophisticated OSs are needed to run the servers that meet these business needs for workgroups. Small businesses, for example, often use workgroup OSs to run networks and perform critical business tasks. Enterprise operating systems: New mainframe computers provide the computing and storage capacity to meet massive data processing requirements and offer many users high performance and excellent systems availability, strong security, and scalability. In addition, a wide range of application software has been developed to run in the mainframe environment, making it possible to purchase software to address almost any business problem. As a result, mainframe computers remain the computing platform of choice for mission-critical business applications for many companies. Operating systems for small computers, embedded computers and special-purpose devices: New OSs and other software are changing the way we interact with personal digital assistant (PDAs), smartphones, mobile phones etc. These OSs are also called embedded operating systems because they are typically embedded within a device, such as a car or a TV recorder. Some of these OSs allow you to synchronise handheld devices with PC cradles, cables and Wi-Fi. Utility programs: Utility programs help perform maintenance or correct problems with a computer system. Some utility programs merge and sort sets of data, keep track of computer jobs being run, compress files of data before that are stored or transmitted over a network, and perform other important tasks. Some utility programs can help computer systems run better and longer without problems. Another type of utility program allows people and orgs to take advantage of unused computer power over a network. This is often called grid computing, and the approach can be very efficient and cheaper than purchasing extra hardware/equipment. Utility programs can also help secure and safeguard data. For example, the recording and motion picture industry uses digital rights management (DRM) technologies to prevent copyright. The following sections examine some common types of utilities. Hardware utilities: Hardware utilities can check the status of all parts of the PC, including hard disks, memory, modems, speakers and printers. Disk utilities check the hard disks boot sector, file allocation tables, and directories, analysing them to ensure the hard disk isnt damaged. Disk utilities can also optimise the placement of files on a crowded disk.

Security utilities: Antivirus and antispyware software can be installed to constantly monitor and protect the computer. If a virus or spyware is found, often it can be removed. This software runs continuously in the background, and can be updated over the internet. Its also a good idea to protect computer systems with firewall software. Firewall software filters incoming and outgoing packets, making sure that hackers or their tools arent attacking the system. Some software also assists in keeping data private, and free from being accessed from a computer system. File-compression utilities: This can reduce the amount of disk space required to store a file or reduce the time it takes to transfer a file over the internet. MP3 (Motion Pictures Experts Group Layer 3) is a popular file compressor format used to store, transfer, and play music and audio files, such as podcasts. Spam and pop-up blocker utilities: A number of utility programs can be installed to block unwanted email spam and pop up ads. Network and Internet utilities: A range of network and systems management utility software us available to monitor hardware and network performance, and trigger an alert when a web server is crashing or a network problem occurs. Server and mainframe utilities: Some utilities enhance the performance of servers and mainframe computers. With this software, the support people can sit at their personal computers and check or diagnose problems, and even repair individual systems anywhere on the orgs network. Virtualisation software can make computers simulate other computers. The result is often called a virtual machine. Using this software, servers and mainframe computers can run software applications written for different operating systems. Other utilities: Utility programs are available for almost every conceivable task/function.

Middleware:
Middleware is software that allows different systems to communicate and exchange data. Middleware can also be used as an interface between the internet and older legacy systems. Middleware can be used to transfer a request for info from a corporate customer on the corporate website to a traditional database on a mainframe computer and return the results to the customer on the Internet. The use of middleware to connect disparate systems has evolved into an approach for developing software and systems called SOA. A service-oriented architecture (SOA) uses modular application services to allow users to interact with systems, and systems to interact with each other. Systems developed with SOA are flexible and ideal for businesses that need a system to expand and evolve with time. SOA modules can be reused for a variety of purposes, and are designed using programming standards that allow them to interact with other modules; rigid-customer designed middleware software is not needed to connect systems.

Application software:
The primary function of application software is to apply the power of the computer to give individuals, workgroups, and the entire enterprise the ability to solve problems and perform specific tasks. When you need to computer to do something, you use one or more application programs. These programs interact with systems software, and the system software then directs the computer hardware to perform the necessary tasks. Applications help you perform common tasks, such as creating and formatting text documents, performing calculations, or managing information. The functions performed by application software are diverse, and range from personal productivity to business analysis. Most of the computerised business jobs and activities discussed in this book involve application software.

Overview of application software:

Proprietary software and of-the-shelf software are important types of application software. Proprietary software is a one-of-a-kind program for a specific application developed by a company. It is not in the public domain. Off-the-shelf software is existing software that can be purchased or acquired literally off the shelf in a shop. Advantages/Disadvantages of these types of software: pg 257. Some off-the-shelf programs can be modified. If designed properly, the same software can be sold to many users. Another approach to obtaining a customised software package is the use of an application service provider. An application service provider (ASP) is a company that can provide software, support, and the computer hardware on which to run the software from the users facilities over a network. As ASP can also take a complex corporate software package and simplify is so that it is easier for the users to set up and manage. Using an ASP makes sense for small, fast growing companies with limited IS resources. However, using an ASP can compromise sensitive information, which needs to be addressed by an ASP. Personal application software: There are hundreds of computer applications that can help individuals at school, home, and work. These software applications are referred to as personal application software. These applications fall into four categories: personal productivity applications, multimedia and graphics applications, communications applications, and home and educational applications. In addition to the general purpose software programs, there are also thousands of other personal computer applications used to perform specialised tasks.

Common personal productivity software:

Word processing: Word processing applications are installed on most PCs today. These apps come with a cast array of features. Spreadsheet analysis: Spreadsheets are powerful tools for individuals and orgs.

Database applications: Database applications are ideal for storying, manipulating, and retrieving data. These apps are particularly useful when manipulating large amounts of data. Data manipulations can include merging, editing and sorting data. Database management systems can be used to track orders, products and customers, and pay employees; analyse weather data to make forecasts; and summarise medical research results. Personal information managers: Personal information managers (PIMs): help people, groups and orgs store useful information, such as a list of tasks to complete or a set of names/addresses. PIMs usually provide an appointment calendar and a place to take notes. Some PIMs allow you to schedule and coordinate group meetings. Software suites and integrated software packages: A software suite is a collection of single application programs packaged in a bundle. Buying software in a suite is cost-effective. In addition to suites, some companies produce integrated software packages that contain several programs. Workgroup application software: Workgroup application software is designed to support teamwork, whether people are in the same location or dispersed around the world. This support can be accomplished with software known as groupware, which helps groups of people work together more effectively. It can also be called collaborative software, and allows a team of managers to work on the same production problem, letting them share their ideas and work via connected computer system. Enterprise application software: Software that benefits and entire org can also be developed or purchased. Orgs can no longer respond to market changes using non-integrated info systems based on overnight processing of yesterdays business transactions, conflicting data models and obsolete technology. As a result, many corporations are turning to enterprise resource planning software. As ERP system must be able to support multiple legal entities, multiple languages and multiple currencies. The benefits of implementing ERP include eliminating inefficient systems, easing adoption of improved work processes, improving access to data for operational decision making, standardising technology vendors and equipment, and enabling the implementation of supply chain management.

Cloud computing:
The term cloud is used as a metaphor for the Internet, based on how the Internet is depicted in computer flowcharts and network diagrams. The web based software is ideal for group use. An increasing number of software applications are moving online to support group document and information sharing.

Cloud computing services:

Typical cloud computing services provide common business apps online that are accessed from a web browser, while the software and data are stored on the servers. These services are broadly divided into:

Software as a service (SaaS): This allows businesses to subscribe to web-delivered app software by paying for a monthly service charge or a per-use fee. Customer relationship mgmt. and other general business systems are good candidates for SaaS. Utility computing: Utility computing cloud computing delivers storage and virtual servers that can be accessed on demand. Web services in the cloud: This is closely related to SaaS. This form of cloud computing offers Web Application Programming Interfaces (Web APIs) or web services that enable developers to exploit functionality over the Internet, rather than delivering full blown apps. Platform as a service (PaaS):