ECE 2517: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Course outline: 1. Introduction Definitions Fundamental principles Components of a GIS: Hardware, Software, Data, Users, Network, Methods 2. Data Models and Data structure Data Models: Vector and raster models Data Structures: Vector and raster data structures 3. Acquisition, and processing of GIS Data Primary data and secondary acquisition methods and processes Data quality 4. Overview on spatial analytic capabilities of GIS 5. Overview on applications of GIS: Transportation, environmental, planning, health, etc. References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Aronoff S. (1989). Geographic information systems: A Management perspective. WDL Publications Bonham-Carter, G.F. (1994): Geographic Information Systems for Geoscientists: Modelling with GIS. Pergamon Press. Burrough, P.A. and McDonnel, R.A. (1998): Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Oxford. Jones C. B., (1997): Geographical Information Systems and Computer Cartography. Prentice Hall, London. Longley P.A., Goodchild M. F., Maguire D. J., Rhind D.W., (2005). Geographic information system: Principles, techniques, management and applications. Abridged edition, J Wiley, Hoboken. Longley P.A., Goodchild M. F., Maguire D. J., Rhind D. W.,(2005). Geographic information systems and science. 2nd ed., J Wiley, Chichester, UK Longley P.A., Goodchild M. F., Maguire D. J., Rhind D.W., (1999). Geographic information system, Volume I: Principles and Technical Issues, and Volume 2: Management Issues and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. Maguire, D.; Goodchild, M. and Rhind, D.W. (eds.) (1998): Geographic Information Systems, Principles and Applications, 2 Vol. Longman Publishing, Cambridge

8. 9.

Pick, James B., (2008). Geo-business: GIS in the digital organization. John Willey and Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey. 10. Worboys M. F. (1995).GIS: A computing perspective. Taylor and Francis

Course Assessment: Assignments./Practicals /CATs.........30% Exams..............................................70%

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ECE 2517: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Definitions A system is a collection of processes, people and equipment that work together to fulfill a task. A process is a set of activities that defines how things are done. A process must support the tasks carried out by the system. GIS deals with information below, above and on the surface of the earth. Spatial refers to the nature and character of physical space, its measurements, interrelationships and distribution of things within the space. Spatial data pertains to a location on the earths surface.

A geographic information system is a computer-based information system that enables capture, storage, retrieval at will, sharing, manipulation, transforming and presentation of spatially referenced data from the real world for a particular set of purposes. The keywords of this definition can be visualized through a workflow which shows the logical steps necessary to put a GIS to work: Collecting GIS data: Classical field survey, GPS; scanning analogue maps, aerial and satellite imagery; manually digitizing analogue maps; using digital data sources like CAD data GIS data storage: Concerned with the way in which data about the location, linkages and attributes of the features represented are organized in the computer Transforming GIS data: Involves removing errors from the data, updating the data and performing analysis of the data Displaying/Presentation: Concerned with ways in which data is displayed and how the results of the analysis are reported to users. This could be done through maps, tables, graphs, charts. Collecting GIS data GIS data storage GIS data transformation Presenting GIS data

Geographic information system differs from other forms of information systems in that a common spatial coordinate system is the primary means of reference.

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GIS, Computer graphics, CAD Computer graphics is largely concerned with the display and manipulation of visible material and it does not pay attention to the non graphic attributes that the visible attributes may have. Similarities between GIS and CAD are that both relate objects to a reference system and both handle non graphic attribute data. Differences between a GIS and CAD are that GIS can handle greater volumes of data, greater diversity of data in a GIS and there is specialized nature of analysis that a GIS can perform. Development The surveying and cartographic traditions have contributed the rules and tools for measuring and representing real world features. Computer science provides the framework for storage and management of geographic information and together with mathematics, contributes the tools for manipulating the geometric objects that represent real- world geographic features. Populated with data from socio-economic, environmental and topographic surveys, a GIS supports applications in a wide range of subject areas. These range from largely academic fields such as archaeology or oceanography to applied commercial applications, including marketing or real estate.

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A comprehensive GIS requires a means of: Data input from such sources as maps, aerial photographs, satellite imageries, gps, surveys etc Data storage, retrieval and query Data transformation, analysis and modeling Data presentation in form of maps, reports, charts, histograms, plans All information on a GIS is linked to a spatial reference. GIS uses georeferences as the primary means of storing and accessing information. GIS integrates technology. Other technologies might be used only to perform functions such as analysis. However, many capabilities are offered together within a comprehensive GIS. GIS with all its functionalities should be viewed as process rather than a software or hardware. GIS are for making decisions. The way in which data is entered, stored and analyzed within a GIS must mirror the way information will be used for a specific research or decision making task. 4|P a ge

Fundamental principles of GIS GIS packages use relational database management systems to store and manipulate the attribute information. GIS allows geographers to integrate their data and methods in ways that support traditional forms of geographic analysis such as map overlay analysis as well as new types of analysis and modeling that are beyond the capability of manual methods. With GIS it is possible to map, model, query and analyze large quantities of data all held within a single database. The development of GIS has relied on innovations made in many different disciplines such as geography, cartography, photogrammetry, remote sensing, surveying, geodesy, civil engineering, statistics, computer science, operations research, artificial intelligence, demography, natural sciences and engineering. GIS views the world A GIS database is a computer-based representation of the real world. GIS software provides the tools for organizing information about spatially defined features. The basic organizational principle of a GIS is the data layer. Rather than storing all spatial features in one place, as on a topographic map, GIS allows us to arrange information about a given region as a set of maps with each map displaying information about one characteristic of the region. Each of these separate thematic maps is referred to as a layer coverage or level. Each layer has been overlaid on the others so that every location is precisely matched to its corresponding location on all the other maps. The bottom layer is important for it represents the grid of a spatial reference for example longitude and latitude to which all the maps have been precisely registered. Once these maps have been registered carefully within a common spatial reference system, information from two or more layers might be combined and then transformed into a new layer for use in subsequent analysis. This process of combining and transforming information from different layers is sometimes called map algebra as it involves adding and subtracting information. E.g. If we wanted to consider the effects of widening a road, we could begin with the road layer, widen a road to its new width to produce a new map and overlay this new map on layers representing land use.

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Geographic information has four characteristics; Actual phenomenon e.g. a variable, classification, value, name etc. Its spatial location (location within geographic space where it resides) Spatial relationships with each other describing how they are linked together Time Management of spatial data can be quite complex because spatial data and attribute data often change independent of one another with respect to time. Therefore, effective spatial data management requires that location data and non location data be variable independent of one another. In conceiving of the overall structure of a data base for geographic information processing, it is useful to realize that data management must occur on both spatial data and non spatial data.

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COMPONENTS OF A GIS GIS components include an integration of data, people, hardware, software and procedures within an organization.

1. Hardware and peripherals Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. These are the devices that the user interacts with directly in carrying out GIS operations, by typing, pointing, clicking and which returns information by displaying it on the devices screen or generating meaningful sounds. They are inclusive of an office desktop, laptops, personal digital assistants (PDAs), in-vehicle devices and even cellular (mobile) phones. Today, GIS software runs on a wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations. Other peripheral devices that are used in the input and output of the GIS query results include scanners, digitizers, for input, and plotters and printers for the output. 2. Software GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to input, storage, analysis, and display geographic information. Key software components are: Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information A database management system (DBMS) Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization 8|P a ge

A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools. The software can be as simple as a standard Web browser (e.g. Microsoft Explorer, Netscape or Mozilla Firefox) if all processing is done remotely on services offered on large servers, to stand-alone software running on the individuals desktop computer. GIS software available include simple to complex packages available from GIS vendors, to free customizable ones that are freely available in the Internet. A spectrum of products that may be described as GIS software includes (among others): Highly specialized, sector specific packages: e.g. civil engineering design and costing systems; satellite image processing systems; and utility infrastructure management systems Transportation and logistics management systems Civil and military control room systems Land registration systems Census data management systems. Some examples of available software are ArcView10, ArcView 8/9 and Arc/Info 8/9 from Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), GeoMedia from Intergraph, MapInfo from MapInfo among many others. Open source software include Grass Current GIS software trends are focused on two aspects: Internet mapping that allows integration of web GIS functions in any application. Cloud computing -Users are now able to carry out GIS data query and analysis on remote geospatial databases, using their web browser and software that is downloaded on demand using the cloud computing aspect.

Cloud computing; offers the ability to remotely access the geospatial database server and carry out processing Open source; GIS packages freely available on the internet

Database management systems are computer programs for organizing and managing the database. The main aims of a DBMS being To make data quickly available to a multitude of users To protect the data against deletion and corruption To facilitate the addition, removal and updating of data as necessary READ ON HIERARCHICAL, NETWORK, OBJECT ORIENTED AND RELATIONAL DATABASE STRUCTURES

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Classification of GIS software The main GIS software packages are classified into six groups, based on their functionality and type: 1. Professional, 2. Desktop, 3. Hand-held, 4. Component, 5. Viewer, and 6. Internet. a. Professional GIS Refers to fully featured software that has the capabilities of collection and editing GIS data, database administration, advanced geoprocessing and analysis, and other specialist tools Examples of professional GIS include ESRI ArcInfo and SmallworldGIS Prices for professional GIS are typically in the range of US$8,000-US$20,000 per user (have discount for multiple users) b. Desktop GIS Has limited editing database administration as compared to professional gis. Have excellent tools for making maps, reports, and charts. Most of the desktop GIS software have all adopted the Microsoft standards for interoperability and user interface. Examples include Autodesk World, ESRI ArcView, Intergraph GeoMedia, and MapInfo Professional, Quantum GIS Desk top GIS software prices range from $1000-$2000. c. Hand-held GIS Hand-held GIS are lightweight systems designed for mobile and field use Have capabilities similar to hand held computers, supporting many display, query, and simple analytical applications, even on displays of 320 X 240 pixels. Examples: Autodesk OnSite, ESRI ArcPad, Smallworld Scout Costs are around $500. d. Component GIS These are basically tool kits of GIS functions (components) that a reasonably knowledgeable programmer can use to build a full GIS software system. These type of components can be used to create highly customised and optimized applications that can either be stand alone or can be embedded within other software systems. Examples include ESRI MapObjects, MapInfo MapX, and Blue Mable Geographics GeoObjects. e. Viewer GIS Free GIS software that are able to display and query popular file formats. The GIS viewers have limited functional capabilities, restricted to display query and simple mapping. They do not support editing, sophisticated analysis, modelling or customization. Examples include ESRIs ArcReader, ArcGIS Explorer, Intergraphs GeoMedia Viewer and Mapinfos ProViewer. f. Internet GIS These products harness the unique characteristics of the World Wide Web (www) by integrating GIS technology with web browsers and servers, and use the hypertext transmission protocol (http) for communication.

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Examples of Internet GIS products include Autodesk MapGuide, ESRI ArcIMS, Intergraph GeoMedia Web Map and MapInfo MapXtreme. Cost of the products vary from around $5000 to $25,000 for small to medium-sized systems, to large multi function, multi-systems

3. Data Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources, and can even use a DBMS used by most organizations to organize and maintain their data to manage spatial data. The creation of a clean digital database is the most important and time consuming task upon which the usefulness of the GIS depends. The establishment and maintenance of a robust spatial database is the cornerstone of a successful GIS implementation. Digital data is the most expensive part of the GIS. Attention should be given to the quality of the data or the processes by which it is prepared for automation. The general consensus among the GIS community is that 60 to 80 % of the cost incurred during implementation of GIS technology lies in data acquisition, data compilation and database development. This lays more emphasis on the importance of data aspect of the GIS. Data present in a GIS includes: Spatial data The spatial data forms the base of a GIS. It relates all data to a coordinate system, defining the geometric primitives point, line, area or raster cell. The graphical description defines the representation of the geometry data on an output device. This is done through; Point: symbol, size, direction, colour Line: weight, colour, pattern Polygon: colour, fill pattern (with direction and interval) Raster: gray value, colour

Graphic data in GIS = Geometry data + graphical description: Attribute data This gives descriptive information about the geometry data. All descriptive data without a geometrical representation, like text, measuring values, statistic data associated to a spatial entity etc. This data is normally stored in a relational database. Other data types Some GIS supports multimedia data like audio, video, sequences of pictures, or time.

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4. People GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and develop plans for applying it to real-world problems. Users range from technical specialists, who design and maintain the system, to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. GIS is useless without the people who design, program, and maintain it, supply it with data, and interpret its results. 5. Methods/procedures A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization. An organization must establish procedures, lines of reporting, control points and other mechanisms for ensuring that its GIS activities should stay within budgets, maintain high quality and generally meet the needs of the organization. 6. Network Network is the additional fundamental component of the GIS, without which no rapid communication or sharing of digital information could occur. GIS today relies heavily on the Internet and on the intranets of corporations and agencies in delivering applications. Users can access GIS, without the software installed in their computers, from remote servers. Distributed users, through the network, can access a centralized GIS. The network component has enabled many people to utilize GIS capabilities even without the knowledge that they are using GIS services in their problem solutions. The table shows examples of GIS software;

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Automated or computer based system point out several advantages; Speeding up the process of map production with the aim of shortening the duration between field data collection and the resulting map in digital or hard copy form. This is driven in part by the development of greatly increased rates of data collection e.g. the development and adoption of total stations and GPS for field survey work and the digital photogrammetric workstation for aerial survey work. In order to cope with the increased flow of data, automated techniques of processing and outputting this data is necessary. Reduction or elimination of the tedious and demanding cartographic work (compilation, drafting, scribing, mask-cutting, lettering, symbol generation, and placement) which requires highly skilled personnel. The automation of these drafting activities conducted on a massive scale is one of the first areas where computer based techniques have been implemented. Ability to produce both hardcopy and softcopy maps Ability to store large volumes of data Improved accuracy Data is maintained in a physically compact format i.e. magnetic files Data can be maintained and extracted at lower costs per unit data Reduction of production cost on maps and plans Easy to update and revise data. In order to achieve currency of information, adoption of digital mapping techniques has been a considerable factor driving the interest of large technically aware and capital intensive industries to become interested in digital mapping. Various computerized tools allow for a variety of types of manipulation including map measurements, map overlay, transformations, graphic designs and database manipulations Graphic and non graphic(attribute information) can be merged and manipulated simultaneously Interactive graphic design and automated drafting tools can be applied to cartographic design and production Some of the disadvantages include; The cost and associated technical problems of converting existing geographic records to automated files by digitizing, scanning or related data conversion The large amount of technical as well as financial overhead which is required to maintain automated files. Highly trained (and expensive) specialist personnel capable of operating, programming and maintaining the equipment need to be acquired and retained within the organization. High cost of initial acquisition of systems. The capital cost of purchasing, installing, operating, maintaining computer based mapping equipment has fallen but is still significantly high, especially if high accuracy is to be maintained throughout the production process.

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