!

The Shadow Function

International!Baccalaureate!Mathematics!Higher!Level !
INTERNAL!ASSESSMENT!
THE!PORTFOLIO!TASK!(TYPE!1)!

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!
!
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!
!
Candidate(Name(
Candidate(Session(Number(
School(

Rukmal!Weerawarana!
001426K005!
The!British!School!in!Colombo!

School(Code(

001426!

Date(

6/29/12!

Rukmal!Weerawarana!

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IBDP!

Table of Contents
2! Introduction ............................................................................................... 3!
2.1! Roots!of!a!Polynomial!................................................................................................................!3!
2.2! Graphs!of!a!Quadratic!Equation!..............................................................................................!4!
3! Quadratic Polynomials and their Shadow Functions ............................ 5!
3.1! General!Expression!....................................................................................................................!5!
3.1.1! Limits)of)a)and)b).....................................................................................................................)5!
3.1.2! Vertex)......................................................................................................................................)6!
3.1.3! Roots)of)y1)..............................................................................................................................)8!
3.2! Quadratic!Shadow!Function!...................................................................................................!10!
3.2.1! Roots)of)y2)............................................................................................................................)10!
3.3! Quadratic!Shadow!Generating!Function!..............................................................................!12!
3.4! General!Statement!for!Quadratic!Polynomials!....................................................................!13!
3.5! Evaluation!of!the!Quadratic!Statements!...............................................................................!14!
3.5.2! Evaluation).............................................................................................................................)20!
4! Cubic Polynomials and their Shadow Functions .................................. 21!
4.1! General!Expression!..................................................................................................................!21!
4.1.1! Limits)of)a,)b)and)c)...............................................................................................................)22!
4.1.2! Roots)of)y1)............................................................................................................................)22!
4.2! Cubic!Shadow!Function!..........................................................................................................!23!
4.3! Cubic!Shadow!Generating!Function!.....................................................................................!24!
4.3.1! Determining)Intersection)Points)..........................................................................................)24!
4.4! General!Statement!for!Cubic!Polynomials!...........................................................................!26!
4.5! Evaluation!of!the!Cubic!Statements!.......................................................................................!27!
4.5.1! Test)Conception)....................................................................................................................)27!
4.5.2! Evaluation).............................................................................................................................)30!
5! General Statement For All Polynomials ................................................ 31!
6! Quartic Polynomials and their Shadow Functions ............................... 32!
6.1! General!Expression!..................................................................................................................!32!
6.1.1! 2)Unique)Complex)Roots)......................................................................................................)32!
6.1.2! 2)Unique)Real)Roots).............................................................................................................)32!
6.1.3! 2)Unique)Real)Roots)and)2)Unique)Real)Roots)....................................................................)32!
6.2! Quartic!Shadow!Functions!.....................................................................................................!33!
6.2.1! 2)Unique)Complex)Solutions)................................................................................................)33!
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6.2.2! 4)Unique)Complex)Solutions)................................................................................................)34!
6.2.3! 2)Unique)Real)Roots)and)2)Unique)Complex)Roots).............................................................)34!

7! Quartic Polynomials and their Shadow Functions ............................... 35!

8! Bibliography ............................................................................................ 37!
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1 Introduction
1.1 Roots of a Polynomial
!
Let!!(!)!be!a!function!of!!.!
!

A!root!(or!zero)!of!the!function!would!be!when!!(!) = 0.!There!are!2!types!of!roots!of!

when! nonKlinear! polynomials! are! considered.!

When! the! graph! of!! = !(!)!is! plotted! on! a!
graph,!if!there!are!intersections!with!the!!!axis!
(i.e.!! = 0),! the! equation! would! have! a! real!
root!at!that!point.!
!

It! is! possible! for! any! nonKlinear!

polynomial! to! have! complex! roots.! This!

occurs!when!(!, 0) .1!
!

However,! it! is! also! possible! for!

polynomials!of!order!3!or!greater!to!have!both!
complex!and!real!roots.!In!these!instances,!the!
complex!roots!occur!in!conjugate)pairs.!That!is,!
when! the! roots! are! joined! in! reciprocal!
relation,! with! the! same! real! parts! and! equal!
magnitudes,! but! opposite! signs! of! imaginary!
parts.2!
Graph( 1( Quadratic( function( f(x)( with( real( roots( and( function( g(x)(
with(complex(roots(

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1
2

!(Weisstein)!
!(Oxford!University)!

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1.2 Graphs of a Quadratic Equation

!
Let!! ! = ! !

+ !!

Using!the!laws!of!transformation!of!a!quadratic!graph,!the!transformation!seen!above!can!be!
described!as!follows3:!
!
!

In! the! above! translation) vector,! the! variable!!!represents! the! translation! of!!(!)!along! the!!!

axis.!On!the!other!hand,!the!!!represents!the!translation!of!!(!)!along!the!!!axis.!
This! relationship! can! be! seen! in! the!
following!example:!
! ! = ! ! 4! + 2!
To! use! the! vector! transformation!
notation,! the! function! was! converted!
into!completing!the!square!form4:!
! ! = ! ! 4! + 2!
=2 !2

+ 2 4!

! ! = (! 2)! 2!
Therefore,!

as!

seen!

above,!

the!

translation! of! ! ! !from! the! ! = ! ! !

graph! can! be! represented! as! shown!
below:!

2
!
2
This! can! be! seen! in! the! graph! by! the!
movement!of!the!vertex.!In!the!! = ! ! !
graph,! the! vertex! of! the! graph! lies! at!
0,0 .!As!seen!in!the!graph,!the!vertex! Graph(2(Function(f(x),(which(is(a(translation(of(the(y=x2(graph(
of! the! graph! varies! with! the!
coordinates!of!translation.!Thus,!an!additional!conclusion!can!be!drawn!in!this!instance;!the!vertex!
of! the! quadratic! graph! (i.e.!!(!))! has! the! same! coordinates! as! the! transformation! of!!(!)!from! the!
! = !!

!graph.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3
4

!(Stapel,!Function!Transformations!/!Translations:!Basic!Rules.)!
!(Stapel,!Solving!Quadratic!Equations:!Solving!by!Completing!the!Square)!

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2 Quadratic Polynomials and their Shadow Functions

2.1 General Expression
To! discuss! the! quadratic! polynomial! and! its! shadow! function,! a! general! statement! for!
quadratic! polynomials! was! created.! As! opposed! to! giving! the! general! expression! of! the! quadratic!
function! in! the! form! of!! = !! ! + !" + !,! the! general! expression! was! left! in! the! completed! square!
form.! This! was! done! so! that! the! axis! of! symmetry! and! other! properties! of! the! function! can! be!
calculated! easily! as! the! transformations! of! the! graph! can! be! perceived! directly! from! the! general!
expression!(page!4).!
Let!general)quadratic)expression!= !! !
!! = (! !)! + ! ! !
!

2.1.1 Limits of ! and !

As!it!is!given!that!!! !has!only!2!complex!roots,!its!discriminant!must!be!less!than!0.!Because!
of!this,!limitations!can!be!imposed!on!the!ranges!of!!!and!!.!
!For!complex!roots,!! ! 4!" < 0!
!! = (! !)! + ! ! !
!! = ! ! 2!" + ! ! + ! ! !
! ! 4!" < 0!
2!

(41 ! ! + ! ! < 0!

4! ! 4 ! ! + ! ! < 0!
4! ! > 0!
! ! > 0!
But,!as!!!is!squared,!making!it!negative!will!not!affect!it.!
! > 0!
! > 0!or!! < 0!
! 0!
!

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As! the! shadow! function! shares! the! same! vertex! as! the! general! quadratic! polynomial,! a!
general! expression! for! the! vertex! of! the! quadratic! polynomial! must! be! obtained! to! proceed! to!
determining!the!shadow!function.!

2.1.2 Vertex
The!vertex!of!the!general!quadratic!expression!can!be!calculated!in!2!ways.!The!first!involves!
using!the!quadratic!property!of!the!axis!of!symmetry!always!being!the!!!coordinate!of!the!turning!
point!(i.e.!vertex).!The!other!equates!the!derivative!of!the!function!to!0!to!obtain!the!coordinates!of!
the!turning!point!of!the!graph.!Both!methods!are!shown!to!reach!the!same!conclusion!below.!
!

2.1.2.1 Axis of Symmetry Method

!! = ! !

+ !!!

!! = ! ! 2!" + (! ! + ! ! )!
General!equation!for!the!axis!of!symmetry5:!
For! ! = !! ! + !" + !,!
Axis!of!symmetry!=

!!
!!

!
!In!!! :!
! = 1!
! = 2!!
! = (! ! + ! ! )!
!Axis!of!symmetry!in!!! !=

!(!!!)
!!

!!
!

!Axis!of!symmetry!= !!
!
As!previously!established,!the!axis!of!symmetry!is!the!!!coordinate!of!the!vertex.!For!the!general!
function!!! ,!the!!!value!of!the!coordinate!is!determined!below:!
!! = ! !

+ !!!

At!! = !:!
!= !!

+ !!!

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!!!

! = 0! + ! ! = ! ! !

2.1.2.2 Differentiation Method

!! = ! !

+ !!!

!! = ! ! 2!" + (! ! + ! ! )!

!!!
= 2! 2!!
!"
!

As!the!gradient!at!the!vertex!is!0,!the!derivative!is!equated!to!0!to!obtain!the!coordinates!of!the!
vertex:!
2! 2! = 0!
2! = 2!!
! = !!
!
To!determine!the!coordinates!of!the!vertex,!the!!!values!of!the!coordinates!must!be!obtained:!
!! = ! !

+ !!!

At!! = !:!
!= !!

+ !!!

! = 0! + ! ! = ! ! !
!Coordinates!of!the!vertex:! !, ! ! !
!
2.1.2.2.1 Evaluation of the Statement
!! = (! !)! + ! ! !
Let!! = 3!and!! = 2.!
!! = ! ! 6! + 13!
As!per!the!general!statement:!
Vertex!= (3,4)!
!

As! seen! in! the! plot! of! the! graph! overleaf,! the! Cartesian! coordinates! of! the! vertex! of! the!

function!!(!),! a! transformation! of! the!! = ! ! !graph! obeys! the! general! statement! for! the! vertex!
derived!above.!

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Thus,!as!the!statement!is!true!for!the!random!values!selected!and!as!the!all!functions!to!be!

considered! are! derivations! of! the!!! !function,! it! was! decided! that! as! the! general! statement! for! the!
vertex! of! the! function! has! already! been! proved! arithmetically,! it! is! does! not! have! to! be! proved!
graphically.!
!
!

Graph( 3( Quadratic( function( f(x)( obeying( the( general(

statement(for(the(vertex(

To!determine!the!relationship!between!the!real!roots!of!the!shadow!function!and!the!complex!
roots!of!the!general!quadratic!polynomial,!it!was!decided!that!a!general!expression!for!the!complex!
roots!of!the!general!statement!would!be!obtained.!This!is!shown!below.!
!

2.1.3
!

Roots of !!

Let ! ! = !" ! + !" + !

From! the! above! equation,! it! can! be! said! that!!(!)!can! have! either! real! ()! or! complex! ()!

roots!(page!3).!However,!it!is!given!that!!! !has!only!complex!()!roots.!
For!!(!),!its!roots!can!be!determined!using!the!quadratic!formula6:!
!=

! ! ! 4!"
!
2!

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Thus,!for!!! :!
2!

2!

!=

41 ! ! + ! !

21
=

2! 4! ! 4! ! 4! !
!
2
=

2! 4! !
!
2

2! ! 4! !
!
2

2! !2!
!
2

2 ! !"
!
2

! ! !"!
!
As!this!cannot!be!proved!graphically!without!the!use!of!the!shadow!function,!which!has!not!
yet!been!determined,!no!examples!were!applied!to!it.!

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2.2 Quadratic Shadow Function

The!shadow)function!is!defined!as!a!function!whose!curve!is!identical!to!the!general!function!!! !
in! every! way! except! for! its! concavity.! Thus,! to! determine! the! general! statement! of! the! shadow!
function,!the!concavity!of!the!general!quadratic!polynomial,!!! !must!be!reversed!while!keeping!the!
constants!of!the!equation!the!same.! Additionally,! as! this! function! is! a! reflection! of! the! general!
quadratic!polynomial,!it!will!obey!the!limits!of!!!and!!!determined!on!page!5.!
This! can! be! done! directly! using! the! laws! of! the! transformation! of! graphs! as! opposed! to!
differentiating!the!general!statement!!! ,!reversing!its!concavity!and!then!integrating!it!to!determine!
the!general!expression!for!the!shadow!function.!The!determination!of!the!general!statement!for!the!
shadow!function!is!shown!below:!
!! = (! !)! + ! ! !
Let!! ! = (! !)! !
!! = ! ! + ! ! !
To!reverse!the!concavity,!the!sign!of!!(!)!must!be!reversed:!
!
Let!shadow)function!= !! !
!! = ! !

+ !!!

!
!

To!compare!the!roots!of!the!general!shadow!function,!a!general!expression!for!the!real!roots!

of!the!shadow!function!must!be!derived.!As!the!shadow!function!is!a!normal!quadratic!function,!the!
quadratic!function!can!be!used.!This!is!shown!below:!
!

2.2.1 Roots of !!
Let!! ! = !! ! + !" + !!
For!!(!),!its!roots!can!be!determined!using!the!quadratic!formula7:!
!=

! ! ! 4!"
!
2!

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!!!

!
Thus,!for!!! :!
2!

2!

!=

4 1 ! ! ! !

2 1
=

2! 4! ! 4! ! + 4! !
!
2
=

2(! ! ! )
!
2
! ! !!

!
!

To!determine!a!general!statement!linking!the!general!quadratic!polynomial!and!the!general!

quadratic! shadow! function,! another! function! must! be! determined.! It! is! the! function! of! the! line! at!
which!the!general!quadratic!polynomial!is!reflected!to!obtain!the!shadow!function,!hence!its!name:!
the!shadow)generating)function.!This!function!is!determined!overleaf.!

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2.3 Quadratic Shadow Generating Function

!

Let!shadow)generating)function!= !! !
!

From! the! graph! on! the! right,! it! can! be!

seen! that! the! shadow! generating! function! is!

linear.! Therefore,! it! will! obey! the! general!
equation!of!a!straight!line.8!
!! = !" + !!
Where)!)is)the)gradient)and)!)is)a)constant.)
!=

!
!
!

!!! !is!parallel!to!the!!!axis,!!!is!constant.!
! = 0!
!=

0
= 0!
!

!! = 0! + !!
!! = !!
!
To!determine!!,!a!point!on!the!line!must!be!
substituted!in!the!equation.!
At!(!, ! ! )![Vertex]:!
! ! = 0! + !!
!

!=! !

Graph( 4( The( general( quadratic( function,( the( shadow( function(

and(the(shadow(generating(function(

!
!! = ! ! !
!

Using! the! general! quadratic! polynomial,! the! general! quadratic! shadow! function! and! the!

shadow!generating!function!determined!above,!a!general!statement!can!be!formed!to!determine!the!
shadow! function!!! !when! provided! with! the! quadratic! polynomial! and! the! shadow! generating!
function.!This!is!shown!overleaf!

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2.4 General Statement for Quadratic Polynomials

!
!! = ! !

+ ! ! !!!!!!!!![1]

!! = (! !)! + ! ! !!!!![2]!
!! = ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!![3]
!

As! equation! 1 ,![2]!and![3]!must! be! combined! to! determine! the! general! statement,! it! was!

decided! that! equations! 1 !and![2]!would! be! added! to! eliminate! all! terms! involving! the! variable!!,!
thus!making!the!statement!applicable!to!all!quadratic!polynomials!regardless!of!its!coordinates.!
Add! 1 !and![2]:!
!! + !! = ! !

+ !!

+ !! + !!!

!! + !! = 2! ! !
!
But,!!! = ! ! !
!! !! = 2!! !
!
!! = 2!! !! !
!
!

As!all!general!statements!involving!quadratics!have!been!determined,!it!was!decided!that!all!

statements!would!be!tested!by!assigning!random!values!to!!!and!!!to!generate!the!shadow!function!
!! !using! the! general! statement,! and! to! determine! the! real! roots! of! the! shadow! function! using! the!
general!statement!derived!on!page!8.!

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2.5 Evaluation of the Quadratic Statements

To! evaluate! the! general! statements! derived! above,! it! was! decided! that! they! would! be! tested!
with! data! and! then! their! graphs! be! plotted.! This! would! confirm! the! validity! of! the! general!
statements!derived!above,!as!all!features!determined!arithmetically!would!be!present!on!the!graph.!

2.5.1.1 Test Conception

It!was!decided!that!the!general!statements!would!be!tested!with!5!different!sets!of!data.!The!
values!chosen!along!with!justification!can!be!seen!in!the!table!below:!
Test(Number(
1(

Value(of(!(
1!

Value(of(!(
1!

2(

1!

2!

3(

2!

1!

4(

1!

5!

5(

10!

1!

Justification(
This!
tests!
the!
statements! for! the!
instance!where!! = !.!
This!
tests!
the!
statements! for! the!
instance!where!! < !.!
This!
tests!
the!
statements! for! the!
instance!where!! > !.!
As! ! !is! squared,!
! ! = 25 .! Because! of!
this,!this!would!test!the!
statements! for! the!
instance! where! ! !!
(i.e.!much!less!than).!
This!
tests!
the!
statements! for! the!
instance! where! ! !!
(i.e.! much! greater!
than).!

Table(1(Test(conception(for(quadratic(polynomials(

Testing! the! statements! using! irrational! numbers! was! decided! against,! as! doing! so! would!

ultimately!give!solutions!that!fall!within!the!5!ranges!specified!above.!

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2.5.1.2 Test Results

Test!1!

Let!! = 1!and!! = 1!
!! = ! 1

+ 1! = ! ! 2! + 2!

!! = 2!! !! = ! ! + 2!!
!
Calculating!the!roots!of!the!real!equation,!!! :!
! = ! !!
! = 1 1!
! = 0!or!! = 2!
Calculating!the!vertex!of!!! !and!!! :!
Coordinates!of!the!vertex!are!(!, ! ! )!
= (1,1)!
!

As! seen! from! the! calculations! above,! the!

information! seen! on! the! graph! reflects! the!

theoretical! values! calculated.! Therefore,! the!
equations!for!calculating!the!vertex,!the!roots!of!!! !
and!the!shadow!function!remain!true!when!! = !.!

Graph( 5( General( quadratic( function( with( its(

corresponding(shadow(when(a=1(and(b=1(

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Test!2!

Let!! = 1!and!! = 2!
!! = (! 1)! + 2! = ! ! 2! + 5!
!! = 2!! !! = ! ! + 2! + 3!
!
Calculating!the!roots!of!the!real!equation,!!! :!
! = ! !!
! = 1 2!
! = 1!or!! = 3!
Calculating!the!vertex!of!!! !and!!! :!
Coordinates!of!the!vertex!are!(!, ! ! )!
= (1,4)!
!

As! with! the! previous! example,!

this! graph! displays! all! of! the! features!

obtained! arithmetically.! Through! this!
example,! it! can! be! said! that! the!
functions!for!the!vertex,!the!roots!of!!! !
and! the! shadow! function! remain! true!
when!! > !.!

Graph( 6( General( quadratic( function( with( its( corresponding( shadow(

function(when(a=1(and(b=2(

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Test!3!

Let!! = 2!and!! = 1!
!! = (! 2)! + 1! = ! ! 4! + 5!
!! = 2!! !! = ! ! + 4! 3!
!
Calculating!the!roots!of!the!real!equation,!!! :!
! = ! !!
! = 2 1!
! = 1!or!! = 3!
Calculating!the!vertex!of!!! !and!!! :!
Coordinates!of!the!vertex!are!(!, ! ! )!
= (2,1)!
!

This! example! too! shows! that! all! of! the!

features!calculated!arithmetically!can!be!seen!on!
the! graph.! Therefore,! it! can! be! said! that! the!
functions! for! the! vertex,! the! roots! of!!! !and! the!
shadow!function!remain!true!when!! > !.!

Graph( 7( General( quadratic( function( with(

corresponding(shadow(function(when(a=2(and(b=1(

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Test!4!

Let!! = 1!and!! = 5!(as)!)is)squared,)! ! = 25))

!! = (! 1)! + 5! = ! ! 2! + 26!
!! 2!! !! = ! ! + 2! + 24!
!
Calculating!the!roots!of!the!real!equation,!!! :!
! = ! !!
! = 1 5!
! = 4!or!! = 6!
Calculating!the!vertex!of!!! !and!!! :!
Coordinates!of!the!vertex!are!(!, ! ! )!
= (1,25)!
!

As! ! !is! squared! in! both! the!

general! function! and! the! shadow!

function,!despite!the!fact!that!!!is!greater!
than! ! !by! only! 4,! after! squaring! it!! ! !
becomes!25,!thus!making!it!much!larger!
than!!.!
Again,! all! of! the! calculated! arithmetic!
features! are! seen! on! the! graph.! This!
shows! that! the! functions! for! the! vertex,!
the! roots! of!!! !and! the! shadow! function!
remain!true!when!! !.!

Graph(8(General(quadratic(function(with(its(corresponding(shadow(
function(when(a=1(and(b=5(

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Test!5!

Let!! = 10!and!! = 1!
!! = (! 10)! + 1! = ! ! 20! + 101!
!! = 2!! !! = ! ! + 20! 99!
!
Calculating!the!roots!of!the!real!equation,!!! :!
! = ! !!
! = 10 1!
! = 9!or!! = 11!
Calculating!the!vertex!of!!! !and!!! :!
Coordinates!of!the!vertex!are!(!, ! ! )!
= (10,1)!

Graph(9(General(quadratic(function(with(its(corresponding(shadow(function(when(a=10(and(b=1(

!
Therefore,! as! seen! in! the! above! examples,! all! of! the! arithmetic! features! determined!

theoretically!can!be!seen!on!the!graph.!This!shows!that!the!functions!for!the!vertex,!the!roots!of!!! !
and!the!shadow!function!remain!true!when!! !.!

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2.5.2 Evaluation
As!seen!in!all!of!the!above!graphs,!all!features!determined!arithmetically!using!the!general!
statements! derived! above! are! present! in! the! graph.! As! the! ranges! tested! above! encapsulate! all!
possible!combinations!of!values!for!!!and!!,!the!following!can!be!stated:!
!
!
!! = ! !
!! = ! !

+ !!!

+ !!!

!! = ! ! !
Where)!! )is)the)general)quadratic)polynomial,)!! )is)the)general)quadratic)shadow)function)and)!! )is)the)
quadratic)shadow)generating)function.)
!
Thus,!the!general!statement!for!all!quadratic!polynomials!can!be!made:!
!! = 2!! !! !
Where)! )and)! \{0})

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3 Cubic Polynomials and their Shadow Functions

3.1 General Expression
To! discuss! the! cubic! polynomial! and! its! shadow! function,! a! general! statement! for! cubic!
polynomials!was!created.!As!opposed!to!giving!the!general!expression!of!the!cubic!function!in!the!
form! of!! = !! ! + !! ! + !" + !,! the! general! expression! was! left! as! the! factorial! product! of! the!
general!statement!of!a!quadratic!polynomial!previously!discussed!(page!5).!This!was!done!so!that!
general!statements!for!the!roots!of!the!cubic!equation!would!not!have!to!be!reKderived!as!they!have!
already!been!proved!for!quadratic!polynomials.!
Let!general)cubic)expression!= !! !
!! = (! !)( ! !

+ ! ! )!

For!example,!let!! = 3,!! = 2!and!! = 2!

Graph(10(General(cubic(function(when(a=3,(b=2(and(c=Q2(

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3.1.1 Limits of !, ! and !

As!it!is!given!that!!! !has!2!complex!roots!and!a!single!real!root,!limits!must!be!imposed!on!!,!
!!and!!.! The! general! cubic! polynomial! function!!! !is! the! generic! quadratic! polynomial! function!
multiplied! by! a! real! root! of!!.! Therefore,! the! limits! placed! on!!!and!!!for! the! quadratic! function!
must!be!followed!(page!5).!Additionally,!while!using!the!application!GeoGebra,!it!was!evident!that!
another! limit! must! be! made.! The! constant!!,! when! equivalent! to!!!caused!!! !and! the! shadow!
function! to! converge! only! once,! thus! causing! the! shadow! generating! function! to! not! generate! the!
shadow!correctly.!
! 0!
! !!
!

As! the! complex! roots! of! the! general! equation!!! !and! the! real! roots! of! the! shadow! function!

are!to!be!compared,!general!expressions!for!the!complex!roots!of!!! !must!be!obtained.!Additionally,!
an!expression!for!the!single!real!root!must!also!be!derived.!This!is!done!below:!

3.1.2 Roots of !!

!! = 0
!!

!!

+ !! = 0

! = ! !" or!! = !
As! this! cannot! be! proved! graphically! without! the! use! of! the! notKyet! derived! cubic! shadow!
function,!no!examples!will!be!applied!to!it.!
!

!
In! the! case! of! the! cubic! polynomial,! the! general! function!!! !is! a! factorial! product! of! the!
quadratic!polynomial!general!expression.!Due!to!this,!the!rules!for!calculating!the!real!roots!in!the!
quadratic!shadow!function!can!be!applied!to!the!cubic!shadow!function.!By!doing!this,!the!general!
statement!for!the!cubic!shadow!function!can!be!obtained.!

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3.2 Cubic Shadow Function

The! cubic) shadow) function! is! defined! as! a! function! whose! curve! is! identical! to! the! general!
function!!! !in! every! way! except! for! its! concavity! as! with! the! quadratic! shadow! function.! Thus,! to!
determine! the! general! statement! of! the! cubic! shadow! function,! the! concavity! of! the! general!
quadratic!polynomial,!!! !must!be!reversed!while!keeping!the!constants!and!the!real!solutions!of!the!
general!cubic!function!the!same.!This!can!be!determined!by!simplifying!the!expression!for!the!roots!
of!the!quadratic!shadow!function!in!conjunction!with!the!factorial!product!used!in!!! .!
Roots!of!quadratic)shadow)function!= ! !!
Let!cubic)shadow)function!= !! !
!! = (! !)(! ! + ! )(! ! ! )!
!Real!roots!of!!! :!
! = ! !!or!! = !!
Therefore,!as!per!the!findings!on!page!10:!
!! = (! !)( ! !

+ ! ! )!

For!example,!let!! = 3,!! = 2!and!! = 2!

!

To! formulate! a! statement!

linking! the! general! cubic! expression!

and! the! cubic! shadow! function,! a!
shadow!generating!function!for!cubic!
polynomials! must! be! derived.! This!
can!be!seen!overleaf:!

Graph( 11( General( cubic( function( with( its( corresponding( shadow(

function(when(a=3,(b=2(and(c=Q2(

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3.3 Cubic Shadow Generating Function

As! in! part! A! (page! 12),! the! shadow! generating! function! is! the! function! that! generates! the!
shadow! function!!! !from! the! general! cubic! function!!! .! The! shadow! function! also! passes! through!
both!intersection!points!of!!! !and!!! .!However,!as!the!cubic!graph!has!changing!intersection!points,!
the!gradient!of!!! !is!not!constant.!Therefore,!the!line!!! !will!be!determined!when!! = 3,!! = 2!and!
! = 2.!
Let!shadow)generating)function!= !! !
As!with!the!shadow!generating!function!in!part!A,!the!position!of!the!intersection!points!of!!! !and!
!! !suggest!that!!! !is!linear.!!Therefore,!it!would!be!of!the!general!form!of!a!linear!function.9!
!! = !" + !!
Where)!)is)the)gradient)and)!)is)a)constant.)
The!gradient!will!be!determined!using!the!following!equation:!
!=

!
!
!

To! do! this! however,! 2! points! on! the! line! must! be! known.! The! line!!! !passes! through! the!
intersection!points!of!the!!! !and!!! !lines.!The!calculation!of!these!coordinates!are!shown!below:!

3.3.1 Determining Intersection Points

!! = !!
(! + 2)( ! 3

+ 4) = (! + 2)( ! 3

+ 4)!

! + 2 ! ! 6! + 13 = ! + 2 ! ! + 6! 5 !
! ! 4! ! + ! + 26 = ! ! + 4! ! + 7! 10!
2! ! 8! ! 6! + 36 = 0!
! ! 4! ! 3! + 18 = 0!
! + 2 ! ! 6! + 9 = 0!
!+2 !3

= 0!

! = 2!or!! = 3!
!
Coordinates!of!intersection!points!are! 2,0 !and!(3,20)!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
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As!the!2!points!have!now!been!determined,!the!equation!of!the!line!can!now!be!calculated:!
!=
=

!
!
!

20 0
!
3 2
=

20
!
5

! = 4!
!! = 4! + !!
To!determine!!,!a!point!on!the!line!must!be!substituted!in!the!equation.!
At!(2,0)![!!intercept]:!
0 = 4 2

+ !!

! 8 = 0!
! = 8!
!
!! = 4! + 8!
!
!

To! further! understand! the! relationship! between! the! complex! roots! of! the! general! cubic!

expression!and!the!real!roots!of!the!shadow!function,!a!general!statement!can!be!formed!linking!!! ,!
!! !and!!! .!This!general!statement!is!derived!overleaf.!

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3.4 General Statement for Cubic Polynomials

As!the!gradient!of!the!line!!! !is!constantly!changing,!the!statement!linking!!! ,!!! !and!!! !must!
be!determined!for!given!values!of!!,!!!and!!.!
Let!! = 3,!! = 2!and!! = 2!
!! = ! + 2

!3

!!! = ! + 2 ! 3

+ 4 !!!!!!!!!![1]!
!

+ 4 !!!!!![2]!

!! = 4! + 8!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!![3]!
!
As! equation! 1 ,![2]!and![3]!must! be! combined! to! determine! the! general! statement,! as! with!
the! quadratic! statement,! it! was! decided! that! equations! 1 !and![2]!would! be! added! to! eliminate! all!
terms!involving!the!variable!!.!
!
Add![1]!and![2]:!
!! + !! =

!+2

!3

!! + !! = ! + 2

+4

+( !+2 !3

! 3 ! ! 3

+ 4 )!

+4+4 !

!! + !! = 8(! + 2)!
!! + !! = 2(4! + 8)!
!
But,!!! = 4! + 8!
!! + !! = 2!! !
!
!! = 2!! !! !
!

As!all!general!statements!involving!cubic!functions!have!now!been!determined,!it!has!been!

decided!that!the!statements!would!be!tested!for!their!validity.!

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3.5 Evaluation of the Cubic Statements

To! evaluate! the! cubic! statements! derived! above,! 5! random! values! will! be! substituted! in! the!
equations!and!the!graph!will!be!plotted.!However,!as!the!shadow!generating!function!!! !is!always!
changing,!the!statement!linking!!! ,!!! !and!!! !will!be!used!as!follows:!
!! = 2!! !! !
!! =
!

!! + !!
!
2

The! graphing! software! GeoGebra10)was! used! in! conjunction! with! the! online! computation!

knowledge! engine! Wolfram) Alpha11!was! used! to! determine! and! plot! the! equations! used! in! the!
examples.!

3.5.1 Test Conception

To! test! the! statements,! 5! sets! of! data! were! used! in! 5! ranges.! The! constant!!!was! kept!
constant,!as!it!has!no!part!in!determining!the!complex!roots!of!!! .!
Let!! = 2!
Test(Number(
1(

Value(of(!(
3!

Value(of(!(
3!

2(

K1!

2!

3(

3!

1!

4(

K1!

5!

5(

10!

K1!

Justification(
This!
tests!
the!
statements! for! the!
instance!where!! = !.!
This!
tests!
the!
statements! for! the!
instance!where!! < !.!
This!
tests!
the!
statements! for! the!
instance!where!! > !!
As! ! !is! squared,!
! ! = 25 .! Because! of!
this,!this!would!test!the!
statements! for! the!
instance! where! ! !!
(i.e.!much!less!than).!
This!
tests!
the!
statements! for! the!
instance! where! ! !!
(i.e.! much! greater!
than).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
10
11

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!(Wolfram!Alpha!LLC)!

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Test!1!

Graph(12(Cubic(statements(test(1(

Test!2!

Graph(13(Cubic(statements(test(2(

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Test!3!

!
Graph(14(Cubic(statements(test(3(

Test!4!

!
Graph(15(Cubic(statements(test(4(

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Test!5!

!
Graph(16(Cubic(statements(test(5(

3.5.2 Evaluation
As!seen!in!all!of!the!above!graphs,!all!features!determined!arithmetically!using!the!general!
statements! derived! above! are! present! in! the! graph.! As! with! the! quadratic! statements,! the! ranges!
tested! above! encapsulate! all! possible! combinations! of! values! for!!!and!!,! the! following! can! be!
stated:!
!! = (! !)( ! !

!! = (! !)( ! !
!! =

+ ! ! )!

+ ! ! )!

!! + !!
!
2

Where)!! )is)the)general)cubic)polynomial,)!! )is)the)general)cubic)shadow)function)and)!! )is)the)cubic)shadow)

generating)function.)
!
Thus,!the!general!statement!for!all!cubic!polynomials!can!be!made:!
!! = 2!! !! !
Where)! )and)! \{0})and)! !
)

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4 General Statement For All Polynomials

Upon! observation! of! the! equation! linking! the! general! polynomial! expression,! the! shadow!
function! and! the! shadow! generating! function,! both! were! identical.! Thus,! it! was! proven! that! the!
following!statement!holds!true!for!all!polynomials!of!order!2!or!higher:!
!! = 2!! !! !
!
!! = (! !)!!! ( ! !

!! = (! !)!!! ( ! !

+ ! ! )! !!!!!!!!!!![1]!
!

+ ! ! )! !!!!!!!![2]!

!! = ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!![3]!
Where)!)is)the)order)of)the)equation.)
!
To!eliminate!the!!!terms,!equation![1]!is!added!to!equation![2]:!
!! + !! = ! !

!!!

( !!

+ ! ! )! + ! !

= !!
=

!!!

!!!

( ! !

+ ! ! )! !

2! !! !

2! !! ! ! !
!
!! !

2 !! ! !
=
!! !

2(!! )!
=
!
(! !)!
!
2(!! )!
!! =
!! !
(! !)!
!

As! the! equation! was! proved! arithmetically,! there! is! no! need! to! apply! number! to! it.! As! it!

incorporates!all!polynomials!of!order!2!or!greater,!it!will!always!function!correctly.!

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5 Quartic Polynomials and their Shadow Functions

5.1 General Expression
As! quartic! equations! have! a! possible! number! of! 4! solutions,! there! are! 4! possible! types! of!
general!expressions.!These!are!shown!below:!
Let!general)quartic)expression)= !! !

5.1.1 2 Unique Complex Roots

!! = ((! !)! + ! ! )!
When)!! = 0,)
! = ! !"!
!

5.1.2 2 Unique Real Roots

!
!! = ((! !)! + ! ! )!
When)!! = 0,)
! = ! !!

5.1.3 2 Unique Real Roots and 2 Unique Real Roots

!
!! =

!!

+ !! ! !

+ !!

When)!! = 0,)
! = ! !"!or!! = ! !!
!
!

As!there!are!four!possible!general!statements,!the!different!possibilities!of!shadow!functions!

are!discussed!overleaf!along!with!an!example!for!each.!

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5.2 Quartic Shadow Functions

Let)quartic)shadow)function)= !! )
!

As! with! the! cubic! polynomial,! quartic! polynomials! too! are! products! of! the! basic! quadratic!

general!statement.!This!allows!the!same!methods!for!generating!a!shadow!function!to!be!applied!for!
quartic!equations.!

5.2.1 2 Unique Complex Solutions

In! the! following! example,! the! normal! quadratic! general! expression! with! complex! roots! is!
squared!to!obtain!2!unique!repeating!solutions!in!conjugate!pairs.!Thus,!the!shadow!function!can!be!
determined! by! squaring! the! general! statement! for! the! quadratic! shadow! function.! After! this,! to!
determine! the! shadow! generating! function,! the! general! statement! for! all! polynomial! shadow!
functions! (i.e.!!! = 2!! !! )! can! be! used! to! determine! the! shadow! generating! function.! The!
calculations! for! substituting! the! individual! numbers! in! the! equations! were! not! shown! as! the!
application!GeoGebra12!was!used!to!calculate!these!automatically.!
!! = ((! !)! + ! ! )!
!! = ((! !)! + ! ! )!
!! =

!! + !!
2

Let!! = 4!and!! = 3!

!
Graph(17(Graph(of(general(quartic(function(with(two(unique(complex(roots(and(its(corresponding(shadow(function(

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
12

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5.2.2 4 Unique Complex Solutions

To!formulate!an!equation!for!a!quartic!equation!with!4!unique!complex!solutions,!using!the!
graphing!software!was!unfeasible.!This!was!due!to!the!fact!that!the!points!for!the!line!!! !could!not!
be!picked!accurately.!!Therefore,!despite!the!conception!of!this!equation!being!sound,!it!cannot!be!
done!practically.!

5.2.3 2 Unique Real Roots and 2 Unique Complex Roots

This! function! combines! the! general! quadratic! equation! for! 2! unique! real! roots! with! the!
general!quadratic!equation!for!2!unique!complex!roots.!However,!as!with!the!4!unique!solutions,!it!
was!unfeasible!to!plot!this!using!the!graphing!software,!as!it!was!not!accurate!enough.!

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6 Quartic Polynomials and their Shadow Functions

As! the! objective! of! forming! general! statements! for! the! shadow! functions! of! polynomials! is! to!
obtain! matching! real! roots,! there! is! a! visual! significance! of! the! 2! results.! This! can! be! seen! clearly!
when!they!are!plotted!on!an!Argand!diagram.!
!! = (! !)!!! ( ! !

!! = (! !)!!! ( ! !

+ ! ! )! !

+ ! ! )! !

In!the!above!equations,!the!roots!are!as!follows:!
!
When)!! = 0)
! = ! !")!or!! = !!
)
When)!! = 0,)
! = ! !)or!! = !!
!

As!! = !!is! present! as! a! root! in! both! general! statements,! it! can! be! excluded! as! it! does! not!

change!across!the!equations.!
If!the!complex!roots!were!to!be!represented!on!an!Argand!diagram,!they!would!be!as!follows:!
Let!!! = ! + !"!
Let!!! = ! !"!

!
Graph(18(Argand(diagram(with(complex(roots(

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With!the!complex!roots!plotted,!the!real!roots!can!also!be!represented!on!an!Argand!diagram:!
Let!!! = ! + !!
Let!!! = ! !!

!
Graph(19(Argand(diagram(with(both(real(and(complex(roots(

!
Finally,!after!plotting!both!the!complex!roots!and!the!real!roots!on!the!Argand!diagram,!the!
relationship!can!be!seen:!

!
Graph(20(Argand(diagram(showing(relationship(between(real(and(complex(roots(

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7 Bibliography

Buchanan,! J.! Robert.! hComplex! Roots! of! the! Characteristic! Equation.h! 1! 3! 2012.! Millersville!
University.!

24!

6!

2012!

<http://banach.millersville.edu/~bob/math365/ComplexRoots/main.pdf>.!

http://geogebra.org/.!GeoGebra.!19!6!2012.!17!6!2012!<http://geogebra.org/>.!

International! Baccalaurete! Organization.! Mathematics! HL! Further! Mathematics! SL!

Information!Booklet.!Geneva:!Peterson!House,!2004.!

Oxford! University.! New! Oxford! American! English! Dictionary.! London:! Oxford! University!
Press,!2012.!

Rochester! Institute! of! Technology.! hRoots! of! Quadratic! Equations.h! 29! 4! 2010.! Rochester!
Institute!

of!

Technology:!

Department!

of!

Mathmatics.!

25!

6!

2012!

<http://www.rit.edu/studentaffairs/asc/documents/services/resources/handouts/9Roots%20o
f%20Quadratic%20Equations.pdf>.!

Seward,! Kim.! College! Algebra! Tutorial! 34:! Graphs! of! Quadratic! Functions.! 10! 6! 2010.! 24! 6!
2012!<College!Algebra!Tutorial!34:!Graphs!of!Quadratic!Functions>.!

Stapel,! Elizabeth.! hFunction! Transformations! /! Translations:! Basic! Rules.h! 5! 3! 2012.!

Purplemath.!21!6!2012!<http://www.purplemath.com/modules/fcntrans.htm>.!

.! Solving! Quadratic! Equations:! Solving! by! Completing! the! Square.! 5! 3! 2012.! 21! 6! 2012!
<http://www.purplemath.com/modules/solvquad3.htm>.!

Weisstein,!Eric!W.!hPolynomial!Roots.h!20!6!2012.!MathWorld!K!A!Wolfram!Web!Resource.!21!
6!2012!<http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PolynomialRoots.html>.!

Wolfram! Alpha! LLC.! Wolfram|Alpha:! Computational! Knowledge! Enging.! 24! 6! 2012.! 25! 6!
2012!<http://www.wolframalpha.com/>.!

!
!

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