Final Year Dissertation

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE
Daniel Ellis
A report submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Building, Coventry University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a degree in Civil and Structural Engineering.
2013
SYNOPSIS
This paper is a report of an investigation into the factors affecting the modulus of elasticity of concrete. The investigation is intended to be carried out via the use of laboratory based experimentation and a full report on the findings. The following testing parameters are used in this research: Fine-coarse aggregate ratio, curing procedures, coarse aggregate type, water-cement ratio and the use of superplasticiser. The aforementioned test parameters are adopted to study the effect that change in any given one of these parameters has on the modulus of elasticity of concrete. A total of sixty concrete cubes and thirty-seven concrete cylinders were tested, spanning eight concrete mixes of various volumes. The cubes were tested for compressive strength, and the cylinders for the static modulus of elasticity in compression. As a result of the laboratory testing, it was concluded that the factors which have the most significant effect on the modulus of elasticity are the water-cement ratio and the use of chemical admixtures such as superplasticiser.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SYNOPSIS ............................................................................................................................................................. i TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................................... ii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................................. iv LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................................. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ....................................................................................................................................... vi 1. INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................................................1 1.1 General Introduction ................................................................................................................................1 1.2 Aim ...........................................................................................................................................................1 1.3 Objectives .................................................................................................................................................1 1.4 Research Approach...................................................................................................................................1 1.5 Origin ........................................................................................................................................................1 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................................................3 2.1 Modulus of Elasticity ................................................................................................................................3 2.2 Compressive Strength ..............................................................................................................................4 2.2.1 Relationship between the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity ....................................4 2.3 Effect of the Aggregate Material ..............................................................................................................5 2.4 Effect of the Curing Process .....................................................................................................................6 2.5 Effect of the Water-Cement Ratio............................................................................................................8 2.6 Effect of Superplasticiser ..........................................................................................................................8 2.7 Conclusion of Literature Review ..............................................................................................................9 3. RESEARCH STRATEGY ...................................................................................................................................10 3.1 Experimental design concept .................................................................................................................10 3.2 Development of Testing Parameters and Constants..............................................................................10 3.2.1 Ratio of fine-coarse aggregates .......................................................................................................10 3.2.2 Water content .................................................................................................................................10 3.2.3 Curing environment.........................................................................................................................10 3.2.4 Type of coarse aggregate ................................................................................................................11 3.2.5 Constants .........................................................................................................................................11 3.3 Mix properties ........................................................................................................................................11 3.3 Research Hypotheses .............................................................................................................................12 4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK..................................................................................................................................13 4.1 Materials List ..........................................................................................................................................13 4.1.1 Concrete preparation materials ......................................................................................................13 4.1.2 Hardened Concrete Testing Materials ............................................................................................13 363BE (CEng) Project ii 19th April 2013
4.2 Experimental Method ............................................................................................................................14 4.2.1 Designing a Mix ...............................................................................................................................14 4.2.2 Preparing the samples .....................................................................................................................15 4.2.3 Testing the Cubes for Compressive Strength ..................................................................................16 4.2.4 Testing the Cylinders for Modulus of Elasticity ...............................................................................17 4.2.5 Summary of mixing and testing standards ......................................................................................18 5. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ...............................................................................................................................19 5.1 Cube Compressive Testing Calculations .................................................................................................19 5.2 Cylinder Elasticity Calculations ...............................................................................................................19 5.2 The Modulus of Elasticity .......................................................................................................................20 5.2.1 Microsoft excel program .................................................................................................................20 5.2.2 Stress Calculation ............................................................................................................................22 5.2.3 Strain Calculation.............................................................................................................................22 5.2.4 Obtaining the Modulus of Elasticity ................................................................................................22 6. DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................................................24 6.1 Discussion of the Results Obtained in Relation to the Research Hypotheses .......................................24 6.1.1 Effect of the curing procedure on the modulus of elasticity ..........................................................24 6.1.2 Effect of the use of superplasticiser on the modulus of elasticity ..................................................25 6.1.3 Effect of the coarse aggregate type on the modulus of elasticity ..................................................26 6.1.4 Effect of the fine-coarse aggregate ratio on the modulus of elasticity...........................................26 6.1.5 Effect of a high and low water content on the modulus of elasticity .............................................27 6.1.6 General findings on the values of the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity ................27 6.1.7 Investigating the relationship between the compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity.28 6.2 Error analysis and issues encountered in laboratory testing .................................................................29 7. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................32 7.1 Conclusions.............................................................................................................................................32 7.2 Recommendations for Future Research.................................................................................................32 LIST OF REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................................33 APPENDIX .........................................................................................................................................................36
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LIST OF TABLES
3.1 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.2 6.1 6.2 A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4 A.5 A.6 A.7 A.8 A.9 A.10 Mix properties.. Calculation of mix quantities.. Appropriate standards for testing. Raw data recorded in laboratatory Excel table used to plot the stress and strain values.. Curing procedure results. ... Fine-coarse ratio results... Mix A specification. Mix B specification. Mix C specification. Mix D specification Mix E specification. Mix F specification. Mix G specification Mix H specification Modulus of elasticity results.. Compressive strength results.. 11 15 18 20 21 25 26 36 36 37 37 38 38 39 39 40 41
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LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.1 5.2 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 Tangent/secant modulus graph .. Relationship between elasticity and curve shape.. Relationship between curing temperature and strength. Relationship between strength and curing time. Stress-strain curves.. Demec gauge reader Concrete cylinder Cube in compression Load reading on computer.. Cube failure. Cylinder in compression Excel program Stress-strain curve for B.6.CY.O Graph of curing procedure results. Graph of superplasticiser results Graph of coarse aggregate type results. Graph of fine-coarse ratio results.. Graph of water content results Graph of elasticity-strength relationship Graph of elasticity-strength relationship for different curing types Cube voids Cylinder cracks. Cylinder failure. 3 5 7 8 9 14 16 17 17 17 18 21 22 24 25 26 27 27 28 29 30 30 31
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my project tutor, Dr Eoin Coakley for his continued support and advice throughout the duration of both the laboratory phase and the writing phase of this project, without whom the completion of this project would not have been possible. The laboratory staff at Coventry University were outstanding for their technical advice and patience during the early stages of the laboratory testing. In particular, I would like to thank Kieran Lehane and Kieran Teeling for their valuable supervision. I would not have progressed this far in my education without the lifelong love, support and encouragement of my mother, father and brother. My deepest gratitude goes to my family for backing me one hundred per cent of the way. Finally, I would like to thank my GCSE and A-Level physics teacher, Mr. Elias Pinto for inspiring me to pursue further education and a career in the field of civil engineering.
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction
The relationship between stress and strain or what is more commonly known as the modulus of elasticity is of vital interest not only in structural design (Neville 1995), but in materials science in general. In terms of the mechanical properties of concrete, the stress-strain relationship a key characteristic in the prediction of both the structural performance and the serviceability of this construction material (Kimpiab 2011). For example, a high modulus of elasticity (or what is otherwise known as stiffness) is a desirable property in concrete structures as a high elasticity will decrease the degree of deflection of the structure under live loading. Modulus of elasticity of concrete is also an imperative factor in the design of prestressed concrete beams as they undergo initial loading. Concrete is a composite material meaning that it is made up of multiple constituent materials namely water, cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and chemical admixtures, each of which has vastly differing physical properties. This paper will investigate the effect that these constituent materials and their prevalence in terms of the mix quantities have on both the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete.
1.2 Aim
The aim of this research is to carry out an investigation of the static modulus of elasticity of concrete. The factors that affect the value of the static modulus of elasticity will also be examined. This research is to be completed via the use of a laboratory experiment and a full report on the findings.
1.3 Objectives
The following is a list of initial research objectives for the laboratory experiments. These objectives will be examined further and developed into detailed hypotheses in the research strategy section of this paper. An investigation of the relationship between the proportion of fine to coarse aggregates and modulus of elasticity. An investigation into how the curing process of the concrete affects the modulus of elasticity. An investigation of how the use of superplasticiser as a chemical admixture can decrease the necessary water content of the concrete, and how the use of this admixture affects the modulus of elasticity. An investigation of how the use of a high and low water/cement ratio can affect the modulus of elasticity. An investigation how the use of different types of coarse aggregate can affect the modulus of elasticity
1.4 Research Approach

In order to carry out the objectives stated above, a total of eight concrete mixes will be produced in the Coventry University civil engineering labs. The mixes will be designed according to the properties as required by the research objectives stated above. After the standard 28 day curing time, the hardened concrete will be tested in accordance with procedure outlined in BS 1881-121:1983 and the results will be recorded, analysed and discussed in the latter chapters of this paper.
1.5 Origin
The elasticity of materials has been of particular interest since this phenomenon was first studied at GCSE level, which may explain why it was decided to carry on the investigation of this material property as a final 19th April 2013
year project. Further to this the mechanical properties of concrete, which is one of the most widely used construction materials worldwide, is also a subject of curiosity and therefore the idea for this paper can be seen to have been born out of the interest of these two areas of study.
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The following chapter of the report is a literature review that will discuss the concepts of modulus of elasticity and the compressive strength. The relationship between the two principals will also be identified. Further to this, in order to investigate the testing parameters in more detail, a report will be carried out on the way in which the aggregate content, curing processes, water content and use of superplasticiser can affect the compressive strength and therefore the modulus of elasticity of concrete.
2.1 Modulus of Elasticity

As with any other material, upon loading of concrete deformation occurs. This deformation will increase as the load increases and this stress-strain relationship is known as the modulus of elasticity (Murdock 1991). However, concrete cannot be considered a truly elastic material due to the fact that it deforms due to a combination of elastic strain and creep (otherwise known as plastic strain) (Kong and Evans 1987). Elastic deformation occurs immediately upon application of a load; however, creep continues to increase without further increase in load (Murdock 1991). Because of this, three different types of modulus of elasticity are associated with the stress-strain relations as summarised in Figure 2.1. They are as follows: Youngs modulus this modulus is only applicable to the initial straight portion of the curve (Kong and Evans 1987) Tangent modulus this is the slope of the tangent at any given point on the stress strain curve, a modulus which is not normally useful in terms of structural engineering (Kong and Evans 1987) Secant modulus this is the most commonly used modulus of elasticity within the field of structural engineering as it removes the effect of the initial minor stress redistributions, and, as explained earlier, because the stress strain relationship for concrete is not truly linear (Mosley 1996). The secant modulus is also known as the instantaneous static modulus of elasticity (Murdock 1991).
Figure 2.1 Difference between Tangent modulus and secant modulus (MacGregor 2005) The secant modulus is measured by means of a static test and calculation as defined in BS 1881 part 121: 1983. 363BE (CEng) Project 3 19th April 2013
Murdock (1991) says that the modulus of elasticity for concrete lies within the range of 18 to 36 kN/mm2. This fairly large range of elasticity values is explained by Mosley (1996) who states that concrete is a variable material that exhibits a wide range of stress-strain curves. Further to this, there is a wide range in values due to the fact that the modulus of elasticity, in the same fashion as compressive strength, will increase with age (Murdock 1991). The limit of stress/strain proportionality can be anywhere between 25 and 75 per cent of the compressive strain, with 40 per cent as an average value. In the associated British standard, the upper limit is taken as 1/3 of the compressive strength. The ultimate strain of concrete is on average approximately 0.0035 (Mosley 1996).
2.2 Compressive Strength

Kong and Evans (1987) summarise the importance of the property of compressive strength of concrete by stating that the compressive strength of concrete is the most common measure for judging the quality of concrete. The compressive strength is a property which is measured by testing the 28 day strength of 100mm concrete cubes in accordance with the relevant British standards (MacGinley and Choo 1990). The specific time of 28 days is an important constant in the testing of hardened concrete as long after the 28 day mark cement continues to hydrate, therefore the concrete will continue to harden and thus gain strength. The value recorded for the compressive strength of concrete is mainly dependant on the intensity of loading and the form and size of the individual samples (Mosley and Bungey 1990), further to this, Nilson (2010) adds that the rate of loading can also have a significant effect on the stress (and therefore the strength) of concrete samples. Engineering toolbox (n.d.) states that the average compressive strength of concrete is between 20 40 N/mm2, however, this value can be as high as 80 N/mm2 for certain types of concrete, high-strength for example (Murdock 1991).
2.2.1 Relationship between the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity

Similar factors affect the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete, therefore it can be stated that the elastic modulus will be proportional to the compressive strength in some form (Taylor 2002). MacGregor (2005) gives the relationship between elasticity and strength in Equation 2.1: = 0.0043( 1.5 ) MPa (Equation 2.1)
Where: w= the unit weight of the concrete in kg/m3. There are however, numerous formulae for this relationship; another for example is Equation 2.2 (Kakizaki (1995) cited in Kimpiab (2011)). = 3.65 (Equation 2.2)
The relationship between the modulus of elasticity and the compressive strength can be visualised in Figure 2.2.
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Figure 2.2 The relationship between the shape of the stress-strain curve and the compressive strength (MacGregor 2005)
2.3 Effect of the Aggregate Material

Originally, it was thought that hardened cement paste had the suitable properties necessary to be used as a construction material by itself. However, it was found that aggregates could be added to the cement paste as inert filler in order to overcome the problem of low modulus of elasticity, creep, shrinkage and cost of using only hardened cement paste in construction. As much aggregate as possible should be used (normally between 65-80 per cent of the concrete volume) and it should have a range of particle sizes (fine and coarse) in order to bind to the cement paste successfully and reduce the volume of pores (Illston 2001). Murdock (1991) outlines that the most important properties of aggregates are the size, shape, and texture of the particles. Sand and gravel are the most commonly used types of aggregate due to their economic advantages (Murdock 1991) and as they can be found in abundance along coasts and river deposits, they are mined easily (Farrant 2003). Another type of aggregate researched for the purposes of this project is granite, which falls under the category of igneous rocks. Murdock (1991) says Granite is hard, tough, and dense and is an excellent aggregate for concrete. Polar white chippings are also used in this research. Polar white chippings are an example of the dolomite rock type (Specialist Aggregates 2000) which contain a large portion of both magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate. Since the aggregate occupies most of the concrete volume, its elastic properties have a major influence of the elastic properties of the concrete (Illston 1991). For example, a more porous aggregate type is likely to have a lower strength which will therefore reduce the compressive strength and subsequently the modulus of elasticity of the concrete. Neville (1995) also agrees that the higher the aggregate elasticity, the higher the concrete elasticity. Murdock (1991) explains that the two main factors in determining whether or not a particular type of aggregate is suitable in terms of strength is the hardness and density.
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Contrary to his quote stated earlier, Illston (1991) also states that for normal aggregate i.e. sand and gravel, the strength is affected mostly by the strength of the bonding between the cement paste and the aggregate, the aggregate strength itself is generally only significant for high-strength concrete. This is backed up by Kong and Evans (1987) who states that within fairly wide limits the crushing strength of the aggregate has little effect on the compressive strength of the concrete. Taylor (2002) adds to the above evidence by suggesting that a high strength aggregate such as granite is best utilised only in situations where a high strength concrete mix is being produced. Ramachandran (1981) explains that the type of aggregate may have a relatively significant effect on the 7 day strength of a concrete sample; however he stated that the 28 day strength is unaffected.
2.4 Effect of the Curing Process

A total of three curing processes have been utilised for the purposes of this project, air curing, immersion (water) curing, and curing at a high temperature (70oC). The following part of the literature review will give a brief introduction into the function of curing and examine evidence on the way in which the curing process can affect the compressive strength and henceforth the modulus of elasticity. P. Claisse (2011) outlines two main functions of curing concrete. The first reason as to why concrete undergoes a curing process is to stop it from drying out during the hydration reaction. Secondly, concrete is cured in order to retain heat at the surface which prevents frost damage, increases the early compressive strength, and reduces temperature gradients. Blackledge (1992) hypothesised that in the event that concrete is cured in high temperatures, there is an increased risk of the occurrence of plastic cracking. This theory is backed up by the Portland Cement Association (2002) which states that volume changes caused by drying shrinkage lead to increased potential for cracks to develop, thus decreasing strength. High temperatures will also increase the rate at which water evaporates from the concrete, which will in turn reduce the workability (PCA 2002). The stiffening (hydration) process of concrete is also affected by high temperature curing, as Hurst (1983) says that the stiffening process will be accelerated in the presence of heat. The PCA (2002) further developed this statement as it is explained that the effect of heat on hardened concrete properties are a high early strength but low ultimate strength compared to mixtures placed with a lower temperature. One explanation for this is that the loss of water due to evaporation prevents adequate hydration. The above evidence is supplemented by Figure 2.3.
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Figure 2.3 The relationship between the curing temperature and the compressive strength (Verbeck and Helmuth 1968: 9 cited in Kosmatka 1988: 227)
According to About Civil (2013) Wet curing is by far the best method of curing as it satisfies all the requirements of curing, namely, promotion of hydration, elimination of shrinkage and absorption of the heat of hydration. There is a large amount of evidence to support this statement. The National Ready Mixed Concrete association conducted a test to measure the effect of curing conditions on the compressive strength of concrete and found that concrete cured in dry conditions can lose as much as 50 per cent of the compressive strength of similar concrete cured in moist conditions. Similarly, Concrete (2006) stated that concrete allowed to dry out immediately exhibits 40 per cent of the strength of the same concrete water cured for 180 days. Kosmatka (1988) offers an explanation for this by commenting that external water helps prevent self-desiccation of the cement paste so that hydration can continue at the necessary rate. Further explanations for the increased strength of concrete cured in water are that this process maintains the mixing water present in the early stages of hardening, and that a uniform temperature is kept in the concrete if it is submerged in a tank in a controlled environment (Concrete 2006) and (CFLHD 2013). Figure 2.4 shows how the compressive strength of concrete cured in water is higher than that cured in air. It should be noted however that this change in compressive strength is more significant for concrete that has been cured for longer than 28 days.
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Figure 2.4 Relationship between the compressive strengths of concrete cured in moisture and in air for different curing times (Gonnerman 1928: 149 cited in Kosmatka 1988: 225)
2.5 Effect of the Water-Cement Ratio

The concept of the water/cement ratio in concrete, and the effect that this can have on its strength and workability was first studied by Professor Abrams, who formulated Abrams water/cement ratio law as cited in (Murdock 1991). The law states that For given concrete materials the strength depends on only one factor the ratio of water to cement so long as we have a workable mix. Murdock (1991) summarises this by saying that the w/c ratio of concrete should be as low as possible while still giving the required degree of workability. This has been further developed by Kong and Evans (1987) who state that the compressive strength is primarily dependant on the free water-cement ratio and that generally, an increase in the water cement ratio in the mixing stage will cause a reduction in the overall compressive strength of the concrete (Alawode 2011). This relationship is dependent on the volume of voids that exist within the concrete and the degree to which the hydration process was successful (Kong and Evans 1987). Despite the relationship mentioned above, concrete with a low w/c ratio can become more difficult to compact, which may create large voids and therefore may negatively affect the strength and elasticity (Murdock 1991). Voids can also be caused by air bubbles within the mix and the evaporation of water in the hydration stage (Kong and Evans 1987). It should be noted that water in the concrete samples will not only be present due to addition in the mixing stage, there is also water absorbed into the aggregate and on the surface of the aggregate which will also contribute to the total water content of the concrete (Murdock 1991).
2.6 Effect of Superplasticiser

Wilby (1991) says that superplasticisers are used in concrete mainly to allow the water-cement ratio to be decreased for no reduction in workability, which would also increase strength. A study has shown that doubling the amount of superplasticiser alters the water content in a mix by 16-24 per cent (Buck 1972 cited in Swamy 1983). Taylor (2002) adds that superplasticiser can also be used for a constant watercement ratio thus increasing the workability. According to Wilby (1991) the reason for this higher workability is that superplasticiser negatively charges the hydrating cement, and as negatively charged 363BE (CEng) Project 8 19th April 2013
particles repel each other this causes the cement paste to exhibit more fluid like properties. The surface tension of the water is also said to be reduced by adding superplasticiser. One disadvantage of the use of superplasticiser as an admixture for concrete is that it can slow down the hydration reaction due to the presence of hydroxyl ions in the admixture (Taylor 2002). The suggestion that superplasticiser increases strength is also commented on by Swamy (1983) and Perkins (1997) who states that superplasticisers are most commonly used for ultra-high strength concrete.
2.7 Conclusion of Literature Review

The findings presented above seem to suggest the most significant factor (in terms of the concrete mix) that will affect the modulus of elasticity is the water-cement ratio. The second most significant factor as described in the various text books, journals and websites that were studied for this review is the aggregate material in terms of both the aggregate type and the fine-coarse aggregate ratio. The stress-strain relations for the cement paste, aggregate material and the concrete can be found in Figure 2.5. This graph is also of particular interest as it shows how there is a linear stress-strain relationship for aggregates and cement paste, however concrete under similar stress undergoes plastic deformation earlier in the process of uniform loading.
Figure 2.5 Stress-strain relations for concrete, aggregate and cement paste (Neville 1995)
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3. RESEARCH STRATEGY
In this section of the report, the experimental work that is to be carried out will be outlined in relation to the objectives stated in the introduction to this paper. This section also aims to present a justification of the test parameters in order to formulate specific research hypotheses.
3.1 Experimental design concept

BS 1881 121 : 1983 is the relevant British standard that will be strictly adhered to in terms of the laboratory work. This particular section of the standard outlines that for testing the compressive strength and static modulus of elasticity of concrete, a minimum of three moulded cubes are necessary in order to test their compressive strengths, and one moulded cylinder to test its elasticity. For the purposes of this investigation, three 100 x 100 mm cubes and two 150 x 300 mm cylinders shall be made per category of mix. This will increase the accuracy and validity of the results as an average value for the compressive strengths and moduli of elasticity will be obtained in the results and analysis stage of the project. Eight mixes of concrete of various sizes are to be made for this experiment and therefore a total of forty-four cylinders and sixty-six cubes will be tested. The mixes will all have different properties in terms of the constituent ratios, and then the concrete made for each mix design will be split into separate curing environments. Because of this, per mix, a total of up to nine cubes and six cylinders will be made if the mix is to be split in to three different curing environments. For those mixes that are to be stored in two different curing environments, six cubes and four cylinders will be made and so on. After a curing period of twenty-eight days, the samples will be tested for compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.
3.2 Development of Testing Parameters and Constants

The following is a breakdown of the various test parameters that are to be utilised for this experiment, with a view to investigating how a change of each testing parameter can affect the modulus of elasticity. Specific research hypotheses will be developed later in this section of the report.
3.2.1 Ratio of fine-coarse aggregates

Two ratios of fine to coarse aggregates will be used in the mixing stages. 0.25 and 1. The reason these two ratios are chosen is to establish the extent to which the amount of coarse aggregate will affect the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete, henceforth, one ratio uses a large amount of coarse aggregates, and the other a relatively low amount.
3.2.2 Water content

The effect of high water content and low water content on the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity will be established. Thus, some mixes will have a water/cement ratio of up to 0.6 (or higher than 0.5) and others will be particularly low (less than 0.4). In practice, the amount of water added in the mixing stage is likely to be adjusted based on the observed workability of the concrete in the mixer; however the effect can still be measured and analysed.
3.2.3 Curing environment

The effect of the curing environment on the strength and elasticity is of particular interest; therefore, each mix will be split into up to 3 different curing locations: Open to air curing, submerged water curing, and curing at high temperatures of between 60oC and 70oC. This temperature was chosen as it simulates a heat that is fairly extreme and unlikely to be experienced in outdoor mixing environments, adding originality to the research.
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NOTE: originally a fourth type of curing was to be added: submerged in water at high temperatures, however at the time of mixing the necessary equipment was unavailable.
3.2.4 Type of coarse aggregate

The effect of the type of coarse aggregate on the strength and elasticity will be investigated. In total, three different types of coarse aggregate will be used in different mixes: 10 mm crushed coarse aggregate, 10mm granite, and 10mm polar white chippings.
3.2.5 Constants
Some aspects are to be kept constant for every mix in order to provide better control over the other variables, and to allow for the prediction of strength and workability of a mix. These are as follows: The cement to aggregate ratio is 0.2 for all concrete mixes, kept constant to provide a higher degree of control for the other test parameters. The size of the coarse aggregate will be kept constant at 10mm as this is the most commonly used aggregate size. The type of fine aggregate is sharp sand for every mix as this is the only fine aggregate available. The type of cement is also the same in every mix, high strength, 52.5N Portland cement as this is the only cement available. The concrete samples will all be cured for 28 days before testing as this represents a standard curing time for concrete testing.
3.3 Mix properties

Table 3.1 is a list of the different properties of each mix in relation to the testing parameters. Mix Water content High Low Low High Low Low Low High Finescoarse ratio Low Low Low High High High Low Low Curing environments A/W/O A/W/O A/W W/O A/W/O A/O A/W/O A/W/O Type coarse Gravel Gravel Gravel Gravel Gravel Gravel Granite Polar Whites of Superlasticiser?
A B C D E F G H
No No Yes No No Yes No No
Table 3.1 Mix properties Full details of the concrete mixes with numerical quantities can be found in the appendix.
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3.3 Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses have been developed from the findings presented in the literature review section of this paper. They can be considered as testable versions of the objectives stated in the introduction. The modulus of elasticity will increase for an increase in coarse aggregate content. Water cured concrete will give the highest modulus of elasticity and concrete cured at high temperatures will give the lowest value for the modulus of elasticity. The use of super plasticiser will give a high modulus of elasticity value for no reduction in workability. The modulus of elasticity will increase as the water-cement ratio is decreased. The use of 10mm crushed granite as coarse aggregate material will produce the highest modulus of elasticity, and the 10mm polar white chippings will produce the lowest value for the modulus of elasticity.
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4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
This chapter outlines the work carried out in the civil engineering laboratories of Coventry University. A materials list is presented and the method of the laboratory work is outlined.
4.1 Materials List

The following section is an outline of the laboratory materials and equipment used to complete both the concrete mixing, and the testing on the hardened concrete samples. The relevant standards are also presented.
4.1.1 Concrete preparation materials

During the laboratory phase of this research, various different concrete mixes had to be made. The full details of which are supplied in the appendix. The constituents used were water, cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and in some cases, superplasticiser. 4.1.1.1 Water Domestic tap water used as mixing water for the concrete, in accordance with BS EN 1008:2002 4.1.1.2 Cement High strength, 52,5N Portland cement used standard to BS EN 197-1:2011. 4.1.1.3 Coarse aggregate 3 different types of coarse aggregates are used in the concrete mixes as outlined below: 10mm crushed river gravel 10mm crushed granite 8-11 mm polar white chippings obtained from Long Rake Spar aggregate suppliers.
The properties and specification of all coarse aggregates used are in accordance with BS 882:1992. 4.1.1.4 Fine aggregate Sharp sand is used as fine aggregate for all the concrete mixes. This particular fine aggregate is obtained from Bradstone. The fine aggregate is standard to BS 882:1992. 4.1.1.5 Superplasticiser The superplasticiser used is FOSROC AURACAST .200 EN 934 2.T3.1/3.2 in accordance with BS 50753:1985.
4.1.2 Hardened Concrete Testing Materials

After the 28 day setting time, the concrete samples were tested for compression and modulus of elasticity. The following is a list of the equipment used in order to carry out the testing. 4.1.2.1 Demecs and spacing bar The demecs and spacing bar were provided by Hayes Instruments Ltd. 4.1.2.2 Demec gauge reader The demec gauge in Figure 4.1 was used. It is a demec 200 digital strain gauge reader and was used for all strain readings, supplied by Hayes Instruments Ltd.
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Figure 4.1 The demec gauge reader used for all strain readings 4.1.2.3 The compressive strength and modulus of elasticity testing machine The hardened concrete cubes and cylinders were tested in a 2000kN compression machine which conforms to the British standard BS 1881-115:1986.
4.2 Experimental Method

The following section of this chapter will outline the method of the experimental work that was carried out in the laboratory, from the concrete mixing and preparation of the samples, to the method of testing the samples for compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.
4.2.1 Designing a Mix

Using Mix B as an example, the procedure used to design the concrete mixes is outlined below. 4.2.1.1 Total volume of concrete needed Cube volume: 1 x 106 x 9 = 9 x 106 mm3 Cylinder volume: x 752 x 300 x 6 = 31.8 x 106 mm3 Total volume of Mix B = (9 x 106) + (31.8 x 106 mm3) = 40.8 x 106 mm3 = 0.0408 m3 An extra 5% will be added on to the calculated volume in order to minimise the effect of wet concrete loss in transport and slump testing. Adjusted volume = 0.0408 + 5% = 0.043 m3 4.2.1.2 Total mass of concrete needed Average density of concrete is 2400 kg/m3 (Obtained from BS EN 12350 6:2009) Therefore overall mass of sample is obtained from the formula: Mass = density x volume M=dxv M = 2400 x 0.043 = 104 kg This mass is applicable to all mixes designed for 9 cubes and 6 cylinders. (Equation 4.1)
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4.2.1.3 Determination of the Mass of Each Constituent Material For mix B, Cement/ aggregate ratio = 0.25 Water/ cement ratio Fines/ coarse ratio = 0.4 = 0.2 Water 4 4/54 7.7 kg Cement 10 10/54 19.3 kg Aggregates 40 40/54 77 kg Fine 15.4 kg Coarse 61.6 kg X 104 kg X 0.2
Table 4.1 Calculation of mix quantities
Therefore the total mix properties for Mix B are:
Water Cement Fines Coarse
7.7 kg 19.3 kg 15.4 kg 61.6 kg
4.2.1.4 Adding the necessary amount of superplasticiser According to the manufactures guidelines for FOSROC AURACAST .200 superplasticising admixture, the limits for the amount of superplasticiser are 41.7 166.8 ml per 100kg of concrete. The actual amount used for the mixes that contained superplasticiser is recorded in the appendix.
4.2.2 Preparing the samples

Now that the concrete mix proportions have been calculated, the following step by step guide will outline the procedure for preparing the concrete samples. Weigh out the all the constituent materials other than water (cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate) on the scale as accurately as possible and place them in the mixing pan. Mix the contents initially for approximately 20 seconds before adding water. Check the contents are mixed thoroughly, and then add approximately half of the mixing water. Mix the contents for a further 20 seconds. Check the mix to gain a rough idea of workability, and then add water if necessary and mix for a further 20 seconds. Repeat until all water/ as much as necessary is mixed and mix for a further 2 minutes. Once the wet mix has been created, it is necessary to perform a slump test, which should be carried out in accordance with BS EN 12350-2:2009. The workability reading from the slump test should be taken, and the results recorded. Collect the required amount of 100mm cube moulds and 150x300 mm cylinder moulds, and apply the oil to the inside surfaces of each of them, this should ensure the moulds are lubricated and will ease the demoulding process. Tamp the concrete down 25 times for each third of the mould that is filled. Alternatively, adopt the method that was used in this particular experiment and place the moulds on a vibration table, and vibrate for approximately 30 seconds, it is likely that the surface of the wet concrete will sink slightly during this process, so ensure that more concrete is added if needed. 15 19th April 2013
Leave the wet concrete to set for 24 hours in the moulds so initial hardening can occur. After the 24 hour hardening period, demould the concrete samples using the pressurised air valve, use a permanent marker to inscribe the samples with the relevant information and place the samples in the appropriate curing environment.
4.2.2.1 Naming system for the individual samples The samples were given the following coding system in order to make each individual sample identifiable and to make the process of analysing the results more simple, take for example: G.3.CY.W The first part identifies the mix. The 8 mixes were assigned a letter A-H. The second part identifies the number of the sample in that mix. Mix G was comprised of 9 cubes and 6 cylinders. The cubes were assigned a number 1-9 and the cylinders 1-6. The third part denotes whether the sample is a cube or cylinder. CY of cylinders and CU for cubes. The fourth and final part represents the curing environment, A for air, W for water and O for oven.
Figure 4.2 A concrete cylinder with the demecs clearly visible. Note that the concrete sample has been labelled in accordance with the naming system above.
4.2.3 Testing the Cubes for Compressive Strength

The 28 day compressive strength of the concrete cubes is recorded not only as it provides a useful insight into the quality of the concrete, but to determine the upper loading limit for the modulus of elasticity testing. 24 hours before the cube tests begin, remove the samples from their respective curing environments as this will allow the cubes to dry if wet or cool down if hot and make the testing more manageable. The cubes should now be loaded into the 2000kN compression machine and loaded at a constant rate until failure.
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Figure 4.3 A cube being loaded in the compression machine
Figure 4.4 The load reading and forceextension curve for the cube in Figure 4.3
Figure 4.5 A cube that has failed in compression. The polar white chippings are clearly visible.
4.2.4 Testing the Cylinders for Modulus of Elasticity

48 hours before the cylinder testing, the samples must again be removed from their curing environments for the same reasons as the cubes described above. After the samples have cooled down or dried, apply two sets of demecs on opposing sides of the cylinders using epoxy-resin glue to fix the demecs. Use a spacing bar to ensure the demecs are 20mm apart and then leave the cylinders for a further 24 hours to allow the glue to dry. After this, zero readings are to be taken with the demec gauge and then the cylinders are ready to be loaded in the testing machine. Once the cylinders are loaded, two preloading cycles must be carried out where the load is held for 30 seconds each time at b and a and the strains recorded. After
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the preloading cycles are completed, record the strain at b once again, and then at approximately 5 different loads until a is reached and the strain recorded.
Figure 4.6 A cylinder being tested in compression
4.2.5 Summary of mixing and testing standards

Table 4.2 shows the standards that the testing was carried out in accordance with. This is included with a view to increasing the repeatability of the experiments. Lab Procedure Mixing Slump Cube compressive strength Cylinder elasticity Standard BS 1881-125:2013 BS EN 12350-2:2009 BS 1881-116:1983 BS 1881-121:1983
Table 4.2 Appropriate standards for testing
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5. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The following chapter of this paper will outline the results obtained from the laboratory experiments, and will present the method of calculation of the results.
5.1 Cube Compressive Testing Calculations

The average failure load on the 3 cubes can be used to obtain the compressive strength of the concrete using Equation 5.1. = =

(N/mm2 or MPa)
(Equation 5.1)
Where p = the average failure load on the concrete cubes (N) b = the breadth of the cube (mm) d = the depth of the cube (mm) So, for example take cubes B.7.CU.O, B.8.CU.O and B.9.CU.O The results for the failure load were recorded as follows: B.7.CU.O: 316.13 kN B.8.CU.O: 373.12 kN B.9.CU.O: 387.75 kN The average failure load =
316.13 + 373.12 +387.75 3
Therefore, the compressive strength =
359 103 100 100
= 359
= 35.9 /2
5.2 Cylinder Elasticity Calculations

According to BS 1881 121:1983, in order to determine the static modulus of elasticity, the basic stress b of 0.5 N/mm2 and the upper loading stress a which is equal to one third of the compressive strength is needed. These stresses are to be applied to the concrete cylinders in the compression machine and therefore must be converted to loads. These loads can be calculated using Equation 5.2 and 5.3. , = = 2 (Equation 5.2)
This is the load that is applied to every cylinder first after the zero readings are taken. The upper loading stress = a =
3
So for the basic stress b, the applied load = = 0.5 (75)2 = 8835 = 8.8
(Equation 5.3)
So for example, for cylinders H.1.CY.A and H.2.CY.A, The average failure load of H.1.CU.A, H.2.CU.A and H.3.CU.A = Therefore, the compressive strength = 363BE (CEng) Project
432.13 103 100 100 416.66+345.72+534 3
= 43.21 /2
= 432.13
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a =
And the load applied in order to achieve the upper loading stress is = 14.40 (75)2 = 254544 = 254.54
43.21 3
= 14.40 /2 ,
This Load will be applied to cylinders H.1.CY.A and H.2.CY.A.
5.2 The Modulus of Elasticity

Full results for the modulus of elasticity tests are provided in the appendix. The value of the modulus of elasticity of a cylinder was obtained using the following method: Take, for example, cylinder B.6.CY.O. The raw data recorded in the laboratory is provided in Table 5.1. Elasticity test for Cylinder B.6.CY.O raw data Demec reading Demec set 1 2993 2994 2908 2985 2889 2987 2956 2939 2920 2895
Load (kN) 0 b = 8.83 a = 211.46 b = 8.83 a = 211.46 b = 8.83 50 100 150 a = 211.46
Demec set 2 3522 3530 3442 3532 3438 3521 3519 3497 3461 3442
Table 5.1 Raw data recorded in the laboratory The green shaded row is the initial zero readings taken before loading began. The blue area of the table is the preloading cycle stage of the testing, and the orange shaded area is the results that will be analysed to gain a value for the modulus of elasticity.
5.2.1 Microsoft excel program

Due to the fact that a large number of demec readings were taken, an excel program (shown in Figure 5.1) was designed and used to convert the demec readings in to strains in order to increase efficiency and save time. After the raw data is entered, the program automatically converts the loads in to stresses, gains an average value for the strain readings, and converts the average strain into the stress via the calculations as outlined below. The program plots the values of stress and strain on the graph, again automatically, and gives the gradient of the line which will in turn be used to calculate the modulus of elasticity as outlined later in this chapter.
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Figure 5.1 The Microsoft Excel program used to plot the stress strain curve Using the excel program Table 5.2 was obtained.
Load (kN) 0 8.83 50 100 150 211.46
Elasticity test for Cylinder B.6.CY.O stress-strain table Stress Demec Strain Demec Strain (N/mm^2) reading 1 x 104 reading 2 x 104 0 2993 2987 2956 2939 2920 2895 0 3522 3521 3519 3497 3461 3442 0.50 2.83 5.66 8.49 11.7 -0.24 -1.49 -2.18 -2.94 -3.95
Average strain 0 0 -0.14 -0.81 -1.59 -2.70 -3.59
-0.04 -0.12 -1.01 -2.46 -3.22
Table 5.2 Excel table used to plot the stress and strain values
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5.2.2 Stress Calculation

The loads were converted to stresses in the excel program using Equation 5.4. , =

Where:
(Equation 5.4)
P = the applied load in N A = The surface area of the applied load in mm2 So, for a load of 50 kN, the stress =
50 103 752
5.2.3 Strain Calculation

Where:
= 2.83 /2 . (Equation 5.5)
d, =
demec = the difference between the demec reading at an applied load and the zero reading Demec gauge factor = 4.03 x 10-6 So, for a load of 150kN on the second set of demecs, Strain, = (3461 3522) X 4.03 x 10-6 = -2.46 x 10-4
5.2.4 Obtaining the Modulus of Elasticity

An average of the strain readings from both sets of demecs was then taken, and then plotted on the x-axis. The stresses were plotted on the Y axis and the equation for the line of best fit was recorded.
14 12 Stress N/mm^2 10 8 6 4 2 0 0
Stress-strain curve for cylinder B.6.CY.O

B.6.CY. O
-0.00005
-0.0001
y = -32366x + 0.1703
-0.00015 -0.0002 Strain
-0.00025
-0.0003
-0.00035
-0.0004
Figure 5.2 The stress-strain curve for cylinder B.6.CY.O obtained from the excel program
The equation for the graph above is y= -32366x + 0.1703. The key component of this equation is the gradient, which can be used to calculate the static modulus of elasticity and is the result of the following key Equation 5.6.
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e , = Where: F = applied force (N)
/ L/
(Equation 5.6)
A = surface area of applied force (mm2) L = the change in length (mm) Lo = the original length (mm) The gradient of 32366 corresponds to the modulus of elasticity value in GPa as follows: 32366 = 32400 MPa = 32.4 GPa So, the static modulus of elasticity in compression for the concrete cylinder B.6.CY.O is 32.4 GPa.
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6. DISCUSSION
The following chapter of this paper presents a discussion on the results of the laboratory tests with a view to comparing these results with those in previous studies and literature. An error analysis is also given, which presents a list of issues encountered during laboratory testing which may have been detrimental to the accuracy and reliability of some results.
6.1 Discussion of the Results Obtained in Relation to the Research Hypotheses

It will now be determined whether or not the research hypotheses stated in the research strategy chapter of this paper can be accepted.
6.1.1 Effect of the curing procedure on the modulus of elasticity
Graph to show comparison of elastic moduli for different curing procedures

Modulus of elasticity (GPa) 50 40 30 20 10 0 A B C D E F G H Mix Number Air Curing Water Curing Oven Curing
Figure 6.1 Graph of curing procedure results
Figure 6.1 shows a comparison for the modulus of elasticity values of each curing group for each mix of concrete. It should be noted that not all mixes were split into three different curing environments; this is largely due to the experimental design however in some instances samples were lost or failed in testing as outlined in the appendix. In most cases, water curing provided the highest values of modulus of elasticity and oven curing the lowest. This largely supports the evidence given in the literature review chapter of this paper, which may also go some way to explaining the change in elasticity based on different curing procedures. The concrete that was cured at high temperatures was likely to have developed some plastic cracking as a result of water evaporation, therefore decreasing its strength and elasticity in testing. The reason as to why the water cured concrete normally had the highest elasticity value is due to the prevention of self-desiccation by the constant presence of external water in the curing tanks. Some mixes, for example B,E and G showed slightly anomalous results in the context of curing procedures; however, these anomalies may be explained by the errors caused by the defects in individual samples as outlined in the error analysis later in this section. Further to this, the inconsistencies in the results for mixes B,E and G are not of significant magnitude to refute current theories. 363BE (CEng) Project 24 19th April 2013
Moduli of elasticity results in terms of the curing procedure (excluding superplasticiser mixes) Air curing 26.10 Gpa Water Curing 28.11 GPa Oven Curing 19.79 Gpa Table 6.1 Curing procedure results Based on the results outlined in Figure 6.1 and Table 6.1 it can be concluded that the experimental work carried out in this research supports the research hypothesis, Water cured concrete will give the highest modulus of elasticity and concrete cured at high temperatures will give the lowest value for the modulus of elasticity and therefore this hypothesis can be accepted.
6.1.2 Effect of the use of superplasticiser on the modulus of elasticity
Graph to show comparison of average elastic moduli for different admixture contents
Average modulus of elasticity (GPa) 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Superplasticiser Admixture Contents Admixture-Free
Figure 6.2 Graph of superplasticiser results Figure 6.2 shows the extent to which the modulus of elasticity values are significantly higher for the mixes that contained superplasticiser. The water-cement ratios were also significantly reduced for no reduction in workability of these mixes. The results displayed above support the claim that using superplasticiser is most beneficial for high strength concrete (Wilby 1991), as the concrete mixes that used this admixture had significantly higher results for the compressive strength as well as the modulus of elasticity. Wilbys (1991) claim that the water content can also be reduced for no reduction in workability has also been backed by this research, as the workability of mixes C and F was fairly high at 180mm and 190mm respectively despite the fairly low watercement ratios of 0.27 and 0.29. Whilst these results are fairly conclusive, it should be noted that only one brand of superplasticiser was used in these mixes. In retrospect, different types of superplasticiser could have been utilised in order to gain a more detailed understanding of the way in which this admixture affects the elasticity of concrete.
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6.1.3 Effect of the coarse aggregate type on the modulus of elasticity

Figure 6.3 shows that the mixes that contained gravel and granite as coarse aggregate material had very similar moduli of elasticity of 22.36 GPa and 23.84 GPa respectively, whilst the polar white chippings mix had a comparatively high elasticity value of 31.12 GPa. This evidence does not support the research hypothesis that The use of 10mm crushed granite as coarse aggregate material will produce the highest modulus of elasticity, and the 10mm polar white chippings will produce the lowest value for the modulus of elasticity and therefore this hypotheses cannot be accepted. One major source of inaccuracy concerned with this test parameter is the amount of gravel mixes is significantly higher than the amount of mixes that used the other two aggregate types. Six of the eight mixes had gravel as coarse aggregate whereas granite and polar whites were only used in one mix each. If more mixes were designed with granite and polar whites, then an average value for the modulus of elasticity could be obtained which would greatly increase the accuracy of this set of results.
Graph to show comparison of average elastic moduli for different coarse aggregate types
Average modulus of elasticity (GPa) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Gravel Granite Coarse aggregate type Polar whites
Figure 6.3 Graph of coarse aggregate type results
6.1.4 Effect of the fine-coarse aggregate ratio on the modulus of elasticity

Table 6.2 shows that the modulus of elasticity for the mixes that had a fines-coarse aggregate ratio of 0.25 was slightly higher at 27.17 GPa than those with a ratio of 1 at 26.20 GPa. As predicted, the elasticity of a high coarse aggregate content is higher than that of a low coarse aggregate content; however, the result does not show a particularly large difference between the two elasticity values and therefore a clear conclusion cannot be derived on the basis of this research. Moduli of elasticity results in terms of the fines-coarse aggregate ratio Average elastic modulus for the mixes with a 27.17 GPa fines/coarse aggregate ratio of 0.25 Average elastic modulus for the mixes with a 26.20 GPa fines/coarse aggregate ratio of 1 Table 6.2 Fine-coarse ratio results Further to this, the Figure 6.4 shows that the relationship described above is not true across all of the concrete samples. For example, despite them having similar water content, the elasticity of mix F was slightly higher than that of mix C even though mix F had a higher coarse aggregate content. Because of the evidence outlined in the discussion on this testing parameter, the hypothesis the modulus of elasticity will increase for an increase in coarse aggregate content cannot be accepted. 363BE (CEng) Project 26 19th April 2013
Graph to show comparison of elastic moduli for different fine-coarse aggregate ratios, at the same water content.
Modulus of elasticity (GPa) 40 30 20 10 0 AD HE Mix Number CF Fines/Coarse = 20/80 Fines/Coarse = 50/50
Figure 6.4 Graph of fine-coarse ratio results
6.1.5 Effect of a high and low water content on the modulus of elasticity
Figure 6.5 shows conclusive evidence that leads to the acceptance of the hypothesis The modulus of elasticity will increase as the water-cement ratio is decreased. As expected, the results conform to the evidence given in previous research and as outlined in the literature review, that the lower the water content, the higher the compressive strength and therefore the modulus of elasticity. This does not however, mean that a low water content should always be adopted in concrete mix design as the required workability of a mix must also be considered.
Average modulus of elasticity (GPa)
30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Graph to show comparison of elastic moduli for high and low water contents, for the same fine/coarse aggregate ratio
High w/c (approx 0.5) Low w/c (approx 0.39) AB DG
Mix Number
Figure 6.5 Graph of water contents results
6.1.6 General findings on the values of the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity
Across all the concrete mixes, the average value of the modulus of elasticity was found to be 25.78 GPa. Engineering Toolbox (n.d) outlines the average value of modulus of elasticity for concrete as 30 GPa. The reason for the difference between these two values is likely to be explained by the errors in concrete mixing outlined in the error analysis part of this discussion. Due to the fact that this difference between the two values is only 4.22 GPa the value obtained is still an acceptable one. 363BE (CEng) Project 27 19th April 2013
In terms of the compressive strength, an average value of 44.5 MPa was obtained from all concrete samples. This is slightly higher than the average value of 40 MPa (Engineering toolbox n.d) however not significant enough to void the research.
6.1.7 Investigating the relationship between the compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity
40 35 Modulus of Elasticity (Gpa) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0
Theoretical and experimental elasticity-strength relationships for all mixes
E BG A D
Experimental Theoretical
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Figure 6.6 Graph of elasticity-strength relationship As discussed in the literature review there are numerous formulae that give a proposed relationship between the compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity of concrete. For the purposes of these results, the Equation 2.2 ( = 3.65 ) will be used as it describes a more simplistic relationship than many other equations. The difference between this theoretical relationship as described in Equation 2.2, and the actual experimental relationship can be observed in Figure 6.6. Whilst both trend lines are indicative of a positive correlation between the modulus of elasticity and compressive strength, the theoretical relationship shows a smaller increase in the elasticity values per unit of compressive strength. The most obvious reason for this difference is the fact that only 8 mixes of a certain type of concrete were produced in this experiment, whereas it is likely that proposed formulas such as Equation 2.1 and 2.2 will have been formulated from massive amounts of data. Figure 6.7 is used to show how this relationship in Equation 2.2 and others of similar nature are dependent on environmental factors such as the curing procedure of the concrete. The gradient of the trend lines are similar, which shows how the overall relationship is valid, however the elasticity values are slightly altered due to experimental design factors. It should also be noted how the plotted points for the water and oven cured concrete are not completely linear (there are one or two anomalies for each) further increasing the necessity for numerous samples to be tested in order to gain an average value.
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Graph to show the difference between the experimental and theoretical relationship between strength and elasticity for different curing types
Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Compressive Strength (MPa) Theoretical Water Cured Oven Cured
Figure 6.7 Graph of elasticity-strength relationship for different curing types
6.2 Error analysis and issues encountered in laboratory testing

The following presents a list of the errors and issues during the laboratory experimentation that may have caused a reduction in the accuracy, and therefore validity of the results. Some constituent materials may have been lost in the transportation between the scales and mixing drum. Further to this, due to wetness of some buckets it is likely than grainy materials such as the fine aggregate or cement may have been stuck to the base of the bucket thus causing a slight inaccuracy of the mix design. The aggregate material has a slight water content on the surface of each grain and water is absorbed within the grains themselves. This adds to the water content of the mix and therefore the water-cement ratio may be slightly inaccurate. In producing the first two mixes, some mistakes were made in terms of the procedure of mixing concrete due to personal inexperience of the tester and the steep learning curve associated with the production of construction materials. Some samples were rendered unusable due to errors in compaction. In some cases the wet concrete in the moulds was not vibrated or tamped properly, and upon demoulding it was found that the presence of air voids was unacceptably high. Further to this, improper compaction may have caused a slight inaccuracy in the results of the some of the samples that were tested for example cube F.5.CU.O displayed in Figure 6.8.
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Figure 6.8 Cube F.5.CU.O has not been compacted properly during the moulding process explaining the numerous voids Some samples were misplaced in the water curing tanks, therefore for some tests there were less samples than originally planned. During testing, as shown in Figure 6.9 some cracks developed at the ends of the cylinder samples. This could be due to the inconsistency of the setting meaning that some coarse aggregate may have slightly sunk in the moulds, leaving only water-cement paste at the top of the cylinders which has a lower compressive strength. Occasionally, cracking would cause the loss of a demec and therefore only one set of demecs could be measured, further decreasing accuracy.
Figure 6.9 Cracking has occurred at the base of the cylinder The demec gauge could have caused a slight inaccuracy in the strain readings due to the fact that the digital reading slightly changed if the gauge was given a slight tilt whilst fixed into the demecs. Further to this, a problem was found with the gauge reader in the latter stages of elasticity testing, a slightly loose screw caused a change of up to 0.25 mm if the gauge was nudged slightly; however, this problem was noticed early and the gauge was fixed. The placing of demecs was in one or two cases slightly misaligned where they should have been parallel to the length of the cylinder; this may have caused a very small inaccuracy in demec readings.
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A small number of cylinders were lost as they failed in testing. Figure 6.10 shows cylinder C.2.CY.A failed in shear whilst being tested, possibly due to compaction issues in the mixing stage as outlined earlier in this error analysis.
Figure 6.10 Cylinder C.2.CY.A failed prematurely in testing
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7. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents a conclusion of this research as related to the original objectives, where any significant findings will be presented. A recommendation for future research to further investigate the modulus of elasticity of concrete is also provided.
7.1 Conclusions
In the laboratory, eight concrete mixes were created and a total of sixty 100x100mm cubes and thirtyseven 150x300 mm cylinders were tested for the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity respectively. The results were recorded and are presented in the results, discussion and appendix chapters of this paper. The following conclusions can be made based on the findings of this research: 1. The proportion of fine aggregate to coarse aggregate does not have a significant effect on the modulus of elasticity of concrete, however it can be concluded that the properties of the coarse aggregate contributes more to the strength and elasticity than those of the fine aggregate 2. The curing process of concrete has a significant effect on both the compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity. Wet curing is the curing condition that gives the most preferable strength and elasticity values, whereas curing at high temperatures should be avoided as it is detrimental to the strength and elasticity of concrete. 3. The use of chemical admixtures such as superplasticiser is highly significant in terms of increasing the modulus of elasticity of concrete. Superplasticiser can also decrease the water content greatly for no reduction in workability. 4. The water-cement ratio is the most significant mix property in terms of dictating the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity. Within reasonable limits, the higher the water-cement ratio, the lower the strength and elasticity. 5. The coarse aggregate type has a measurable effect on the elasticity of concrete however it is not the most important factor in the mix design in terms of the modulus of elasticity. 6. There are numerous formulae that propose a relationship between elasticity and strength of concrete, whilst these are mostly valid, environmental factors can alter this proportionality.
7.2 Recommendations for Future Research

There are many more test parameters that can be adopted in order to further investigate the modulus of elasticity of concrete. Firstly, the cement-aggregate ratio was kept constant throughout all the mixes for the purposes of this research and therefore in future experiments, this is a mix property that can be adjusted. This study demonstrated how the use of chemical admixtures such as superplasticiser has a great effect on the properties of concrete; however, this was the only admixture that was used to test this effect, and therefore it is worth conducting a more thorough investigation in this field. Another constant in this research was the curing time of the concrete samples which was left at 28 days, therefore a future study could test the effect of curing time on the modulus of elasticity. This research did not focus on other sizes of coarse aggregate, other types of fine aggregate or other types of cement, all of which may be of further interest in research The concrete mixed in this study can be classified as plain or regular concrete. Further research could be carried out into other types of concrete such as high-strength or self-compacting in order to gain a more in-depth understanding of the compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity.
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LIST OF REFERENCES
Aboutcivil.org (2013) Methods of Curing Concrete - Curing types and Techniques. [online] Available at: http://www.aboutcivil.org/curing-of-concrete-types-methods.html [Accessed: 3 Apr 2013]. Alawode, O. & O.I. Idowu. (2011) Effects of Water-Cement Ratios on the Compressive Strength and Workability of Concrete and Lateritic Concrete Mixes . Pacific Journal of Science and Technology. 99-105. Blackledge, G. (1992) Concrete Practice. British Cement Association, p.33-39. British Standards Institute (1986) Specification for compression testing machines for concrete. London, British Standards Instute. British Standards Institute (1992) Specification for aggregates from natural sources for concrete.London, British Standards Institute. British Standards Institute (2002) Mixing water for concrete. London, British Standards Institute. British Standards Institute (2009) Testing Fresh Concrete. Density. London, British Standards Institute British Standards Institute (2009) Testing Fresh Concrete. Workability. London, British Standards Institute British Standards Institute (2011) Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements. London, British Standards Institute British Standards Institite (2013) Testing concrete. Methods for mixing and sampling fresh concrete in the laboratory. London, British Standards Institute Cement.org (2002) Concrete Technology | Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):Effects of high concrete temperature | Portland Cement Association (PCA). [online] Available at: http://www.cement.org/tech/faq_high_temp.asp [Accessed: 3 Apr 2013]. CFLHD (2013) Concrete defects and curing chemistry. [online] Available at: http://www.cflhd.gov/programs/techDevelopment/geotech/velocity/documents/04_chapter_2_defects_c uring_chemistry.pdf [Accessed: 3 Apr 2013]. Claisse, P. (2011) Teaching Notes. [PDF]. claisse.info, Coventry. Engineeringtoolbox.com (n.d.) Concrete Properties. [online] Available at: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/concrete-properties-d_1223.html [Accessed: 9 Apr 2013]. Farrant PDF river mining: sand and gravel resources www.bgs.ac.uk/research/international/dfidkar/CR03161N_col.pdf Gonnerman, H. and Shuman, E. (1928) Flexure and tension tests of plain concrete. Portland Cement Association. P. 9 Heidelbergcement.com (n.d.) Aggregates for construction - Hanson - HeidelbergCement in the United Kingdom. [online] Available at: http://www.heidelbergcement.com/uk/en/hanson/products/aggregates_construction/index.htm [Accessed: 11 Apr 2013]. Hurst, M. P. (1983). Formwork. London, Construction Press, p.129-134 363BE (CEng) Project 33 19th April 2013
Illston, J. M., & Domone, P. L. J. (2001). Construction materials their nature and behaviour. London, Spon Press Kimpiab, G. (2011) Investigation of concrete elastic modulus for various aggregate types. 3. Coventry University. Kong, F. K., & Evans, R. H. (1987). Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete. Wokingham, Van Nostrand Reinhold. Kosmatka, S. H., & Panarese, W. C. (1988). Design and control of concrete mixtures. Skokie, Ill, Portland Cement Association. P.219-228 Longrakespar.co.uk (2010) LONG RAKE SPAR - Products > Gravel & Chippings. [online] Available at: http://www.longrakespar.co.uk/list.php?pageNum_recProducts=1&totalRows_recProducts=33&cat=1 [Accessed: 11 Apr 2013]. Macginley, T. J., & Choo, B. S. (1990). Reinforced concrete: design theory and examples. London, E & FN Spon. Macgregor, J. and Wight, J. (2005) Reinforced concrete mechanics and design. 4th ed. Singapore: Pearson. Mayes.co.uk (n.d.) Mayes Instuments. [online] Available at: http://mayes.co.uk [Accessed: 11 Apr 2013]. Mosley, W. H., & Bungey, J. H. (1987). Reinforced concrete design. Basingstoke [u.a.], Macmillan Mosley, W. H., Bungey, J. H., & Hulse, R. (1996). Reinforced concrete design to Eurocode 2 (EC2). Basingstoke [u.a.], Macmillan. Murdock, L. J., Brook, K. M., & Dewar, J. D. (1991). Concrete materials and practice. London, Edward Arnold. National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (2000) CIP 11 - Curing in-place concrete. [online] Available at: http://www.nrmca.org/aboutconcrete/cips/11p.pdf [Accessed: 3 Apr 2013]. Neville, A. (1995) Properties of Concrete. 4th ed. London: Longman Group. Nilson, A. H., Darwin, D., & Dolan, C. W. (2011). Design of concrete structures: SI version. New York, McGraw-Hill Higher Education Perkins, P. (1997) Repair, protection and waterproofing of concrete structures. 3rd ed. London: E. & F.N. Spon. , p.24. PY, P. (2009) Fosroc International - Superplasticisers. [online] Available at: http://www.fosroc.com/Products/Cement_and_Concrete_Technology/Admixtures.aspx [Accessed: 11 Apr 2013]. Ramachandran, V. S., Feldman, R. F., & Beaudoin, J. J. (1981). Concrete science: treatise on current research. London, Heyden. Specialistaggregates.com (2000) Polar White Chippings - Large - Pallet Delivery - Landscape Centre Specialist Aggregates Ltd. [online] Available at: http://www.specialistaggregates.com/polar-whitechippings-large-p-516.html [Accessed: 2 Apr 2013]. Swamy, R. (1983) New concrete materials. Glasgow: Blackie & Son Ltd, p.98, 108-109.
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Taylor, G. D., & Taylor, G. D. (2002). Materials in construction: principles, practice and performance. Harlow, Essex, England, Longman, p.230, 302 Wilby, C. B., & Wilby, C. B. (1991). Concrete materials and structures: a university civil engineering text. Cambridge [England], Cambridge University Press, p26 .
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APPENDIX
MIX A Information
Date mixed Date tested Slump Number of samples tested
Water Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Total mass Water/cement ratio Fines/Coarse ratio One cube misplaced
Cubes 8 Mix Design 9.5kg 19.5kg 15.4kg 61.6kg 106kg Mix proportions 0.49 0.25 Notes
2/11/12 1/12/12 >200mm Cylinders 6
Total 15
Table A.1
Cubes 9 Mix Design Water 7.7kg Cement 19.3kg Fine Aggregate 15.4kg Coarse Aggregate 61.6kg Total mass 104kg Mix proportions Water/cement ratio 0.40 Fines/Coarse ratio 0.25 Notes One cylinder lost due to de-moulding issues Planned number of samples: 15 Table A.2
MIX B Information
6/11/12 5/12/12 110mm Cylinders 5
Total 14
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Cubes 3 Mix Design Water 3.8kg Cement 13.9kg Fine Aggregate 11.1kg Coarse Aggregate 44.5kg Superplasticiser 100ml Total mass 73.3kg Mix proportions Water/cement ratio 0.27 Fines/Coarse ratio 0.25 Notes 3 cubes were lost due to compaction problems 2 cylinders were lost due to compaction problems 1 cylinder failed prematurely in the modulus of elasticity test Planned number of samples: 10 Table A.3 MIX D Information Date mixed Date tested Slump Number of samples tested
MIX C Information
31/1/13 1/03/13 190mm Cylinders 1
Total 4
Cubes Total 9 13 Mix Design Water 8.2kg Cement 16.4kg Fine Aggregate 41kg Coarse Aggregate 41kg Total mass 106.6kg Mix proportions Water/cement ratio 0.50 Fines/Coarse ratio 1 Notes Results for two cylinders invalidated due to error in calculation of upper loading stress Planned number of samples:15 Table A.4
24/1/13 22/2/13 180mm Cylinders 4
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MIX E Information
Water Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Total mass Water/cement ratio Fines/Coarse ratio One cylinder misplaced Planned number of samples: 15
Cubes 9 Mix Design 7.7kg 16.4kg 38.5kg 38.5kg 101.1kg Mix proportions 0.47 1 Notes
25/1/13 25/2/13 170mm Cylinders 5
Total 14
Table A.5
Cubes 4 Mix Design Water 5.5kg Cement 13.4kg Fine Aggregate 27kg Coarse Aggregate 27kg Superplasticiser 80ml Total mass 72.9kg Mix proportions Water/cement ratio 0.29 Fines/Coarse ratio 1 Notes 2 cubes failed prematurely in testing Planned number of samples: 10 Table A.6
MIX F Information
14/2/13 15/3/13 160mm Cylinders 4
Total 8
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Cubes 9 Mix Design Water 7.7kg Cement 19.3kg Fine Aggregate 15.4kg Coarse Aggregate 61.6kg Total mass 104kg Mix proportions Water/cement ratio 0.40 Fines/Coarse ratio 0.25 Notes 10mm crushed granite used as coarse aggregate Table A.7
MIX G Information
19/2/13 20/3/13 100mm Cylinders 6
Total 15
Cubes 9 Mix Design Water 9.5kg Cement 19.3kg Fine Aggregate 15.4kg Coarse Aggregate 61.6kg Total mass 105.8kg Mix proportions Water/cement ratio 0.40 Fines/Coarse ratio 0.25 Notes 10mm polar white chippings used as coarse aggregate Table A.8
MIX H Information
20/2/13 20/3/13 170mm Cylinders 6
Total 15
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MODULUS OF ELASTICITY TEST RESULTS

Sample A.1.CY.A A.2. CY.A A.3.CY.W A.4.CY.W A.5.CY.O A.6.CY.O B.1.CY.A B.2.CY.A B.4.CY.W B.5.CY.O B.6.CY.O C.1.CY.A D.3.CY.W D.4.CY.W D.5.CY.O D.6.CY.O E.1.CY.A E.2.CY.A E.4.CY.W E.5.CY.O E.6.CY.O F.1.CY.A F.2.CY.A F.3.CY.O F.4.CY.O G.1.CY.A G.2.CY.A G.3.CY.W G.4.CY.W G.5.CY.O G.6.CY.O H.1.CY.A H.2.CY.A H.3.CY.W H.4.CY.W H.5.CY.O H.6.CY.O Table A.9 Modulus of Elasticity Average per set (GPa) (GPa) 15.96 18.45 20.93 17.89 20.79 23.68 17.33 16.52 15.70 21.10 25.58 30.06 31.82 31.82 26.00 29.18 32.37 34.25 34.25 23.30 25.88 28.46 13.98 12.56 11.14 30.37 29.07 27.77 27.66 27.66 18.76 16.02 13.28 32.21 35.74 39.27 39.07 35.89 32.70 25.55 29.04 32.53 22.00 22.99 23.98 16.82 19.48 22.14 22.58 28.37 34.15 39.49 39.50 39.51 23.27 25.49 27.70 Average per mix (GPa)
18.58
28.27
34.25 19.22
23.57
35.81
23.84
31.12
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COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST RESULTS

Sample A.1.CU.A A.2.CU.A A.3.CU.A A.4.CU.W A.6.CU.W A.7.CU.O A.8.CU.O A.9.CU.O B.1.CU.A B.2.CU.A B.3.CU.A B.4.CU.W B.5.CU.W B.6.CU.W B.7.CU.O B.7.CU.O B.9.CU.O C.1.CU.A C.2.CU.A C.3.CU.A D.1.CU.A D.2.CU.A D.3.CU.A D.4.CU.A D.5.CU.A D.6.CU.A D.7.CU.O D.8.CU.O D.9.CU.O E.1.CU.A E.2.CU.A E.3.CU.A E.4.CU.W E.5.CU.W E.6.CU.W E.7.CU.O E.8.CU.O E.9.CU.O F.1.CU.A F.2.CU.A F.3.CU.A F.4.CU.O G.1.CU.A G.2.CU.A G.3.CU.A G.4.CU.W G.5.CU.W G.6.CU.W 363BE (CEng) Project Failure load (kN) 177.81 252.44 216.56 335.06 331.31 138.88 206.50 222.87 599.44 419.25 491.56 383.75 455.44 501.75 316.13 373.12 387.75 709.94 751.12 566.25 303.69 303.00 311.44 489.81 487.87 459.50 248.75 242.38 261.12 437.50 404.75 424.06 582.25 557.69 584.37 376.00 366.81 379.73 659.56 648.63 656.75 386.04 459.56 368.56 476.37 623.75 597.19 606.69 Failure (MPa) 17.78 25.24 21.66 33.50 33.13 13.89 20.65 22.29 59.94 41.93 49.76 38.38 45.54 50.18 31.61 37.31 38.78 70.99 75.11 56.63 30.37 30.30 31.14 48.98 48.79 45.95 24.88 24.24 26.11 43.75 40.48 42.41 58.23 55.77 58.44 37.60 36.68 37.97 65.96 64.86 65.68 38.60 45.96 36.86 47.64 62.38 59.72 60.67 41 Stress Average per set Average per mix (Mpa) (MPa) 21.56 33.32 23.52
18.94
50.34 43.65
44.70
35.9
67.57
67.57
30.70 34.56
47.91
25.08
42.20
57.48
45.7
37.42
65.50 38.6 43.48
58.78
47.96
60.94
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G.7.CU.O G.8.CU.O G.9.CU.O H.1.CU.A H.2.CU.A H.3.CU.A H.4.CU.W H.5.CU.W H.6.CU.W H.7.CU.O H.8.CU.O H.9.CU.O Table A.10
415.75 371.31 396.62 416.66 345.72 534 721.72 733.97 774.16 474.41 477.97 509.35
41.58 37.13 39.66 41.67 34.57 53.40 72.17 73.40 77.42 47.44 47.80 50.94
39.45
43.12
74.30
55.38
48.72
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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECT RISK ASSESSMENT
Person(s) undertaking project: Project supervisor:
Daniel Ellis Mr E Coakley
Brief outline of project:
An investigation into the modulus of elasticity of concrete.
Outline the types of activities Lab work to be carried out in order to mix and test the concrete that will take place or items samples. fabricated i.e. face to face interviews, public surveys, water sampling, machining vehicle parts, brazing etc.
Dates of study (from to) Location(s) of activity: Country and specific area.
10/12 to 4/13 John Laing Building, Coventry University, UK
Will the project involve laboratory work? If yes, you will be required to complete separate risk assessment(s) prior to carrying out any laboratory work. Will the project involve workshop work? If yes, you will be required to complete an induction and may carry out a separate risk assessment(s) prior to carrying out any workshop work.
Yes
No
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PLEASE USE THE HAZARD CHECKLIST AS A GUIDE WHEN COMPLETING THIS SECTION.
Hazard
Work factors: E.g.: dealing with the public, interviewing on sensitive issues, lone working, driving, working on boats, laboratory work; biological, chemical hazards etc
Precautions to be used
Laboratory work is required as a part of this project, and will involve gathering the constituent concrete materials along with mixing, casting, remoulding, curing and then finally testing the concrete sample under compression. It is essential that throughout the duration of the laboratory work, supervision is made readily available in the event that a particular task requires more than one individual (eg. lifting heavy objects, technical advice or guidance concerning the proper use of machinery). One of the regulations monitored by the Coventry university lab staff is the appropriate use of PPE equipment, especially with steel-capped boots. A full breakdown of the necessary precautions that will need to be taken when it comes to the proper use of equipment and machinery is detailed below. Further to this, it is important that the risk involved with a confined working space is
Equipment: E.g.: operation of machinery, use of specialist equipment, manual handling/transportation, compressed gases, etc
The large concrete mixer will need to be used often throughout the duration of the lab work. The lid must be fully closed when concrete is being mixed, and the extractor fan turned on when dust is released. When the mixing tank is being moved, steel capped boots are essential to avoid injury when the tank is set down. The vibrating table is used in order to set the concrete evenly once the casts have been filled. It is essential to stand well back after the table has begun vibrating, as it is not uncommon for objects to fall off the side of the surface (to avoid this, ensure all samples are placed away from the tables edges). Gloves should be worn when dealing with fresh concrete to avoid the mixture from hardening on skin. There is a risk associated with the oven curing procedure due to exposure to high temperature; therefore gloves with the appropriate resistance must be worn when the oven is being loaded. Steel capped boots are imperative when the slump cone is being used. The proper precautions are also vital while using the compression testing machine. A screen should be placed in front of the sample to avoid debris being dispelled from the concrete sample in the event of failure under compression. For this reason, goggles should also be worn.
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AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE

363BE (CEng) Project

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363BE (CEng) Project

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363BE (CEng) Project

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363BE (CEng) Project

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363BE (CEng) Project

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1.4 Research Approach

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2.1 Modulus of Elasticity

2.2 Compressive Strength

2.2.1 Relationship between the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity

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2.3 Effect of the Aggregate Material

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2.4 Effect of the Curing Process

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2.5 Effect of the Water-Cement Ratio

2.6 Effect of Superplasticiser

2.7 Conclusion of Literature Review

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3.1 Experimental design concept

3.2 Development of Testing Parameters and Constants

3.2.1 Ratio of fine-coarse aggregates

3.2.2 Water content

3.2.3 Curing environment

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3.2.4 Type of coarse aggregate

3.3 Mix properties

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3.3 Research Hypotheses

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4.1 Materials List

4.1.1 Concrete preparation materials

4.1.2 Hardened Concrete Testing Materials

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4.2 Experimental Method

4.2.1 Designing a Mix

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Table 4.1 Calculation of mix quantities

Therefore the total mix properties for Mix B are:

Water Cement Fines Coarse

7.7 kg 19.3 kg 15.4 kg 61.6 kg

4.2.2 Preparing the samples

363BE (CEng) Project

4.2.3 Testing the Cubes for Compressive Strength

363BE (CEng) Project