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Sustaining affordable housing
A paper for the ACT Sustainable Future Program –
ACT Planning and Land Authority
Professor Peter Phibbs
Urban Research Centre
University of Western Sydney
This paper is one of a series of papers that are being prepared for the ACT Sustainable Futures
Program. A presentation on this issue was part of the Economics and Administration Workshop on
May 4th 2009.
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1. Introduction
A key issue of sustainability within our cities is the provision of housing that is affordable for the
population. It is not possible to build a sustainable city if the social and economic networks in the
city are disrupted because of people leaving the city in search of more affordable housing. A variety
of research has highlighted the challenges for city economies of not having access to important
workers (sometimes called key workers) such as police, nurses, bus drivers, cleaners, hospitality staff
because they have left cities in search of cheaper housing (see for example, EPIC Dot Gov, 2004).
Hence affordable housing relates to two of the elements of sustainability –social and economic
sustainability. Any serious effort at planning for a sustainable city requires a variety of strategies to
help deliver a range of affordable housing opportunities. However, in delivering this affordable
housing it is important to learn from the mistakes of past affordable housing policies, as well as
confronting a variety of emerging challenges. These particular challenges include:
• Producing an affordable product when land and building costs are highly priced.
• Addressing the social and demographic issues of an aging population.
• Ensuring lower socio economic groups are not disadvantaged by the quality or location of
the developments.
• Reconciling lower income needs of occupants with the social fabric of existing
neighbourhoods.
• Ensuring homes are energy efficient, aesthetically pleasing and constructed quickly to cope
with heightened demand.
Addressing the multi‐layered issues of affordable housing is a complex responsibility for providers,
planners and governments alike.
This paper firstly defines what is meant by affordable housing. It reviews the recent housing
affordability experience of the ACT and highlights the approaches of various state governments in
generating affordable housing. Finally it suggests a variety of possible strategies that the ACT could
adopt, discussing the various challenges discussed above.
2. What is affordable housing?
Housing affordability is often defined by the use of the 30/40 rule – housing in unaffordable when
households at the bottom 40% of the income distribution, when adjusted for household size, are
paying more than 30% of their gross household income on housing costs. Households in this
category are said to be in housing stress,
The recent AHURI project on Housing affordability (Yates, Milligan et al 2007) outlined why housing
affordability is a problem. They nominated five key issues:
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i. Not all of the risks associated with housing affordability problems are borne by individual
households. Many are borne by society.
ii. Some of the coping strategies employed (such as frequent moves) can contribute to a lack of
social cohesion.
iii. Intergenerational equity is compromised by the increasing disparities between those who
gain access to home ownership and those who do not.
iv. Processes of gentrification that have pushed much affordable housing to the fringe in urban
areas have contributed to spatial polarisation. Resultant difficulties in recruiting labour have
the capacity to constrain economic growth.
v. Housing affordability problems have the capacity to make it more difficult to manage the
economy as a result of the increased sensitivity of at‐risk households to policy changes.
3. What has been the recent history of ACT housing prices?
Housing prices in the ACT have followed the trends in many Australian capital cities, with a strong
increase in prices as interest rates came down in the last five years but with a decrease in the last
twelve months. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the ABS price series for project homes and established
houses in Canberra which highlight this trend.
Figure 1: Project Homes Price Index ACT 2002‐2008
140.0
ABS House price series Canberra -
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Source: ABS Cat No 6416.0
Source: ABS Cat No 6416.0
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Established Houses 2002-2008
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ABS House price series Canberra -
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Figure 3: Rental Yields Australian Capital Cities
Jul-2008
Figure 2: Established Houses Price index 2002‐2008
Sep-2008
Nov-2008
Whilst Canberra rents have not increased as sharply as other capital cities, especially Sydney they
were starting from a high base. Figure 3 shows that Canberra rental yields (gross rent/value of the
property) are amongst the highest in the nation.
These high housing prices and rents are putting pressure on low and moderate income households
and restricting entry to the home ownership market for many households.
4. Can the planning system be used to promote affordable housing1?
Internationally, planning and land policies have played a critical role in establishing an effective
affordable housing sector (Gurran et al. 2008). The urban and land use planning system can directly
support affordable housing development by securing affordable housing in the right locations,
having regard to accessibility and social mix. A range of specific levers can be used to achieve
dedicated affordable housing in new development and during processes of major urban change or
redevelopment. These are often called “inclusionary housing” policies and generally ensure that a
proportion of housing, land, or money for affordable housing is secured during new development or
redevelopment processes. These policies or approaches differ from jurisdiction to jurisdiction
according to governance and legislative characteristics.
Dedicated affordable housing opportunities can be procured during government led land
development processes (for instance, the approach undertaken historically by the Netherlands);
through pre determined zoning regulations (as occurs in many cities of the United States), through
negotiated agreements (as in the United Kingdom), or as a target to be met by developers when new
land is released for housing (as in Ireland) (see Gurran et al. 2008 for further information). Planning
requirements for affordable housing are often supported by a range of voluntary planning incentives
such as bonus development entitlements, concessions on development standards, or reduced fees.
Some jurisdictions have attempted to rely solely on voluntary incentives to achieve affordable
housing through the planning process although the evidence suggests that voluntary incentives are
far less effective than mandatory requirements.
When housing for fixed term affordable rental or for home purchase is secured through the planning
process, ongoing preservation within the affordable housing sector may become important.
Covenants or restrictions on resale to ensure that the affordable housing remains in the sector may
be used to preserve the affordability component in perpetuity or for a defined period.
More broadly, an efficient land use planning system should facilitate housing development, including
affordable housing development, by ensuring an adequate and timely supply of land and smooth
approvals for appropriate housing in the right location. A well functioning land release and planning
system relieves affordability problems arising from artificial supply blockages, and assists housing
developers, including affordable housing developers, by reducing the time and cost associated with
securing planning approvals. While the Australian States and Territories have been comparatively
slow to use their planning systems to directly support affordable housing development, much of the
innovation in Australian planning has focused on broad systemic reforms to reduce the time and
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This section relies heavily on Milligan et al (forthcoming)
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costs associated with housing development more broadly (e.g. using a standard residential code in
NSW). A particularly interesting strategy has emerged in South Australia. The current affordable
housing policy framework for South Australia stems from the 2005 Housing Plan for South Australia
(Government of SA 2005). A key theme of that plan was to encourage a broader range of
approaches to funding and delivering affordable housing. The centrepiece of the plan for affordable
housing, and a first for an Australian jurisdiction, was setting of a target of 15 per cent affordable
housing to be achieved in all major new developments, 5 per cent of which would be for households
described as high need. Implementation of this target occurred through amendment of planning
laws in 2007.
5. Dealing with affordable housing challenges
Producing an affordable product when land and building costs are highly priced
The largest challenge is identifying effective strategies for producing an affordable product when
land and building costs are highly priced. There are no easy solutions but instead a range of
strategies should be considered. Whilst it is difficult to identify strategies that will work, it is fairly
clear that reliance on demand side strategies such as first home buyers grants will not be effective.
A key issue is to maintain increases in supply in response to underlying demand. A key issue here is
to make sure that the planning system is efficient in delivering increases in supply.
The other effective way to respond to shortages of affordable housing is through a supply response
that favours the not for profit housing sector. Given that the profit margin for the development
sector is in the order of 15%‐25%, an efficient non profit sector has the potential to deliver more
affordable housing.
Following earlier piecemeal responses to affordable housing issues, the ACT Government released a
wide ranging strategy to tackle housing affordability, the ACT Affordable Housing Action Plan, in
2007 (ACT Government 2007). The strategy reflected a fundamental rethink of the government’s
role in promoting affordable housing, in the context of a high cost urban housing market with a near
monopoly government land owner. It included an innovative range of demand and supply side
interventions and regulatory mechanisms, with an emphasis on supply. The most significant
components of the plan on the supply side are:
• Increasing land supply;
• Increasing land supplied at more affordable price points;
• Making the planning and land supply system more responsive; and
• Strengthening a not for profit housing provider, to enable it to deliver more affordable
housing.
Turning specifically to the arrangements for a not for profit provider, the ACT Government has
agreed to extend the influence of Community Housing Canberra (CHC), now trading as CHC
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Affordable Housing, in the Canberra housing market. The main support offered to CHC under the
plan comprised:
• Transfer of title of 135 former public housing dwellings being managed by the Company to
provide a land and asset base to CHC (asset value $40 million). The Company is expected to
redevelop 75 per cent of the transferred assets within 5 years and 100 per cent within 7
years. The transferred dwellings are typically single family homes on large blocks in well
located areas. Redevelopment will allow for dual and triple occupancy.
• Provision to CHC of a rolling development finance facility of $50 million at government
borrowing rates for 30 years. The agreement also includes provision for deferral of interest
payments for one year.
• Provision for CHC (and, potentially, other not for profit providers that enter the local market)
to make direct purchase (i.e. not through market auction) at market valuation of LDA land
on deferred payment terms (ACT Government 2007).
The overall target number of affordable dwellings to be supplied by CHC utilising these mechanisms
is 1,100 new dwellings over 10 years.
One opportunity for the ACT may be the adoption of a new form of tenure that is becoming
increasingly popular in the USA – the Community Land Trust (CLT). A CLT is a non‐profit organisation
formed to hold title to land to preserve its long term availability for affordable housing and other
community uses. A land trust will often receive private and public donations of land or use
government subsidies to purchase land on which housing can be built. The homes are sold to lower
income families but the CLT retains ownership of the land and provides long term ground leases to
homebuyers. The CLT also retains a long term option to repurchase the homes at a formula driven
price when homeowners later decide to move. The ten key features of a classic CLT include:
1. Non profit tax exempt corporation
2. Dual ownership – the CLT owns the land and other owners own the dwellings
3. Leased land –
4. Perpetual affordability – any subsidy is recycled
5. Perpetual responsibility
6. Open, place‐based membership
7. Community control
8. Tripartite governance – one third of the board represents people who lease land from the
CLT, one third from the surrounding community and one third represents public officials
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9. Expansionist program
10. Flexible development.
Further details of the community land trust movement are available at the website of the national
community land trust network (http://www.cltnetwork.org/). A good introductory publication is
Davis and Jacobus (2008).
Building appropriate stock
A key sustainability concern is that housing stock in the ACT is affordable but also appropriate. The
two main sustainability issues are that the stock is suitable for the increasing proportion of aged in
the ACT as well as the stock being energy and water efficient.
Appropriate stock for the aged
Many traditional Australian housing designs are not appropriate for older residents. Key design
issues include:
• Too many steps;
• Bathrooms have too many obstacles e.g. shower hobs; and
• Doorways which are too narrow for wheelchairs and walking frames.
A detailed list of the biological changes with ageing and some possible design responses are
provided in Appendix 1.
This is very much a worldwide issue – amongst other responses there clearly needs to be greater
education amongst the home building sector and consumers about the benefits of universal design.
Energy efficient dwellings
The energy efficiency of many Australian homes is also not of a high standard. The houses are
difficult to cool and heat, are often poorly orientated and have poor quality or no insulation. Whilst
newer stock is responding to revised building standards, greater awareness of environmental issues
and the high costs of heating and cooling, more needs t be done. One mechanism which has been
useful in the NSW context has been BASIX. This is an on‐line assessment tools that is required for all
developments which contain new residential dwellings or alterations and additions to a dwellings.
The BASIX certificate has been attached to all Development/Building Applications in NSW. The tool
requires applicants to specify a variety of energy saving and water saving measures in order to reach
a desired sustainability threshold.
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Whilst there has been some concerns amongst developers that the tool has led to increases in
capital costs this has been offset by the lower running costs experienced by households occupying
BASIX approved households.
Figure 4. NSW BASIX home page.
Locating affordable housing
Some previous efforts at increasing the supply of affordable housing in Australian cities have used a
strategy of trying to reduce housing costs by locating houses in fringe locations. This reduces
housing costs but can isolate residents from employment markets and other services. In many cases,
savings in housing costs are overtaken by increased spending on transport costs. It is clear that
affordable housing should not be isolated in fringe locations. This suggests that a strategy that
including a proportion of affordable housing in all developments is important (such as the South
Australian approach).
The mixing of cheaper affordable housing with for‐market housing is often seen as problematic,
especially by for‐profit developers. However, many of these concerns are based on historical cases
where the concentration of affordable housing was high and the stock was poorly designed. Two
recent developments of the Brisbane Housing Company have highlighted the acceptability in the
market place of mixed developments. Two developments with about a 50‐50% affordable/market
housing mix sold out in two weeks when released to the market ( after the affordable housing had
been constructed) (see Milligan et al, forthcoming).
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6 Conclusion
The availability of affordable housing is a key element of any sustainability strategy. Increasing the
availability of affordable housing is a complex task that requires a variety of strategies. In
undertaking this task it is crucial that policy makers think about the location of the affordable stock,
strategies that encourage the planning system to deliver an increased supply of affordable housing,
and the important role that non‐for profits can play in increasing the supply of affordable housing.
Given the rapid ageing of the population and the serious consequences of climate change it is
important that affordable housing stock be appropriately designed.
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Appendix 1
Biological Changes to Ageing and possible home design changes
Sensory: Visual Reduction in light reaching the retina Increased level of illumination
Reduced tolerance for glare from bright Reduce glare impact
light Contrast colours to enable objects to be seen against
Loses ability to focus on details backgrounds
Have difficulty in discerning the outlines of Appropriately sized and coloured signage
objects
Avoid fluorescent lights
Sensory: Auditory Most people over 65 experience hearing Good sound insulation to reduce background noise
impairment
Avoid locating near sources of background noise (for
Reduction in speech comprehension example on busy roads)
resulting from difficulty in distinguishing
Provide devices (if required) to alert residents to a
high pitched consonants ringing doorbell or smoke detector (such as strobe light)
Sensory: Tactile The opportunity for tactile interaction with Use anti scalding devices in hot water services/limit hot
perception or touch the environment lessens with ageing water temperature to 43.5 degrees Centigrade.
Owing to a slowed reflex of withdrawal, a Stoves should have front mounted controls (many older
senior is at risk of burns when there is a people suffer injury after their clothes catch on fire
sudden increase in water temperature or whilst cooking)
inadvertently touching a hot surface For electric cook-tops use a model where the colour of
Older people are also more prone to heat the cook-top changes when it is hot.
stroke and hypothermia Use good quality insulation and good passive solar
design
Body position in space Stability for posture depends on the Bending down creates risk – appliances should be
or balance interplay of body position, balance and raised
visual perceptions. All these functions
Toilets should be higher than standard
decrease with age.
Pavements should be even
Older people have a decreased ability to
realise when their body is tilting the base Non slip surfaces should be used
of support’s centre of gravity. Hand rails should be on both sides of stairways
They can also experience dizziness when Use wide doorways to allow for the use of mobility
they have a quick change in body position. devices in the home
Older people also have more postural
To allow for reduced steppage of older people, door
sway for which they have to compensate.
thresholds should be eliminated
All these conditions result in an increased
Install hobless (step-free) showers
incidence of falling.
Phone connections and power points should be at waist
height to reduce the need for bending
Neuromuscular: strength Older people may experience stiffness in Locate cupboards and storage at an appropriate height.
and endurance the muscles and reach restrictions owing
to: Use rocker switches on lights
A loss of strength in muscles Use sensors to operate taps or use lever handles
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BIOLOGICAL AGE RELATED CHANG - POSSIBLE DESIGN RESPONSE
CHARACTERISTIC
Having less energy for carrying parcels etc wherever possible
Difficulty in opening heavy doors Stovetops should be flat so that “heavy” pots can be slid
Less ability to manoeuvre motor vehicles and not lifted
Windows and doors should be easy to open
Have plenty of space in the car park – reduce the need
for reversing if possible
Cognitive Some loss of memory but cognitive Provide visual cues to differentiate houses/apartments
degeneration usually slower than physical
Use simplified layout where possible
changes
Psychosocial A number of factors increase isolation for Design so as to increases chances of interaction such
older people including withdrawal from the as shared spaces / community space
workplace, stereotypes about the reduced
Locate near good public transport to maximise
significance of older people, less money to
interaction opportunities
afford social outings, loss of confidence
due to death of a partner or death/ Cater for pets
relocation of friends, depression about
declining health
Source: Adapted from Luton and Marston (2005) and Hazen and McRee (2001)
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References
ACT Government 2007 ‘Affordable Housing Action Plan’ at
http://www.actaffordablehousing.com.au/resources/pdfs/action_Plan.pdf, accessed February 25
2009
Davis J.E. and Jacobus R (2008) The City‐CLT partnership – Municipal Support for Community Land
Trusts. Policy Focus Report – Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Available from
http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/PubDetail.aspx?pubid=1395‐(downloaded May 22nd , 2009)
Epic Dot Gov (2004) Northern Beaches Key Workers Study, Final report. Available from:
http://www.manly.nsw.gov.au/IgnitionSuite/uploads/docs/Key%20Workers%20Study%20‐
%20Final.pdf (downloaded May 22nd 2009)
Government of South Australia. 2005 Housing Plan for SA, Gov. SA
Gurran, N., Milligan, V., Baker, D., Bugg, L.B. and Christiansen, S. 2008 ‘New directions in planning for
affordable housing: Australian and international evidence and implications’. Final Report, AHURI,
Melbourne. (Available from www.ahuri.edu.au)
Hazen, MM and McRee S 2001, Environmental Support to Assist an Older Adult with Independent
Living: Safety and Activity Accommodation in a Senior’s Home, Journal of Housing for the Elderly Vol
14 No 1-2 pp27-52
Lutton L and Marston K 2005 Involving Seniors in Developing Planning Guidelines for Aged Persons
Dwellings – A Collaborative Approach. Paper presented at the National Housing Conference 2005.
Milligan V, Gurran N, Lawson J, Phibbs P and Phillips R (forthcoming) – Innovation in Affordable
Housing in Australia: Bringing it Together. Final Report to AHURI.
Yates, J. and Milligan, V. with Berry M., Burke T., Gabriel M., Phibbs P., Pinnegar S and Randolph B.
2007 Housing Affordability: a 21st century problem, Final Report, National Research Venture 3:
Housing affordability for lower income Australians. AHURI Melbourne. (available from
www.ahuri.edu.au)
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