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Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis
Dr. Malek Mouhoub
Computer Science Department University of Regina Fall 2010
Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010
1. Algorithm Analysis
1. Algorithm Analysis
1.1 Mathematics Review 1.2 Introduction to Algorithm Analysis 1.3 Asymptotic notation and Growth of functions 1.4 Case Study 1.5 Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis
1.1 Mathematics Review
Exponents XA XB XA XB (X A )B XN + XN 2N + 2N X A+ B X A B X AB 2N +1
= = = =
= 2 X N = X 2N
Logarithms By default, logarithms used in this course are to the base 2. X A = B logX B = A logA B =
logC B logC A ,
A, B, C > 0, A = 1
log AB = log A + log B ; A, B > 0 log A/B = log A log B log (AB ) = B log A log X < X X > 0 log 1 = 0, log 2 = 1, log 1, 024 =
, log 1, 048, 576 =

4
Summations
N i=1
ai = a1 + a2 + + aN
N i=1
limN Linearity

N i=1 N i=1
ai =
i=1
ai = a1 + a2 + (innite sum)
N i=1 N i=1
(cai + dbi ) = c (f (i)) = (

N
ai + d
bi
i=1
f (i))
General algebraic manipulations :

N i=1 N i=n0
f (N ) = N f (N ) f (i) =
N i=1
f (i)
n0 1 i=1
f (i)
Summations
Geometric series :
if 0
N i=0
Ai =
AN +1 1 A 1 N i=0
< A < 1 then
Ai
1 1 A
Arithmetic series :

N i=1 N i=1 N i=1
i=
N (N +1) 2
N 2 +N 2
N2 2
i2 = ik
N (N +1)(2N +1) 6 N k+1 |k+1|
N3 3
k = 1
N 1 i=1 i
if k = 1 then HN =
loge N
error in approx : 0, 57721566
Products
N i=1
ai = a1 a2 aN
N i=1
log(
ai ) =
N i=1
log ai
Proving statements
Proof by induction
1. Proving a base case : establishing that a theorem is true for some small values. 2. Inductive hypothesis : the theorem is assumed to be true for all cases up to some limit
k.
3. Given this assumption, show that the theorem is true for k
+1
Proof by Counter example : nd an example showing that the theorem is not true. Proof by Contradiction : Assuming that the theorem is false and showing that this
assumption implies that some known property is false, and hence the original assumption was erroneous.
1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis
Boss gives the following problem to Mr Dupont, a fresh hired BSc in computer science (to test him . . . or may be just for fun) :
T (1) T (2)
What is T (100) ?
= 3 = 10
T (n) = 2T (n 1) T (n 2)
Mr Dupont decides to directly code a recursive function tfn, in Java, to solve the problem : if (n==1) { return 3; } else if (n==2) {return 10;} else { return 2 tfn(n-1) - tfn(n-2); } 1. First mistake : no analysis of the problem
risk to be red !
2. Second mistake : bad choice of the programming language
increasing the risk to be red !
10
n=1 n=2 n=3 n = 35 n = 100

Mr Dupont decides then to use C : if (n==1) return 3; if (n==2) return 10; return 2 tfn(n-1) - tfn(n-2);
3 10 17
it takes 4.19 seconds waits . . . and then kills the program !
n = 35 n = 50
it takes only 1.25 seconds waits and then kills the program !
11
Finally, Mr Dupont decides to (experimentally) analyze the problem : he times both programs and plots the results.
100
seconds
10
Java C
0.1 25 30 35 40
It seems that each time n increases by 1 the time increases by 1.62. At n the C program took 13.79 seconds, so for n
= 40
= 100 he estimates :
13.79 1.6260 1, 627, 995 years!!!
12
Mr Dupont remembers he has seen this kind of problem in one

of the courses he has taken (data structures course).
After consulting his course notes, Mr Dupont decides to use

Dynamic Programming : int t[n+1]; t[1]=3; t[2]=10; for(i=3;i=n;i++) t[i] = 2 t[i-1] - t[i-2]; return t[n];
13
This solution provides a much better complexity in time but despite of the space complexity :
n = 100 takes only a fraction of a second, but for n = 10, 000, 000 (a test that may make the boss happy . . . if it succeeds) a segmentation fault occurs. Too much
memory required.
14
Mr Dupont analyses the problem again :

there is no reason to keep all the values, only the last 2 : if (n==1) return 3; last = 3; current = 10; for (i=3;i<=n;i++) { temp = current; current = 2current - last; last = temp; } return current; At n = 100,000,000 it takes 3.00 seconds At n = 200,000,000 it takes 5,99 seconds at n = 300,000,000 it takes 8.99 seconds
15
How to solve such problems ? 1. Analyze the problem on paper in order to nd an efcient algorithm in terms of time and memory space complexity. (a) First look at the problem :
T (1) T (2) T (3) T (4) T (5)

Each step increases the result by 7. (b) Guess :
= = = = =
3 10 17 24 31
T (n) = 7n 4
return 7n-4
(c) Proof by induction 2. Code :
16
An algorithm analyst might ask : 1. What makes the rst program so slow ? 2. How fast are the 3 programs asymptotically ? 3. Is the last version really the ultimate solution ?
17
Let us look at the recursion tree for the rst program at n=4.
4 3 2 1 2
Here each circle represents one call to the routine tfn. So, for n=4 there are 5 such calls. In general, a call to tfn(n) requires a recursive call to tfn(n-1)(represented by the shaded region on the left) and a call to tfn(n-2)(shaded region on the right).
18
If we let f (n) represent the number of calls to compute T (n), then :
f (n) f (1)
= =
f (n 1) + f (n 2) + 1 f (2) = 1
This is a version of the famous Fibonacci recurrence. It is known that f (n)
1.618n .
This agrees very well with the times we presented earlier where each increase of n by 1 increases the time by a factor of a little under 1.62. We say such growth is exponential with asymptotic growth rate O (1.618 This answers question (1).
n
).
19
In the second and third program there was a loop
for (i=3;i<=n;i++)
This loop contained two or three assignments, a multiplication and a subtraction. We say such a loop takes O (n) time. This means that running time is proportional to n. Recall that increasing n from 100 million to 300 million increased the time from approximately 3 to approximately 9 seconds. The last program has one multiplication and one subtraction and takes O (1) or constant time. This answers question (2).
20
The answer to the last question is also NO. If the boss asked for
T (123456789879876543215566340014733134213)
we would get integer overow on most computers.
Switching to a oating point representation would be of no value

since we need to maintain all the signicant digits in our results.
The only alternative is to use a method to represent and

manipulate large integers.
21
A natural way to represent a large integer is to use an array of

integers, where each array slot stores one digit.
The addition and subtraction require a linear-time algorithm. A simple algorithm for multiplication requires a quadratic-time
cost.
22
The third question, is the last program the ultimate solution, is more of a computer science question. A Computer Scientist might ask : 1. How do you justify counting function calls in the rst case, counting array assignments in the second case, counting variable assignments in the third, and counting arithmetic operations in the last ? 2. Is it really true that you can multiply two arbitrary large numbers together in constant time ? 3. Is the last program really the ultimate one ?
23
CS questions with an engineering orientation :
What general techniques can we use to solve computational

problems ?
What data structures are best, and in what situations ? Which models should we use to analyze algorithms in practice ? When trying to improve the efciency of a given program, which
aspects should we focus on rst ?
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1.3 Asymptotic notation and Growth of functions
Running time of an algorithm almost always depends on the

amount of input : more inputs means more time. Thus the running time T , is a function of the amount of input, N , or
T (N ) = f (N ) where N is in general a natural number. The exact value of the function depends on :
the speed of the machine; the quality of the compiler and optimizer; the quality of the program that implements the algorithm; the basic fundamentals of the algorithm
Typically, the last item is most important.

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010 25
Worst-case versus Average-case
Worst-case running time is a bound over all inputs of a certain size N . (Guarantee) Average-case running time is an average over all inputs of a certain size N . (Prediction)
26
-notation
For a given function g (n), we denote by (g (n)) the set of functions
(g (n)) = {f (n) : c1 , c2 , and n0 such that 0 c1 g (n) f (n) c2 g (n) for all n n0 }
We say that g (n) is an asymptotically tight bound for f (n). Example : The running time of insertion sort is T (n)
= (n2 ).
27
-notation
For a given function g (n), we denote by (g (n)) the set of functions :
(g (n)) = {f (n) : c and n0 such that 0 cg (n) f (n) for all n n0 }

We say that g (n) is an asymptotic lower bound for f (n).
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Big-Oh notation For a given function g (n), we denote by O (g (n)) the set of functions :
O(g (n)) = {f (n) : c and n0 such that 0 f (n) cg (n) for all n n0 }
We say that g (n) is an asymptotic upper bound for f (n). Note that O -notation is, in general, used informally to describe asymptotically tight bounds (-notation).
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Big-Oh notation
Exponential : dominant term is some constant times 2N . Cubic : dominant term is some constant times N 3 . We say O(N 3 ). Quadratic : dominant term is some constant times N 2 . We say O(N 2 ). O(N log N ) : dominant term is some constant times N log N . Linear : dominant term is some constant times N . We say O(N ). Logarithmic : dominant term is some constant times log N. Constant : c.
Note : Big-Oh ignores leading constants.
30
Dominant Term Matters
Suppose we estimate 35N 2 + N + N 3 . For N=10000 :

Actual value is 1,003,500,010,000 Estimate is 1,000,000,000,000 Error in estimate is 0.35%, which is negligible.
For large N , dominant term is usually indicative of algorithms

behavior.
For small N , dominant term is not necessarily indicative of

behavior, BUT, typically programs on small inputs run so fast we dont care anyway.
Example 1 : Computing the Minimum
Minimum item in an array

Given an array of N items, nd the smallest.
Obvious algorithm is sequential scan. Running time is O(N ) (linear) because we repeat a xed
amount of work for each element in the array.
A linear algorithm is a good as we can hope for because we

have to examine every element in the array, a process that requires linear time.
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Example 2 : Closest Points
Closest Points in the Plane

Given N points in a plane (that is, an x-y coordinate system, nd the pair of points that are closest together).
Fundamental problem in graphics. Solution : Calculate the distance between each pair of points,
and retain the minimum distance.
N (N 1)/2 pairs of points, so the algorithm is quadratic. Better algorithms that use more subtle observations are known.
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Example 3 : Co-linear Points in the Plane
Co-linear points in the plane

Given N points in the plane, determine if any three form a straight line.
Important in graphics : co-linear points introduce nasty

degenerate cases that require special handling.
Solution : enumerate all groups of three points; for each

possible triplet of three points check if the points are co-linear. This is a cubic algorithm.
34
1.4 Case Study
1.4 Case Study
Examine a problem with several different solutions.

Will look at four algorithms Some algorithms much easier to code than others. Some algorithms much easier to prove correct than others. Some algorithms much, much faster (or slower) than others.
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1.4 Case Study
The problem
Maximum Contiguous Subsequence Sum Problem

Given (possibly negative integers) A1 , A2 , . . . , AN nd (and identify the sequence corresponding to) the maximum value of (Ai
+ Ai+1 + + Aj ).
The maximum contiguous subsequence sum is zero if all the

integers are negative.
Examples :
-2, 11, -4, 13, -4, 2 1, -3, 4, -2, -1, 6
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1.4 Case Study
Brute Force Algorithm

int MaxSubSum1(const vector<int> & A) { int MaxSum =0; for (int i=0; i<A.size(); i++) for (int j=i; j <A.size();j++) { int ThisSum = 0; for (int k=i; k<=j; k++) ThisSum += A[k]; if (ThisSum > MaxSum) MaxSum = ThisSum; } return MaxSum; }
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1.4 Case Study
Analysis
Loop of size N inside of loop of size N inside of loop of size N means O (N 3 ), or cubic algorithm. Slight over-estimate that results from some loops being of size less than N is not important.
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1.4 Case Study
Actual Running time
For N = 100, actual time is 0.47 seconds on a particular

computer.
Can use this to estimate time for larger inputs : T (N ) = cN 3 T (10N ) = c(10N )3 = 1000cN 3 = 1000T (N ) Inputs size increases by a factor of 10 means that running time
increases by a factor of 1,000.
For N=1000, estimate an actual time of 470 seconds. (Actual

was 449 seconds).
For N=10,000, estimate 449000 seconds (6 days).

1.4 Case Study
How to improve
Remove a loop; not always possible. Here it is : innermost loop is unnecessary because it throws
away information.
ThisSum for next j is easily obtained from old value of ThisSum :

Need Ai
+ Ai+1 + + Aj 1 + Aj + Ai+1 + + Aj 1
Just computed Ai
What we need is what we just computed +Aj .
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1.4 Case Study
The Better Algorithm

int MaxSubSum2(const vector<int> & A) { int MaxSum = 0; for (int i=0; i < A.size(); i++) { int ThisSum =0; for (int j=i; j< A.size(); j++) { ThisSum += A[j]; if (ThisSum > MaxSum) MaxSum = ThisSum; } } return MaxSum; }
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1.4 Case Study
Analysis
Same logic as before : now the running time is quadratic, or O(N 2 ). As we will see, this algorithm is still usable for inputs in the tens
of thousands.
Recall that the cubic algorithm was not practical for this amount
of input.
42
1.4 Case Study
Actual running time
For N = 100, actual time is 0.0111 seconds on the same

particular computer.
Can use this to estimate time for larger inputs : T (N ) = cN 2 T (10N ) = c(10N )2 = 100cN 2 = 100T (N ) Inputs size increases by a factor of 10 means that running time
increases by a factor of 100.
for N = 1000, estimate a running time of 1.11

seconds. (Actual was 1.12 seconds).
For N = 10, 000, estimate 111 seconds (=actual).

1.4 Case Study
Linear Algorithms
Linear algorithm would be best. Running time is proportional to amount of input. Hard to do
better for an algorithm.
If inputs increases by a factor of ten, then so does running time.
44
1.4 Case Study
Recursive algorithm
Use a divide-and-conquer approach. The maximum subsequence either

lies entirely in the rst half lies entirely in the second half starts somewhere in the rst half, goes to the last element in the rst half, continues at the rst element in the second half, ends somewhere in the second half.
Compute all three possibilities, and use the maximum. First two possibilities easily computed recursively.
1.4 Case Study
Computing the third case

Idea :
1. Find the largest sum in the rst half, that includes the last element in the rst half. 2. Find the largest sum in the second half that includes the rst element in the second half. 3. Add the 2 sums together.
Implementation :
Easily done with two loops. For maximum sum that starts in the rst half and extends to the last element in the rst half, use a right-to-left scan starting at the last element in the rst half. For the other maximum sum, do a left-to-right scan, starting at the rst half.
46
1.4 Case Study
Analysis
Let T (N ) = the time for an algorithm to solve a problem of size N . Then T (1) = 1 (1 will be the quantum time unit; constants
dont matter).
T (N ) = 2T (N/2) + N
Two recursive calls, each of size N/2. The time to solve each recursive call is T (N/2) by the above denition. Case three takes O (N ) time; we use N , because we will throw out the constants eventually.
47
1.4 Case Study
Bottom Line
T (1) = T (2) = T (4) = T (8) = T (16) = T (32) = T (N ) =

1=11 2 T (1) + 2 = 4 = 2 2 = 21 2 2 T (2) + 4 = 12 = 4 3 = 22 3 2 T (4) + 8 = 32 = 8 4 = 23 4 2 T (8) + 16 = 80 = 16 5 = 24 5 2 T (16) + 32 = 192 = 32 6 = 25 6 2k (k + 1) = N (1 + log N ) = O(N log N )
48
T (64) = 2 T (32) + 64 = 448 = 64 7 = 26 7
1.4 Case Study
N log N Any recursive algorithm that solves two half-sized problems and
does linear non-recursive work to combine/split these solutions will always take O (N will always hold.
log N ) time because the above analysis
This is a very signicant improvement over quadratic. It is still not as good as O(N ), but is not that far away either.
There is a linear-time algorithm for this problem. The running time is clear, but the correctness is non-trivial.
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1.4 Case Study
The Linear-time algorithm
/** Linear-time maximum contiguous subsequence. sum algorithm */ int maxSubSum4( const vector<int> & a ) { /* 1*/ int maxSum = 0, thisSum = 0; /* 2*/ for( int j = 0; j < a.size( ); j++ ) { /* 3*/ thisSum += a[ j ]; /* 4*/ if( thisSum > maxSum ) /* 5*/ maxSum = thisSum; /* 6*/ else if( thisSum < 0 ) /* 7*/ thisSum = 0;} /* 8*/ return maxSum;}
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1.4 Case Study
The Logarithm
Formal Denition
For any B,
N > 0, logB N = K if B K = N
If the base B is omitted, it defaults to 2 in computer science.
Examples :

log 32 = 5 (because 25 = 32) log 1024 = 10 log 1048576 = 20 log 1billion = about 30
The logarithm grows much more slowly than N , and slower than N .
1.4 Case Study
Examples of the Logarithm Bits in a binary number : how many bits are required to represent
N consecutive integers ?
Repeated doubling : starting from X
= 1, how many times should X be doubled before it is at least as large as N ? = N , if N is repeatedly halved, how many iterations must be applied to make N smaller than or equal to 1 ? (Halving rounds up).
Repeated halving : Starting from X
Answer to all of the above is log N (rounded up).
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1.4 Case Study
Why log N
B bits represents 2B integers. Thus 2B is at least as big as N , so B is at least log N . Since B must be an integer, round up if
needed.
Same logic for the other examples.
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1.4 Case Study
Repeated Halving Principle
An algorithm is O(log N ) if it takes constant time to reduce the

problem size by a constant fraction (which is usually 1/2).
Reason : there will be log N iterations of constant work.
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1.4 Case Study
Static Searching
Given an integer X and an array A, return the position of X in A or an indicator that it is not present. If X occurs more than
once, return any occurrence. The array A is not altered.
If input array is not sorted, solution is to use a sequential

search. Running times : Unsuccessful search : Successful search :
O(N ); every item is examined.
Worst case : O(N ); every item is examined. Average case :O(N/2); half the items are examined. Can we do better if we know the array is sorted ?
1.4 Case Study
Binary Search
Yes ! use a binary search. Look in the middle :

Case 1: If X is less than the item in the middle, then look in the subarray to the left of the middle. Case 2: If X is greater than the item in the middle, then look in the subarray to the right of the middle. Case 3 : If X is equal to the item in the middle, then we have a match. Base Case : If the subarray is empty, X is not found.
This is logarithmic by the repeated halving principle.

1.4 Case Study
Binary Search Continued
Binary search is an example of a data structure implementation :

Insert :
O(N ) time per operation, because we must insert O(N ) time per operation, because we must slide
and maintain the array in sorted order. Delete :
elements that are to the right of the deleted element over one spot to maintain contiguity. Find :
O(log N ) time per operation, via binary search.
In this course we examine different data structures. Generally

we allow Insert, Delete, and Find, but Find and Delete are usually restricted.
57
1.5 Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis
A scalar item
A sequential vector
A linked list
A n-dimentional space
A hierarchical tree
58
The most important property to express of any entity in a system is its type. In this course we used entities that are structured objects (e.g., an object that is a collection
of other objects).
When determining its type, the kinds of distinguishing properties include :

Ordering : are elements ordered or unordered ? If ordering matters, is the order partial or total ? Are elements removed FIFO (queues), LIFO (stacks), or by priority (priority queues) ? Duplicates : are duplicates allowed ? Boundedness : is the object bounded in size or unbounded ? Can the bound change or it is xed at creation time ? Associative access : are elements retrieved by an index or key ? Is the type of the index built-in (e.g. as for sequences and arrays) or user-denable (e.g. as for symbol tables and hash tables) ? Shape : is the structure of the object linear, hierarchical, acyclic, n-dimensional, or arbitrarily complex (e.g. graphs, forests) ?
59
Abstract Data Type (ADT)
Set of data together with a set of operations. Denition of an ADT : [what to do ?]

Denition of data and the set of operations (functions).
Implementation of an ADT : [how to do it ?]

How are the objects and operations implemented.
use the C++ class.
60
Array Implementation of Lists
Contiguous allocation of memory to store the elements of the

list.
Estimation (overestimation) of the maximum size of the list is

required
waste of memory space. O(N ) for find, constant time for findKth But O(N ) is required for insertion and deletion in the worst
case.
building a list by N successive inserts would require O(N 2 )

in the worst case.
findKth(3)=52 List 1 2 3 4 5 34 12 52 16 22 1 2 3 4 5
find(52)=3 34 12 52 16 22 1 2 3 4 5
remove(34) 12 52 16 22 1 2 3 4 5
insert(1,34) 34 12 52 16 12
n findKth=List[Kth] O(C)
n find(X): O(n)
n removeKth: O(n) remove(X):O(n)
n insert(kth,X) O(n)
Figure 1: Contiguous allocation of memory to store the elements of the list
62
Linked Lists
Non contiguous allocation of memory. O(N ) for find O(N ) for findKth (but better time in practice if the calls to findKth are in sorted order by the argument). Constant time for insertion and deletion.
63
Head 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Data 34 52 22 12 16
Link 5 Head 7 \ 3 4 34 12 52 16 22
List = 34 12 52 16 22 printList():O(n) find(x):O(n) findKth(i):O(i)
Figure 2: Non contiguous allocation of memory
64

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Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis

Dr. Malek Mouhoub

Computer Science Department University of Regina Fall 2010

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.1 Mathematics Review

1.1 Mathematics Review

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.1 Mathematics Review

, log 1, 048, 576 =

1.1 Mathematics Review

(cai + dbi ) = c (f (i)) = (

General algebraic manipulations :

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.1 Mathematics Review

< A < 1 then

N (N +1)(2N +1) 6 N k+1 |k+1|

error in approx : 0, 57721566

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.1 Mathematics Review

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.1 Mathematics Review

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

increasing the risk to be red !

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

n=1 n=2 n=3 n = 35 n = 100

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

13.79 1.6260 1, 627, 995 years!!!

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

Mr Dupont remembers he has seen this kind of problem in one

After consulting his course notes, Mr Dupont decides to use

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

Mr Dupont analyses the problem again :

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

T (1) T (2) T (3) T (4) T (5)

(c) Proof by induction 2. Code :

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

If we let f (n) represent the number of calls to compute T (n), then :

This is a version of the famous Fibonacci recurrence. It is known that f (n)

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

In the second and third program there was a loop

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010

1.2 Introduction to algorithm analysis

Switching to a oating point representation would be of no value

The only alternative is to use a method to represent and

Malek Mouhoub, CS340 Fall 2010