Status Reports On BME in Europe PDF

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN EUROPE STATUS REPORTS
BIOMEDEA
July 2005
Copyright 2005 BIOMEDEA
BIOMEDEA Project Coordinator: Prof. Dr. Joachim H. Nagel Institute of Biomedical Engineering University of Stuttgart Seidenstrasse 36 70174 Stuttgart Germany http://www.bmt.uni.stuttgart.de/biomedea
PREFACE
A forum convened during the 1st European MBE Conference, Vienna, 1999 to discuss the needs of the European MBES community. Shortly after that the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE) appointed an ad-hoc committee to prepare recommendations on how to promote MBES in Europe. The committee completed its work by convening a meeting of 30 representatives of European MBE societies in Vienna, August 2627, 2001. These societies later unanimously endorsed the decision of the meeting to create a European Alliance for Medical and Biological Engineering and Science (EAMBES). A ProTem Group was appointed to write the statutes of EAMBES and to prepare its launching. The inauguration meeting of EAMBES then took place in Frankfurt, Germany, on June 13-14, 2003. EAMBES was created on two principles: that EAMBES will not compete with existing societies, and that EAMBES adds value in the European scene, i.e. that working together will ultimately benefit us all, especially in an area as wide as Medical and Biological Engineering and Science. Right from the beginning, higher education was one of the focal areas for the work of the IFMBE ad-hoc committee for European Activities. In order to initiate widespread European cooperation on this issue, the committee decided to prepare a 'white paper' on BME education, training and accreditation in Europe as a discussion paper for the European Member Societies of the IFMBE and later on EAMBES to prepare for the European Higher Education Area. I agreed to coordinate this task and soon realized that there was very little knowledge about the actual status of Biomedical Engineering in general and especially BME education and the accreditation of BME programmes throughout Europe. So I started to gather reports on the status of BME education in Europe. Authors from 28 countries supplied information on the situation in their countries by the spring of 2002. I am very grateful to these authors, since their reports were an important help in developing the European activities in the area of BME education, including the BIOMEDEA Project. Though still a valuable source of information, much of the information in these reports is outdated by now due to the rapid developments which were caused by the Bologna Process. Thus, I am currently soliciting updates as well as new reports from those countries that were not yet participating in these European activities in 2001/2002. I hope that by the time we will write the final report of the BIOMEDEA Project we will have a comprehensive, up-to-date survey on BME education ready to be included in the Project documents. Having been asked by numerous colleagues to make the status reports available to all participants of the BIOMEDEA workshops, I am including this book into the BIOMDEA documents, though some of the contributions are only drafts and no final versions. Joachim Nagel July 2005
List of contents
Biomedical Engineering Education in Europe - Comments on the IFMBE/EAMBES White Paper. Joe C. Barbenel ....................................................................................................................................................... 1 Biomedical Engineering in Austria H. Gilly, H.-B. Schmiedmayer, B. Tilg .................................................................................................................... 5 Biomedical Engineering in Belgium anno 2002 Pascal Verdonck ................................................................................................................................................... 15 Biomedical Engineering in Bulgaria V. Todorov and I. Daskalov .................................................................................................................................. 20 Biomedical Engineering in Croatia Ratko Magjarevi, Vedran Bilas ........................................................................................................................... 25 Biomedical Engineering Education in the Czech Republic Ji Holk, Lenka Lhotsk, Jaromr Cmral ......................................................................................................... 37 Status Report of BME Education in Denmark Johannes J. Struijk ................................................................................................................................................ 49 Biomedical Engineering in Estonia Hiie Hinrikus and Kalju Meigas ........................................................................................................................... 54 Biomedical Engineering Education in Finland Jari Viik et al......................................................................................................................................................... 62 Biomedical Engineering in France: A Brief Historical Survey Ives Boire .............................................................................................................................................................. 78 Biomedical Engineering in Germany Thomas Becks........................................................................................................................................................ 87 Remarks on Curricula in Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Engineering Olaf Dssel............................................................................................................................................................ 94 Biomedical Engineering in Greece Nicolas Pallikarakis ............................................................................................................................................ 102 Biomedical and Clinical Engineering in Hungary kos Jobbgy ...................................................................................................................................................... 107 Biomedical Engineering in the Republic of Ireland Meabh Smith et al. .............................................................................................................................................. 111 Biomedical Engineering in Israel Dan Adam ........................................................................................................................................................... 137 Biomedical Engineering Education in Italy Marcello Bracale ................................................................................................................................................ 141 Status Reports on Biomedical Engineering: Latvia Yuri Dekhtyar ...................................................................................................................................................... 162 Status Reports on Biomedical Engineering in Norway....................................................................................... 164 Biomedical Engineering in Poland at the Beginning of XXI Century Ewaryst Tkacz ..................................................................................................................................................... 165 Biomedical Engineering Education in Romania Radu V. CIUPA ................................................................................................................................................... 170 Biomedical Engineering in the Slovak Republic Milan Tyler, Peter Kneppo, Duan imk, Jozef ivk, Klra pov .......................................................... 179 Biomedical Engineering in Slovenia D. Miklavcic ........................................................................................................................................................ 189 Biomedical Engineering Education in Spain Laura M. Roa and Enrique J. Gmez.................................................................................................................. 192
Biomedical Engineering in Sweden Olof Lindahl ........................................................................................................................................................ 203 Biomedical Engineering in Switzerland Dieter Meier and Ralph Mller........................................................................................................................... 211 Biomedical Engineering in the Netherlands Dick W Slaaf ....................................................................................................................................................... 214 Biomedical Engineering in Ukraine Yu. Liakh ............................................................................................................................................................. 221 Biomedical Engineering in the United Kingdom J C Barbenel ....................................................................................................................................................... 223 Report from the Yugoslav Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics (YUBEMP) Svetlana Andri and Dejan B. Popovi ............................................................................................................... 235
BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts
Biomedical Engineering Education in Europe - Comments on the IFMBE/EAMBES White Paper. J.C.Barbenel University of Strathclyde Glasgow G1 1XW U.K.
The White paper has been organised and edited by Prof. J Nagel and contains unique information on education, training and accreditation in the important and growing area of Biomedical Engineering. The information has been obtained about the situation and practice in 28 European countries. This section is an overview that attempts to compare and contrast the different national models. It does not attempt to provide a detailed analysis of all the information, and is limited to the professional level, omitting much of the information on technicians contained in a few national reports. In reading this section and the reports on individual countries, it is necessary to bear in mind two important constraints. The field of Biomedical Engineering (BME) is changing and growing rapidly, which means that some of the information was out of date almost as soon as it was written. The sections on different countries also show the very great national variability in both educational practice and nomenclature that makes comparison difficult. It is to be hoped that the implementation of the ideas and aims of the Bologna Declaration will lead to more consistency and simplicity in the future. The Bologna Declaration envisages two main educational cycles, undergraduate and graduate. The first cycle will last a minimum of three years and leads to the award of a degree that is, in the words of the Declaration, relevant to the European labour market as an appropriate level of qualification. The successful completion of the first cycle degree is required for access to the second cycle degree that should lead to the master and/or doctorate degree. The implementation of the Declaration has led to the situation where the minimum three-years of the first cycle is becoming the standard duration. EDUCATION. Availability of BME education. With two exceptions BME education is available in all the countries covered by the White Paper. In Iceland there is no university programme for Biomedical engineers or other medical-technology or physics study. The almost certainly reflects the small size of the professional community and higher educational sector in Iceland. In Switzerland there is currently no degree courses in Biomedical Engineering at the university level, but there is an intention to implement new Bachelors and Masters
level degrees. In the remaining countries there are Biomedical Engineering courses that are based on two models, one in which BME is a component of a mixed degree and the second in which the degrees are nominally in BME.
Mixed degrees. There are many undergraduate degree courses in conventional engineering subjects particularly Electrical, Mechanical and Chemical which contain BME options or electives. The Biomedical content appears not to be a route to practice as a professional Biomedical Engineer, but has an educational aim i.e. to provide examples of the application of the conventional engineering that forms the majority of the degree content in an unusual, but interesting and demanding context. Biomedical applications appear to be particularly popular in Electrical Engineering, with an emphasis on Biomedical electronics, instrumentation, and signal and image analysis. The situation with post graduate degrees is less clear, but in Switzerland there are M.Sc. degrees in electrical and mechanical engineering that are awarded with a major in biomedical engineering. Biomedical Engineering degrees. First cycle courses that lead to a BME degree are either stand alone courses or the first stage of a two-cycle degree. Both types are generally of 3-years duration. The stand alone courses usually lead to technical/technician level qualification. As with the mixed undergraduate courses, there is a strong emphasis on electronics and instrumentation, but there is also an Industrial Bioengineering qualification in Italy. The situation in Ireland is rather different, where the course duration may be 4- years, leading to a professional level rather than a technician level degree, although some graduates are employed in technical level posts. The structure of second cycle BME degrees is particularly variable and even in one country there are often major differences. There are, however, three common models: The second cycles follows the first cycle as an integrated course leading to a single degree. The second cycle component last either one or two years, commonly producing a five-year degree, although four years is more usual in England, where the resulting qualification is generally an undergraduates Masters degree. A wholly BME postgraduate Masters degree, with completion of a first cycle degree as an essential entry requirement. The nature of the first cycle degree is, once again, very variable. I many cases the first cycle degree must be in engineering or a physical science, but there are also degree courses that will accept those with life science, medical or paramedical degrees. The degrees are of one- or two-year duration and generally contain both instructional and research components, although the balance of components appears to extend from virtually all instruction to virtually all research. There is a lack of common degree names, although Master of Science is widespread.
Third cycle BME degrees. The Bologna Declaration envisioned only two educational cycles, the second cycle being a Masers or Doctoral degree. In practice students can, and often do, progress from a Masters degree to a separate Doctoral degree, usually PhD, which represents a third rather than a second cycle degree. Entry conditions often, but not always, require the candidate to have a second cycle degree. The PhD in Europe has traditionally been rather like a research apprenticeship, being almost entirely research based. There is a growing tendency for the degree to contain instructional material, often with credit for prior material eg in a preceding Masters degree. The usually minimum duration of study is three years. Accreditation of degrees and programmes. Biomedical Engineering degrees are accredited or approved by a variety of mechanisms. By far the most common agency is a government ministry or department, usually of Health, Science or Technology. In Israel the approving agency is the Higher Education council, a government supported public body. There is no comment on degree accreditation in more than half of the national returns, but in many of these countries the universities are autonomous and degree courses do not need external authorisation, being a matter for the university itself. Accreditation of programme content is less common than degree accreditation. Government agencies are the most common source of accreditation, although in the Netherlands and the UK professional societies are a source of accreditation. The UK method is particularly complex because the Engineering Institutions accredit the conventional engineering content of some mixed degrees with Biomedical Engineering content. The UK national BME society accredits some postgraduate MSc degrees with an instructional content matching a notional syllabus defined by the society. TRAINING. There appears to be little provision for the training of those entering health-care in a hospital setting. There are, however, training schemes reported for Denmark and the UK. Provision and accreditation of training. There is a three-year integrated postgraduate educational and training programme in Denmark. The course is organised and delivered by Odense University Hospital, apparently under the auspices of the Danish Health Council, and leads to certification as a Clinical Engineer. There is a similar two-year programme for Clinical Technicians. In the UK the trainees are employed in the National Health Service at an appropriate training grade. The training scheme normally lasts for 6 years, being divided into 3 training periods. Basic training, that combines both training and education, is the normally the entry to the profession and is for 2 years, reduced to at least 15 months for trainees with an MSc accredited by the national society (see above). Successful
completion of the Basic Training Scheme leads to the award of a Diploma of the national society and an MSc. Basic training is followed by a 4 year Programme of Advanced Training and Responsibility. Training takes place in centres that have been accredited by the national society, which also has a syllabus of the competencies to be developed by the trainee. REGISTRATION. Registration is possible in very few European countries. There is a voluntary register organised and administered by the national BME society in Ireland, Norway and Sweden, although the criteria for membership are not specified in the reports in the White Paper. In the UK voluntary registration organised by the national BME society (IPEM) is being replaced with compulsory registration. The Department of Health will require that all those who interact with patients, either directly or indirectly, be registered with the Health Professions Council as Clinical Scientists. Applicants for registration must show that the applicant has achieved the competences required after 4 years participation in the IPEM training scheme, although these may be obtained by alternative, non-IPEM routes. Continuing Professional Development will be a requirement for continuing registration.
OVERVIEW. The White Paper shows that there is widespread recognition of the need for Biomedical Engineering education, training and accreditation/certification. There are many schemes being developed or awaiting implementation, but there is little uniformity. The continuing national differences are a serious problem that can hinder and limit trans-nation education, training, employment and co-operation.
Biomedical Engineering in Austria H Gilly, Austrian Society of Biomedical Engineering and Dept of Anaesthesia, Univ. Vienna H.-B. Schmiedmayer, Institute of Mechanics, Vienna University of Technology B. Tilg, Austrian Society of Biomedical Engineering, University for Health Informatics and Technology Tyrol Biomedical Engineering (BME) in Austria Biomedical Engineering (BME) as a scientific and professional discipline is increasingly known and spreading steadily in Austria. Experience to date shows that the career options for graduates are broad; this may be attributed primarily to the fact that the pre-requisite for a career in the field is the completion of a solid university-level education (doctoral studies, see below). Further training may be gained voluntarily (postgraduate courses) or through on-thejob experience. The National Society, the Austrian Society for Biomedical Engineering (sterreichische Gesellschaft fr Biomedizinische Technik; GBMT), represents the BME community in Austria. It also officially represents the Austrian biomedical engineering community in the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE). GBMT is, besides others, also a member of the Austrian Computer Society (OCG) and, with its Working Group for Medical Informatics, a member of the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA) and of the European Federation for Medical Informatics . The Society was already founded in 1975, bringing together those working in the then developing area of Biomedical Engineering. Since the beginning GBMT has been involved particularly in Organising scientific conferences, seminars and workshops in biomedical engineering and clinical engineering, and, via its sections, in biomechanics, sports medicine, medical informatics, etc. Postgraduate professional education and training of clinical engineers Co-operation with the respective Federal Ministries responsible for education, science, and technology GBMT has been established as and has remained a scientific organisation without major activities in professional matters. However, in the late 70s and early 80s, it also successfully promoted professional activities by establishing career opportunities, particularly in hospitals. During the last decade the Society was actively involved in collecting and evaluating data relevant for the future development of this scientific discipline in Austria. On behalf of the Federal Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology (the former Federal Ministry for Science and Research) two studies, Biomedical Technology Austria 2000 and "Forschungs- und Technologiekonzept 1992 - Biomedizinische Technik" (Research and Technology Concept 1992 Biomedical Engineering), have been compiled and published by the Society. Both studies address and examine the potential for innovation and development in biomedical technology (BMT) in Austria. In the more recent booklet, BMT was examined as a branch of business and as an interdisciplinary science in a medico-social context (see appendix for further details). Membership The society currently has about 220 members - regular members, student members, sponsors and honorary members. Regular membership is open to academics or those with higher education and/or professionals involved in BME as well as to any person with a declared
interest in BME or closely related fields. At present the membership distribution is: 160 engineers/physicists/basic scientists, 45 physicians, 5 students, 4 sponsors. In accord with its statutes, the Society is not involved in running programmes for education, training or accreditation. Professional development is offered on a noncontinuous basis (seminars, lectures, etc). In addition to GBMT there are other societies and organisations that associate people active in related fields, specific branches or subareas of BME: GMP (Austrian Society for Medical Physics), VKT (sterreichischer Verband der Krankenhaustechniker) with a homogeneous membership of professionals working in hospitals (clinical engineers), Austrian Scientific Society for Telemedicine, Health Technology Assessment Unit of the Institute of Technology Assessment (Austrian Academy of Sciences). Employment The large majority of the members is employed in public universities, other public and private research organisations, community health trusts, industry, teaching units, public administration, private hospitals and test houses. No statistics or details regarding the main specialities identified by engineers or physicists are presently available. Education in BME in Austria At present there are ongoing efforts to adapt the university degree courses to comply with the future three-level harmonised educational system in Europe (bachelor master doctor (PhD)). Undergraduate Level: The founding and establishment of Fachhochschulen (universities of applied sciences, in some respects similar to the previous polytechnic institutes in Britain) and the accompanying establishment of an accreditation model for the Fachhochschule sector was a significant change here in Austria with its long tradition of state regulation and control of higher education. The Fachhochschule policy broke with this long tradition, creating an independent expert body (Fachhochschulrat; closely resembling the British Council for National Academics Awards (CNAA)) with decision-making power (for details see: Hans Pechar, Thomas Pfeiffer: The Accreditation of Fachhochschul Programmes in Austria. Paper presented at the international conference Accreditation of Higher Education: Comparative Policies in Europe, Vienna, 27th April 2001). Nowadays, Fachhochschulen are strenghthening their efforts to offer specialised education in BME-related fields. These undergraduate degrees are either the Bachelors degree or the extended undergraduate Masters degree which requires one more year of study than the Bachelors degree. The structure of these courses should be entirely consistent with the structure proposed in the Bologna Declaration at least since the new federal law (Bundesgesetz, mit dem das Bundesgesetz ber Fachhochschul-Studiengnge (Fachhochschul-StudiengesetzFHStG) gendert wird) has come into effect (May 2002); for details visit: http://www.bmbwk.gv.at/doprint.asp?OID=6154&front=1) At present two specialised courses addressing Software Engineering for Health Care (FH Hagenberg) and Medical Information Technology with subspecialisation in telemedicine and hospital technology (FH Krnten, Klagenfurt) have been approved. At least two other courses aiming at biomedical engineering will be established by September 2003.
Higher Education Biomedical Engineering Programmes in Austria (June 2002) Education at the doctoral level is offered as follows: 1. Biomedical Engineering at Graz University of Technology (TUG) Biomedical Engineering (BME) at TUG can be attended as an eligible course (branch of study) within the diploma programme in electrical engineering (Dipl.-Ing.) General structure of the diploma programme in electrical engineering: 3 segments (2 + 4 + 4 semesters), 186 semester hours (SStd) = 279 ECTS + diploma thesis = 300 ECTS 1st segment: Fundamentals (40 SStd = 60 ECTS) Basics in mathematics, physics, electrical engineering, etc.
2nd segment: Biomedical Engineering (26 SStd = 39 ECTS) Basics in biochemistry, anatomy, physiology, biophysics, biosensors, Biomedical engineering, clinical engineering, etc. (46 SStd (69 ECTS) and 8 SStd (12 ECTS) are still fundamentals and electrical engineering) 3rd segment: Biomedical Engineering (34 SStd = 51 ECTS; specialisation in one of three disciplines) Courses eligible from prescribed catalogues: Medical Technology (20 SStd = 30 ECTS) Clinical Engineering (20 SStd = 30 ECTS) Medical Informatics (20 SStd = 30 ECTS) Eligible lectures, practical training, lab courses, projects from biomedical engineering course catalogues (14 SStd = 21 ECTS) Eligible lectures, practical training, lab courses, projects from all course catalogues (32 SStd = 48 ECTS) 21 ECTS are assigned to the diploma thesis (60 SStd + diploma thesis) = (90 ECTS + 21 ECTS) = 111 ECTS in Biomedical Engineering (37 %) Classification (Discussion paper, Addendum 2, Table 1.1, Page 23, 06.06.01): Programme Type 3, Interdisciplinary Biomedical Engineering Programme
2. Biomedical Engineering at Vienna University of Technology (TUW) The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering offers specialisation in Biomedical Engineering. The general study is structured into 3 segments (2 + 4 + 4 semesters = 300 ECTS). In the 3rd segment the students can specialise in Biomedical Engineering. 1st segment: Fundamentals (60 ECTS) Basics in mathematics, physics, mechanical engineering, etc.
2nd segment: Mechanical Engineering + Advanced Fundamentals (120 ECTS) 3rd segment: The students can choose among 8 specialisations (Energy Engineering; Transportation Engineering and Logistics; Vehicle Engineering; Production Engineering; Design and Materials; Mechatronics; Biomedical Engineering; Modelling and Simulation). When they choose Biomedical Engineering: Basics in Biomedical Engineering (15 ECTS) Specialisation in Biomedical Engineering (min. 30 ECTS) Diploma thesis (30 ECTS) From the remaining 45 ECTS, 19 ECTS can be chosen freely from all University courses, the others (26 ECTS) have to be chosen from the 8 specialisations including Biomedical Engineering. Classification (Discussion paper, Addendum 2, Table 1.1, Page 23, 06.06.01): Programme Type 3, Interdisciplinary Biomedical Engineering Programme The Faculty of Science and Informatics offers a Bachelors/Masters Programme in Medical Informatics. ECTS Bachelor: Basics: Mathematics, Statistics, Informatics 39,0 Medical Basics: Anatomy, Biochemistry, 31,5 Medical Informatics 25,5 Programming and Software Engineering 25,5 Social Sciences 12,0 Specialisation 22,5 Bachelor Lab & Seminar 17,5 Electives 6,5 Total 180,0 Master: Clinical Medicine and Information Engineering Biosignals and Imaging Computer Simulation and Biometry Information Management in Health Care Systems Seminar Masters Thesis Electives Total min. 8,0 min. 8,0 min. 8,0 min. 8,0 3,5 30,0 3,0 120,0
Classification (Discussion paper, Addendum 2, Table 1.1, Page 23, 06.06.01): Programme Type 3, Interdisciplinary Biomedical Engineering Programme
Additionally the Vienna University of Technology (TUW) has a list of lectures, labs, seminars and exercises on Biomedical Engineering (http://info.tuwien.ac.at/ud/stpl/biomed.html). These courses are open to all students of all faculties at the TUW.
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3. Biomedical Engineering at University of Vienna /General Hospital of Vienna At present there is no regular course of study / curriculum comparable to the programme offered at the TU in Graz, Institute of Electrical and Biomedical Engineering. However, like at other universities, a studium irregulare would allow coverage of the entire biomedical engineering curriculum as offered by other Austrian Universities such as the TUG (Technical University of Graz) or TUW (Technical University of Vienna) with respect to lectures, seminars etc. In fact, university lecturers based within the Institutes of the General Hospital teach at TUW (and other institutions) and, in joint projects with TUW and UV (University of Vienna), also provide the infrastructure for diploma papers, theses, etc. of students who pursue their regular engineering or science studies at the universities mentioned. In addition, the future curriculum in medicine will allow students to complete their studies with the academic degree Dr. scient. med.. It is to be expected (and it is hoped) that medical students will also choose Biomedical Engineering for their thesis and thereby gather additional skills. The Danube University in Krems, Department for Ecological and Medical Sciences (Abteilung fr Umwelt- und Medizinische Wissenschaften), offers a comprehensive selection of postgraduate courses. http://www.donau-uni.ac.at/organisation/mba_lehrgaenge.html The scientific degree to be awarded is a Master of Business Administration (MBA) in the postgraduate educational course Entrepreneurship MBA, Applied Biomedicine.
4. Biomedical Engineering at the University of Graz The University of Graz (Faculty of Medicine) offers lectures, labs, seminars and exercises in Biomedical Engineering. In addition, the future curriculum in medicine (starting in the fall of 2002) will allow graduates (from medicine or science/engineering) to complete their studies with the academic degree Dr. scient. med. It is to be expected (and it is hoped) that medical graduates will also choose Biomedical Engineering for their thesis and thereby gather additional skills.
5. Biomedical Engineering at the University of Innsbruck The University offers lectures, labs, seminars and exercises in Biomedical Engineering.
6. Biomedical Engineering at the University for Health Informatics and Technology Tyrol In 2000 TILAK (Tiroler Landeskrankenanstalten) initiated the founding of a new institution of higher education for health informatics, the Private Universitt fr Medizinische Informatik
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und Technik Tirol / Private University for Health Informatics and Technology Tyrol (UMIT). The Austrian Government accredited UMIT as a private university in October 2001. The University is aiming for a top international position in Medical Informatics in both research and education. Its headquarters are in Innsbruck. The University started in the academic year 2001/2002 with two educational programmes. They lead to a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.; 3 years) and a Master of Science (M.Sc.; 1.52 years longer) degree in Medical Informatics. In the doctoral (PhD) programme for Medical Informatics students work in research projects. From the very beginning international integration of the programmes is planned (e.g., within the International Partnership for Health Informatics Education Network). The Bachelors and Masters programmes follow the recommendations of the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA). Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Medical Informatics (ECTS Points): Medicine and Health Care 24 Medical Informatics Informatics Quantitative Methods TOTAL 48 84 24 180
Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Medical Informatics (ECTS Points): Previous study Previous study of Med. of Informatics Informatics Medicine and Health Care Medical Informatics Informatics Quantitative Methods * TOTAL 06-12 36-42 06-12 06-12 24-30 48-54 06-12 06-12
Previous study of Medicine 06-12 48-54 18-24 12-18 90
60 90 *) Masters thesis not included
In addition, a Ph.D. programme in Medical Informatics is offered. For further information please visit http://www.umit.at
Accreditation (of BME) in Austria In line with Austrian legislation, the accreditation of educational programmes at the university level is performed by state authorities (Austrian Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture), but not by professional or scientific organisations (like GBMT). However, these organisations may make recommendations and proposals.
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Appendix Summary of the recently published study Biomedical Technology Austria 2000 Authors: G. Windischbauer, H. Gilly, P. Lugner, H. Pessenhofer Eigentmer, Herausgeber, Verleger: BMVIT, Abteilung V B-9, Rosengasse 4, 1010 Wien; (Mai 2000). While research success in BMT in Austria has been quite notable, and while the country has a good reputation internationally in this regard, Austrians have been less successful in taking their ideas to the finished product stage. Thus, the economic exploitation of Austrian research results has been unsatisfactory. At the same time, inherent possibilities exist for improving the quality and efficiency of medical care and creating knowledge-based added value. With about 150 firms 1 specialising in BMT, the Austrian production of medical-technical equipment does not add up to a significant market when compared to other countries. However, the development potential of BMT as an industry is great, both domestically and internationally. Comparing Austrias economy with others of similar size (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Sweden) leads to the conclusion that the economic base of the industry could be increased 2-fold in the long term. Transforming a research idea into a marketable product is far more complex in the field of BMT, which is highly innovative, than in most other technical industries, since different areas of knowledge (medicine, technology, biology, etc.) need to collaborate within a national system of innovation. Success may thus be expected only in the medium or long term. Austrian scientific BMT competency requires fertile ground for its development. A peculiarity of this country is that business enterprise contributes a relatively small share to total research and development (R&D); that government provides a relatively large share of R&D expenditures; and that the links between research, development and production in the countrys system of innovation are weak. The international markets for medical products are highly consolidated. Global firms offer a broad and consistent range of products for just about every medical discipline. This development may be understood as a reaction to the tightening of cost restrictions by health care providers. At the same time (as in biotechnology) small firms, often from within the orbit of the universities, function as the R&D pacemakers in BMT. Market consolidation forces these small and medium-sized companies to adopt niche strategies and to form strategic alliances, resulting in further pressure on the BMT markets to innovate. Nevertheless European BMT producers, in contrast to all other manufacturing industries, have been able to increase employment and also achieve very high growth in added value. For BMT the most important social development is doubtless the anticipated increase in the numbers of the older population and of those needing care. In this context, some scenarios predict that by the year 2010 there will be 250,000 individuals in Austria requiring care. BMT in this country has a major contribution to make to maintaining and improving the quality of life for this sector of the population. The most important international trends in BMT are the growing role of biology in medical technologies, the advancements being made in research and development of artificial senses and organs, and the visualisation and miniaturisation of medical procedures and instruments. Information and telecommunications technologies (ITC) support the development of these
1
BMT producers narrowly defined: Manufacture BMT products or pursue R&D in BMT not included are purely marketing firms and service providers without Austrian R&D activities
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trends. In a parallel development, the significance of computing and robotics in medicine is also increasing.
Fields of Innovation and Development in BMT in Austria In accordance with international research trends, expert opinion and surveys in connection with this study, the following fields of innovation and development (ID fields) for BMT in Austria can be identified: Biomaterials, Cell & Tissue Engineering, Organ Culture Systems: These are, world-wide, the fields of the future and those that most involve biology. In Austria there is a variety of BMT activities in these areas. These activities and their cross-connections should be purposefully bundled and more strongly linked up in international research collaborations. Medical Implants, Biosensors and Devices: This ID subject matter is considered to be a future-oriented field of activity in which Austria has basic competency. In future developments, combinations of molecular biology, electronics, materials science, and ITC will be of great importance. This area should be included in future research advancement strategies. Basics in Biomedical Engineering and Biophysics: This ID field stands out by virtue of the enormous scientific activity going on in it. Ongoing evaluation is needed to determine to what extent supported projects can be tranformed into usable products and technologies. Since basic research is fundamental to product ideas, this subject must be given special consideration in future support strategies. Instrumentation and Devices for Signal Acquisition, Diagnostics and Therapeutics: This field already has a good base of knowledge for transforming ideas into products. Successful niche products may be expected particularly in connection with medical implants, biosensors and devices. Imaging Techniques: Experts see the functional imaging of organs down to the molecular level as an area of the future. Together with telemedicine and robotics, imaging has great development potential. Monitoring, Surveillance, Assisted Living and Biomechanics, Mobility & Rehabilitation Engineering: Concluding from expert evaluation as well as from the important trends and demographic developments, these topics will be especially important for a balanced socioeconomic scenario in the future. Therefore, the further development of these fields should be pushed, particularly with the help of ITC and miniaturisation. The market prospects for most of these products are considered to be particularly good. Informatics, Mathematical & Computational Methods, Robotics & Communication and (especially) Telemedicine: These subjects are epecially important for the time- and costefficient care of patients and persons with special needs. Because of their savings potential, special efforts should be made to foster these areas. This is true also for the development of methods and software, especially for imaging, telemedicine and robotics in combination with miniaturisation and minimally invasive techniques.
Austrian Options in BMT Austria needs a broad-based national innovation system in order to exploit the ID potential of the Austrian economy. Most small and medium-sized Austrian businesses that are active in BMT have neither the organisational nor the financial means at their disposal to carry out R&D. As a result, cluster building in BMT seems a difficult task in the short run. Rather, we would recommend expanding the base of firms in BMT by initiating projects that foster
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clustering in the ID fields, to promote their links to BMT research institutions and to open high-tech niche markets. This would allow for the conditions necessary for competitive BMT clusters to be created in the intermediate to long run. The problems surrounding the creation of added value or of the economic use of research results in Austria are especially clear in the field of BMT. At present, the entrepreneurial base of BMT firms is too narrow for the field to provide, in the medium term, effective partners for research establishments to develop BMT products and to market them globally. Efforts should be made towards international licensing agreements, third-party co-operation, and bringing research units into the country with international partners, as well as the establishment of domestic BMT companies. In this context, public research institutions should be assured an appropriate share of the profit from a project, and attractive models of research partnership should be made available to private firms. A unitary, transparent model for return on investment should be developed. A primary goal continues to be the creation and improvement of conditions for establishing companies coming out of academia and the world of research. On the other hand, it must be the task of the universities to provide the necessary structures in research and teaching. In view of the complexity of the larger system that encompasses education, science, research and technology, specific roads will need to be taken in BMT. Greater significance will have to be ascribed to the organisation of projects that are value-added (market?) oriented, given the intense international competition in knowledge. Most important is the best possible transformation of new ideas in BMT into market- and care-relevant products and health care services based on Austrian BMT competencies. Given the background of certain BMT competencies and socio-economic demands, the following should be implemented: a strategy of support for short-term BMT projects, project sketches and programmes to stimulate ideas (impulse programmes), together with a comprehensive package of programme support in the ID fields. Programme support must aim at improving the transition of the innovative idea to its realisation, at fostering activities in socio-politically relevant ID fields, and must be oriented to the demands of the market. Such programme support should serve to encourage common BMT solutions from international project teams and to set up networks of patients and users, of researchers and developers, in order to initiate and steadily move forward the transfer of knowledge and technology between research institutions and BMT companies. A balance between basic and applied research must be aimed for, in order to make full use of the entire innovation potential. Beyond that, the setting of a thematic focus will require a stable framework within the politics of research support.
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Biomedical Engineering in Belgium anno 2002 Relationship between the Belgian Society for Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing (BSMBEC) and the National Committee on Bio-Medical Engineering (NCBME) The Belgian Society for Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing (BSMBEC) has been founded in 1987. The aim of the society is to organise scientific meetings for people active in the field of biomedical and clinical engineering. It is a non-profit organisation whose seat is located at the "University Foundation" in Brussels. The BSMBEC is acknowledged as the national affiliation of the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE), the world federation of biomedical engineers. Until recently the BSMBEC was a single organisation without formal interaction with other local societies. However, many new initiatives have been started. We would like to mention specifically the foundation of the National Committee on Bio-Medical Engineering (NCBME) in 2000 by the joint meeting of the "Klasse van de Natuurwetenschappen" of the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium and the "Classe des Sciences" of the Royal Academy of Belgium. This has become possible through the recognition of the field of biomedical engineering by the ICSU, the International Council for Science, who has accepted the IFMBE as one of its members. As a consequence, it was desired that the rich potential of biomedical and clinical engineers in Belgium should be grouped. To this extent, the BSMBEC has taken a position between the existing organisations and became the glue between local initiatives and the national and transnational levels. Membership of BSMBEC entitles to: Automatic membership of IFBME, International Federation of Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing, Automatic membership of ESEM, European Society for Engineering and Medicine, Centralised receipt of all information regarding the activities of affiliated organisations (IFMBE, ESEM, NCBME, Genootschap Biomedische Technieken en Gezondheidszorg Technologisch Instituut KVIV, Biomed Flanders), including their newsletters, Admittance to all activities at reduced fees.
There are 61 active members. The first task to be undertaken by the joint venture of the BSMBEC and the National Committee on Biomedical Engineering (NCBME) is to contact all colleagues active in the multidisciplinary field of biomedical engineering, that lies at the crosspoint of medical, applied and fundamental sciences. It wants to introduce and promote its existence and members through existing scientific organisations, networks and institutions in Belgium. The main yearly event is a National Day on Biomedical Engineering organised at the Royal Academies of Sciences and Arts of Belgium in Brussels.
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Summary Activities Report 2001 During the year 2001, the BSMBEC and the National Committee Biomedical Engineering organised the following activities: Meeting at the Royal Academy on March 8th 2001 Three day course on "Computational Biomechanics" (course directors: J. Vander Sloten, P. Verdonck) organised together with the National Committee on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics th Meeting at the Royal Academy on June 5 2001 th Meeting at the Royal Academy on September 20 2001 Organisation of two symposia on robotic surgery "Betere chirurgie dankzij robotica en navigatiesystemen" (9 November, KULeuven, J. Vander Sloten) and tissue engineering "Tissue engineering: state of the art" (December 4th, Universiteit Gent, P. Verdonck) in collaboration with TI-Kviv Genootschap Biomedische Techniek en Gezondheidszorg (I. Lemahieu) th National Day on Biomedical Engineering at the Royal Academy on October 19 2001 with 110 participants Programme 09h30-10h00 Registration and poster preparation 10h00-10h10 Introduction Chairman Prof. dr. ir. P. VERDONCK 10h10-11h00 Prof. Dr. H. TANKE, Leiden University, Human genomics: state of the art for the biomedical engineer 11h00-11h30 Break 11h30-12h00 Prof. Dr. C. VERAART , Universit Catholique de Louvain The optic nerve visual prosthesis 12h00-12h30 Prof. Dr. M. PAIVA, Universit Libre de Bruxelles Biomedical engineering in microgravity 12h30-14h00 Lunch and business meeting 14h00-14h30 Prof. dr. ir. J. CORNELIS, Vrije Universiteit Brussel Biomedical research 14h30-16h00 Poster sessions Parallel and guided poster session Topics: biomaterials (14 posters) biomechanics (18 posters) medical information technology (21 posters) 16h00-17h00 Closing discussion - conclusion - refreshments .

A database was updated on interested contact persons and members A website concerning Biomedical Engineering, the National Committee and BSMBEC was established: http://biomengineering.org/ Contacts with Unamec (society of distributors of medical and paramedical equipment) and the Belgian societies of clinical technicians were started International relations were kept with IUPESM and IFMBE on the world-level Contacts with ESEM were upheld on the European level Contacts with the EAMBES Protem group were initiated
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BME Postgraduate Education In the Flemish region of Belgium three postgraduate programmes are available. Ghent University, RUG (GGS*) Master of Science in Biomedical and Clinical Engineering Technology 2 year study (120 ECTS credits)
3 options (1) General biomedical techniques (2) Artificial Organs (recognised by INFA, the International Faculty of Artificial organs, Bologna) (3) Radiation Physics (Recognition as expert in radiation physics) http://www.ibitech.rug.ac.be/education.html
Catholic University Leuven, KULeuven (GAS**) Biomedische en Klinische Ingenieurstechnieken en Medische Fysica 1 year study (60 ECTS credits) Two options : (1) Medische stralingsfysica (2) Biomedische en klinische ingenieurstechnieken (GGS*) Medische stralingsfysica, 2 year study (120 ECTS credits) (Recognition as expert in radiation physics) http://www.cwisdb.cc.kuleuven.ac.be/programmaboek/h37.htm GGS* Bioinformatics 1 year study (60 ECTS credits) All information is available www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/sista/GGS
from
the
following
website:
Free University Brussel, VUB (GGS*) Biomedical and Clinical Engineering 3 year study (120 ECTS credits)
2 options (1) Medical Physics (recognition as expert in radiation physics) (2) Biomedical and Clinical Engineering Technology http://educo.vub.ac.be:591/omaconsult/FMPro
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The integration of the three mentioned postgraduate programmes into one single international MSc BME programme is under negotiation. *GGS: "gediplomeerde in de gespecialiseerde studieen", at least 2/3 of the courses in this postgraduate programme are new courses, non-existing in other master courses **GAS: "gediplomeerde in de geavanceerde studieen", 2/3 of the courses in this postgraduate programme are existing courses in other master programmes.
BME Master Education Besides the well established and recognised postgraduate programmes, since 2001 the three universities offer also BME at master level as an option in existing programmes of master of science in engineering Ghent University, RUG The students in MSc in engineering with a major option (civil engineering, chemical- and materials engineering, physical engineering, computer sciences) can select a minor option in biomedical technology of 30 ECTS credits and 15 ECTS credits master thesis. Catholic University Leuven, KULeuven The students in MSc in engineering with a major option ( mechanical and electrical engineering) can select a minor option in biomedical technology of 60 ECTS credits, master thesis included. Free University Brussel, VUB The students in MSc in engineering with a major option (electrical engineering) can choose a minor option in biomedical technology of 60 ECTS credits by studying one full time year at the University of Patras. University of Patras; Contact : Prof. N. Pallikarakis Laboratory of Medical Physics; School of Medicine University of Patras; Patras-Greece Thematic Network Socrates http://etro.vub.ac.be/tempere In the French speaking part of Belgium BME is part of the biomedical science education. Universit Catholique de Louvain (UCL) School of Biomedical Sciences (SBIM) This School offers the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Bio-medicine. This degree includes two generic preliminary study years ( Candidatures en Sciences biomdicales ) devoted to the study of basic sciences and biomedical sciences. The last two years of this BS programme ( Licence en Sciences Biomdicales ) are then divided into five different specialties (Clinical Biomedical Sciences, Experimental Biomedical Sciences,
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Clinical and Biomedical Engineering, Nutrition, and Toxicology) leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Bio-medicine, orientation Clinical and Biomedical Engineering ( Licenci en Sciences biomdicales, orientation gnie clinique et biomdical ). School of Engineering (FSA) - Biomedical Engineering modulus The School of Engineering allows its students to follow a 90-hour Modulus in Biomedical Engineering Inter-School Sciences Institute (INIS) This School offers the degree of Master of Science in Applied Natural Sciences ( Diplme dtudes complmentaires en Sciences naturelles appliques ). This one-to-two-year programme is open to students with a BS in Biology, Engineering, or Agronomy, as well as to MDs, and includes three different specialties, among them Biomedical Engineering.
Universit Libre de Bruxelles, ULB Master in Biomedical Sciences (Licence en Sciences http://www.ulb.ac.be/prog/medecine/biomed/g3.html with two options: 1. "Spcialisation INGENIERIE: ORGANES ARTIFICIELS ET IMPLANTS, BIOMECANIQUE" Programme: http://www.ulb.ac.be/prog/medecine/biomed/g3_5_1.html and http://www.ulb.ac.be/prog/medecine/biomed/g3_5_2.html 2. "Spcialisation INGENIERIE: MODELISATION, IMAGERIE" Programme: http://www.ulb.ac.be/prog/medecine/biomed/g3_6_1.html and http://www.ulb.ac.be/prog/medecine/biomed/g3_6_2.html After the Master, the students can begin a D.E.A. (DIPLOME D'ETUDES APPROFONDIES) PhD in Biomedical Sciences (one year), which is mandatory for a PhD in Biomedical Sciences. Biomdicales),
BME Education PhD Degree The PhD in Engineering on a BME topic can be obtained at all major Belgian universities and generally requires a research period of 4 years. A master degree in engineering is a prerequisite.
BME Accreditation According to the Belgian political situation the accreditation is performed by the federal (e.g. Recognition as expert in radiation physics(2 October 1997)) and regional governments and not by professional independent organisations. All study programmes are subject to international review by means of so-called visitation commissions. In the framework of the bachelor master reorganisation international accreditation bodies will be established in the near future.
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Biomedical Engineering in Bulgaria V. Todorov and I. Daskalov
1. The Bulgarian Society of Biomedical Physics and Engineering The National Society of Biomedical Physics and Engineering was founded in 1971. It is a collective member of the Union of the Medical Societies in Bulgaria. Since 1962, the medical physicists were members of the National Society of Radiology and the biomedical engineers had a Section of Medical Electronics in the Bulgarian Physiological Society. These two groups merged to form the new Society. It is a fact of pride to us that this is one of the oldest biomedical scientific societies in the world. Among the founders of our Society we would like to mention the medical physicists Prof. V. Vransky, R. Popitz, V. Penchev, M. Ganchev and the medical engineers D. Karadimov, I. Stamboliev, Prof. I. Daskalov. The members of the Society, initially a total of 100 but lately only about 60, participate in the two sections, Biomedical Physics and Biomedical Engineering respectively, the majority of them being physicists. The Society activities are various and with different intensities throughout the years. They include organisation of National Conferences, the distribution of information on scientific conferences and symposia abroad, reviews of new books, approbation of dissertations or publications, celebration of anniversaries of important scientific events, participation in education and especially in the organisation of postgraduate training of medical physicists and engineers in our country and abroad, consultation of the Ministry of Health and other government agencies on major problems of medical physics and engineering such as acquisition of special instrumentation, organisation and distribution of clinical physics and engineering services, etc. The Society holds its regular scientific conferences every four years. Many Bulgarian and foreign biomedical physicists and engineers participated actively by presenting papers and by joining discussions. Scientists from USA, France, Germany, England, India and from all Central and Eastern European countries took part in the six conferences held since 1972. The 5th Conference (1988) included a WHO Symposium on Medical Technology Assessment, dealing with major medical, bioengineering and medical physics problems of the evaluation of needs of modern procedures and instrumentation. The Annual Colloquium Physics in the protection of man and its environment, organised jointly by our Society and the Sofia Branch of the Union of Bulgarian Physicists, gained wide acceptance and popularity taking place already 19 years in succession. Each year specific ecological subjects are considered, attracting most of the specialists. The main working approach is the discussion, and about 15-20 reports and scientific communications are presented. The colloquium proceedings are published and distributed free of charge to the participants and many institutions and libraries. In the last few years the Ministry of Ecology is a co-organiser. The traditional time and place of this event is June, in Giulechitza, in the heart of the Rila mountains, at the Scientific Station of the University of Sofia "St. Kliment Ohridski". The National Society of Biomedical Physics and Engineering is a collective member of the European Organisation of Medical Physics (EOMP) and the International Federation of Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE). Good contacts are maintained with these two 1
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organisations, as well as with the International Organisation of Medical Physics (IOMP). They help us with information and support for participation in international schools and conferences. IOMP donated many medical physics books and journal issues to our Society. They are officially included in the library of the University Hospital Queen Joanna and are available to all Bulgarian specialists. The society is maintaining good contacts with sister organisations in Germany, Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Greece, Turkey and others. Due to Dr. D. White, our Society collaborates actively with the Clinical Science Foundation London since 1992. It subsidised three seminars on radiation physics with invited lecturers from abroad and financially supported members of our Society to participate in the 8th Congress of the Bulgarian Radiological Society in Varna, October 1995, dedicated to the centenary of the discovery of X rays. Prof. V. C. Roberts and Dr. S. Tabakov (a former member of our Society) initiated a Tempus project, financed by the European Commission, for the organisation of an international postgraduate course on Medical Radiation Physics in the Medical and Technical Universities in Plovdiv. The political changes in Central and Eastern Europe, including our country too, reflected on the status and activities of our Society. Young specialists among our members emigrated to developed countries. Severe financial difficulties prevent our members from participating in congresses, conferences and symposia in the country and abroad, impede the organisation of postgraduate courses and of specialist meetings. The extremely bad conditions of health care in our country do not attract young physicists and engineers to this profession. However, an improvement of the international relations and an increase in contacts can be noted, mainly due to actions and financial help of international organisations.
2. Biomedical Physics Medical Radiation Physics was the first branch of Medical Physics in Bulgaria. Its beginnings could be marked by the work of Prof. A. Sakhatchiev (Sen.) in 1920, on the measurement of X rays. This problem is still a major theme of modern Medical Physics in the world. Medical physicists are introducing and establishing the powerful physical methods and models for study and control of physiological processes in radiology, radiation therapy and nuclear medicine. They are also involved in the objective assessment of the influence of various physical factors, including ionising radiation. In the practical diagnostic and therapeutic activities, medical physicists share the responsibility with medical doctors. The first medical physicist working in the field of dosimetry of ionising radiation in Bulgaria was Prof. V. Vransky. He is also the first lecturer in dosimetry in the radiology and radiotherapy postgraduate courses for medical doctors and the author of the first manual in this field (Basics of Radiological Dosimetry, 1953). In the introduction to his book, the author clearly stated its purpose: to help doctors substitute empirical with scientific attitude in their work. Prof. Vransky worked in a period when an intensive development of radiology, radiotherapy and nuclear medicine was initiated. The first laboratories of clinical dosimetry and radiation protection were established in the former Institute of Postgraduate Medicine, presently the University Hospital Queen Joanna, and in the National Centre of Oncology. The Ministry of Health founded its Quality Control Laboratory for radiology and radiotherapy, empowered to supervise all hospitals. The unit of the University Hospital was established as a National Secondary Standard Laboratory of ionising radiation dosimetry in 1975. Since 1977, it was included in the network of secondary dosimetry laboratories under IAEA and WHO. 2
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The laboratory participated in international comparison studies and is responsible for the regular supervision of the 60Co telegamma therapy units in the country. The Clinical Dosimetry Laboratory of the National Centre of Oncology took part in international comparison studies on dosimetry of high energy electrons and photons and of X-rays, organised by IAEA and WHO. One of the first accelerators in Eastern Europe (Betatron, 42 MeV) is operating in the Centre since 1969. Radiology physics is still the best developed branch of medical physics in Bulgaria. About 25 medical physicists are working in the national and regional centres of radiotherapy and nuclear medicine. The laboratories of radiation protection established by different administrations in 1960, as well as the respective departments of the Regional Environment Protection Inspectorates employ about 100 specialists, most of them physicists. They are under the methodical supervision of the National Centre of Radiobiology and Radiation Protection, employing itself numerous medical physicists. The second largest group of physicists is engaged in control and research in the field of hygiene, connected with different harmful agents and factors. The Laboratory of Electromagnetic Non-Ionising Radiation of the National Centre of Hygiene and Medical Ecology is very active. Its functions include research, teaching and nationwide inspection. A group of physicists is working in the field of climatology and therapy in climatic environment. Their activity is very important in view of the various favourable climatic conditions in Bulgaria. Postgraduate educational courses in Medical Radiation Physics and in Physics in Hygiene are regularly organised by the Medical University of Sofia. The course duration is a minimum of 2 years, following modern curricula. Several dozen physicists, mainly working in the fields of radiotherapy and nuclear medicine have graduated already. Many of them are with the Departments of Medical Physics and Biophysics of the Medical Universities in Bulgaria. Short courses and individual training programmes in Medical Radiation Physics are also given by several research centres in this field. Educational and training activities for physicists and engineers in radiology and radiotherapy are supported by IAEA, EFOMP, EU and other international and some national organisations with research contracts, specialisation grants, measurement instrumentation, etc. The involvement of physicists in other medical specialities in our country is limited in comparison to developed nations. Medical physics is scarcely applied in physical therapy, clinical biochemistry, medical technology, orthopaedics, dentistry, ophthalmology and other similar fields of medicine. No medical physicists are engaged in laser applications for diagnostics and therapy, in ultrasound diagnostic imaging, in radiology including computer tomography, in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, in diagnostics and therapy of cardiovascular diseases. The reasons for the unsatisfactory condition of medical physics in Bulgaria are manifold. One of the main disadvantages is the university education of student physicists and the teaching of medical students in physics. Applied physics is neglected in the faculties of physics in our universities. This is reflecting on the possibilities and desire of future physicists to look for achievement in the field of medical physics. Another aspect of this condition is the problem of adequate selection of teachers for the departments of biophysics and medical physics of the medical universities. The authorities of medical universities often underestimate the fundamental role of physics in medicine. A result is the continuing trend for reduction of medical physics lectures and practice hours.
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Some tendencies for overcoming the decline of medical physics in Bulgaria are starting to appear. In addition to the already acknowledged joint activities with EFOMP, IOMP, the Clinical Science Foundation seminars and the EU supported Medical Radiation Physics postgraduate courses, a specialisation in Medical Physics and Radioecology was established in the Pedagogical Institute in Shoumen. It is a programme incorporated in the four last semesters for the students in physics and includes a diploma thesis. About 10-12 students per year are acquiring this speciality. Renowned professors from universities and research institutes in Sofia are invited lecturers. Another forthcoming event is the formation of a specialisation in Medical Physics at the Faculty of Physics of the Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski.
3. Biomedical Engineering The first biomedical engineer in Bulgaria was S. Karadimov, who introduced X-ray and electrical therapy instrumentation in the country before the second world war. He was the representative of foreign manufacturers and established a service and maintenance unit. These activities were further developed by him and the X-ray technicians S. Stefanov and V. Stefanov. About 1956-57, several young electronic engineers were attracted by medical engineering. K. Popov and E. Milev contributed to the maintenance of complex medical instrumentation. Under the supervision of S. Karadimov, local production of electrotherapy instrumentation was started, with K. Marinchev, D. Karadimov, I. Stamboliev and I. Daskalov forming a research and development group. Several years later, L. Jovev and K. Popov, assisted by I. Dotsinsky, headed the newly established Institute of Medical Engineering, with the task of development and production control of medical instrumentation. A research and clinical engineering unit, the Department of Biomedical Engineering, was created within the former Medical Academy, today Medical University, headed by I. Daskalov. The education of medical engineers was initiated in 1974 by I. Stamboliev. Specialisation in medical electronics was established within the Department of Electronic Engineering of the Technical University of Sofia and attracted many students. In spite of some decline of interest in engineering sciences, in the last several years the annual number of graduates in medical electronics averages 45. Teaching and research activities are combined due to the intense collaboration between the Faculty of Electronic Engineering and Technology and the Centre of Biomedical Engineering of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. Ph.D. and diploma theses are jointly supervised, common projects are developed, links with several industrial groups are maintained. Educational activities in biomedical engineering were undertaken in the last years by the Technical Universities of Varna, Plovdiv (a branch of the Technical University of Sofia) and Gabrovo. Considerable improvement in this direction was reached due to an EU supported Tempus project, also offering the possibility for about 10 Bulgarian students to attend an international postgraduate bioengineering course at the University of Patras (Greece). Bulgarian professors have the opportunity to participate in teaching this course. Science and research activities in biomedical engineering are concentrated mainly in several institutions in Sofia. They are the Centre of Biomedical Engineering, the bioengineering groups in the Institute of Physiology and the Institute of Biophysics, the Department of Medical Electronics in the Technical University (TU) of Sofia, the Clinical Engineering Departments in the Medical University and the Military Medical Academy. More than 350 papers on different topics of biomedical engineering have been published in international scientific journals and books by our colleagues, cited by more than 800 authors abroad. 4
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Clinical Engineering has a long tradition in Bulgaria. About 800 engineers and technicians are in this field, some of them in separate service units, as representatives of foreign manufacturers or as clinical engineers in the larger hospitals throughout the country. The majority of the engineers in this domain are TU of Sofia graduates in medical electronics. The medical engineering industry used to include assembly of X-ray units in cooperation with foreign manufacturers, production of locally developed X-ray units and electrotherapy devices, standard blood pressure measurement devices, surgical instruments, etc. Presently the main manufacturer is EMA Engineering Co. It manufactures microprocessor electrocardiographs, ECG and respiration monitors, electrical stimulators, etc., developed by the Centre of Biomedical Engineering. EMA products are well accepted by the internal market, but about 50% of the production is exported. Biomedical physics and engineering in Bulgaria are well established as traditional disciplines, and although there is a decline of activities, such as local production, hospital services, acquisition of modern equipment and instrumentation, which is due to the economical problems of the country, their potential is being preserved. The optimism for a better future is based on the considerable scientific and technological potential and experience of our members and on the belief in the forthcoming prosperity of our country. The Bulgarian Society of Biomedical Physics and Engineering: President: Ass. Prof. Michel Israel, Ph.D. National Center of Hygiene, Medical Ecology and Nutrition Physical Factors Dept. Acad. Ivan Geshov st. No. 15 Sofia 1431 Bulgaria E-mail: m.israel@nchmen.government.bg
Vice-President: Ass. Prof. Athanas Slavtchev, Ph.D. National Center for Radiobiology and Radiation Protection St. Kl. Ohridski Blvd., 132 Sofia 1756 Bulgaria E-mail: ncrrp@medicalnet-bg.org
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Biomedical Engineering in Croatia Ratko Magjarevi, Vedran Bilas Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb Croatian Medical and Biological Engineering Society Ratko.Magjarevic@fer.hr 1. Introduction In Croatia, research in the field of biomedical engineering started in the late fifties of the last century. The background for biomedical engineering were engineering and medical faculties and, later, the medical equipment industry. In the early seventies, lectures in biomedical engineering were introduced into undergraduate programmes (first at the University of Zagreb) and later into undergraduate and postgraduate studies at several universities in Croatia. The Croatian Medical and Biological Engineering Society (CROMBES) took the leading role in the continuing education of engineering staff working in health care facilities. Due to a (generally) small labour market, an unsatisfactory position of engineering staff within the health care system, and particularly the disturbance brought into the civil system by the aggression on Croatia in the last decade of the 20th century, no integrated biomedical engineering programme was established until the academic year 2001/02. Recognising the need for a harmonisation of the education programmes within Europe, CROMBES initiated the establishment of postgraduate studies in the field of biomedical engineering in 2001. At the same time, steps were taken towards the recognition of the position of biomedical and clinical engineers working in health care facilities. 2. The National Society The Croatian Medical and Biological Engineering Society (CROMBES) was founded in 1992, continuing the tradition of the Croatian Section of the former Yugoslav BME Society (founded in 1984). CROMBES is an interdisciplinary scientific organisation, bringing together those who work in the field of biomedical engineering and medical physics. This is rather unusual for most European countries, but is not an exception (for example, Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine in UK). Since 1993, the Society is a full member of the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE) and the European Federation for Medical Physics (EFOMP). The society is involved in organising national and international scientific events in biomedical engineering, medical physics and medical informatics (the latter in co-operation with the Croatian Society for Medical Informatics) and collaborates very closely with the State Office for Standardisation and Metrology, particularly with the Technical Committee TC-62, on the harmonisation of Croatian Standards relevant for medical equipment with European and International Standards. Since 1995 CROMBES publishes a professional journal (Obavijesti HDMBT, in Croatian). Since 2000, the Slovenian and Croatian BME Societies produce a
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common journal (Novice / Obavijesti) with contributions in Croatian, Slovenian and English. In 2000, CROMBES had 110 members, predominantly engineers, working at universities or in clinical facilities. Due to the interdisciplinary and scientific orientation of the Society, a number of physicians and dentists are members as well. The Society has three divisions: - Clinical Engineering Division - Medical Physics Division - Biomechanics Division. The divisions take care of professional matters concerning clinical and biomedical engineers as well as medical physicists and organise continuous education for those professions. One of the latest achievements (in spring 2001) was the establishment of a Working Group for Clinical Engineering and Medical Physics within the structure of the Ministry of Health. The aim of this working group is to give professional support and advice to the Ministry in matters of - health care technology assessment and management - continuous education of medical and engineering staff in clinical facilities - (technical aspects of) the implementation of EU Medical Device Directives. In addition to CROMBES, there are other scientific and professional societies in Croatia that associate individuals interested in different aspects of technology application in medicine and the health care system: - Croatian Society for Medical Informatics - Health Association - Committee for Engineering and Technology in Health Care - Croatian Medical Association - Society for Telemedicine. 3. Education, Training and Accreditation 3.1 Education Programmes in biomedical engineering leading to a university degree are offered by three Croatian universities. The Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing at the University of Zagreb as well as the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture at the University of Split present courses at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, the Faculty of Electrical Engineering at the University of Osijek at undergraduate level only. However, these do not result in a biomedical engineering degree, but a diploma (graduate - dipl. ing.; postgraduate - mr. sc. or dr. sc.) in Electrical Engineering. The completion of the undergraduate programmes takes 9 semesters. The list of subject courses at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb, is presented as an example in Appendix 1. After 4 semesters, undergraduate students make the choice of a programme (out of six different programmes). Subject courses in biomedical engineering are taught within the programme of Industrial Electronics. After graduation, students may enter postgraduate studies: the magister of science (mr. sc.) programme, considered an equivalent to M. Sc. and lasting a minimum of two up to four years. The doctorate (dr. sc.) programme, an equivalent to Ph. D. studies, lasting up to four years, may be entered without gaining the magister diploma only if the student has published a part of his/her research in an international journal before entering the doctoral programme.
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At the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb, the ECTS is fully implemented at both undergraduate and postgraduate studies. The flow chart presenting the different possibilities of obtaining a postgraduate diploma is presented in Fig. 1. 3.1.1 The Proposed Structure of Postgraduate Programmes Working on plans and programmes for the recognition and education of clinical engineers in Croatia for several years, the Croatian Medical and Biological Engineering Society has developed a model (programme) which we consider optimal for the current transitional state of society as well as the health care reform, including its economical aspects. One major consideration of this programme was the small labour market. Proposed is a postgraduate programme over at least four semesters, containing some common courses for biomedical/clinical engineers and medical physicists, with a lot of practical work in the clinical environment and strongly leaning on international collaboration and mobility. For the time being, the diploma would specify the word "specialist" in biomedical/clinical engineering or in medical physics in order to comply with the present regulations in the health care system. One of the specific points of this programme are common basic courses for engineers and physicists, something that is unusual in the existing programmes. The other question arising from the present situation in Croatia is whether to name the programme a clinical engineering or a biomedical engineering programme. At the present time, the name "clinical engineer" is more often used in health care facilities. During the development of this postgraduate programme, the preliminary assumptions were: - the prerequisite for entering the programme should be a Dipl. Eng. or, in the future, a B.Sc. diploma in engineering (electrical, electronic, mechanical or technology) or physics - the students qualification has to include the knowledge considered as "minimum requirements" for entering the studies (mandatory topics), measurable according to the ECTS - subjects of the postgraduate studies would consist of subjects mandatory for both profiles (CE and MP), subjects mandatory for one profile only and optional subjects - such a structure should enable the students to achieve specific competencies/specialisation - subjects intended for both profiles would mostly consist of interdisciplinary topics necessary for both profiles, i.e. selected topics of anatomy, electrophysiology, biotechnology etc. - some of the students may be directed to attend and pass the exam (one or more courses) from the undergraduate engineering or physics programmes in order to win the missing credits - to facilitate the development of a professional profile for each student, not limiting him or her to a programme offered locally, mobility within European universities should be stressed as one of the most important points of the programme - in addition, students should be encouraged to continue their education on a higher level, to win the "expert" title in their profession (this two steps ranking
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already exists within the European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics). We think that such a model could find approval not only in Croatia, but in other transitional countries that do not have established undergraduate BME, CE and MP programmes and would be accepted by the international/national bodies for quality control and accreditation of academic programmes. The programme should be flexible and easily adaptable to the needs of the health care system and society in general. 3.2 Training Presently, the Ministry of Health is preparing a new law regarding the organisation and systematisation of the health care system. The Croatian BME Society has proposed that all those engineers (biomedical or clinical) and medical physicists who work in a hospital environment, with patients and/or life supporting medical equipment, and therefore carry a significant responsibility for patients' health, should obtain the professional status of "medical worker". Continuous training (after graduation) in accordance with the (existing) requirements for continuous education for medical professions and clinical practice should be introduced for those engineering professions. During the training, the trainees should be employed within the health care system to ensure their clinical practice. After finishing the training the trainees should pass the state exam (for their profession) to get a licence. Since these regulations are still being developed, an acceptable solution should be found for those engineers already working in health care facilities who have undergone several additional training courses. According to the policy of the Croatian BME Society, the responsibility for organising the training should be in the hands of the Society and under control of the Ministry of Health and the University. 3.3 Accreditation of Education and Training The degrees or related qualifications offered by universities are authorised by the Ministry of Science and Technology. Faculties seeking permission for a graduate or postgraduate programme have to demonstrate the quality of the programme and the adequate infrastructure for its implementation to the National Board for Higher Education, a body of the Ministry of Science and Technology that takes care of higher education quality assurance. In addition, degrees and programmes for professions practising in health care have to be accredited by the Ministry of Health. Universities are self-governing institutions with full responsibility for the quality of their programmes. They also decide on the content, duration and title of degree programmes, which leads to notable variations. Croatia has signed the Bologna Declaration and the Croatian universities have started the process of harmonising their programmes according to the requirements and recommendations of the Declaration. Major changes in the structure of programmes are expected in the coming years. 4. Additional Information
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At present, a scientific postgraduate programme in Medical Physics is functioning at the Faculty of Nature Sciences, University of Zagreb. Most of the medical physicists practising in health care facilities have graduated from that programme and were awarded a Master's degree (M.Sc.), which in Croatia is abbreviated mr.sc.. The list of courses at postgraduate studies in Medical Physics is presented in Appendix 2. Postgraduate education in Medical Informatics, oriented towards health information systems, was introduced in 1984 at the School of Public Health "Andrija tampar", a part of the Medical School, University of Zagreb. Physicians and others, working in health or educational institutions, are the attendees. Students who graduated obtained a Master's degree (mr. sc. in Medical Informatics). The list of courses at postgraduate studies, module Medical Informatics is also presented in Appendix 2. Courses with a curriculum predominately and partially in Biomedical Engineering, from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture at the University of Split and from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering at the University of Osijek are also listed in Appendix 2. Students of the Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, may enter a number of courses in biomechanics and/or measurement theory and applications related to the movement of the human body and sports. Since these courses are eligible to students from other programmes (due to the inter-university exchange policy), they are listed in Appendix 2 as well.
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Appendix 1. Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing University of Zagreb Studies in Electrical Engineering Table 1. Fundamental Courses Linear algebra Mathematical analysis I Physics I Fundamentals of electrical engineering I Computer applications Mathematical analysis II Physics II Fundamentals of electrical engineering II Programming Graphics and documentation for engineers Mathematical analysis III Electrical measurements Electronics I Fundamentals of power engineering Algorithms and data structure Electronics II Digital electronics Network and transmission line theory Stochastic mathematics Program: Industrial Electronics Table 2. Program Core Courses Electronic measurement and components Signals and systems Digital computers Physics of materials Elective courses * Humanistic elective ** Electronic instrumentation Stochastic processes in systems Fundamentals of microelectronics Semester 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 ECTS 6 7 7 4 5 5 8 5 4 Semester 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3+4 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 ECTS 6 7 7 7 3 7 7 7 6 3 7 10 7 6 4 6 7 7 6
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Filters and filter amplifiers Automatic control Humanistic elective ** Transmission and telemetry systems Microelectronic circuits Biomedical electronics Digital signal processing Embedded system design Humanistic elective ** Computerised measurement and control systems Design and manufacturing of electronic devices Elective courses * Economics * see Table 3. ** two humanistic elective courses are compulsory Table 3. Elective Courses Numerical network analysis and design Automata, formal languages, and compiler design I Radiofrequency electronics Telecommunication networks Theory of electromagnetic fields Operational research Mathematical modelling by Wolfram mathematics Fundamentals of power electronics Computer graphics Advanced electronic circuits Design of digital VLSI/ULSI circuits Transducers in measurement systems Industrial measurement systems Chaos theory for engineers Digital image processing Design of intelligent measurement systems Numerical methods Discrete mathematics Open computing Ultrasound and hydroacoustics Real-time systems
6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8
4 7 6 6 5 5 5 7 5 5 6 2 2
Semester 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9
ECTS 4 6 6 5 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 6 6 4 4 4
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Analogue integrated circuit design Expert systems techniques Selected topics of biomedical engineering Software design for measurement and control systems Process identification Radio positioning and navigation Biomonitoring systems Design and developement of interactive simulation systems ULSI Integrated circuit design Photonic communication technology*** GaAs and heterostructure semiconductor devices *** Multisensor systems and locomotion*** Automatised instrumentation*** Digital speech processing*** Neural networks *** Multimedia data transfer and computer networks *** Intelligent control systems *** Biomedical informatics *** Circuits for analogue signal processing *** Software engineering - selected topics ***
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
4 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
*** courses common for undergraduate and postgraduate program Table 4. Graduate courses (Mr. sc.) **** Biomechanical and neurophysiological mechanisms Noise and vibration measurements Measurement and analysis of random processes Computer modelling and simulation Selected topics on digital image processing Optical sensors and components Mulstisensor biomonitoring systems Biomedical effects of electromagnetic fields Digital image analysis Electrical filters - selected chapters Electroacoustical transducers Medical instrumentation for 2-D imaging Instrumentation and electronic methods in radiation detection ECTS 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
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Instrumentation in environmental control Microwave instrumentation and measuring methods Computers applications in medicine Virtual reality
8 8 8
**** only courses with curriculum predominately and/or partially in biomedical engineering are listed For more information, visit www.fer.hr (Information in English available on the General outlines and the booklet on Postgraduate Studies downloadable.)
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Appendix 2. Faculty of Science University of Zagreb Postgraduate courses in Medical Physics Physics in nuclear medicine Physics in radiology Physics and application of ultrasound in medicine Dosimetry and radiation protection Methods of tomographic reconstruction Biomedical electronics and instrumentation Selected topics in physiology and pathophysiology Selected topics in anatomy for radiologists Seminar (labs) in medical physics Electives: Mathematical modelling and numerical methods Magnetic tomography School of Public Health "Andrija tampar", School of Medicine University of Zagreb Postgraduate courses in Medical Informatics (Module "Biomedicine") Methods in medical informatics Statistical analysis of medical data Epidemiological methods in research Simulation modelling in medicine Statistical analysis of free texts Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture University of Split Undergraduate studies, Programme Electrical Engineering Electives: Biocybernetics Telemedicine Bioelectric systems and equipment Postgraduate studies, Programme Electrical Engineering Signals and systems in biomedical engineering Effects of electromagnetic fields on the human body
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Biomedical instrumentation Faculty of Electrical Engineering University of Osijek Undergraduate studies, Programme Electronics and Automatics Biomedical electronics Faculty of Kinesiology University of Zagreb Undergraduate studies Biomechanics I Electives: Biomechanics II Rehabilitation biomechanics Postgraduate studies Diagnostics of training in sports medicine Biomechanical methods Motoric learning Kinesiological measurement systems Modelling and diagnostics of neuromuscular systems Analysis methodology of stochastical processes in the human motoric system
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Fig. 1. Presentation of the postgraduate curriculum at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb. ECTS is fully implemented.
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Biomedical Engineering Education in the Czech Republic Ji Holk Brno University of Technology holcik@dbme.fee.vutbr.cz Lenka Lhotsk Czech Technical University in Prague Jaromr Cmral Czech Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics 1. Introduction Teaching activities in former Czechoslovakia started in 1967 when a new Department of Medical Electronics was established at the Electrotechnical Faculty of the Technical University of Brno. This department was to educate new experts both for applied research and development in CHIRANA, the former Czechoslovak company producing medical equipment and for technical services and clinical practice in hospitals and other institutions of health care in Czechoslovakia. Since then similar educational programmes have been established at other Czechoslovak technical universities, in particular at the Slovak Technical University in Bratislava (1971) and the Czech Technical University in Prague (1976). Nowadays different levels of undergraduate educational programmes in BME and related fields can be found at four Czech universities (Brno University of Technology, Czech Technical University in Prague, Technical University in Ostrava and Charles University in Prague) and one higher school (Pardubice). Besides these undergraduate study programmes the Czech Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics is preparing postgraduate professional training programmes for clinical engineers working in health care. 2. The National Society The Czech Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics (CSBME&MI) was founded in 1978 as a member of the Czech Medical Association of J.E.Purkyn. The Society is a scientific organisation without activities in professional matters of biomedical or clinical engineers (there is no professional organisation of biomedical engineers in the Czech Republic yet). Since the beginning the Society has been involved in: - organising scientific conferences, seminars and workshops in biomedical engineering and medical informatics (both national and international events); - postgraduate professional education and training of clinical engineers (in co-operation with Czech universities); - co-operation in preparation of legal regulations dealing with health care in the Czech Republic and its technical support; - publishing activity the Society is a publisher of a scientific journal Lka a technika (Physician and Technology). The journal is published in Czech and Slovak languages. Nowadays the activities of the Society are organised in three sections: - section of clinical engineering (biomedical signal acquisition, recording, processing and analysis; biomedical image processing and analysis; diagnostic and therapeutic medical
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equipment; laboratory devices; ultrasound applications in medicine; interaction of electromagnetic field with living tissue and organisms); - section of medical informatics (statistical methods in medicine, medical data analysis and medical decision making, multimedia applications, modelling and simulation in biology and medicine, telemedicine); - section of biophysics. In 2001 CSBME&MI has about 50 active members. Most of them work at universities and the other members are clinical engineers and physicians working at hospitals, clinics and other health care departments. Not all Czech clinical engineers are members of CSBME&MI and their exact number is not known (we only estimate that there are tens of clinical engineers working at Czech hospitals). The Society officially represents the Czech biomedical engineering community in the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE) and it is also a member of other international societies as the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA) and the European Federation for Medical Informatics (EFMI). Besides CSBME&MI there are also other societies in the Czech Republic that associate people who are interested in specific branches of biomedical engineering: - Czech Society for Health Care Informatics and Scientific Information (this society is also a member of the Czech Medical Association of J. E. Purkyn); - Czech Society for Medical Devices (its main interests are in preparing norms and recommendations for medical equipment and its assessing and authorisation); - Working group for Biomedical Informatics and Statistics and WG for Medical and Biological Cybernetics of the Czech Society for Cybernetics and Informatics (medical statistics and decision making and cybernetic aspects of living system performance); - Czech Society for Biomechanics. 3. BME Education, Training and Accreditation in the Czech Republic 3.1. Education University degree programmes in medical or biomedical engineering at both the undergraduate and the postgraduate level are provided in the Czech Republic. Because there is not a good and long tradition of the Bachelor degree at Czech universities and graduates with Bachelor degrees are still not requested by companies and other employers, the BME study programmes at technical universities are usually prepared as educational programme for a Master degree that has its Bachelor part, but that does not represent complete BME education. Now the described state is rather changing because the study programmes at Czech universities are being matched to requirements and recommendations that follow from the Bologna Declaration. 3.1.1. Bachelor Degree The only exception of the above mentioned character of education is a study programme at the 1st Faculty of Medicine at the Charles University in Prague where a Bachelor programme for Health Care Technology has been accredited. However, the graduates of this educational programme are not technicians but people with basic medical background and the supplementary fundamentals of applying medical equipment.
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3.1.2. Master Degree Master degree BME education has been organised at several Czech universities for many years. However, only two of them represent the most important BME education centres in the Czech Republic - the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the Brno University of Technology (FEECS BUofT) with its Department of Biomedical Engineering and the Faculty of Electrical Engineering at the Czech Technical University in Prague (FEE CTU). In addition to these two faculties some other forms of the BME Master degree programmes can be found at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the Czech Technical University in Prague (FME CTU), the Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Engineering at the Czech Technical University in Prague (FNSE CTU), the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the Technical University in Ostrava (FEECS TUO) or at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport at the Charles University in Prague (FPES CU). At present, Biomedical Engineering is formed as an interdisciplinary study programme with fixed curriculum at FEE CTU and with flexible curriculum at FEECS BUofT but both the BME programmes are being converted into a two year fixed curriculum programme structure which follows the new Act on Universities in the Czech Republic and corresponds more closely to that defined in the Bologna Declaration (see Appendix). 3.1.3. PhD Degree The PhD is a research degree, generally of 3 years duration. Direct entry to doctoral study is the normal route in the Czech Republic where having a Master's degree is a prerequisite. At present PhD study contains an instructional, pre-research component. There are three universities with a specialised BME branch for PhD study it is PhD study in Biomedical Engineering and Biocybernetics at the FEECS BuofT, Biomechanics at the FME CTU in Prague and Biomedical Engineering Bionics at the FPES CU in Prague. At all other Czech universities the PhD research is usually done in a frame of less specialised branches as Artificial Intelligence and Biocybernetics, Measurement Technology, Applied Mechanics, etc. 3.2. Training At present the new Act on Training in Health Care is being prepared in the Czech Republic. In this legislative proposal the training in clinical engineering and in medical informatics are included. A similar kind of training is prepared both for biomedical engineers and for medical doctors. Postgraduate training in clinical engineering should be passed only by those biomedical engineers who are in close contact with patients and can influence their health status. The study programme will be three years long and the theoretical knowledge from the undergraduate is assumed to be a prerequisite of the study. The courses are specialised not only to theoretical background but mainly to obtain practical skills in hospitals. The training is planned for the following five areas: - biosignal analysis; - diagnostic medical devices; - therapeutic medical devices; - laboratory medical devices; - medical imaging devices.
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The postgraduate training in medical informatics is planned only for two years. Specialists in medical informatics who work in hospitals in contact with patients are supposed to be trained in this programme. 3.3 Accreditation of Education and Training According to Czech legislation, the accreditation is performed by state authorities (usually accreditation boards of corresponding ministries) and not by professional organisations. These organisations may supply their recommendations, views and proposals. 3.3.1 Accreditation of Degrees All degrees and study programmes must be accredited by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic. Otherwise the university is not allowed to award the degrees. For practice in health care, the degrees and study programmes are accredited by the Ministry of Health Care of the Czech Republic. MSc degrees are accredited by evaluating the degree content in the light of the syllabus. The academic staff, their expertise, the infrastructure available within the University and interaction with Health Care deliverers are also considered. There are basically two qualification levels for engineers working in Health Care. Level 1: MSc in Biomedical Engineering accredited by the Ministry of Health Care. Level 2: After specialised training and satisfaction of conditions defined by the corresponding decree of the Ministry of Health Care. Note: Only two Master Degree programmes at the FEECS BUofT and at the FEE CTU and one BSc study programme at the 1st Medical Faculty at the Charles University in Prague have been accredited by the Ministry of Health Care, Level 1. 3.4 The Right to Practice All those who interact with patients, either directly or indirectly, must satisfy the conditions defined by the decrees of the Ministry of Health Care, i.e. they have either Level 1 or Level 2 (see par. 3.3.1). Quotation from the official letter of the Minister of Health Care concerning the accreditation: "Graduates (MSc) of the study branch Biomedical Engineering can perform activities connected with supply of Health Care and can get specialised qualification in basic and extension branches of specialised education and in branches for functional specialisation."
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Appendix BRNO UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science MSc Courses Present state At the FEECS-BUofT the study of BME is included into three branches of study. The curriculum of the BME study programme is similar in the branch of Electronics and Communication and of Cybernetics, Control and Measurement, but it is rather different in the Computer Science branch (see table below). The biomedical courses are studied together with core courses of the particular branch and in each of these branches are divided into three groups: A - technical courses Term / group Electronics & Communication Digital Signal Processing and 5/A Analysis 5/A Bionics 5/A Environmental Diagnostic 6/A Digital Image Processing and 7/A Analysis 7/A Medical Therapeutic Devices 8/A Non TV Imaging Systems 8/A Medical Diagnostic Devices 9/A Medical Imaging Systems 9/A Medical Laboratory Devices 9/A Modelling of Biomedical Systems 10/A Medical Informatics Biological Signal Analysis 10/A Design and Service of Medical 10/A Electronic Systems 5/B Expert Systems in Medical Diag6/B nostics 7/B Biophysics 8/B Biology of Man 6/C Clinical Physiology 8/C Health Care 9/C Environmental Engineering 10/C Marketing in Health Care Adaptive Signal Processing Advanced Algorithms for Signal Processing
5
Course
Cybernetics Control Measurement 5/A 7/A 7/C 6/A 9/A 7/A 8/A 8/A 9/A 9/A 9/A 10/A 10/A 10/A 5/B 6/B 7/B 8/B 6/C 8/C 9/C 10/C
Computer Science & Technology 5/A 7/C -/C 6/A -/C -/C -/C -/C -/C 9/A 7/A -/C -/C 8/A 5/B 6/B 7/B 8/B -/C 8/C 9/C 10/C
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B - medical courses C - recommended courses The distribution of the courses in the groups A and B is not the same for all the branches (see the table). It is necessary to pass at least 3 medical and at least 6 (5 in the Computer Science branch) technical courses for obtaining a certificate on BME study. Moreover, it is necessary to pass the BME final state examination. Planned curriculum The flexible study programme described above has been modified so that it could correspond to the requirements of the new Czech Act on Universities and the Bologna Declaration. The new curriculum represents a particular specialised fixed study programme Biomedical and Environmental engineering for a two year MSc degree. Courses: Mathematical Statistics and Optimisation Methods Modelling and Simulation Signal and Image Processing and Analysis Bionics Biology of Man Biophysics Diagnostics of Biosystems and Ecosystems Imaging Systems in Medicine and Ecology Modelling Biological Systems Introduction to Ecology Environmental Engineering Special Medical and Ecological Technology Tomographic Imaging Systems Computerised Medical Diagnostics Biosignal Processing and Analysis Clinical Physiology Biosensors and Biomaterials Design and Performance of Complex Systems Management and Marketing in Health Care Medical and Ecological Information Systems Health Care First students are expected to start in the programme according to the proposed study plan from school year 2004/05. BRNO UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Problems of biomechanics can be studied at FME BUofT only in a MSc programme Applied Mechanics in three specialised courses: Biomechanics I - fundamental problems of biomechanics, structure of living tissue from a viewpoint of solving biomechanical problems; Biomechanics II - problems of musculoskeletal biomechanics;
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Biomechanics III - problems of cardiovascular biomechanics.
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CZECH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE Faculty of Electrical Engineering MSc Courses In the frame of BME, there are courses taught by medical doctors and courses taught by electrical engineers. Doctors provide students with an introduction to anatomy, physiology, pathophysiology as well as diagnostic and therapeutic methods in medicine. In electrical engineering courses we can identify three groups of courses according to the topics they follow, namely the selected courses in the Cybernetics, Automation and Measurement branch, selected courses in the Radioelectronics branch, and courses specially prepared for students of BME. The aim is that the students get a sufficient system view of the basic electronic equipment and its design (let us say medical hardware) and the information processing in the broader sense of this term - systems for data processing, evaluation of measured data and their use for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. At the end of their studies the students should have an idea about the complex chain starting from a patient over measurements, analysis to diagnosis and subsequent therapy based on the latest technological development in electronics and information technology, thus using all diagnostic, measuring and evaluating systems that may be used in medicine. Individual BME courses Anatomy and Physiology Pathophysiology Clinical Diagnostics and Therapy Biological Signals Cognitive Processes Imaging Systems in Medicine 1, 2 Medical Technology 1, 2 Medical Applications of Microwaves Design, Construction and Reliability of Medical Equipment Introduction to Laser Physics Medical Informatics Biocybernetic Systems Biological Data Processing Bionics System Integration At present, new curricula in MSc BME are being prepared following the introduction of a new University Law in the Czech Republic and corresponding more closely to the study structure defined in Bologna Declaration (BSc of 3 years duration, MSc of 2 years duration, PhD of 3 years duration). Proposed courses: Core courses: Anatomy and Physiology Pathophysiology Signal Theory
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Biological Signals Cognitive Processes Imaging Systems in Medicine Medical Technology Introduction to Laser Physics Decision Support Systems Electromagnetic Field in Biological Systems Biomedical Sensors Statistical Methods in Medicine Biometry and Statistics Chemical-Engineering Thermodynamics and Electrochemistry Biophysics Physical Methods in Therapy AI Methods in Medicine Biological Data Processing Image and Signal Processing Electronic Systems and Their Programming Simulation and Modelling Soft computing Latin Medical Ethics Health Care Organisation and Legislation Reliability and Quality Management Design and Project Management, Technical Communication Optional courses Medical Applications of Microwaves Design, Construction and Reliability of Medical Equipment Biomaterials Robotics Environmental Engineering Computer Vision and Virtual Reality
CZECH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE Faculty of Mechanical Engineering MSc Courses Biomedical and Rehabilitation Engineering Study is focused on education in biomechanics of man, construction of medical devices, organ replacements, rehabilitation aids and equipment for social paediatrics. Courses: Biomechanics of Man Fundamentals of Device Construction Fundamentals of Technical Optics Anatomy and Physiology Fundamentals of Law
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Biophysics Wave Optics Protection against Radiation Biomaterials and Biotolerance Fundamentals of Medical Analytical and Measuring Methods Optoelectronic Devices Dynamics of Devices of Precise Mechanics Holography Modern Methods of Data Processing Simulation of Biological Systems Fundamentals of Micromechanics Pathophysiology
CZECH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Engineering MSc courses Nuclear Engineering (specialisations: Dosimetry and Application of Ionizing Radiation, Radiation Physics in Medicine) Dosimetry and Application of Ionizing Radiation Courses: Mathematical Statistics Numerical Mathematics Quantum Mechanics Physics of Solid State Fundamentals of Nuclear Electronics Nuclear and Radiation Physics Fundamentals of Dosimetry Ionizing Radiation Detectors Social Psychology Physics and Technology of Non-ionizing Radiation Nuclear Technology Devices Integrating Dosimetric Methods Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Ionizing Radiation Measurement and Evaluation Methods Introduction to Applications of Ionizing Radiation Dosimetry and Radioactivity of the Environment Analytic Measurement Methods Applications of Ionizing Radiation in Medicine Metrology of Ionizing Radiation Spectrometry in Dosimetry Microdosimetry Clinical Dosimetry
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Radiation Physics in Medicine Courses: Mathematical Statistics Numerical Mathematics Quantum Mechanics Physics of Solid State Fundamentals of Nuclear Electronics Nuclear and Radiation Physics Fundamentals of Dosimetry Ionizing Radiation Detectors Biochemistry of Man Biochemistry and Pharmacology Social Psychology Physics and Technology of Non-ionizing Radiation Nuclear Technology Devices Integrating Dosimetric Methods Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Ionizing Radiation Measurement and Evaluation Methods Introduction to Applications of Ionizing Radiation Radiation Hygiene Fundamentals of Radiotherapy Dosimetry and Radioactivity of the Environment Analytic Measurement Methods Metrology of Ionizing Radiation Spectrometry in Dosimetry Microdosimetry Clinical Dosimetry Fundamentals of Nuclear Medicine TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN OSTRAVA Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science BME specialisation can be studied in the MSc programme of Measurement and Control Technology. There are eight specialised BME courses in the study programme - five core courses and three optional courses: Core courses: Introduction to Medicine I, II Medical Electronic Devices I (diagnostic) Medical Electronic Devices II (therapeutic) Medical Electronic Devices III (imaging)
Optional courses: Diagnostics in Medicine Biocybernetics Biosignal Processing
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CHARLES UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE Faculty of Physical Education and Sport There are BSc and MSc study programmes in Rehabilitation Engineering at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport CU that are organised by the Department of Anatomy and Biomechanics. The exact structure of both programmes is not known now but the list of courses read at the department is as follows: Introduction to Biomechanics Biomechanics of Physical Exercises Biomechanics of Man Biomechanics of Sports Repetitorium of Physics Introduction to Biocybernetics Measurements in Rehabilitation Engineering Rehabilitation Technology
CHARLES UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE 1st Medical Faculty Bachelor degree in branches: Nursing Ergotherapy Health Care Technology
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Status Report of BME Education in Denmark Prepared by Johannes J. Struijk
The Danish Society For Biomedical Engineering Mission The aim of the Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering is to promote the scientific and technical development of Biomedical Engineering. To reach this goal the society should make an effort: 1. to create contact between groups of different education and occupation interested in biomedical engineering, 2. to promote mutual education between these groups by arranging meetings, seminars and studygroups, 3. to collaborate with the Scandinavian and international societies in biomedical engineering, 4. to provide information on biomedical engineering. History The Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering is the successor of the Danish Biomedical Engineering Committee (DBMEC), which was established in 1966, and which was connected to the Danish Academy of Sciences. Since 1940 there has been a tradition in most countries that physicists worked in hospitals in the radiotherapy departments and chemical engineers in the clinical chemistry departments. Around 1960 a few engineers came into Biomedical Engineering. In 1969, about 12 engineers with a technical education worked at the University Hospital in Copenhagen, only two at Aarhus University but about 20 at the Copenhagen County hospital. Most of the engineers were attached to a single department, but a new idea of collecting the engineers in biomedical departments was on its way. The aim of DBMEC was to promote co-operation between the medical, biological and engineering disciplines. The education committee encouraged Biomedical Engineering education on the academic as well as the non-academic level. The main result was that The Technical Highschool of Denmark (DTH), later the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) and Aalborg University Center (AUC), later Aalborg University (AAU), increased their activities in the field of BME. When the education committee began its activity there already existed two formal courses in medical electronics: a half year course at the Technical University for Master students in their last year of the study and a course for Bachelor students at the Technical Engineering School in Copenhagen. The universities had previously held a rather large course in physiology for engineers working in hospitals and medical institutes, a half-year course in mathematics, physics and physical chemistry as well as shorter courses in statistics, programming, biochemistry and chromatography for physicians. In addition some scientific medical societies had arranged 1-2 days courses in specific subjects. In addition to the education committee there was an industrial committee and a Patient Safety Committee
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The support from the research councils to DBMEC was discontinued after May 1972 and in January 1973 the head of the Danish Academy of Sciences, Bjerre Lavesen, took the initiative for planning a biomedical society. He asked Professor Georg Bruun to arrange a meeting in his office at the Electronics Institute at DTU. Lone Dybkjr and Annelise Rosenfalck were asked to participate and this group agreed on the importance of establishing a biomedical society. They were also eager to continue the biomedical activities of the two engineering societies in Denmark (the society for M.Sc. engineers and for B.Sc. engineers). The first general assembly of the Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering was held on 27th November 1973. It was prepared by a group from universities, industry and engineering societies. They had a common goal, and found it important that the society should be a forum for collaboration between these groups and that the first president should come from medicine. The new Danish Society hosted the IV Nordic meeting in 1977. This meeting was held at the Technical University of Denmark with Professor Georg Bruun as president (250 participants). About 6 Danes participated in the 2nd IFMBE international meeting in Paris: four came from the Institute of Neurophysiology in Copenhagen. The Danish Society joined IFMBE in 1976. However, there were about 10 individual Danish members of the Federation since 1959. The main activity of the Society has been to arrange 5-6 scientific and industrial meetings each year. Meetings have generally been well attended (40-100 participants). Some of the most successful meetings were arranged by industry. At present the Society has more than 200 individual members and 22 industrial members. Reference: Rosenfalck A. The history of the Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering. In: The Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering, ed. Aspects of biomedical engineering in Denmark. Copenhagen, 1998: 7-18.
Biomedical Engineering Education in Denmark Biomedical Engineering and related educational programmes are present at various levels in Denmark: Different categories are: Clinical Technician Clinical Engineer Diploma Engineer (Bachelor) M.Sc. Ph.D. The education for Clinical Technician and Clinical Engineer is under the auspices of the Danish Health Council (Sundhedsstyrelsen), which pin-pointed the following broad medical-technology functions in health care institutions: medical technology assessment, purchasing, administration, consulting, clinical functions, technical assignments, quality control and standards, education and instruction, research and development, and some medical physics assignments (radiodiagnostics).
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According to the Council there is a need for clinical technology education at two different levels: the Clinical Technician and the Clinical Engineer, in the same way as there are physicians and nurses. The education for Clinical Technician (Klinisk Medikotekniker) is under development at Odense University Hospital and is a post-technical education with a duration of 2 years, based on a theoretical part and in connection with a hospital affiliation, a practical part. The programme awards a certification as Clinical Technician. The programme for Clinical Engineer (Klinisk Ingenioer), Odense University Hospital, leads to certification as Clinical Engineer. It is a postgraduate programme with a 3 years duration, partly theoretical and partly practical in connection with a hospital affiliation. The Clinical Engineer will be able to carry out biomedical engineering tasks in compliance with relevant laws and standards and to be responsible for such tasks in relation to medical technology in the hospital sector. A Biomedical Engineering Bachelor is a rare commodity in Denmark, and the official education is part of the M.Sc. programme at Aalborg University, where the Bachelor carries out the first 6 semesters of the five years M.Sc. programme in Biomedical Engineering, to finish the education with a separate 7th semester programme focused on industrial activity. Three universities in Denmark offer BME programmes at the Master level: The Technical University of Denmark (DTU), the University of Aarhus (AU) and Aalborg University (AAU). Only at AAU a full program of five years duration exists, which will be treated separately below. Master level education at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) The Biomedical Engineering Group is part of the section for Electronics and Signal Processing within the department rstedDTU. BME Education is a specialisation from the 5th to the 10th semester after an introduction to either the disciplines Electrical Engineering, Electronics Engineering, Applied Physics, or Informatics. The students have a great freedom in the choice of further specialisation in BME, with examples such as signal- and image processing; Analysis, modelling, and measurement of electrophysiological signals; Audiology and acoustics communication; Analogue instrumentation; Computer based medical instrumentation; Optics; Non-linear dynamic systems; and Clinical measurement methods and instrumentation, but they are to some extent free to create their own combination of courses, as long as certain coherence criteria are fulfilled. Final projects are naturally based on the research activities of the BME group and include areas such as Fast Ultrasound Imaging, Arteriosclerosis Detection with Ultrasound, Flow estimation and Bioelectromagnetism. Master level education at Aarhus University (AU) Biomedical Engineering (Medicinsk Teknik) at AU is a 2 years masters education after a bachelor in another technical discipline (electronics, information and communication technology, or mechanical engineering), physics or medicine and sports science. The programme is thus open for students with a wide variety of backgrounds. The students with those different backgrounds follow
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different curricula within the BME programme. For students with a (Bachelor or equivalent) background in engineering, physics or chemistry, the focus of the curriculum is on anatomy, physiology, pathology, and clinical practice, supplemented by elective courses of topics such as magnetic resonance, signal analysis, system programming, data technology, electronics, distributed realtime systems, image analysis, multimedia, and transmission systems. For students with a background in medicine and sports, the focus is on mathematics, programming, and signal analysis. Magnetic Resonance Imaging is an important special line in the programme. Master level education at Aalborg University (AAU) At Aalborg University several programmes are running in BME or related disciplines. At the department of Electronic Systems there is a 2 years international (English taught) programme Biomedical Engineering as a specialisation after a 3 years electronics engineering (or equivalent) education. The focus of the programme is on Biomedical Instrumentation and Signal Processing, and the courses are grouped as follows: Anatomy and Physiology - The focus is to give the student a sufficient knowledge of the biological/physiological systems and to learn the basics of medical language and procedures; Medical Technology - To give the student sufficient comprehension of existing medical engineering technology, used in hospital practice and in research. Also to give the student sufficient background to be able to identify and to solve biomedical engineering problems; and General Engineering - To strengthen the students classical engineering skills in an area relevant for biomedical engineers (electrical engineering). At the same department of Electronic Systems there is a 1.5 years programme Medical Informatics as a specialisation after a 3.5 years electronics engineering or computer science (or equivalent) education. The focus is on: systems for data acquisition, processing, distribution and presentation of data; development of medical decision support systems; medical image analysis systems; and health care organisation with relevance to medical information systems and organisational consequences. Master of Information Technology (MI) with specialisation in Medical Informatics at Aalborg University. This is a master programme for people working in the health care sector and with at least a Bachelor degree in a discipline relevant to the health care sector, with the additional requirement of at least four years experience. The programme requires half-time study during three years (one and a half years full-time equivalent). The objective is to give the student relevant qualifications with respect to planning, development and use of information technology systems. The programme gives multidisciplinary, theoretical and methodological knowledge about informatics, medical technology, computer science, health care organisation, communication and cognition. It is based on distant learning with additional seminars. Five years Master in Biomedical Engineering Curriculum at Aalborg University. In the year 2000 a 5-years curriculum was started to provide Biomedical Engineering from the freshman-year to the final project. During the first 2 years anatomy and physiology go hand in hand with mathematics, physics, electronics engineering and medical technology. The fifth semester is
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entirely hospital based with outstationing the students in the clinical departments of Aalborg hospital, where courses are taken such as pathology and biochemistry and medical-technical projects are performed. The 6th through the 8th semesters are then based on the elective lines in Biomedical Instrumentation, Medical Informatics, or Biomechanics. The final year is devoted to the final Masters project, which is a further specialisation within the elected line. The projects are naturally based on the research at the department of Health Science and Technology and include the areas of Medical Informatics, Decision Support Systems, Image Analysis, Neural Prostheses, Sensory Systems, Motor Control and Biomechanics, and Brain Research. Ph.D. Education The International Doctoral School in Biomedical Science and Engineering at Aalborg University offers a three-year Ph.D. education in biomedical science and engineering. The official language of the School is English. The curriculum is based on basic science and engineering problems related to the human sensory-motor system. To achieve this, combined knowledge from a large number of complementary disciplines is needed, such as life sciences, engineering, physics, mathematics, computer science, and paramedical disciplines. A three-year Ph.D. study at the International Doctoral School consists of three elements: Research project, courses and dissemination. Part of the research should be performed in collaboration with another laboratory or industry in Denmark or abroad. The research is focused on the human sensory-motor system and comprises theoretical and experimental aspects, e.g. involving electrophysiology, biomechanics and psychophysics. Where appropriate, animal studies can be an integrated part of the studies. Ph.D. research projects are offered within four core areas: Motor Control and Biomechanics; Sensory Systems and Pain Research; Rehabilitation Technologies; Other Biomedical Research Areas. The course programme covers half a year of the total study period. The student must follow 12 modules equal to 900 working hours. The courses comprise three joint modules related to science and scientific procedures, three modules within the biomedical science and engineering programme, and six modules related specifically to the Ph.D. student's research project. The joint courses are related to areas such as planning and design of experiments, scientific communication, and philosophy of science. The programme courses in biomedical science and engineering are related to general aspects of the motor and sensory systems, sensory-motor interactions, physiological models, rehabilitation technologies and recording/analysis of physiological signals. The Ph.D. dissertation will normally be based on a combination of experimental and theoretical work. The dissertation should consist of three to five papers published in recognised international journals or published in a monograph at a similar level.
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Biomedical Engineering in Estonia Hiie Hinrikus and Kalju Meigas Biomedical Engineering Centre, Tallinn Technical University 5 Ehitajate Road, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia 1. Introduction Biomedical Engineering (BME) in Estonia started about 10 years ago. It was not suitable to differentiate between the BME and Medical Physics specialities in education and specialisation in a small country where the possibilities of employment within the narrow field of experience are quite limited. Therefore the activity began within the frame of joint specialisation of Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics. The background of Biomedical Engineering in Estonia is related to the circumstances which prevailed in this area for years. There is a long tradition of health care in Estonia, but education in BME was absent practically until the last decade. Some groups in universities and academic institutions have been involved in research activity in this field. The requirements for medical engineers and physicists in the Estonian health care system were not established. There were 120 hospitals and 40 policlinics in Estonia and only about 30 engineers, who had very different educational backgrounds, were working in this area. During the last ten years of independence, about 50 new small companies emerged, which are mostly representatives of foreign medical technology corporations. Some of them are working in the area of medical equipment service and very few of them are working as producers of medical technology. The number of qualified staff is small. The system for technical control and quality assurance is not effective yet. The main steps and events related to development of BME in Estonia: 1993 - first BME-MP subjects as a specialisation for Computer and System Engineering students started at Tallinn Technical University; 1994 Biomedical Engineering Centre of Tallinn Technical University was established; 1994 Estonian Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics (ESBMEMP) was founded; 1994 affiliation of the ESBMEMP to the IFMBE; 1995 affiliation of the ESBMEMP to the IOMP; 1996 affiliation of the ESBMEMP to the EFOMP; 1996 Estonian programme on Biomedical Engineering started; 1996 Satellite Symposia of the 10th Nordic-Baltic Conference on Biomedical Engineering was organised in Tallinn; 1997 a new study field of Electronics and Biomedical Engineering was opened at Tallinn Technical University; 1999 the 11th Nordic-Baltic Conference on Biomedical Engineering was organised in Tallinn; 2001 a new curriculum of Master and Doctoral degree study on Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics approved by Tallinn Technical University; 2001 development of the strategic plan for Medical Technology approved by Ministry of Social Affairs. The process of reformation of the Estonian Health Care System is going on now but up to this time this discipline did not get wide recognition. The reasons are the absence of a national medical technology industry (except some small enterprises) as well as the traditions of employment of engineering staff in hospitals. 2. The National Society
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The Estonian Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics was founded in 1994 as an independent non-profit organisation. The Estonian Society is affiliated to IFMBE, IOMP and EFOMP. Since the beginning the Estonian Society for BME and MP has the purpose: - To promote research and development activity in the field of biomedical engineering and medical physics; - To provide medical share with technical specialists, get them the best possible education, based on modern theory and methods; - To establish the system of quality assurance and technical control of medical equipment and services in Estonia. The Society has been involved in - Organising conferences and seminars on biomedical engineering (national and international level) and actual problems of medical technology in our country (national level); - Accreditation of educational programmes and professional accreditation of engineers; - Preparation of national legal regulations related to health care and health protection and their technical support, As a result of a bilateral agreement between the Estonian Ministry of Social Affairs and the Estonian Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics, a Strategic Plan for the Development of Medical Technology until the year 2015 was developed. This plan is a part of the Estonian Hospital Master Plan 2015. The main idea of this document is to enhance the quality of medical service using up-to-date medical technology and quality assurance. An important part of this paper is the number and educational quality of technical staff in related areas, not only in hospitals but also in different institutional bodies inside health care, calculation of requirement of technical staff based on recommendations of different international institutions, cost of medical technology, number of hospital beds, development plans of different physician specialities and opinions of leading physicians. In 2001 the Society had 55 members. 3. Biomedical Engineering Education Education on BME was absent during the Soviet period in Estonia when education was completely undertaken by the Soviet Unions centralised specialisation's planning. The nearest institute for BMEMP specialisation was in Leningrad. The first structures to support BME education and study programmes were organised during the last decade in two main public Universities Tallinn Technical University and University of Tartu. The Biomedical Engineering Centre (BMEC) has been established in Tallinn Technical University (TTU) upon decision by the Academic Senate of TTU on March 15th, 1994. The Centre for Biomedical Engineering is a structural unit within Tallinn Technical University, incorporating departments and other research and medical institutions or units within these institutions, engaged in biomedical engineering and medical physics research and teaching. The BMEC shall promote research, development and teaching in biomedical engineering and medical physics. The BMEC comprises the Chair of Radiophysics, Chair of Biomedical Engineering and associated structural units. The BMEC shall: - Co-ordinate, organise and carry out academic, research and development activities; - Organise and carry out continuing education; - Fulfil orders and contract work; - Organise procurement and efficient implementation of the laboratory and research equipment; - Disseminate information in the areas of interest and organise workshops and conferences. The training centre of medical physics and biomedical engineering of the University of Tartu (UT) has been established in 1996 to promote academic and continuing education in medical physics and biomedical engineering. The main objectives of the centre are:
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to provide clinical technologists (engineers, technicians) as well as medical practitioners with hands-on training in the usage, service and quality assurance of modern medical equipment; to provide students and researchers from UT and other universities with the facilities and laboratories for studies and research in medical physics and biomedical engineering.
The study programmes on BME on the Bachelor and Master degree level started during last decade. Biomedical engineering education at TTU started in the 1992-1993 academic year. The special subjects were available for students with different backgrounds: electrical, mechanic, computing, system engineering. A new study direction Electronics and Biomedical Engineering including bachelor, master and doctoral degree curriculum, started in the faculty of Systems Engineering in 1997. The Biomedical Engineering Centre carries out subjects related to Biomedical Engineering as well as to Medical Physics. BME education at UT is possible within the applied physics direction in the Faculty of Physics and Chemistry. At first the students get a basic education as physicists and from the beginning of the sixth semester they may select special courses. After receiving their Bachelors degree the students may continue to a Masters degree and Doctors degree programme. Bachelors degree programme: Human Physiology, The Basics of Anatomy and Biomechanics, Functional Morphology, Biomedical Signals and Methods, Introduction to Visualisation of Bio-Objects and Processes, Radiation in Medicine. Masters degree programme: Microprocessors, Basis of Signal Processing, Image Processing, Biomechanical Diagnostics of Skeletal Muscles, Processing of Measurements, Methods and Instrumentation of Medical Diagnostics, Medical Biomechanics, Methods of Measurements, Mathematical Methods in Biomedicine, Systems for Measurement and Control, Identification and Modelling of Systems, Orthopaedic Materials and Devices, Basis of Metrology. The BME-MP education in the Baltic States was under reconstruction in the frame of the Joint European Project Tempus S-Jep-12402-97 Baltic Biomedical Engineering and Physics Master Courses 1998-2000, partners from EU countries Linkoping University, Prof. Ake Oberg and King's College London, Prof. Colin Roberts and Dr. Slavik Tabakov. Objectives of the project were development and introduction of the new Joint Baltic Biomedical Engineering and Physics Master courses on a base of reviewing, restructuring, adaptation and modularising the existing eligible courses delivered by the Universities of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Alongside this, Credit Transfer and Quality Assurance Systems harmonised with the European standards were developed and introduced in the BMEP education field of the Baltic States. The main outcome will be the Joint Baltic Biomedical Engineering and Physics Master Courses Curriculum recognised among Partner Baltic Universities. The new scheme of higher education matching the requirements and recommendations that follow from the Bologna Declaration is prepared now and will start in Estonia from the academic year 200203. The new specialisation in Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics as well as a Master degree and a Doctoral degree curriculum were developed at TTU in 2001 (Appendix 1). This curriculum follows the recommendations of the Bologna Declaration and Tempus S-Jep-12402-97 project. The first admission is planned in 2002. Bachelor degree (3 year study, 120 CP) includes mostly general, basic and core study and BME specialisation at TTU is not planned on this level; Master degree (2 year study, 80 CP) includes special subjects. BME specialisation at this level is planned at TTU; PhD degree programme (4 years study, 160 CP) is aimed to prepare researchers, University staff and high-level specialists.. BME specialisation at this level also planned at TTU.
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Parallel to the academic university study (5A, Diploma Engineer) the high-school level education (5B Applied Engineer, academic level education in more practical direction) on BME is planned to prepare specialists for hospitals on the level of technicians. 4. Professional Accreditation: Chartered Engineer and Euro-Engineer The first Act of Law in Estonia recognising the need for biomedical engineers as experts in medicine is a regulation no 56 of the Ministry of Social Affairs from November 13th, 1998. In this regulation the requirements are stated for technical experts who must participate in all radiological procedures. Estonian Association of Engineers (EAE) comprises all the major engineering institutions in Estonia and represents Estonian engineers in the matters of importance to the engineering profession as a whole. Declared number of engineers in EAE is 1336 4. Today we have 18 engineers from the Estonian Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics who are members of EAE. EAE is a member of FEANI (European Federation of National Engineering Associations) since 1996. At the beginning of the 1960s, FEANI was convinced that the engineering profession in Europe could not be strengthened without mutual recognition of the professional qualification provided by the numerous and diversified national systems of education and training. In 1970 the European Register of Higher Technical Profession was established and after extensive revision in 1987 a new FEANI Register was introduced. The structure of the Register is based on the two elements: - Education. Any engineer listed in the Register will have a thorough knowledge of the principles of engineering; - Professional engineering experience. The duration of professional engineering experience shall be at least four years and include the solution of problems requiring the application of engineering science, management or guiding of technical staff or the financial, economical, statutory or legal aspects of engineering tasks or industrial or environmental problems. In Estonia it means that each applicant for professional accreditation as Chartered Engineer on BME is required to hold a certificate of secondary education and his total period of formation must be at least 7-8 years (normally more because this is not a calendar but credit year) from that point. During this period at least 3-4 years must have been devoted to studies in a university (Bachelor degree) acknowledged by FEANI, 2 years to gaining professional experience and the 2 intermediate years either to complementary university courses (Master degree), or to engineering training monitored by the approved engineering institutions, or to preliminary engineering professional experience. The Estonian National Monitoring Committee of FEANI Register has 25 members: 15 from different member societies, 3 from enterprises, 3 from universities and other educational institutions, 2 from Ministries of Education and Economics, President of EAE and representative of FEANI Register. The committee is elected for 4 years and confirmed in the general assembly of EAE. Main commitment of this committee is to organise ascribing of professions of Chartered Engineer and Euro-Engineer, also to organise accreditation of different teaching courses and training activities for engineers. The Estonian National Monitoring Committee of FEANI Register has commissions of experts in each EAE member society. The Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics has a commission (4 members and 3 replacing members) of BME experts who submit candidates for the professions of Estonian Chartered Engineer and Euro-Engineer and organize professional training. In Estonia today, we have 8 Chartered Biomedical Engineers and 2 Euro-Engineers corresponding to FEANI requirements who are accredited at European level. In May 2001 an Estonian Committee for Engineering Profession was created. This Committee has 35 members: 25 members from Estonian the National Monitoring Committee of FEANI Register including members from professional societies (2 members from our society). The other 10 members are added from different institutions. Statute of the committee will be ready in the next future. The
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Estonian Committee for Engineering Profession is based on professional societies. Main working institution is a commission of experts in each EAE member society. Main commitments of this committee: - Ascribing of engineering professions in all levels (Applied Engineer, Diploma Engineer, Chartered Engineer); - Development of a system for Continuing Professional Development (CPD); - Co-operation between Universities and Industry.
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Appendix 1 Education on Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics at Tallinn Technical University 1. Present state Study field: Electronics and Biomedical Engineering The general, basic and most of core study is common for the study area Information Technology. BME education is interdisciplinary and its development includes co-operation between different institutions in Tallinn: - TTU as the base for engineering subjects; - Tallinn Hospitals as the base for medical instrumentation laboratory. Bachelors degree programme 160 CP: Special study 55 CP: Microwave and Optical Engineering, Biomedical Instrumentation, Medical Imaging, Biomedical Engineering, Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, Signal Processing, Physiological Signals Processing, Mathematical Modelling, Fundamentals of Physiology and Nervous Activity. Masters degree programme 80 CP: Special study 30 CP: Quality in Radiology, Laser Engineering, Basic Biomechanics, Medical Ultrasound, Biomedical Engineering Workshop, Special Course in Medical Physics, Physical Bases of Imaging Diagnostics, Telemedicine, Lasers in Medical Diagnostics, Bioelectromagnetism, Electromagnetic Radiation Effects, Signal Processing in Medicine, Special Course in Bioelectromagnetism I, Bioelectromagnetism Workshop I, Electrophysiology. Doctors degree programme 160 CP: Special Course in Biomedical Engineering, New Laser Diagnostic Methods in Medicine, Biomedical Engineering Workshop II, Modelling of Electromagnetic Fields in Human Body, Special Course in Bioelectromagnetism II, Bioelectromagnetism Workshop II. 2. Planned development 2.1. New study field from the year 2002: Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics: MSc and PhD programme The aim of the study is to provide interdisciplinary education based mostly on information technology and life sciences, to integrate physical and biological knowledge with the principles of engineering for understanding the processes in the human being and for the application of technology to improving health and quality of life. The students who have a bachelor degree in engineering and physics or life sciences can be admitted to the Masters degree programme of Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics. The study programme is aimed to deliver education at Masters and Doctoral degree level for biomedical engineers and medical physicists within the application areas in the hospitals, industry, academic institutions, medical-environmental institutions and others. The education should provide sufficient competence to enter the profession: Knowledge - appropriate knowledge of Biology and Medicine; - appropriate scientific knowledge of Engineering/Physics; - knowledge of application of Engineering/Physics to Medicine and Biology; - knowledge of the ethical and regulatory framework;
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Skills Attitudes information technology skills; oral/written communication skills; research and development skills; organisational skills; ability to work as part of a multidisciplinary team; professional attitude in a multidisciplinary environment; research principles and ethics; understanding of biomedical ethics.
2.2. Master's degree curriculum 1 General study Foreign language for science 2 Fundamental study Digital signal and image processing Electromagnetic fields and waves 3 Core study Obligatory Mathematical modelling Microwave and optical engineering Anatomy and physiology Optional Circuits, systems and signals Main course of programming System programming in C OS and network administrating Molecular and cell biology Gene technology Biophysics 4 Special study Obligatory Biomedical instrumentation Physiological signal processing Physical principles of medical imaging Biological effects of radiation Optional Neuroscience and information processing Physiological regulation and adaptation Bioelectromagnetism Quality in radiology Masters on Seminar Project 2.0 CP 2.0 7.0 3.5 3.5 17.0 CP 3.0 3.5 3.0 4.0 4.5 3.5 3.5 6.0 2.5 1.5 27.0 CP 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 2.5 2.0 4.5 4.0 3.0 5.0
5 Free study 4,0 CP 6 Practical training 3.0 CP 7 Master's theses 20.0 CP ------------------------------------------------Total 80.0 CP 2.3. Doctoral degree curriculum 1 General and fundamental study 13.0 CP
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Obligatory Teaching methods and practical work on specialty 8.0 Optional Philosophy of Science 2.5 Psychology of personnel management and leadership 2.5 Didactics for Tertiary Education 2.5 Organisation of research and education 2.5 Ethical and Legal Aspects of Gene Technology 2.0 Project management 3.0 2 Special study 25.0 CP Obligatory Seminar of the field of bio- and gene technology 2.0 Doctoral seminar of Biomedical Engineering 4.0 Doctoral seminar of Medical Physics 4.0 Optional Methods of laser diagnostics in medicine 6.0 Special course on bioelectromagnetism 6.0 Signal processing in biomedical engineering 6.0 Seminar of biomechanics 5.0 Special course of molecular medicine 2.0 Special course of biophysics 2.0 Special course of neurobiology 2.0 3 Practice 2.0 CP 4 PhD theses 120.0 CP ------------------------------------------------Total 160.0 CP
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Biomedical Engineering Education in Finland Jari Viik Finnish Society for Medical Physics and Medical Engineering P.O. Box 110 33721 Tampere, Finland jari.viik@tut.fi Jari Hyttinen Timo Jms Tampere University of Technology University of Oulu Juha Nousiainen Jari Kaipio Tampere University of Technology University of Kuopio Jukka Nenonen Pekka Hnninen Helsinki University of Technology University of Turku Maunu Pitknen Association of Hospital Physicist The updated version of this report is available on Internet, www.ee.tut.fi/~lfty/ From a broad perspective, Biomedical Engineering (BME) embraces the utilization of all technical disciplines in Medicine. In Finland, research and education have, however, primarily concentrated on the application of expertise in Electronics, Computer Science and Physics. The industry is primarily located in the proximity of university hospitals and universities. Industrial growth as well as the increase in personnel in the field of BME have been rapid and substantial. In Finland, BME education with broader curricula in BME was launched by Tampere University of Technology (TUT) at the beginning of the 1970's. There is no accreditation for BME degrees and study programs, with the exception of hospital physicists (see chapter Hospital Physicists Education). Along with the growth in the field, the need for education in BME has also increased in recent years. Consequently, curricula including BME have been set up at many universities. In addition to TUT, education is at present provided by Helsinki University of Technology and the Universities of Kuopio, Oulu and Turku. Furthermore, several courses on BME are lectured at other Finnish universities. Table 1. presents the number of teachers and Master of Science (M.Sc.) degrees per year (situation at 2001) in the field of BME at each university. The M.Sc. degree requires studies of 160 credits and M.Sc. in Technology requires 180 credits. Both degrees include a 20-credit thesis. The Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree requires studies of 120 credits. It is possible to receive a B.Sc. degree in universities. In the curriculum for the M.Sc. in Technology, it is possible to apply for the certificate of B.Sc. degree when the student has completed at least 120 credits. One Finnish credit represents approximately 40 hours e.g. weeks workload for an individual student. Thus one Finnish credit corresponds to 1.5 European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) credits. Table 1. The number of teachers related to BME and the annual number of M.Sc. degrees (year 2001) in the field of BME at Finnish universities, which provides BME education. Assistant M.Sc. University Professors professors Assistants degrees Tampere University of Technology 6 2 1 22 Helsinki University of Technology 4 1 1 15 University of Oulu 3 3 3 20 University of Kuopio 6 3 2 15 University of Turku 2 1 3 BME, Biomedical Engineering; M.Sc., Master of Science.
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Survey of Persons Having Studied BME at the TUT
www.ee.tut.fi/rgi/bme-survey
Jari Viik and Jaakko Malmivuo have made a survey to investigate the placement in working life of the biomedical engineers who had studied BME in the Ragnar Granit Institute (RGI) at TUT (Biomedical Engineering as a Career Resource: Placement in working life of Masters of Science in Engineering who have studied Biomedical Engineering at Tampere University of Technology, ISBN 952-15-0047-6). The material of the survey consisted of 267 persons who had included BME as a major or minor subject in their M.Sc. degree program between 1976 and the spring of 1997. The study was conducted during the summer of 1997 as a postal questionnaire study. In addition to the questionnaire study, a survey was also conducted concerning the study history of all Masters of Science in Engineering who had studied BME as their major or minor subject. The complete report is available on the Internet, http://www.ee.tut.fi/rgi/bme-survey/. The main results of the survey have also been published in the International Journal of Engineering Education 1999:15:308-320. National Society www.ee.tut.fi/~lfty
The Finnish Society for Medical Physics and Medical Engineering (formerly the Finnish Society for Biological and Medical Engineering) was founded in March 1968. According to its bylaws the purpose of the Society is "to raise and to maintain interest in medical physics, biomedical engineering and biophysics and to promote the development of these disciplines in the field of scientific research, education and practice". The Society has been affiliated with the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE) in 1969 and with the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) in 1973. The aim of the Finnish Society during its whole history has been the establishment and promotion of the international contacts. The Finnish Society arranged the First Nordic Meeting on Medical and Biological Engineering in Espoo in 1970. The Third Nordic Meeting was also arranged in Finland, this time in Tampere in 1975, the 6th in Helsinki in 1985 and 10th in Tampere in 1996. The 10th meeting was extended to cover the whole Baltic region and its name was changed to Nordic-Baltic Conference on Biomedical Engineering. The largest and most challenging event organized by the Finnish Society has been the XIV International Conference on Medical and Biological Engineering and VII International Conference on Medical Physics held in Espoo in 1985. At the time of the foundation of our Society the medical physics and engineering education was completely missing. After the foundation, the Society arranged courses on basic education. The activities of the Society in the continuation education of the hospital physicists and biomedical engineers began in 1978, when the society arranged the first course on biomedical engineering. After that, the Society has arranged more than 20 courses on several topics. They have dealt with bioelectricity, biosystems, data processing, devices and methods in radiotherapy, digital image processing in medicine, picture archiving and communication systems in medicine, the safety of medical equipment as well as magnetic resonance imaging. These events have been very important for training medical physicists, physicians and engineers. In 1979 the society started the Progress Report symposium and contest for young scientists. This competition was arranged annually until 1989, when it wasdiscontinued. The Finnish Society launched a new meeting series during the 2002, Medical Physics and Medical Engineering Day. The main purpose of these events is to present the latest Master's theses in the field of medical physics and engineering by poster competition and to improve the education and research cooperation between different centers in Finland. In addition to the presentation of theses, the organizing university presents its education and research in the field of BME and BME companies have the opportunity for exhibition and recruiting. The First Medical Physics and Medical Engineering Day was arranged at TUT. For postgraduate students the Finnish Society established a poster exhibition and competition together with the Finnish Physical Society's Biological and Medical Physics Division in 2002. This event took place as a part of the 'Physics Days' (annual national symposium) arranged by the Finnish Physical Society and is planned to be arranged during the 'Physics Days' in future.
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TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
www.tut.fi
Tampere University of Technology (TUT) is the second largest technical university in Finland with about 10 000 students and 14 degree programs. Course studies on BME started already in the early 1970s. Since then, the curriculum has been extended and several aspects of biomedical engineering are now covered. Education in BME is provided by the Ragnar Granit Institute (RGI), the Institute of Signal Processing, and the Institute of Biomaterials. Until 2001, almost 200 students have graduated with BME as their major subject. Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics www.ee.tut.fi/rgi
A comprehensive study course in biomedical engineering and medical informatics is available. This block of studies is offered within the degree program of electrical engineering and it is intended for graduate students in electrical engineering and information technology. The program is provided by the Ragnar Granit Institute and organized partially in co-operation with the Institute of Signal Processing of TUT (sigwww.cs.tut.fi/). The aim of the study program is to provide students with an excellent ability to apply their skills in electronics and computer science in the field of medicine. Special emphasis is placed on bioelectric and biomagnetic phenomena, modeling methods and modern physiological signal and medical image processing. Education includes courses in medical electronics, medical physics and medical informatics as well as practical laboratory exercises. In addition to the subjects of biomedical engineering, the program deals with electronics and computer science. Thus the acquired knowledge can also be applied to the wider field of electronics and information technology in trade and industry. The priority fields of the research education provided by the Institute, aiming at a postgraduate degree, include Bioelectromagnetism and Multimodal Processing of Medical Images and Medical Informatics. Due to the internationalization development, English has established itself as the primary teaching language at the Institute, although all the compulsory courses are also given in the Finnish language. A Graduate BME studies
Study Program The most extensive way to study BME is provided by the study program in BME. This program is part of the degree program in electrical engineering, including 36-45 credits (54-67.5 ECTS credits) of courses in BME. It can be joined by students in electrical engineering as early as in the beginning of their second year when part of the common program studies include some basic subjects in BME, replacing courses in electrical engineering. After completing the common program studies students take BME as their major subject. BME as a Major Subject BME as a major subject is allowed for students in electrical engineering and information technology degree programs. The major subject in BME contains course studies of at least 30 credits (45 ECTS credits). Between two alternatives can be chosen: medical electronics and medical informatics. BME as a Minor Subject BME as a minor subject is worth at least 15 credits (22.5 ECTS credits) and it is elective for students in several degree programs.
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Postgraduate Studies on BME
The postgraduate program in BME focuses on bioelectromagnetism study of bioelectric and biomagnetic phenomena of living tissue, modeling and analysis of physiological signal and medical images as well as neuroinformatics. The framework for the doctoral studies is formed by doctoral seminars, postgraduate courses, and other scientific seminars and meetings. In the Doctoral Program, Licentiate of Technology (Lic.Tech.) and Doctor of Technology/Philosophy (Dr.Tech./Ph.D.) degrees can be pursued. Doctoral study is performed in the field of bioelectromagnetism or biomedical engineering. It consists of a Major Subject in Biomedical Engineering (worth 30 credits), supporting studies (worth 15 credits) and the doctoral thesis C Course Syllabus
Students in the electrical engineering degree program include the two courses Human Anatomy and Physiology and Introduction to the Small-Signal Instrumentation into their common program studies,. In addition to theseclasses, basic courses in electronics, electromagnetism, and computer science are taken. Medical Electronics In medical electronics the emphasis is on special issues and requirements of the design of medical electronic instrumentation. Thus the students are well prepared to work in different functions in medical electronics and IT industry. The alternative contains special courses in medical electronics, instrumentation in clinical chemistry and medical physics. Students with a major subject in medical electronics can take their minor subject in electronics, digital signal processing, measurement technology, digital and computer technology, technical physics and mathematics, industrial management and biomaterial science. Medical Informatics Medical informatics covers various aspects of application of information technology in medicine and health care. The studies in medical informatics are supported by several special courses in information technology provided by the Institutes of Software Engineering, Signal Processing, Digital and Computer Technology, Telecommunication, and Mathematics. The minor subject can be chosen from these fields. In addition to the theoretical courses the syllabus of medical electronics and informatics includes several practical courses, which are obligatory in the major subject. To support the two major subject alternatives the BME syllabus provides some advanced courses in the field of bioelectromagnetism. Common program studies Human Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Small-Signal Instrumentation Courses in medical electronics Biomedical Engineering Medical Electronics Medical Device Regulations Instrumentation in Clinical Chemistry Biosensor Technology Radiotherapy Devices Medical Imaging Methods CU 4 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 4
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Radiation and Safety Courses in medical informatics Introduction to Medical Informatics Processing of Physiological Signals Processing of Medical Images Introduction to Telemedicine Practical courses Biomedical Engineering Laboratory Course I Medical Electronics Laboratory Medical Informatics Laboratory Biomedical Engineering Project Biomedical Engineering Thesis Seminar
2 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 1
Advanced courses Bioelectromagnetism 5 P Modeling of Physiological Systems 3 P Neuroinformatics 3 P Doctoral Seminar on Biomedical Engineering 4-8 P The courses marked with P are accepted for postgraduate studies. One CU corresponds to 1.5 ECTS credits. Biomaterial Science www.tut.fi/units/ms/biom
Institute of Biomaterials is one of the leading European research centers in materials technology of bioabsorbable polymers, composites and surgical implants manufactured from them. The teaching program of the institute is located under the Materials Department and teaching is focused on medical biomaterials and tissue engineering but one course is given on compostable biomaterials. The courses are given in the Finnish language but for some courses material is available in English. A Graduate Studies
Study Program Students have an opportunity to study Biomaterials as a major subject and as a minor subject. Recommended minor subjects along with Biomaterials are for example fiber technology, chemistry, safety studies, BME and medical studies. Biomaterials as a Major Subject The major subject in Biomaterials contains course studies of at least 30 credits (45 ECTS credits). Biomaterials as a major subject is allowed for students in materials science degree programs. Biomaterials as a Minor Subject Biomaterials as a minor subject is worth at least 15 credits (22.5 ECTS credits) and it is elective for students in several degree programs. B Postgraduate Studies
The postgraduate program in biomaterials can focus on either medical biomaterials, environmental (compostable) biomaterials or other bulk applications. The framework for the doctoral studies is formed by doctoral seminars, postgraduate courses, and other scientific seminars and meetings.
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In the Doctoral Program, Licentiate of Technology and Doctor of Science degrees can be pursued. Studies consist of a Major Subject in Biomaterials and supporting studies, together the equivalent of 45 credits, and a written thesis. C Study Courses CU 2 2 2
Intermediate courses Introduction to Medical Biomaterials Tissue Engineering I Compostable Biomaterials
Advanced courses Applications of Medical Biomaterials 2 Tissue Engineering II 2 P Implant Technology 3 P Thesis Seminar in Biomaterials 1 Special Treatise on Biomaterials Science 3 The courses marked with P are accepted for postgraduate studies. One CU corresponds to 1.5 ECTS credits.
Biotechnology Program at the University of Tampere
www.uta.fi/imt/
In addition to the curriculum in TUT, the University of Tampere has a new program for a Master of Sciences degree in Biotechnology coordinated by Institute of Medical Technology (IMT). The program started in 2001 and 15 students started in the Master of Sciences curriculum and seven students in the diplom engineer (M.Sc. in Technology) curriculum. The program provides a novel type of training with special emphasis on modern biomedical research and biotechnology, and it is jointly run by IMT, TUT and the Medical School of the University of Tampere. Courses related to BME are given by TUT's departments.
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HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY Biomedical Engineering and Living State Physics
www.hut.fi www.hut.fi/Units/Biomedical
Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) is the leading technical university in Finland with 12 departments. The laboratory of Biomedical Engineering (established in 1988) operates in the Department of Engineering Physics and Mathematics. It promotes both basic and graduate education as well as research in the fields of biomedical engineering and biophysics. The Laboratory also coordinates a national Graduate School Functional Research in Medicine, http://futu.hut.fi. In addition, some courses on BME are given by the Laboratory of Applied Electronics at the Department of Electrical and Communications Engineering. A Graduate BME Studies
BME can be studied for a Master of Science in Technology degree (M.Sc. Tech.) in the Program of Engineering Physics. BME can be chosen as a major or minor for the degree program. The instruction of the degree programs is organized in such a manner that it is possible for a student to acquire approximately 35 credits (52.5 ECTS credits) in one academic year and graduate in five years. B Postgraduate Studies in BME
Postgraduate degrees at HUT, Licentiate and Doctor of Technology (Lic Tech. and Dr Tech., respectively), are intended for graduates with a Master's degree. These degrees require examinations in at least two subjects, one of which must be the major. Postgraduate research within the major is mandatory. Completion of the Licentiate's degree takes 2-3 years, while a Doctorate requires an additional 1-3 years. The Graduate School "Functional Research in Medicine" is funded by the Ministry of Education and the Academy of Finland. Besides HUT, the Universities of Kuopio, Oulu and Turku are participating in the Graduate School. It offers a high-level research environment, excellent facilities for its graduate students to work at the front end of research, supports research work aiming at doctoral dissertations, and promotes clinical and technological applications of biomedical engineering and physics. It also arranges new courses on current topics that present the state-of-the art knowledge in the fields of interest in the Graduate School. C Study Courses CU 4 4 5 2 2 3 3 3 2 5 3 3
General physics courses Modern Physics I Modern Physics II Classical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism Applied Physics, Laboratory Course Courses on biomedical engineering and living state physics Introduction to Living State Physics Biophysics Medical Physics I Medical Physics II Seminar on Biomedical Engineering Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, special assignment Electrophysiology Image Processing in Biomedical Engineering ?
P P
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Structure and Function of the Human Brain 3 P Signal Processing in Biomedical Engineering 3 P Image Processing in Biomedical Engineering ? 3 P Functional Imaging in Biomedical Engineering 2 P Medical Imaging Methods 3 P Functional Macromolecules 3 P Special Courses on Biomedical Engineering 3 P Inverse Problems in Biomedical Engineering (1998) Molecular Biophysics and Genetics (1999) Medical Imaging Theory and Practice (2000) Functional Imaging and Modeling of the Heart (2001) Research Seminar on Biomedical Engineering 2 P Individual Studies 1-10 P The courses marked with P are accepted for postgraduate studies. One CU corresponds to 1.5 ECTS credits.
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UNIVERSITY OF OULU Biomedical Engineering Program
www.oulu.fi
The University of Oulu is a multidisciplinary university with six faculties, including Medicine, Technology, Economics, and Science. The Biomedical Engineering Program was founded in 1994 to promote collaboration in education and research between the faculties. A Graduate BME Studies
Today, BME can be studied for Masters degree in three faculties, Science, Technology and Medicine. The courses are taught in collaboration, and the BME students have studies in all three faculties. The combination of courses depends on the program, giving different profiles to the studies. B Postgraduate Studies in BME
Postgraduate studies can be performed at all three faculties for the degrees of Licentiate and Doctor of Philosophy / Technology (Lic.Phil./Lic.Tech. and Ph.D./Dr.Tech., respectively). The studies are arranged in close collaboration between the faculties. The graduate study courses in BME are also given at the national level. Faculty of Science / Biophysics physics.oulu.fi/biofysiikka
Biophysics is one of the four divisions of the Department of Physical Sciences. The curriculum in biophysics includes approximately 80 credits (120 ECTS credits) of courses on biophysics. There are two alternative branches of study in which the degree can be taken: Cellular and Molecular Biophysics or Biophysics in BME. C Study Courses CU 1 3 2 2 2 2 5 1 3 2 2 3 6 2 2 2 2
Basic courses Radiation Physics Introduction to Biophysics Intermediate courses Laboratory Exercises in Biophysics I Laboratory Exercises in Biophysics II Analysis of Biosystems Techniques of Medical Devices Project and Seminar Introduction to Project Work Biophysics of Membranes Spectroscopic Methods Advanced courses Bioelectronics Laboratory Exercises in Biophysics III Research Project in Biophysics Dynamics of Bioprocesses Simulation of Biosystems Processes of the Nervous System Intracellular Registrations
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Identification of Linear and Nonlinear Systems Medical Physics Patch-Clamp Techniques Basics of Research Virtual Measurement Environments Special Advance Course One CU corresponds to 1.5 ECTS credits. Faculty of Technology / Engineering programs (BME)
4 2 2 3 3 2-6
www.ttk.oulu.fi
Specialization in BME in the following programs: Program in Electrical Engineering (BME/EE), Program in Information Engineering (BME/IE), and Program in Mechanical Engineering (BME/ME). The curriculum includes 10-30 credits (15-45 ECTS credits) of courses on BME. C Study courses CU 4 3 1 3 5 3,5 4 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 3 5 2 2 3 2 3 3,5 4 3 1 3
Common program studies in BME/EE Basic Anatomy and Physiology Biomedical Measurements Studies of choice in BME/EE Product Responsibility and Safety of Medical Devices Medical Imaging BME Project Medical Equipment Design Biomedical Engineering in Clinical Medicine Radiation Physics, Biology and Safety Techniques of Medical Devices Spectroscopic Methods Processes of the Nervous System Common program studies in BME/IE Basic Anatomy and Physiology Biomedical Engineering in Clinical Medicine Studies of choice in BME/IE Telemedicine Biomedical Measurements Medical Imaging BME Project Laboratory Exercises in Biophysics I Medical Physics Introduction to Biophysics Analysis of Biosystems Virtual Reality Techniques Common program studies in BME/ME Medical Equipment Design Studies of choice in BME/ME Biomedical Engineering in Clinical Medicine Biomedical Measurements Product Responsibility and Safety of Medical Devices Medical Imaging
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One CU corresponds with 1.5 ECTS credits. Faculty of Medicine / Medical and Wellness Technology www.medicine.oulu.fi/ltek/
The new program in Medical and Wellness Technology was started in 2001. The program is placed in the Faculty of Medicine. The curriculum includes approximately 20 credits (30 ECTS credits) of courses on medicine, 40 credits on BME and 20 on the specialization choice. There are two alternative specialization choices of study: Medical Engineering and Biomedical Technology. C Study Courses CU 1 4 3 2 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 3 5 2 2 3 2 2,5 2 1 3 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 2
Common program studies Introduction to Medical Engineering Biomedical Engineering in Clinical Medicine Biomedical Measurements Medical Physics and Imaging Methods Introduction to Biophysics Bioelectronics Analysis of Biosystems Radiation Physics, Biology and Safety Basics in Biomechanics Rehabilitation and Gerontotechnology Techniques in Clinical Chemistry Virtual Measurement Environments BME Programming Study BME Project Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering Seminar Specialization in Medical Engineering Applied Diagnostic Radiology Telemedicine Applied Biomechanics Ergonomics Medical Device Technology Product Responsibility and Safety of Medical Devices Introduction to Health Economics Specialization in Biomedical Technology Laboratory Exercises in Biophysics I Spectroscopic Methods Biophysics of Membranes Processes of the Nervous System Dynamics of Bioprocesses Basics in Biomaterials Imaging Methods in Biomedical Research Experimental Animal Course One CU corresponds to 1.5 ECTS credits.
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UNIVERSITY OF KUOPIO Biomedical Engineering
www.uku.fi venda.uku.fi
The University of Kuopio has a clear profile: it is a university specializing in health-based and environmental sciences including the technologies related to these disciplines. It has five faculties: Business and Information Technology, Medicine, Natural and Environmental Sciences, Pharmacy and Social Sciences. In addition there is the A.I.V. Institute for molecular sciences. Education in the field of BME is closely linked to the university research profile, hospital physicists' education and local health care industry. BME education is arranged at the Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences. A Graduate Study Programs
Medical Physics The Department of Applied Physics at the Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences is responsible for the education in Medical Physics, that is one of the specialization choices in the graduate program of physics. This education has a strong emphasis on mathematical analysis and modeling. Health Care Technology The education program of Health Care Technology is part of the education supply available in Centek a shared education and research development project of the University of Kuopio and Pohjois-Savo Polytechnic. Education in Health Care Technology is planned for students who already have a B.Sc. degree or proper professional education. The duration of the study program is three years. The courses are partially same as in the education in Medical Physics and are listed below. The wide option to choose courses is characteristic for this program, giving a different, individual study profile to the students. As compared to medical physics education the emphasis is more on teaching the practical and experimental skills B Postgraduate Studies in Medical Physics
Postgraduate studies in Medical Physics can be performed at the Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences for the degrees of Licentiate and Doctor of Philosophy (Lic.Phil. and Ph.D., respectively). The postgraduate program as part of the education of the hospital physicists can be conducted in the university. C Study Courses CU 2 2 3 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
Basic courses Medical Instrumentation Dosimetry in Radiotherapy Physics of Electronic Components Digital Image Processing 1 Digital Image Processing 2 Advanced courses Physics in Clinical Physiology Medical Imaging Magnetic Resonance Imaging Methods and Techniques in Radiotherapy Ultrasound Techniques in Medicine
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Isotopic Techniques 2 P Special Course in Medical Physics 1-3 Materials Science 4 Biomaterials 3 P Physics of Medical Implants 2 P Methods of Materials Analysis 3 Vacuum Techniques 3 Medical Signal Analysis 2 Pattern Recognition and Image Analysis 3 Time Series Analysis 3 P Finite Element Methods 3 P Data-Analysis 3 P Inverse Problems 1 3 P Inverse Problems 2 3 P Information Management in Health Care 3 Data Protection and Security 3 Communication, Networking and Internet in Health Care 10 Information Systems in Health Care 6 Telemedicine 2 The courses marked with P are accepted for postgraduate studies. One CU corresponds to 1.5 ECTS credits.
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UNIVERSITY OF TURKU Biomedical Engineering
www.utu.fi www.lfy.utu.fi
The Department of Medical Physics was founded in 1992 as part of the Institute of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine. The department gives basic education in physics, medical physics and biomaterials for the students in medicine and health biosciences. The department is actively promoting studies at the graduate level through several graduate schools and is offering positions for graduate students either via direct funding from the graduate schools or via industrial funding. The research areas of the department are new bioanalytical methods, light microscopy and biomaterials science. A Graduate BME Studies
The department of Medical Physics does not offer graduate courses and teaching in BME. However, students of physics at the University of Turku may join the BME program of Tampere University of Technology after completing their basic studies in Physics according to the agreement between the two universities. B Postgraduate Studies in BME
Postgraduate studies at the department of Medical Physics are organized in national graduate schools in collaboration with other groups within the field. Training is multidisciplinary and Ph.D. degrees may be pursued in fields of biomedical physics and engineering, chemistry and biochemistry. The graduate schools where the students may join through the department are: Graduate School of Functional Research in Medicine (FUTU), http://futu.hut.fi/ Graduate School of Chemical Sensors and Microanalytical Systems (CHEMSEM), http://www.chemsem.hut.fi/ National Graduate School of Informational and Structural Biology (ISB), http://www.abo.fi/isb/ Graduate courses are organized within the graduate schools and vary from year to year depending on the requests and requirements of the students.
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Hospital Physicists Education in Finland
www.tek.fi/sairaalafyysikot/
In the field of BME the position of hospital physicist is the only profession which has an accreditation (certification?) in Finland. According to the Finnish law for professions in health care the title of hospital physicist (sairaalafyysikko) is protected. It means that title can be used only if a person has the formal (registered) qualification in hospital physics. To implement the EC-directive 97/43/Euratom (MED) into Finnish legislation a new statute by the Social and Health Ministry was passed. In that law a formal qualification (registered hospital physicist) is required to be able to practice in radiotherapy and nuclear medicine. The program for the education of hospital physicists is considered an official postgraduate university education. The Education Committee for hospital physicists co-ordinates the education in the whole country. In the Education Committee, there should be a representative from each university, from the Association of Hospital Physicist and a physician member. The Committee is circulating in different universities at a period of three years. At the moment (for years 2001-2003) the Committee has been nominated by the University of Oulu, Medical Faculty. The rules and functions of the Education Committee have been ratified by each university. Aims of the Education The aims of the education of hospital physicists is to give the skills to work independently in the following commissions in health care: to develop diagnostic and therapeutic methods and to participate in diagnostic and treatment procedures to perform and supervise physical quality assurance actions to perform commissioning of medical devices and software to teach in medical physics to be responsible for radiation safety to support and apply information technology to have the ability to carry out scientific research in medical physics and to take part in medical research projects. Requirements of the Education Program It is possible to start the education program after the B.Sc. degree. The main subject may be physics, electrical engineering or information technology; physics always has to be included into the degree. Content of the Education The education consists of theoretical studies in universities and of practical training in the hospital (some part may be in medical physics research laboratories, as well). In every training center there is an appointed and registered supervisor (professor or head physicist) who is responsible for the execution of the education program. Basic structure a postgraduate studies (at least 40 credit units) in physics or engineering (theoretical education) a postgraduate thesis (licentiate or doctoral) four years of practical training in five special areas of hospital physics radiation safety examination final examination considering the application for medical physics in the hospital environment
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Theoretical Education The responsible supervisor will plan the program for the studies to obtain the qualification in medical physics with the student. According to the new statute (834/2000) the student has to pass at least the licentiate of philosophy degree; in many cases students will pass the doctoral degree directly. The main subject of the examination shall be physics, medical physics, technical physics, biophysics or biomedical engineering. Practical Training It is possible to start practical training after the B.Sc. degree. Total training time is four years; time from last eight years (from acceptance of the program) has been accepted for training. The training is done in centers which have been accepted by the Education Committee. The training centes have been classified into three categories: four years of training time (full rights) possible in all university hospitals two years of training time (partial rights): in central hospitals where a qualified hospital physicist (registered) is the responsible supervisor, in other hospitals/institutes that have been inspected by the Education Committee, have a qualified hospital physicist on their staff and represent four main areas of hospital physics. one year of training time (partial rights): in medical physics research centers with a qualified hospital physicist available as a supervisor that have been accepted by the Education Committee. Thus at least three years of the training time must be carried out in a hospital. The supervisor is responsible for the student having work experience in all the main areas of hospital physics: nuclear medicine, clinical physiology, clinical neurophysiology, radiotherapy and oncology, as well as diagnostic radiology. Training will include at least 20 hours of administrative education in hospitals. Radiation Safety Examination Some universities have a permission to organize radiation safety examinations at different levels. The permission is granted by the Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority. The students have to pass the examination on the level: the general use of ionizing radiation. Final Examination The aim of the final examination is to test the student's ability to apply the theoretical knowledge to the clinical practice. The examinations are arranged four times per year at the same time as examinations of specializing physicians in medical faculties. The final examination can be taken after three years of practical training and accepted radiation safety examination. The permission to take the examination has to be granted by the Education Committee. Because the postgraduate degree requires at least 40 credit units (60 ECTS credits), the final examination is only testing the ability to apply the theoretical knowledge to the hospital environment. Qualified Hospital Physicist If all the parts of the education scheme have been passed it is possible to apply for registration (the status of the title protected hospital physicist) from the National Board of Medicolegal Affairs. Maybe this sentence could be replaced by the last sentence of the original draft: The program meets the educational requirements for national registration schemes for medical physicists recommended by the European Federation of Organizations for Medical Physics.
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Biomedical Engineering in France: A Brief Historical Survey The emergence of Biomedical Engineering in France was due, like in most new and multidisciplinary disciplines, to leading researchers belonging to other fields. Physics and Chemistry were the ones contributing most because Engineering Sciences as well as for instance Signal Processing at that time were in their infancy in France. These individuals along with some students were isolated in their original laboratories and no places were established for meetings and discussion. The research in this area sufferd from the image of being applied research, as opposed to the lettres de noblesse of Basic Sciences, and related to industrial concerns, with the idea of private funding behind it, two features which in France were negatively appreciated. For those who want to understand this period, it must be said that the communication between people was operating mainly through very few journals (the first journal founded 50 years ago was the IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering) which were disseminated very sparsely over the world and it took months to obtain a copy of a given paper. A real interest for medical instrumentation or medical electronics appeared in the 60s and it was only at the beginning of the 70s that the national institutions initiated several programmes in the area. Three leading researchers have played a major role at this level. The General Director of the INSERM (the National Institute for Health and Medical Research), Professor C BURG, the French representative to the European BME Working Group, Professor D LAURENT, and the head of the national programme, Y MOSCHETTO, Director of Research. The first comparative report prepared by D LAURENT at the European level pointed out that France was well behind other countries like Germany, The Netherlands and The United Kingdom which already were engaged in strong national policies supporting industrial efforts and establishing institutes fully devoted to research and training in BME. This conjunction of efforts has served in several ways: (1) a national evaluation of the French human potential involved in BME was launched; (2) a coordination for investment was initiated; (3) the creation of BME laboratories was decided. The INSERM, under the leadership of C BURG and Y MOSCHETTO, has played a major role in the 70s by setting up several research units and what was called Centres of Biomedical Technology all over the country. Most of them were successful, attracting and recruiting young engineers and researchers, carrying out joint ventures with companies and developing new products. In the 80s, the General Direction for Scientific and Technological Research (the structure early involved in a modest support of the field since the 60s) with J-C BISCONTE, under the Ministry of Research, set up regional centres, co-financed by Regions. In parallel, the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), together with universities and engineering schools, founded various laboratories focussed on BME research. Beyond the institutional supports, individual initiatives led to a better identification of the BME field. Y MOSCHETTO created the French journal, Innovation and Technology in Biology and Medicine (ITBM jean ROUSSEAU) and the Young Researchers Forum. A second journal, RBM, oriented toward Clinical Engineering, was established in the same period of time. They have recently merged and today are published by Elsevier. These instruments, structuring the national community, have had a strong impact on the European visibility of the French BME. J-P MORUCCI and other colleagues have strongly pushed for European initiatives like the COST actions, the AIM and the BIOMED programmes. Friendly partnerships have been set up with the Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBS) and a strong increase of French contributions was observed in all the IEEE-EMBS Conferences. This situation offered the opportunity for J-L COATRIEUX and J-P MORUCCI to organise the 1992 IEEE EMBS Conference in Paris. It was the first time this conference took place outside the US, and its great success has opened the road for its organisation at places all over the world.
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Unfortunately, under the pressure of more fundamental disciplines, the INSERM decided, in the early 90s to reduce its support for BME by closing several research units while the CNRS and the CEA (Atomic Energy Agency) maintained their efforts at a moderate level. A new player, the INRIA (National Institute for Computer Science and Automatic Control) came into the field by launching a few research projects. Technology was again considered as a marginal component of research in the INSERM: the famous citation index was the law. BME was scattered over medical disciplines and lost its identity, the consequence being major difficulties in recruiting young researchers and in establishing new laboratories. The paradox of this period is that the international recognition was very high, especially by the north-American community with the election as of J-L COATRIEUX as Vice-President of IEEE-EMBS, followed later by the election of C ROUX as President. At the same time, small and medium size enterprises, with products in very focussed BME market segments, were growing. It was only in 1998 that a new BME initiative of the Ministry of Research and Technology, directed by G BERGER, was initiated. It allowed J DEMONGEOT and J-L COATRIEUX to launch the National Health Technology Network in 1999 and, in co-ordination with the Direction of Research, incite concerted actions. The annual Calls for Projects (the 2003 Call is already open under the responsibility of R BEUSCART and J BITTOUN) were aimed at multidisciplinary research (from Physics, Mathematics, Computer Science, etc.) in joint ventures with companies. These last years have been used to restructure the tissue of French BME organisations. The French BME Society (SFGBM with L POURCELOT as first President) was launched in 1999. The Alliance for BME (AGBM), headed by F LANGEVIN, was reactivated: it merged with the SFGBM, the federation of Companies and Technology Transfer Centres, the French Clinical Engineering Society and many others. The leading role of the Ministry of Research and Technology has allowed to figure out a new national label for research units (ERIT-M) especially suited to BME and the new General Director of INSERM, C BRECHOT, decided on the creation of a new INSERM scientific commission, STAM (Science for Technologies Applied to Medicine). The emphasis on multidisciplinary fields in the CNRS (now directed by G BERGER) leads to a strong hope in the future of BME in France at, but not only, the frontiers of Information Technology Society and Health. The 6th European Programme, with its new instruments, the Networks of Excellence and the Integrated Projects, must be a new and significant step for our field, even if the BME space is not identified as such. NATIONAL SOCIETIES French Society for Biomedical Engineering (Socit Franaise de Gnie Biologique et Mdical SFGBM)
Alliance for Biomedical Engineering (Alliance de Gnie Biologique et Mdical AGBM)
ORGANISATIONS IN COGNATE AREAS
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AIM Club Franais des Capteurs Biochimiques Collge des Enseignants en Radiologie Franais Socit Franaise pour lApplication des Ultrasons la Mdecine Socit des Electriciens et Electronicien, Socit Franaise de Biochromatographie Socit Franaise de Biologie Thorique Socit Franaise de Biomatriaux Socit Franaise de Biomcanique Socit Franaise de Biophysique Socit Franaise du Handicap Socit Franaise des LASERS Mdicaux Socit Franaise des Physiciens dHpitaux Socit Franaise de Radiologie Socit Francaise de Radiotherapie Oncologique Socit Franaise des Thermiciens Socit dInformatique Mdicale EDUCATION, TRAINING
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Since 2002, we have a set of research teams which offer a training period for post-thesis with Edufrance cf. http://www.edufrance.fr/fr/catalogue/n_result_av.asp In France, the teaching of Biomedical Engineering is spread out to a large number of institutions (over 120). There are University degree courses in medical or biomedical engineering at both the undergraduate and the postgraduate level. A specificity of the French system is the diapatching of the teaching between universities and engineering schools. Most of teaching courses include a training period in a University, Public Research, Industrial or Clinical environment ranging from 3 months to 3 years. Bac+2 DEUST Technico-commercial en appareillage et matriel mdical DEUST Technico-coommercial dans le domaine biomdical TS en Ingnierie Biomdicale Hospitalire (SPIBH) TS des Matriel de Sant des Armes Bac+3 DESTU Maintenance Biomdicale DNTS en Gnie Biomdical DNTS en Instrumentation et Maintenances Biomdicales DNTS en Instrumentation et Maintenances Biomdicales Bac+4 lngM en Ingnierie de la Sant (qualit des produits de biotransformation) IngM en Ingnierie, de la Sant IngM en Ingnirie de la Sant (option Technologie de la Sant) IngM en Ingnierie de la Sant (option Nutriton et Dittique) IngM en Ingnierie de la Sant (option Gnie Biologique et Mdical) IngM en Ingnierie de la Sant (option Gestion sant et recherche clinique) MSBM en Gnie Biomdical MST de Gnie Biomdical MST de Gnie physiologique MST de Tlsurveillance Mdicale Bac + 5 Ding en Bioinformatique et ModILqaw INSA Lyon IUP Angers IUP Lille 2 IUP Montpellier 1 IUP IUP Nancy Nancy IM2B Bordeaux IUT Lorient Lyce Jacquard Paris ENCPB Paris Univ. Grenoble 1 Univ. Dijon UTC Compigne Orlans
IUP paris 12 Univ. Paris 5 Univ. Lyon 1 Univ. Poitiers Univ. Paris 5
IngM en Ingnierie de la Sant (opt. Technologie et Mthodologie Mdicales lUp Toulouse
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Ding de Ecole Centrale de Paris (option Bio-ingnierie) Ding en Gnie Biologique (Filire Biomatriaux et Biomcanique) Ding en Gnie Biologique (Filire BkffnMical) Ding en Gnie Biomdical Ding en Gnie physique et instrumentation (Imag. Instru. Mdicale) Ding en Informatique industrielle et instrumentation Ding en Physique (option application biologiques et mdicales) Ding en Technologie de rinformation pour la sant Ding en Tlcommunications (traitement de signal et d'images mdicaux) DESS Biologie et technique de commercialisation
ECP Chatenay-Malabry UTC Compigne Urc Compigne ESIL Marseille ISTASE Saint Etienne ISTG Grenoble ENSP Strasbourg ISTG Grenoble ENSTB Brest UFR Biologie Grenoble
DESS Dveloppement pharmaceutique et fabrication industrielle des produits de sarde et Gestion de projet en situation de dveloppement Univ. Bordeaux 2 DESS Dispositifs Mdicaux et Mdicaments Associs DESS Gnie Biomdical DESS Gnie Biomdical DESS Ingnierie de rlmage DESS Matriaux pour le vivant - Biomatriaux DESS Qualit Evaluation en Sant DESS Radmprotechori-RadepaioIogie DESS Relations industrie-sant; gestion et optimisation des flux dlnterfaoe Univ. Grenoble Univ. Lyon 1 Univ. Nice Univ- Bordeaux 3 Univ Bordeaux 1&2 UTC Compigne UFR Mdecine Grenoble Univ. Angers UTC,ENSP Rennes DESS Technologies Biomdicales Hospitalires DESS Technologie et Logistique en Biologie et Mdecine DESS Traitement de l'information Mdicale et Hospitalire DEA Bioingnierie - biomatriaux DEA Biologie, ostoarticulaire, biomcanique, biomatriaux DEA Biornathmatique DEA Biomcanique: Mcanique des Systmes Biologiques DEA Epidmiologie clinique et valuation des actions de sant DEA Epidmiologie et intervention en sant publique DEA Gnie Biologique et Mdical DEA Gnie Biologique et Mdical UTC Compigne USTL Lille 1 Univ. Rennes Univ. Metz Univ. Lyon 1 Univ. Paris 6&7 Univ. Paris 12 Univ. Strasbourg Univ. Bordeaux Univ. Parisl2&13 UFR Mdecine Grenoble Nancy
DESS Qualit Evaluation Organisation et Performance dans les Etablissements de Sant
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DEA Gnie Biologique et Mdical spcialit Biomatriaux DEA Gnie Biomdical DEA Gnie Biomdical (option interface physique, biologie et rhologie) DEA Image et Systmes DEA Imagerie Mdicale DEA Informatique Mdicale DEA Informatique, Productique Imagerie mdicale DEA Ingnierie Biologique DEA Ingnierie Mdicale et Biologique DEA Instrumentation et Informatique de j'Image DEA Interface Physique Biologie DEA Mcanique et Ingnierie (Option biomcanique) DEA Mthodes d'analyse des systmes de Sant DEA Mthodes de Recherches sur lEnvironnement et la Sant DEA Modles et Instruments en Mdecine et Biologie DEA Performance Motrice et Activit Sportive DEA Physiologie et Biomcanique de ta Performance Motrice DEA Robotique, Image, Vision DEA Radiobiologie DEA Rayonnements et Imagerie en Mdecine DEA Sant Publique DEA Signaux et Images en Biologie et Mdecine DEA Signal, Image Parole DEA Systme de soins hospitaliers Mastre Equipements Biomdicaux Mastre Gestion des Risques lHpital Mastre en ingnirie biomdicale Bac + 7 Doctorat - Ecole doctorale Sectew Sciences et Sant Doctorat - Ecole Doctorale en Sciences pouir lingnieur Doctorat - Ecoie doctorale Ingnierie pour le vivant: sant. Doctorat - Ecole doctorale Image et Modlisation des Objets Naturels Doctorat
Univ. Paris13 UTC/Univ. Amiens Univ Reims INS Lyon Univ. Paris 11 Univ. Rennes Univ. Clemiont-Ferrand Univ. Nancy Univ. Lyon Univ. Besanon et Dijon Univ. Paris 11 Univ Strasbourg Univ. Lyon UFR Pharmacie Grenoble UFR Mdecine Grenoble UFR STAPS Univ. Paris 5 Univ, WF Grenoble Univ. Paris 11 Univ. Toulouse Univ. Paris 1 Paris Univ. Tours INPG Grenoble Univ. Lille et Paris UTC&ENSP Rennes ECP Lille Chanenay-Malabry Grenoble
Univ. Amiens UTC Compigne, Univ. Grenoble Univ. Bourgogne Besanon Univ. Lyon
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Doctorat
Univ. Nancy
DoctoratEcole doctorale, Sciences et Technologies de lInformation des Tlcommunications et des systmes Paris 11 Doctorat Doctorat Doctorat Doctorat Various levels DIU Dispositifs Mdicaux et Produits Biologiques DU Evaluation et Sant DU Evaluation des Technologies Mdicales DU de Formation la Ranimation Mdicale et Chirurgicale DU & Hmodialyse DU de l'Institut de Formation Suprieure Biomdicale DU Valorisation de la recherche Applique et de lInnovation Biomdicale Certificat de Technicien Suprieur la maintenance technique hospitalire Attestation de suivi de sessions de fonnation la maintenance biomdicale Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC+ Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC Attestation de suivi des joumes d1tudes AGBM Attestation de suivi des Joumes dEtudes, AAMB Attestation de suivi des joumes d'Ebxies AFIB Attestation de suivi des joumes dl:bjdes ANHIEB Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC en mdecine nuclaire Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC en tlchirurgie Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC en chirurgie Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC en normalisation Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC Attestation de suivi de stages de FC Univ. Paris & Nantes Univ. Paris 5 & 12 Univ. Paris 5 & 12 Univ. de Picardie Amiens Univ. Amiens Compigne Univ. Paris 11 Villejuif Univ. Nancy Univ. Paris IISFCS Lyon IISFCS Lyon UTC Compigne CHEP Paris LNE Paris AGBM Paris AAMB Paris AFIB Paris ANIHEB Paris ATD Compigne ACOMEN Montpellier EITS Stasbourg Cic Paris AFNOR Paris BIOFORCE Lyon GMED paris Univ Paris Univ. Rennes Univ. Toulouse Univ. Tours
DIU Qualit-Accrditation-Evaluation des tablissements sanitaires et sociaux
Attestation de suivi de sessions de FCAttestation de suivi de sessions de FC ENSP Rennes
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Attestation de suivi de stages de FC Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC Attestation de suivi de stages de FC Attestation de suivi de stages de FC Attestation de suivi de stages de FC Attestation de suivi de stages de FC Attestation de suivi de stages de FC Attestation de suivi de stages de FC
TUV Paris CNEH paris ALS Orlans Agilent Technologies Les Ulis GE Buc Draeger Antony Siemens paris CIMI Blois
Attestation de suivi des confrence d'information de mise jour rglementaireDroit et Pharmacie Paris
Annex ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE DESCRIPTION OF TEACHING FORMATIONS Appr Bac BP DEA DESS DESTU DEU DEUST DIF Ding DIU DU DNTS DRT EAD FC FI FWTH Fond IAE Ingm IUP Enseignement par l'Apprentissage Baccalaurat Brevet professionnel Diplme d'tudes Approfondies Diplme d'tudes Suprieures Spcialises Diplme d'tudes Suprieures Technologiques Universitaires Diplme dtudes Universitaires Gnerales Diplme d'tudes Universitaires Spcialiss Technologiques Diplme d'ingnieur par la Formation Continue Diplme d'ingnieur Diplme Inter Universit Diplme d'Universit Diplme National de Technologie Spcialise Diplme de Recherche Technologique Enseignement distance Formation Continue Formation Initiale Formation Internationale la MaintenanceTechnique Hospitalire Enseignement Fondamental Institut de l'Administration des Entreprises Diplme d'ingnieur Matre Institut Universitaire Professionnalise
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IUP Is MSBM MST Opt Pres Prof TC TP TS UFR Univ VAP
Institut Universitaire Professionnalis en Ingnierie de la Sant Matrise de Sciences Biologiques et Mdicales Matrise de Science et Technique Option Enseignement "Prsentiel" (dans les locaux des organismes de formation) Enseignement Professionnel Temps Complet Temps Partiel Technicien Suprieur Unit de Formation et de Recherche Universit Validation des Acquis professionnels
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Biomedical Engineering in Germany

Background situation
Health services, with an annual turnover of around 300 billion , represent one of the largest sectors in the German national economy. More than four million workers are directly or indirectly employed in health services. There are more than 500 000 beds in German hospitals. The use of medical technology is possible only with constant supervision by engineers trained in biomedical engineering. They bear responsibility in hospitals for procuring, maintaining and setting up the equipment and in many cases assist the doctors in using the devices on the patient. Many hospitals therefore have their own technical departments for purchasing, supervising, and helping physicians in using the medical devices. Medical devices are important not only for the health system, but also for Germany's industrial development. The market for medical products and systems is a growth area at the global level: in the industrialised nations it is growing annually at a rate of five to seven percent. The world-wide turnover in 1998 amounted to about 160 billion (roughly 71 billion in the USA, about 46 billion in Western Europe and 20 billion in developing countries).
The medical device industry

The development of highly advanced medical devices demands a complex form of know-how. In terms of world-wide comparisons, Germany is playing an outstanding role. The German medical device industry is headed by the major corporations Siemens, Philips and Fresenius. To these can be added seventeen further companies, each with an annual turnover in excess of thirty-five million and more than 500 small and medium-sized companies with more than 20 employees (Figure 1). The medical device industry, with approximately 100.000 employees in the sectors of electrical/electronic products, precision engineering and optical products, achieves an annual turnover of 10 billion . Medical technology and electrical medical products amount to around one third (32 %) of this turnover. And in other related fields of medical products, diagnostics, dental products, visual optics, opF:\3 Dgbmt\8 ffentlichkeitsarbeit\Fachbeitrge\eMedTechBRD_180202.doc - Erstelldatum 18.02.02 07:24
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tical products, lasers and laboratory technology, growing proportions of biomedical technology are incorporated too, although this has not until now been reflected separately in the statistics. With an export ratio approaching 60 %, the German industry is also well represented in the global growth markets. MEDICAL PRODUCT MARKET in Germany Market segment
Medical technology Electrical medical products Medical products Diagnostics Dental products Visual optics Optical products, lasers, laboratory technology Other Proportion 20 % 12 % 21 % 13 % 12 % 9% 8% 5%
Source: Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung
As a rule, more than 50 percent of the turnover of a manufacturer of medical equipment is provided by products which are less than two years old. The manufacturers invest roughly 10 percent of their turnover in research and development. In view of this high level of commitment, this highly innovative sector offers good opportunities for engineers. In addition, new and extended areas of activity are presenting themselves. The application of information technology and communications technology is subject to special requirements in proximity to patients, and it is frequently necessary for appropriately trained engineers to be employed in order to ensure these requirements are complied with. Even biotechnology, one of today's popular buzzwords, does not function without close synergy with areas of technology such as information technology and microsystems technology.
11,7 %
1,6 %
0,6 %
21,3 %
Number of employees 20-49 50-99 100-499 500-999 64,7 % >1000
Fig 1: Medical product manufacturers by number of employees. Source: Statistisches Bundesamt 1996.
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Research in Germany
The research landscape of Germany is characterised by a wide variety of active participants (research institutes and organisations which promote research) and various supporters of health research, in addition to the companies in the medical device industry itself. Research bodies are additionally able to take advantage of many different promotional (funding) arrangements. Among the most important institutions on the financial side can be counted several Federal Government authorities:

Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung, BMBF - www.bmbf.de Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Technologie, BMWi - www.bmwi.de Bundesministerium fr Gesundheit, BMG - www.bmg.de the individual states Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG - www.dfg.de commerce in general numerous charitable foundations
On the practical level, implementing research and development, there are the

Technical Universities and Universities of Applied Sciences Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, MPG - www.mpg.de Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, FhG - www.fhg.de Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft deutscher Forschungseinrichtungen, HGF www.helmholtz.de Wissenschaftsgemeinschaft Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, WGL - www.wgl.de
Institutional Research in Germany

Institutes of the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Institutes of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft Centres of the Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Institutions of the Wissenschaftsgemeinschaft Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University/polytechnic clinics 1 Technical universities 1 Universities of Applied Sciences (Polytechnics) 14 4 11 13 36 19 19
Source: Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung
In their promotion of research and development, the Federal Government and the individual states occupy themselves principally with institutional promotion
Universities/polytechnics with courses or study facilities in Biomedical Engineering
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and support of specific projects. The DFG uses a wide range of approaches, but concentrates in particular on the promotion of specific projects. An increasingly important role in providing financial support for health research is also being played by the European Union with its Framework Programmes for research.
Training in Universities
Broad-based dedicated courses in biomedical engineering at Universities of Applied Sciences Broad-based dedicated courses in biomedical engineering represent a selfcontained course of studies or alternatively a branch of studies with a concluding examination (for the award of a diploma) in (bio)medical engineering, such as already exists at some polytechnics. Depending on the polytechnic chosen, the basic course of studies lasts between two and four semesters. The course is orientated towards natural sciences and technology and is usually suitable for coupling with numerous associated areas of study. The core studies including the thesis work in preparation for the issue of a diploma focus entirely on the topic of biomedical engineering. Under normal circumstances, the course lasts four years. Studies at (Technical) Universities Dedicated courses at a University or Technical University The course's structure is comparable with that which applies to courses at a university of applied sciences which offers a broad-based range of courses. In comparison with courses at a university of applied sciences, the duration of the period of studies is extended and the content of the studies is technically more directed towards activities in the area of research and development. Under normal circumstances, the course at a university lasts five years. Special dedicated courses as part of a classical course of studies In such cases, biomedical engineering is preferably to be regarded as a single, specially selected application area within the classical education of an engineer (with a main focus on electrical engineering, mechanical engineering/precision engineering, informatics, physical technology or similar areas). Speciallyprepared teaching sessions dedicated to biomedical engineering amount to a less significant proportion of the total studies than would be the case for a dedicated degree course in biomedical engineering. Selected special topics from the area of biomedical engineering are included within the scope of the broaderbased studies.
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Fig. 2: Universities offering courses for biomedical engineering in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland: I (Technical) Universities, L Universities of Applied Sciences.
Postgraduate Studies in Biomedical Engineering A stand-alone basic course of studies in biomedical engineering for engineers from other disciplines, scientists from other technical areas and medical specialists, aimed at providing an additional diploma, a supplementary master qualification or a certificate, is increasingly frequently offered. Many universities offer those who have successfully concluded their studies with a diploma in other areas of study the opportunity to make a tangential entry into the study of biomedical engineering. Subject to special decisions in individual cases, and depending upon their examination regulations, the universities are willing to recognise parts of the examinations from the previous studies. Students may enrol for the types of courses and individual study elements described above at 19 polytechnics in Germany, as well as at a similar number of universities. The current situation is presented in the Internet under the address www.vde.com/dgbmt.
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Associations and Technical Societies

The realm of associations in Germany consists of specialist technical and scientific societies, organisations operating on behalf of occupational interest groups and associations representing member companies. Organisations representing occupational interest groups are not reflected in the following list. In view of the large number of associations and societies, it is only possible to list the most important ones in this document. Medical Device Industry Associations BVMed - Bundesfachverband Medizintechnologie (www.bvmed.de) The Bundesfachverband Medizintechnologie is a national association for the medical products industry.
F+O - Verband der deutschen feinmechanischen und optischen Industrie (www.feinoptik.de) The Technical Association "Medical Technology" in the F+O is the group with the largest turnover, and the largest number of member companies, in Germany. ZMT - Zentralvereinigung Medizinisch-Technischer Fachhndler, Hersteller, Dienstleister und Berater (www.zmt.de) ZMT is a relatively new national association for the medical products industry. The association represents distributors, manufacturers, consultants and service companies within the medical products sector. ZVEI - Zentralverband der Elektrotechnischen Industrie (www.zvei.org) The medical technical branch of ZVEI represents more than 125 companies.
Specialist Technical and Scientific Associations and Societies AWMF - Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften (www.awmf-online.de) The AWMF incorporates more than 100 specialist scientific associations from all areas of medicine. The AWMF represents Germany in the Council for International Organisations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS).
DGMP - Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Medizinische Physik (www.dgmp.de) The DGMP promotes science in the area of medical physics, including medical technology. DGBMT - Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Biomedizinische Technik im VDE (www.vde.com/dgbmt) The DGBMT promotes co-operation between natural scientists, engineers and doctors in research, development, application and education.
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FBMT - Fachvereinigung Biomedizinische Technik (www.fbmt.de) The FBMT represents the technical interests of clinical engineers in hospitals. FKT Fachvereinigung Krankenhaustechnik (www.fkt.de) The FKT seeks to achieve the closest possible co-operation between the senior technical personnel of all hospitals in the Federal Republic of Germany, with the goals of encouraging a practical exchange of experience and of promoting technical training and further training GMDS - Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Medizinische Informatik, Biometrie und Epidemiologie (www.gmds.de) The GMDS pursues the goal of promoting medical informatics, including medical documentation, medical biometrics and epidemiology in theory and application, in research and education.
Further information about Biomedical Engineering in Germany is available from: DGBMT Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Biomedizinische Technik im VDE Stresemannallee 15 D-60596 Frankfurt am Main Germany Tel. (Int+49)69 6308 208/348 Fax: (Int+49)69 96 31 52 17 http://www.vde.com/dgbmt E-Mail:dgbmt@vde.com
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Remarks on Curricula in Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Engineering Olaf Dssel Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Universitt Karlsruhe (TH)
1 Introduction 2 Competencies in Basic Scientific and Engineering Disciplines 3 Competencies in Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics, Medical Informatics - General Remarks 4 Competencies in Anatomy, Physiology, Medicine 5 Competencies in General Economics and in Medical Economics 6 Competencies in Social Aspects and Ethics of Biomedical and Clinical Engineering 7 Personal Soft Skills 8 Theory and Practical Training, Seminars 9 Aspects of Detailed Planning of a Curriculum in Biomedical and Clinical Engineering 10 Conclusions
1 Introduction The author has recognized - like many others - that there is a need for recommendations for curricula in Biomedical and Clinical Engineering. The reason is not to fence in creativity of universities to set their own focus. All kind of recommendations should be as week as possible. But some fixed core structures would have important benefits: - Students could rely on an accepted quality level if they decide to start their studies at a specific institution. - Employers could rely on a specific level of education if they hire a graduate. - Students could carry out their studies at many different institutions in different countries and rely on the acceptance of their credits (Bologna Declaration). - Institutions that are planning to install new programs in Biomedical or Clinical Engineering could learn form others and make sure that their approach is not below standard. These recommendations will not have any legal attitude since in most countries the universities are free to install their own programs on their own responsibility. But if many powerful organizations in the field would join to set up some general recommendations, these recommendations could become some quasi-standard that
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is well known and accepted everywhere. On the long run these recommendations could merge into Criteria for Accreditation. The remarks presented here are preliminary ideas of the author and not official recommendations yet. They are based on many discussions with experts in the field from university, hospitals and industry, a questionnaire that was carried out by the German Association of Biomedical Engineering, the results of the Biomedical Engineering Education Summit held by the Whittaker Foundation in 2000 in Washington and a workshop with delegates from all other German associations in the field of Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics and Medical Informatics. 2 Competencies in Basic Scientific and Engineering Disciplines For all programs, whether they lead to a special degree in Biomedical Engineering or they are just a major or field of specialization in Biomedical Engineering, a significant part of basic knowledge in the traditional scientific and engineering disciplines is strongly recommended. Especially employers from industry demand for these broad basic competencies giving reference to fast changing technical environments, flexibility on the job, lifelong learning, cooperating in multidisciplinary teams and so on. This holds true not only for Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Engineering but also for Medical Physics and Medical Informatics. All have their main emphasis in slightly different areas with large overlap. In particular the following disciplines are mentioned that should be covered by every graduate (of course in different depth depending on the specific degree the student is aiming at): Mathematics: Linear Algebra, Analysis, Statistics and Stochastics, Integral Transforms, Differential Equations, Optimisation, Numerical Mathematics Physics: Mechanics, Thermodynamics, Electrodynamics, Optics, Quantum Physics, Atoms and Molecules, Solid State Physics, Nuclear Physics, Statistical Physics Mechanical Engineering: Technical Mechanics, Technical Design, Technology and Materials, Mechatronics, Microsystems, Computer Assisted Design Electrical Engineering and Information Technology: Analogue Circuits, Digital Circuits, Controller Circuits, RF-Electronics, Measuring Techniques, Microcontroller, Bus-Systems, Communications Engineering Informatics: Data Structures, Coding, Algorithms, Programming Languages, Operating Systems, Architecture of Information Systems In recent years more and more a good basic knowledge in Cell-Biology and Biochemistry is asked for (see also chapter 4 and 9). In all these disciplines of course special emphasis must be put on the ability to apply the knowledge, to solve problems and to combine the knowledge in a creative way.
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In the questionnaire mentioned above the amount of these basic disciplines in the first two years of studies was given quite consistently with 70%. Only 30% of the time should be spent in courses on Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics or Medical Informatics. During the period of advanced studies the percentage is reversed: 70% Biomedical Engineering but still 30% basic disciplines.
3 Competencies in Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics, Medical Informatics - General Remarks In 2000 the author took the initiative to set up a catalogue of keywords of knowledge in the field of Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics and Medical Informatics. The Biomedical Engineering Handbook (Editor Joseph D. Bronzino, CRC Press, IEEE Press) was the guideline. Contributions from many experts in special fields where collected and edited. The result can be found in the web: http://www.vde.com/de/fg/dgbmt/studiumberuf/gegenstandskatalog/. Figure 1 shows an overview:
Figure 1: Major topics of the four disciplines Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics and Medical Informatics showing the focus and the large overlap
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A large overlap between the four disciplines can be observed, but some topics can be found in just one discipline: Biomedical Engineering: Biomaterials, Biomechanics Clinical Engineering: Hygienics, Quality Assurance, Safety Medical Informatics: Communication and Information Systems Medical Physics: Radiation Therapy Planning, Ionising Radiation Protection In the questionnaire mentioned above the four most important topics of the disciplines where asked with the following result: Biomedical Engineering: Electro Medicine and Monitoring, Medical Imaging, Biomaterials, Biomechanics Clinical Engineering: Hygienics, Laboratory and Analysis Techniques, Quality and Safety, Electro Medicine and Monitoring Medical Informatics: Digital Image Processing and Computer Graphics, Communication and Information Systems, Medical Statistics, Biosignal Processing Medical Physics: Radiation Protection, Dosimetry and Radiotherapy Planning, Medical Imaging, Modelling and Simulation Based on this we conclude, that - at least in Germany - there is a clear distinction between the four disciplines and every student and employer has got a picture of the knowledge and competencies of this discipline in mind. Therefore we recommend, that an education program first should clearly state which of the four disciplines it is aiming at: Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics or Medical Informatics. Further on we recommend, that some of the above listed four topics of the discipline should be compulsory in the program. (Of course not the title of the course is mandatory but the content must be covered in some way.) During the production of the catalogue the lecture hours have been listed that a lecturer should plan for a transfer of an in-depth knowledge in this topic. A total number of about 700 lecture hours was the result. This demonstrates clearly, that no student (and perhaps not even a person with 40 years experience in this field) can gain a perfect knowledge in all of the listed topics. The most important task of setting up a curriculum in any of these disciplines is obviously to choose the right mixture of basic knowledge in many of these topics and in-depth knowledge in a small selection of topics. Chapter 9 is devoted to this.
4 Competencies in Anatomy, Physiology, Medicine, Cell Biology For Biomedical Engineering (and at least also for Clinical Engineering) nearly every expert who was asked stated, that a relatively broad knowledge in anatomy, physiology and medical terminology is a must. The engineer has to communicate effectively with physicians nearly every day. It is the engineer who has to adapt to the language of the medical doctor - not the other way around. For the engineer the patient must not be "a strange machine" but a biological system with special rules and needs. The engineer can never become a medical doctor this way - much too much medical knowledge is missing. Employers from industry explicitly do not ask for
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a 50% engineer / 50% physician. They want to hire the 100% engineer that is able to work together with physicians in a cooperative and creative way. A complete course covering the aspects of anatomy, physiology and medical terminology closing with an examination is strongly recommended. It is an open question whether the compulsory basic knowledge in cell biology can be integrated into the course of physiology. If the graduate is put into a multidisciplinary team working on topics like biocompatibility, cell breeding or molecular imaging this would be clearly too little.
5 Competencies in General Economics and Medical Economics One basic course in general economics is already mandatory in many programs at Universities, Universities of Applied Science, and Polytechnic Schools. This is a decision of the faculty of every institution and not covered by these comments. Medical Economics mainly has two different aspects: who pays for the medical service (financing of hospitals, insurance companies, reimbursement etc) and what is the impact of an innovation on the costs of healthcare. Both topics are rated very important by the author, but in the questionnaire about 70% of the experts did not demand for special knowledge of the engineer in this field. Obviously in hospitals and in industries there are other experts who take economic aspects into account. Again the engineer, who lacks some basic engineering competences for the benefit of economical knowledge, is not asked for. But every engineer must have a significant amount of awareness for the economical impact of what he or she is doing. No special course in medical economics is recommended but regular hints on economic boundary conditions and constraints as part of the regular lectures.
6 Competencies in Social Aspects and Ethics of Biomedical and Clinical Engineering Social aspects of engineering are part of every curriculum at some institutions. This paper does not discuss this topic. Ethics of Biomedical Engineering do have some special aspects, and the author is in favour of at least touching these aspects in some way even though the questionnaire gave a clear statement against the inclusion of this topic into a curriculum. Experiments with patients, definition of death, donation of an organ, prolongation of life for any price, medically assisted suicide, genetic diagnostics, genetic therapies, medical techniques for the poor and for the rich, medical techniques for lessdeveloped countries: there are so many open questions that everybody working in the field should be aware of. This is may be not a topic for a lecture but I would encourage everybody to include regular discussions on these topics into the program (e.g. one afternoon per semester).
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7 Personal Soft Skills There are many "soft skills" that should be part of any program: ability for teamwork, effective communication, open for interdisciplinary work and work in multicultural teams, leadership, positive attitude for lifelong learning, sense of responsibility for social affairs etc. A program is perfect, if all these topics are (maybe even invisibly) woven into the regular lectures. 8 Theory and Practical Training, Seminars Any program must be a good mixture of theoretical and practical training. Similar rules as defined by accreditation boards for engineering education are applicable. Often the first part of the studies contains only 10% laboratories in which the student is led tightly through the experiments. In the second part advanced laboratories follow with complex tasks that need a long time of preparation. In this part of the studies in addition "projects" are recommended, where small groups of students work together (teamwork) to solve a complex task with fixed output and boundary conditions but with open ways to reach the target. Advanced laboratories and projects should sum up to about 30% of the time. In the final phase of the studies a large practical work like the bachelor or master thesis is recommended with about 80% of the time spent on independent practical work. Seminars with presentations on selected topics of Biomedical or Clinical Engineering round off the building blocks of the curriculum. The presentations should always end with a discussion on open questions and related aspects. Also a feedback both on the way the content was presented and on the personal appearance should be included (see chapter 7). 9 Aspects of Detailed Planning of a Curriculum in Biomedical and Clinical Engineering As pointed out in chapter 1 while setting up a curriculum the most delicate task is to find the right mixture of broad understanding of many topics of Biomedical and Clinical Engineering and a focussed in-depth understanding of a small number of selected topics. It definitely does not make sense to touch all the keywords in the catalogue a little bit without complete understanding. On the other hand it is also not meaningful to go into depth in just one or two topics and leave out all the others completely. I recommend to define e.g. six core competencies of Biomedical Engineering and six core competencies of Clinical Engineering and then demand, that every student has gained in-depth knowledge in at least four out of these (for majors or fields of specialization at least two of six). These core competencies could be: For Biomedical Engineering:
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Electro Medicine and Monitoring, Medical Imaging, Biomaterials, Biomechanics, Biosignal Processing, Cellular and Tissue Engineering For Clinical Engineering: Hygienics, Laboratory and Analysis Techniques, Quality Assurance and Safety, Legal Aspects of Medical Products, Electro Medicine and Monitoring, Radiation Protection In addition the student should pick another four topics out of the courses offered by the institution. These topics should cover important topics of Biomedical Engineering or Clinical Engineering and give an in-depth knowledge. Possible topics could be (in addition to the ones already mentioned above): Biomedical Engieering in Therapy, Minimum-invasive Techniques, Laser in Medicine, Robotics in Medicine, Digital Image Processing and Computer Graphics, Modelling and Simulation, Rehabilitation Engineering, Telemedicine, Information and Communication Systems in Hospitals, Statistical Methods in Medicine. Finally the student can choose e.g. two special lectures that focus on one specific issue of Biomedical Engineering or Clinical Engineering and presents latest results of research or new developments. This is often related to the topic of the thesis. All these keywords mentioned above need a better description since it is not always clear and common understanding what is covered by a keyword. The above mentioned subject catalogue (http://www.vde.com/de/fg/dgbmt/studiumberuf/gegenstandskatalog/) took the job to give a detailed description of every keyword. Of course other ordering principles and other headlines are possible. I recommend not starting a lengthy discussion on details of the catalogue and loosing the objective out of sight. In this way every institution is free to define characteristic topics and on the other hand every student covers a sufficiently broad spectrum of Biomedical Engineering or Clinical Engineering. Also the student has the chance to choose according to his or her personal preferences without becoming a specialist in just one small part of the field. In the questionnaire a large majority answered the question which topic of Biomedical Engineering will gain importance significantly in the following years with Cellular and Tissue Engineering. Based on that it is strongly recommended to offer a course with this topic and the students are encouraged to choose this course.
10 Conclusion The division into four disciplines is meaningful: Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics and Medical Informatics. Every program should state clearly what it is aiming at. Every program must include substantial basic knowledge in Mathematics, Physics, Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, and Informatics. Every program should cover at least four of these six topics: For Biomedical Engineering:
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Electro Medicine and Monitoring, Medical Imaging, Biomaterials, Biomechanics, Biosignal Processing, Cellular and Tissue Engineering For Clinical Engineering: Hygienics, Laboratory and Analysis Techniques, Quality Assurance and Safety, Legal Aspects of Medical Products, Electro Medicine and Monitoring, Radiation Protection In addition every student should choose four of these courses: Biomedical Engineering in Therapy, Minimum-invasive Techniques, Laser in Medicine, Robotics in Medicine, Digital Image Processing and Computer Graphics, Modelling and Simulation, Rehabilitation Engineering, Telemedicine, Information and Communication Systems in Hospitals, Statistical Methods in Medicine plus the courses mentioned above. For a major or a field of specialization only two plus two courses have to be selected. Every program must include in-depth courses on Anatomy, Physiology, Medical Terminology. Cell Biology should play an important role in these lectures. Regular discussion groups on ethical aspects of Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Engineering are recommended. Aspects of medical economics should be added to the above mentioned courses of Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Engineering.
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Biomedical Engineering in Greece

Nicolas Pallikarakis Dept. of Medical Physics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Greece. email: nipa@bme.med.upatras.gr 1. Introduction The Biomedical Engineering sector in Greece is rather controversial. On one hand medical devices production is restricted to a few tens of device types, resulting in a market based almost entirely on imported products, on the other, the fact that there is a very active scientific community and the co-existence of faculties of Science, Engineering and Medicine in four Greek universities, has already given evidence of good potential for the promotion of R&D and educational activities in the field. The radical change in the National Health System (NHS) in the 80s, which resulted in a growth of the public sector with large investments equally distributed between new buildings and equipment, has been followed by a policy, at the end of the last decade, that indirectly promoted the development of the private sector. The latter, by placing its emphasis on profit making, initially invested largely in high tech biomedical diagnostic equipment, but more recently is also growing quite rapidly in hospital based health care delivery. Given the lack of medical device industry in Greece, it is not surprising that standardisation and regulatory initiatives in the sector (with the exception of radiation protection regulations), as well as participation and active involvement in international standardisation activities, have been limited. Following the introduction of the EU directives on medical devices, however, Greece has implemented them and through its national standardisation body, ELOT, is now following the developments and the activities in CEN related to medical device sector.
2. The existing infrastructure As already mentioned, the National Health System, which was introduced in 1982, placed an emphasis on the development of the public sector and the decentralisation of health services. As a result, in 1987, Greece had 140 public hospitals with 35.500 beds and 267 private clinics with 15.900 beds. The public sector supplied 70% of the available beds by the end of the 80s compared to about 45% in the 70s. Today there are 132 state hospitals with 41700 beds representing 73% of the total available capacity. During the same period, the public health investment in Greece has grown constantly. Biomedical technology has also been absorbing care investments at a constantly increasing rate. The biggest part of this has been directed to the so-called big-ticket technology resulting for example in a rise in the number of CT scanners from 26 or 1/375 000 inhabitants in 1986, to more than 150 or 1/65 000 inhabitants in 1999. The same scenario seems to be repeated today with MRIs. According to a recent inventory made by the Institute of Biomedical Technology (INBIT) on behalf of the Ministry of Health for addressing the Y2K problem, the 128 Greek public hospitals employ less than 100 000 pieces of medical equipment in total, with an estimated average age of more than 8 years. As mentioned previously, there are very few manufactures of medical devices in Greece. The most important, addressing the European market, produce dialysis units,
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dentistry equipment, infusion pumps, laser systems and syringes. Some large international enterprises have established subsidiaries, which mainly assemble equipment for the east Mediterranean market. Smaller producers of wheelchairs, patient beds, custom-made devices, etc. primarily address local market needs. Finally, recent R&D projects in universities have also resulted in prototype equipment that has attracted the interest of manufacturers and some are on the way for marketing. Computerised equipment management systems made their appearance in Greek hospitals in the late 1980s and a number of university and hospital departments have attempted to produce their own versions. In 1988, the Greek Ministry of Health financed the development of such a system [4] with the aim of installing it in 15 major Greek hospitals within the framework of a MIP project, involving the systematic application of informatics in health care in Greece. Since 1992, a STRIDE project has been working towards creating a network of laboratories in the field of biomedical technology, thus integrating efforts at a national level and establishing an infrastructure for communication and information exchange. On a larger scale, at the European level, the BEAM project and the EUROMEDIES concerted action, co-ordinated by INBIT, have developed integrated management and telematics tools supporting clinical engineering departments to meet the challenges of their increasingly demanding field. As a result, today about 30% of the big hospitals have implemented MEMS (Medical Equipment Management Systems) and all the public hospitals have an electronic inventory system for medical equipment.
3. The human and organisational resources of the biomedical technology sector The development of biomedical engineering in Greece is closely related to that of medical physics. The latter made its appearance in specialised Greek hospitals in the late 1950s and grew steadily in the following years. It was therefore already well established to form the basis for the development of biomedical engineering in the mid-1970s. So far, there are close ties between the two fields and much of the research and teaching in bioengineering takes place in the university medical physics departments. The first electronics technicians in state hospitals made their appearance at the beginning of the 1960s. Their primary responsibility was to maintain and repair medical devices and they were employed by the plant engineering and central supply department. Although it became clear, early in the 1970s, that high technology health care required more specific equipment support, public authorities remained inactive and with the exception of a few big hospitals (mainly involved in cancer treatment), clinical engineering departments were not developed. Thus, corrective maintenance of equipment as well as training of users was mainly left to the manufacturers and their dealers. Up to 1982, the number of electronics technicians working in public hospitals was less than 100, most of them trained on the job. On the other hand, preventive maintenance and quality control was not usual and acceptance and safety tests rather non-existent (with the exception of ionising radiation equipment). It should also be mentioned that decisions concerning the purchase of new equipment were and, to a large extent still remain, under the control of medical specialists. Today, about one-third of the hospitals have a kind of in-house-service but only some of them have well-organised biomedical technology departments with experienced technical staff. The majority of hospitals are obliged to rely on the private sector, which in many cases is very inconvenient and leads to higher cost and longer breakdown time. At present, there are about 300 medical physicists working in Greece, compared to less than 200 biomedical engineers holding a university degree. As far as biomedical equipment
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technologists are concerned, the number working in Greek hospitals has increased to about 100, according to their association. The private sector, dealing with medical devices, employs another approximately 500 specialised BMETs mainly responsible for maintenance tasks. A public enterprise for the construction of state hospitals (DEPANOM) was established in 1984 to plan and supervise hospital construction projects with activities focused on the constructional aspects rather than the sector of biomedical equipment. Its first task was the supervision of a turn-key project concerning the construction of 3 university hospitals with 700 beds each. This multi-million EURO project was successfully completed about 4 years later and all installed equipment was tested for acceptance prior to commissioning. This pilot project proved successful and the valuable experience that was gained has since been used in the construction of more than 15 new hospitals over the last 15 years. In 1990, the Greek Ministry of Health created a Biomedical Technology Division, mainly dealing with the planning and allocation of budget for equipment acquisition at a national level. Additionally, it handles strategic issues in equipment maintenance for rural health centres and small hospitals, lacking their own support services. As the first EC directives became operative in January 1993, this division also assumed the role of the Competent Authority in March 1993. In 1999 the responsibility for the implementation of the directives and the supervision of the market has been passed to the Hellenic Drug Organisation (EOF) which became the Greek CA (Competent Authority). Another initiative was the establishment of the Institute of Biomedical Technology (INBIT), a non-profit organisation focusing on the overall support services for the management of biomedical equipment. The Institute provides a number of consulting services relating to EC legislative activities, testing, maintenance and vigilance of medical equipment as well as quality management in the health care sector, all in connection with the use of biomedical equipment. It is also engaged in training activities relating to the above-mentioned areas, as well as research and development of S/W tools, educational materials, test objects and safety testers as well as telematic support services for clinical engineering departments.
4. The Hellenic BME society The Hellenic Biomedical Engineering Society - ELEBIT - was formed in 1976, mainly by medical physicists and the very few biomedical engineers existing at that time. One of its first tasks was to introduce this new discipline by organising workshops and meetings dealing with different areas of application. Members of the society started to participate in international conferences on a regular basis and in 1989 ELEBIT organised, quite successfully, the Mediterranean Conference on BME, MEDICON 89. The society has also been involved in a number of projects in collaboration with the universities and supported young BMEs in their education and training. Although it has not succeeded to create the conditions for the society to become an official advisor of the ministries in the BME sector, its role in promoting the field was quite successful. Today the society has about 100 individual members and about the same number of student members, is a member society of IFMBE and there is also an active involvement of its members in IEEE/EMBS. ELEBIT is supporting the European Symposium on BME organised every 2 years since 1998 at the University of Patras in Greece and will pursue the organisation of MEDICON 2007.
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5. Education on biomedical technology in Greece In 1986, the Technological Educational Institute of Athens established a 3-year course for biomedical equipment technicians. After 6 months of practical training in hospitals or industry, students receive a recognised degree, that under the Bologna Declaration shall be equivalent to a BSc degree. More than 600 BMETs have graduated from this programme so far and most of them are working in the private sector. There are about 30 of these graduates that continued their studies, mainly in the UK, and obtained a Masters degree. For the last 12 years, the European Union has supported an initiative for the development of two multinational post graduate programmes, one in Biomedical Engineering and another in Medical Physics, initially within the ERASMUS and subsequently within the TEMPUS programme. The courses draw expertise from a large multinational academic community. The BME programme with 30 teachers originating from 25 collaborating European universities, addressing a multinational audience from more than 10 European countries, has succeeded to instruct over 300 students up to now. The primary objectives of the programme as defined during the annual meeting of the Faculty are to build a programme offering: a high degree of specialisation in Biomedical Engineering (BME). a dynamic, continuously updated syllabus, that stays in pace with the most recent developments in the fields addressed by its topics. a background setting that will act catalytically in the process of integration of multinational student groups.
The programme implemented the TEMPERE [3] recommendations to a large extent and comprises 3 main parts illustrated in the following table. CURRICULUM OUTLINE Part 1 Subject Matter Basic Knowledge & Skills Basic Medical & Physical Sciences in Medicine Transferable Skills Research Methods Conversion Courses (0-2 taken from): Fundamentals of Electronics Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing Basic Biomedical Engineering Topics Biomedical Instrumentation and Signal Processing Biomedical Imaging and Image Processing Biomechanics and Biomedical Materials Clinical Engineering. Health Care Telematics Modelling and Simulation. Rehabilitation Engineering % 25-30%
0-10%
45-50%
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Advanced Biomedical Engineering Topics Biomedical Instrumentation Biomechanics / Biomaterials. Clinical Engineering
20-30%
The first part of the course is providing the basic background required to understand the context within which a clinical scientist works and illustrates the applications of the principles of physics and engineering. At the end of this part the student should be able to: communicate with other health professionals necessary for the pursuit of their profession understand normal and abnormal biomedical function identify the contribution of the physical sciences to medicine. In this part of the course additional topics are included aiming to provide knowledge on research methodologies and ethics and develop skills in a broad base of activities that could be used in a future career. Finally two conversion optional courses are available, aiming to bring the students to a common level of understanding of the fundamentals of electronics and digital signal processing. The second part of the syllabus gives broad coverage to some of the core areas of Biomedical Engineering. The syllabuses are designed to provide useful education in their own right but also to act as foundation courses for two advanced biomedical engineering topics. The main objectives of the third part of the course are to extend the information and knowledge obtained by the students from the basic biomedical engineering topics, to improve practical skills and demonstrate clearly how the knowledge and skills can be applied to solve problems in medicine. There are three areas that the students can select: Biomechanics and Biomaterials, Biomedical Instrumentation and Telematics, or Clinical Engineering and Technology Assessment. Experience in research techniques and their application is gained by carrying out an extensive research project on some area of biomedical engineering. The project work should be of at least 800 hours duration. A quality assurance system has been implemented, aiming to create the necessary conditions that permit the maximisation of the potential of this co-operative effort, to assure continuous improvement and to provide the appropriate framework for mutual recognition amongst the participating institutions.
6. References 1. N. Pallikarakis, Medical technology and developments in the field of clinical engineering. Health Review, 1 (1989) 37-40. 2. J. Kyriopoulos, B. Drizi, E. Ktenas, F. Kontogeorgaki and E. Georgoussi, Health investments in Greece, 1970-2000, Health Review, 3 (1992) 47-51. 3. Towards a European Framework for Education and Training in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Z. Kolitsi, editor, IOS Press, 2001.
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Biomedical and Clinical Engineering in Hungary Dr. kos Jobbgy, Technical University of Budapest, Department of Measurement and Instrumentation, Budapest In Hungary biomedical engineering has a long tradition. Georg von Bksy, Nobel laureate, performed pioneering research work in the field of testing human hearing. He started to work in the 1930s as a physicist in the research laboratory of the Hungarian Post. Georg von Hevesy, another Hungarian Nobel laureate, elaborated the method of using radioactive isotopes in tracing physiological processes. About a decade after World War II prosperity started within the Hungarian medical equipment and device industry. The development of the Hungarian health service required investment in the field of medical equipment and instrument production. In the beginning of the 1960s a strong medical instrumentation branch was formed in the Hungarian industry. Only a few firms were involved, MEDICOR being the most powerful one. MEDICOR has had a wide spectrum of both activities (research & development, production, trading, service) and product categories (from simple hand-held instruments to sophisticated X-ray machines). The engineers of these firms gained experiences in the biomedical engineering industry. Many of them are leaders even today in the Hungarian BME industry and trading. Within the Scientific Society of Measurement and Automation (MATE) the Biomedical Engineering Section was founded in 1962. This section had members from all fields related to activities in medical technology. The majority of the members were dealing with the development and production of medical devices. Among the founding members there were also engineers working in universities and research institutes. Between 1965 and 1989 there was a strong co-operation between medical equipment manufacturers and universities as well as other central research institutes. 1989 brought about substantial changes both in the political and in the economical system in Hungary. Multinational companies became owners of prosperous firms and generally imported their products and stopped the development sometimes even the production in Hungary. In the meantime there has been a rapid development in the field of science and technology. Information technology and computer science spread over to many BME devices. A new generation of medical instrumentation has arrived. The new era caused a change even in the name of the society, augmenting it with Informatics (Scientific Society of Measurement, Automation and Informatics). Since 1973 the Hungarian Biomedical Engineering Conference has been held in every third year. MATE was the organiser of the first 9 conferences. The conferences attracted participants from a number of countries. Since 1996 the Hungarian Clinical Engineering Society (MEDING) is a co-organiser thus drawing clinical engineers to these conferences as well. This year (2002) the 12th Biomedical Engineering and the 3rd Clinical Engineering Conference will be held. The Hungarian medical instrumentation industry has had good international relations that helped MATE to join IFMBE more than 25 years ago. In 1973 during the
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IFMBE World Congress in Dresden MATE became full member. This helped our experts to participate in foreign conferences even during the existence of the iron curtain. The Hungarian economy was relatively open even between 1960 and 1989. This helped a member of MATE to become a member of the Executive Committee of IFMBE in 1978 thus acknowledging the Hungarian activities in the field of biomedical engineering. Nndor Richter was elected president of IFMBE in 1985 and in 1988 he became vice-president of IUPESM. From this time on our society has been represented in the leadership of IFMBE. Since 1994 N. Richter has been president of the IFMBE International Governmental Organisations Liaison Committee. So far the Hungarian is the only Central and Eastern European society that has had such a high-ranking officer in the international BME organisations. The Biomedical Engineering Section of MATE tries to involve young experts and students in its activities. Hungary is supposed to become a member of the EU within a few years. This will mean new possibilities but also obligations in participating European BME projects. Our young colleagues will have to take their share in these activities. The changes in the Hungarian political and economical system widened the possibilities for ambitious persons. As a result, many of our members do not have enough time for being active in the society. Together with other societies related to biomedical and clinical engineering we are working on founding an umbrella organisation to assure one voice within Hungary. Our aims are very similar to those that promote the European umbrella organisation. There are no accurate statistics available but we estimate that approximately half of those engineers that have studied biomedical engineering find a job outside this field. On the other hand less than twenty percent of engineers working in firms involved in medical instrument development and production are biomedical engineers. Hospitals should have many more clinical engineers and at least one biomedical engineer authorised to control the purchase of medical instrumentation. This means that the Hungarian biomedical and clinical engineering courses should be held with the present average enrolment for the coming years. Accepting the main ideas of the Bologna Declaration, Hungary is ready to introduce the two-cycle higher education. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics offered to elaborate the structure of these programmes in general for technical courses. The biomedical and clinical engineering programmes on the one hand should conform to the general rules. On the other hand, in the accreditation process of these programmes national and international BME experts should participate.
Teaching Biomedical and Clinical Engineering in Hungary Courses resulting in a BME or CE degree Biomedical Engineering postgraduate course, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Semmelweis University (50 - 70 students enrol yearly) Clinical Engineering postgraduate course, Semmelweis University (20 students enrol in every second year)
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Optional modules within a course (approx. 80 students yearly) Biomedical Engineering module within Electrical Engineering course (BUTE) 4 lectures, 2 (3) labs, 24 (40) ECTS credits Biomedical Engineering module within Mechanical Engineering course (BUTE) 9 lectures, 35 ECTS credits Biomedical Equipment and System module within Electrical Engineering course (Budapest Polytechnic) 6 lectures, 1 lab Medical Informatics module within Electrical Engineering course (University of Veszprm) 5 lectures, 1 lab Medical Informatics module within Electrical Engineering course (Szchenyi Istvn University of Applied Sciences, Gyr) 10 lectures, 35 ECTS credits Elective subjects within a course (approx. 100 students yearly) Budapest University of Technology and Economics University of Szeged Semmelweis University University of Veszprm Budapest Polytechnic
Biomedical Engineering postgraduate course, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Semmelweis University The course results in a BME degree. The subjects of the course require 1080 contact hours, equivalent to 130 ECTS credits, thesis work and its defence at the end is required. The prerequisite of enrolment is a degree in engineering, medicine or science. Students of these courses may also enrol provided they already have 180 - 200 credits of their first degree course. The course is supposed to last for 6 semesters. Students are suggested to take 8 contact hours per week during the first three semesters, in the last three semesters 24 contact hours per week. Three basic subjects are different for students: Students with engineering background must take the following three basic subjects: Physiology Anatomy Biochemistry Students with medical background must take the following three basic subjects: Mathematics Physics Computer science
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Compulsory subjects Biophysics Measurement and instrumentation Clinical instrumentation and diagnostics Biocompatible materials Biotechnology Process control Mechanics
Technical and biological systems Radiology Process simulation Optical and medical devices Molecular biology Ecological architecture
Clinical Engineering postgraduate course, Semmelweis University The course results in a clinical engineering degree. The subjects of the course require 432 contact hours; students are expected to deal with their studies for an extra 1320 hours. The prerequisite of enrolment is a first degree in electrical, mechanical, civil, chemical engineering or in architecture, informatics, energetics or in physics. Students with college level degree may also apply for admission. Main fields of the course Biomedical engineering fundamentals Economic and human studies Professional basic subjects Special subjects
Edited by kos Jobbgy PhD Budapest, 11th July, 2001.
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Biomedical Engineering in the Republic of Ireland
Contributing organisations are members of the Council of Chairmen of Medical Engineering Organisations:
- Biomedical/Clinical Engineering Association of Ireland - Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland/ Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland, Health Informatics Section - Institution of Engineers of Ireland, Biomedical Engineering Section - Irish Medical and Surgical Trade Association - Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland, Bioengineering Section -
Contact name: Meabh Smith (meabh.smith@beaumont.ie)
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Contents
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Executive Summary Back-ground The Medical Device Industry in Ireland The Role of the Professional Bodies and Biomedical Engineering 4.1 Biomedical/Clinical Engineering Association of Ireland (BEAI) 4.2 Institution of Engineers of Ireland (IEI) 4.3 Clinical Engineering Professional Vocational Group 4.4 Physics Vocational Group 4.5 Association of Physicists and Scientists in Medicine (APSM) 4.6 The Healthcare Informatics Society of and the Healthcare Informatics Section of the Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland 4.7 Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland, Bioengineering Section 4.8 The Council of Chairmen of Medical Engineering Organisations Career Structures 5.1 Technician Biomedical Engineers 5.2 Graduate Biomedical Engineers 5.3 Roles and Responsibilities Opportunities for Education and Training Professional Registration Current Issues Impacting on Biomedical Engineering 8.1 Bologna Declaration 8.2 Inter-professional Benchmarking 9.3 Statutory Registration Proposal for Professional Formation and Development of the Clinical Engineer Conclusion Current Educational Courses in Biomedical Engineering
5.0
6.0 7.0 8.0
9.0
10.0
Appendix A: 1.0
Executive Summary
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This paper provides the background to Biomedical Engineering in the Republic of Ireland. It gives an insight into public sector career grades and routes through them as well as opportunities for education. It identifies current issues requiring resolution so that the profession can continue to develop and it notes external factors which must be considered. The Medical Device industry is an important part of the Irish economy. An overview of the Medical Device Industry, the majority employers of Biomedical Engineers in Ireland is also given. This paper provides an indication of the current status and future development of Biomedical Engineering. The term "Clinical Engineering" is used when specifically referring to Biomedical Engineers working in the patient environment, either in hospitals or in rehabilitation.
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2.0 Back-ground The evolution of medical technology has led to Engineers, Physicists and Computer Scientists collaborating and competing with one another to provide new methods to see, measure and treat ailments. As technology develops to meet the theoretical possibilities, there is a need to manage this new technology and to ensure that there is efficient feedback between technology designers, manufacturers and users- a role in which the Biomedical Engineer is pivotal. The medical device industry accounts for approximately 8% of GNP. The sector is a significant employer of Biomedical Engineers. However, the education and training of these Biomedical Engineers has until now been considered to be independent of that for Biomedical Engineers working in the Clinical Environment. Early hospital-based Biomedical Engineering in Ireland, in common with many countries around the world was primarily a "technician"-based profession, where the engineer was primarily responsible for maintenance of equipment. The presence of Medical Physicists in the hospital environment arose with developments in radiationbased diagnostic procedures where their input was and is vital to the safe and appropriate use of imaging technology. The Medical Physics profession was and is primarily a "graduate"-based profession. With the evolution of technology, technicians working in the hospital environment became increasingly specialised and no longer belonged in a "maintenance department" where the skills required, for example, to manage and maintain a building's heating system are inadequate for the application, management and maintenance of specific items of medical equipment which are used directly in the patient treatment or diagnosis. There was a need for a professional home for Biomedical Engineering. To accommodate the increasing number of graduate and technician engineers, a 'marriage' of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering happened in some Irish hospitals to varying extents and in many but not all hospitals around the world. Where it did not happen, biomedical engineers working at technician level often still belong to maintenance departments or in recent years have evolved into departments in their own right. The term "Clinical Engineers" refers to Biomedical Engineers working in the hospital or rehabilitation environment. The rate of change of technology in terms of both application and design has required both professions to evolve. Equipment has become more reliable; electronic repairs are module-based rather than component-based and increased complexity of equipment has raised the need for user support on a day-to-day basis. The Biomedical Engineering field has evolved to meet the changing needs as may be observed from the expanding role they play in the healthcare environment.
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3.0 The Medical Device Industry Ireland is the location of choice for healthcare companies seeking to establish a presence in Europe to develop and manufacture high end technology medical device products, as well as an operating base for business support activities such as shared services centres and eBusiness functions. Leading medical device companies select Ireland as a base for developing, manufacturing and marketing a diverse range of products from pacemakers and orthopaedic implants to contact lenses and stents. Eighty companies, including 13 of the world's top 20 medical device companies, have significant operations in Ireland, making it one of the largest industry sectors, with over 16,000 employees. These companies export over IR2.5 billion every year. Ireland is the preferred location for three out of four green-field medical device projects locating in Europe. The sub-sectors of the medical device industry in Ireland are:medical disposable and support interventional orthopaedics and vision, dental and hearing equipment products products implants products.
It is estimated that 1,600 Biomedical Engineers are employed in this Sector in Ireland.
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4.0 The Role of the Professional Bodies and Biomedical Engineering The following submissions are directly from the professional bodies or are based on their respective world wide web sites. 4.1 Biomedical/Clinical Engineering Association of Ireland (BEAI) In order to meet the needs of the evolving profession of Biomedical Engineering in Ireland, the Biomedical/Clinical Engineering Association of Ireland (BEAI) was established in 1992. At that time the stated objectives of the founders were to develop communications between those working in the profession and to develop opportunities for education and learning. More formally the goals were identified as being: To encourage and promote the professional development of Bioengineering personnel ( i.e. individuals whose principal occupation is in the provision of a Biomedical Engineering service) employed in the Health Care service and support infrastructure. Advance the science, technology ethics and art of Biomedical Engineering through association, education, training, publication and other materials Facilitate co-operation and understanding among Biomedical Engineering personnel and other health care professionals, hospitals, academia, vendors and other organisations with an interest in Biomedical Engineering. The BEAI continues to focus on these primary goals and has achieved a great deal in the ten years since its foundation. It is the Irish member of the International Federation of Medical and Biological Engineering and the European Association of Medical and Biological Engineering Societies. Members of the BEAI are associated with committees of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. 4.2 Institution of Engineers of Ireland (IEI) The Institution of Engineers of Ireland (IEI) was founded in 1835 and under the Charter Amendment Act, 1969 is empowered to define and protect its registered titles. Within Ireland the IEI is the authoritative voice of the engineering professional and currently represents the interests of in excess of 19,000 engineering professionals. The fundamental aims of the institution are: To promote knowledge of engineering and of engineering science To establish and maintain standards of engineering education and training To promote and provide continuous professional development To maintain standards of professional ethics and conduct To ensure that registered Professional titles of the Institution are assigned only to appropriately qualified engineers and technicians The membership of the IEI is open to all Biomedical engineering personnel. The IEI registered titles are: Chartered Engineer Associate Engineer Engineering Technician
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In 1998 a group of Biomedical Engineers approached the Institution of Engineers of Ireland (IEI) with a view to setting up a Biomedical Engineering Section within the Institution. The IEI is the body with statutory responsibility for accreditation of engineers, that is they are the only body in Ireland who may award Chartered Engineer Status. The Biomedical Engineers recognised the need for direct involvement with the Institution as well as the value to be gained by interaction between all the facets of Biomedical Engineering (including those based in hospitals, rehabilitation, industry and education). The Biomedical Engineering Section of the IEI was established and has provided a platform for debate and learning across all sectors of Biomedical Engineering. It has spearheaded a cross-body working group which is currently finalising a proposal for the Professional Formation and Development of the Clinical Engineer. 4.3 Clinical Engineering Professional Vocational Group The Clinical Engineering Professional Vocational Group currently represents Clinical Engineers at trade union level. This is a Trade Union body. 4.4 Physics Vocational Group The Physics Vocational Group currently represents those employed as Medical Physicists in the hospital sector. This is a Trade Union body. 4.5 Association of Physicists and Scientists in Medicine (APSM) The Association of Physical Scientists in Medicine is a forum where people can meet and exchange views and information relating to the application of the physical sciences to medicine. With the continuing evolution of the role of the medical physicist, the A.P.S.M. allows members to discuss professional issues, develop views as an organisation and represent these views to appropriate organisations and individuals. The A.P.S.M. is considered as a major voice for medical physics in Ireland. This is reflected by its positions on state boards such as the Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland (RPII) or participation in the European Federation of Organisations of Medical Physics (E.F.O.M.P.). These positions are open to all members and holders of these positions communicate with and reflect the views of the A.P.S.M. members. The A.P.S.M. regularly engages in discussions with government departments and has been invited and continues to be invited to contribute to draft legislation affecting medical physics at national and EU level. The A.P.S.M. regularly organises scientific meetings including the Association's Annual Scientific Meeting. 4.6 The Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland and the Healthcare Informatics Section of the Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland Over the past thirty years, Healthcare Informatics has developed from a narrow crossdisciplinary interest to a discipline in its own right. In Ireland we have a growing number of full-time Healthcare Informatics professionals, in hospitals, in health boards, in universities and in service companies.
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From 1976 to 1996, Healthcare Informatics interests in the Republic of Ireland were represented by the Health Care Specialist Group of the Irish Computer Society. This group represented Ireland at the European Federation for Medical Informatics (EFMI) and the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA). It hosted the European Medical Informatics conference, MIE 82, and was associated with the IMIA Working Group 8 international symposium on Nursing Informatics held in Dublin in 1988. In May 1996 the members of the Health Care Specialist Group formed a new society, the Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland (Cumann Romheolais Slinte), in order to broaden the base of membership and increase the range of services offered. By formal agreement with the Irish Computer Society, the Health Care Specialist Group was disbanded, and its functions, assets and liabilities transferred to the new Society, which then became affiliated to the Irish Computer Society. The Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland was inaugurated formally at its First Annual Conference in the Burlington Hotel, Dublin, on Thursday 10th October 1996. The society incorporates the Healthcare Informatics section of the Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland. Thus the Healthcare Informatics Society is in a position to build bridges between computer professionals interested in health care, and health care professionals interested in computing, while supporting and embracing the new professionals of health care informatics. There are currently some 200 members, drawn from information technology, biomedical engineering, medicine, nursing, other professions allied to medicine, education, government and industry. The objectives, as set out in the Constitution, are: 1. To develop and disseminate knowledge of the use of informatics in health care. 2. To promote research and education in health care informatics. 3. To participate internationally with bodies of similar interests. In pursuit of the third objective, the Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland has been accepted as a member of the European Federation for Medical Informatics, and the International Medical Informatics Association 4.7 Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland, Bioengineering Section The Section of Bioengineering was founded in 1994 to facilitate collaboration between medical doctors, engineers and scientists. It runs the Bioengineering Design Forum three times each year, where problems are discussed informally and interdisciplinary research projects initiated. Research papers are presented at its annual conference "Bioengineering...in Ireland" where an invited speaker delivers the Samuel Haughton Lecture for which the Academy Silver Medal is awarded. 4.8 The Council of Chairmen of Medical Engineering Organisations In 2000, The Council of Chairmen of Medical Engineering organisations was established to acknowledge the value in developing co-operation, collaboration and communications between the individual organisations. The organisations represented are: Biomedical Engineering Association of Ireland Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland/Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland, Health Informatics Section
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Institution of Engineers of Ireland, Biomedical Engineering Section Irish Medical and Surgical Trade Association Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland, Bioengineering Section
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5.0 Career Structures Biomedical Engineers based in hospitals and rehabilitation institutions, may be employed as graduates or technicians and are subject the following career structure. 5.1 Technician Clinical Engineers The entrance qualification for technician grade is education to Diploma level. There is currently no formal structured training for progression through the career path. Criteria for progress are based on post availability and years of experience. It should be noted that some personnel employed at Clinical Engineering Technician level hold Bachelor or Masters degrees. 5.2 Graduate Biomedical Engineers As noted previously, graduate Biomedical Engineers, based in hospitals and rehabilitation institutions are employed as physicists. The entrance qualification for technician grade is education to primary degree level (or equivalent); no structured training is currently required to progress through the employment grades. For progression, a higher degree is preferred but not essential. Criteria for progress are based on post availability, candidate aptitude and years of experience. Within Ireland the highest grade held by a hospital-based Biomedical Engineer is "Principal Physicist". The array of problems arising from the lack of recognition of the Graduate Engineer by title is well recognised and acknowledged by the profession. It is one of a series of important issues which will be dealt with following publication of the proposal for Professional Formation and Development of the Clinical Engineer. 5.3 Roles and Responsibilities The work carried out by Biomedical Engineers across all the grades is similar to that carried out across Europe. However, there is a degree of "blurring" regarding the roles and responsibilities specific to a particular grade. Some of the large acute hospitals have combined departments of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering which are peopled by Physics and Engineering graduates and Biomedical Engineering Technicians, these are headed by Chief Physicists. However the Biomedical Engineering role for all the hospitals (up to ten) in a geographical region may be managed by a Principal or Chief Clinical Engineering Technician. The profession recognises the need for regularisation of this situation.
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6.0 Opportunities for Education and Training The broader area of Biomedical Engineering is important to Ireland's economy accounting for 8% of its GNP. As such there are many opportunities for education and research in Biomedical Engineering particularly as a feed to the industry sector. Appendix 1 contains a detailed overview (which may not be exhaustive) of all the educational opportunities in Biomedical Engineering currently available in Ireland. One route to education and training for Graduate Biomedical Engineers which has been undertaken by many of those working the field in Ireland is the MSc (Trinity College Dublin) in Physical Sciences in Medicine which is based at St James's Hospital in Dublin. The need to formulate a structured requirement and mechanism for achieving an appropriate standard of education and training is also acknowledged and dealt with in the proposal for Professional Formation and Development of the Clinical Engineer.
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7.0 Professional Registration A voluntary scheme for Registration of Biomedical Engineers was established in 2000 in anticipation of the requirement for Statutory Registration. Although, the scheme has only been operating for a few months, the majority of hospital-based Biomedical Engineers in the Republic of Ireland have enrolled.
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8.0
Current Issues Impacting on Biomedical Engineering
8.1 Bologna Declaration In addition to its direct impact on educational courses, the Declaration will have an impact on the entrance qualifications for Biomedical Engineers at both Technician and Graduate level. 8.2 Inter-professional Benchmarking The Irish government is currently facilitating a process of benchmarking between professions. The goal is to manage wage bills particularly in the public sector. Biomedical Engineering is part of this process. The process compares (among other parameters) education and training requirements for posts. For Biomedical Engineering at the technician end of the grade to maintain its affiliation with paramedical grades, education and training must be of at least an equivalent standard. 8.3 Statutory Registration Statutory Instrument 1, 1999 sets out the legal requirements for the professional registration of all Health Care professionals. In October, 2000, the Department of Health and Children (DOH&C) published a guidance document, Statutory Registration for Health and Social Professionals for implementation of the Statutory Instrument in 1999. Registration is being dealt with in two waves. Biomedical Engineering will be in the second wave. The first wave is currently being dealt with. The profession needs to understand the impact and issues around registration in advance of the requirement for Statutory Registration.
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9.0
Proposal for Professional Formation and Development of the Clinical Engineer
This is a document currently under draft and nearing completion. The need for such a document acknowledging current difficulties within the Clinical Engineering profession and proposing a mechanism for dealing with them is clear as identified above. The Proposal identifies the criteria for professional registration in terms of both education and training; it provides guidelines for educators on the content and standard of educational courses; it establishes a mechanism for Continuing Professional Development; and in consideration of these it proposes a new career structure. During development discussions took place with several medical device manufacturers and it is hoped that the "Proposal for Professional Formation and Development of the Clinical Engineer" will be taken up at some level by companies involved in the medical device industry. This document will be in the public domain by mid-2002.
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10.0
Conclusion
Biomedical Engineering is a strong and developing profession in Ireland which has been establishing itself as an individual entity only in the last ten years. The profession has identified internal issues which must be addressed while at the same time reacting to national and international factors with direct and indirect impact on Biomedical Engineering.
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Appendix A Biomedical Engineering Education and Training within the University and Institutes of Technology (IT) Sector in Ireland 1. Introduction This document will outline programmes available in biomedical engineering education at diploma, degree and postgraduate level within the Irish university and IT sectors, together with available / desired in-house practical training elements within the hospital sector. An outline of higher degree and postgraduate research opportunities will also be made. The aim is to educate students to a high academic standard in biomedical and clinical engineering. Successful graduates should be equipped with marketable bioengineering skills, thereby possessing the appropriate knowledge and technical skills that will enable them contribute effectively as professional engineers within the biomedical environment. 2. Certificate / Diploma courses currently on offer Cork Institute of Technology A newly formulated certificate / diploma, - National Certificate in Biomedical Engineering, has been established at Cork Institute of Technology. The programme has been formulated that graduates will be qualified to work as biomedical engineering technicians within the healthcare medical device and support industries, pharmaceutical industries, in research and development facilities and also in precision manufacturing companies. Contact person: Dr. K. Bryan. Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering. Tel: 021-4326505 E-Mail: kbryan@cit.ie 3. Degree courses currently on offer
There are a number of possible paths of progression within the higher education sector to those considering embarking upon a career in the challenging and rewarding clinical engineering healthcare environment. Furthermore, for graduates who may be interested in engaging in research with a human dimension, there are many exciting opportunities to embark on study leading to higher degrees in various disciplines within the broad field of biomedical engineering. In addition to a number of dedicated degree strands in biomedical engineering which have come on stream in recent years, including those at NUI Galway, Dublin City University and the University of Limerick, catering broadly for the biomechanics and biomaterials strands in bioengineering, there has also been an evolution of biomedical specialised course options on offer within a number of the traditional university and IT degree programmes.
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3.1 Existing Degree Programmes Ireland has over eighty medical-device-related companies including ten of the worlds top fifteen medical device companies. Devices and equipment include kidney machines, heart and lung machines, cardiological devices such as heart valves and pace-makers, devices associated with radiology, urology, endoscopy, vascular/endovascular surgery, together with neurological devices and orthopaedic implants such as artificial hips and knees. A number of degree programmes have been established in order to service this Industry with appropriately qualified personnel. 3.1.1 Dublin City University
The School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering in co-operation with the School of Biological Sciences is offering a four-year degree programme, BEng. in Medical Mechanical Engineering. The degree programme on offer at DCU aims to integrate the necessary aspects of biology and medicine with the technical engineering aspects required to engineer medical devices and related devices. Contact person: Dr. B. McNamara. 3.1.2 University College Galway
A number of leading medical device manufacturing companies have established a base in the west of Ireland, and the department of Mechanical Engineering at University College Galway has responded positively in establishing a four-year degree programme in Biomedical Engineering. An expansive course programme incorporates multi discipline syllabi including bioinstrumentation, biomaterials, biomechanics, cellular tissue and genetic engineering, medical imaging, orthopaedic and rehabilitation engineering. A co-operative programme provides the facility of enabling student placement for the duration of their project semester with one of the leading manufacturing industrial firms in the Galway and mid-west region. Contact person: Dr P. McHugh Department of Mechanical Engineering. Phone: 091-524411, ext. 3152 E-Mail: peter.mchugh@nuigalway.ie 3.1.3 University of Limerick
A four-year degree, B. Eng. Mechanical Engineering (Biomedical), provides a specialised biomedical degree within the structure of the current B. Eng. Mechanical Engineering programme. In year 3 students are introduced to Physiology and Kinesiology in Biomedicine, whilst in year 4 Medical Device Design, Biomechanics, and Biomaterials form a large part of the required course curriculum. Contact person: Dr T. McGloughlin Assistant Dean of Academic Affairs for College of Engineering.
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Phone: 061-202217 E-Mail: tim.mcgloughlin@ul.ie 3.2 Further Elective Programmes in Biomedical Engineering In addition to the degree streams outlined above, a number of specialised elective option subjects in Biomedical Engineering are also on offer to students partaking of degrees in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, in particular at University College Dublin and at Dublin Institute of Technology. 3.2.1 University College Dublin An elective option is on offer in year four of the degree in Electrical and Electronic engineering. The option is intended to serve as an introduction to some of the many ways in which the fields of engineering and medicine interact. Topics covered include the principle of biomedical apparatus and the applications of engineering analysis to the functioning of various physiological systems. Participating students are invited to take their final-year project on a related topic in biomedical engineering, with some of their time spent at an applied research laboratory which has been set up at the National Rehabilitation Centre, Our Ladys Hospital, Dun Laoghaire. Many of these students advance to postgraduate studies as a follow on to their undergraduate studies. Contact person: Professor Annraoi de Paor. Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering. Phone: 01-7061910 E-Mail: annraoi.depaor@ucd.ie 3.2.2 Dublin Institute of Technology An elective option in Biomedical Engineering is available to students taking the fourth year of the honours degree programme in Electrical / Electronic Engineering. This course is to be expanded, with commencement at year three, and with a broadening of syllabus content to incorporate Health Informatics. The biomedical section incorporates a study of the nature of physiological signals, with inclusion of both practical laboratory sessions and implementation of signal analysis tools as a means of analysing brain and heart signals. Students are offered projects in biomedicine and a number progress to postgraduate studies at both masters and PhD level.
Contact person: Dr Eugene Coyle. School of Control Systems and Electrical Engineering. Phone: 01-4024873 E-Mail: eugene.coyle@dit.ie
4. Taught Postgraduate Degree Courses In addition to the options available in registering for postgraduate degrees by research at all of the University and IT centres listed in section 3, there are also full-time taught masters degree programmes on offer at many of the listed universities.
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4.1 Combined taught Masters, - University of Trinity College Dublin, University of Limerick, and University of Ulster (Jordanstown Campus) This is an innovative programme wherein students are invited to engage for one semester at each of the dedicated university centres. The course aims to provide students with an education that will enable them to realize their ambitions to practice as enterprising and successful professional biomedical engineers. Graduates of the course will have a high level of proficiency and a sound understanding of the application of engineering and anatomy and physiological principles in the profession. Explicit in course content design and content will be subject material essential to a full educational experience in areas such as anatomy and physiology, biomechanics, biomaterials, medical instrumentation and biomedical Informatics. The course is offered jointly by the Faculties of Engineering and Informatics, University of Ulster, Trinity College, Dublin and University of Limerick. Duration and Mode of Attendance: Full-time: Postgraduate Diploma: one academic year. MSc: one calendar year Contact Detail: 1. University of Ulster at Coleraine Cromore Road Coleraine BT52 !SA Phone: 0044-28-70344141 Email: online@ulst.ac.uk 2. University of Limerick: Dr T. McGloughlin Assistant Dean Engineering. Phone: 061-202217 E-Mail: tim.mcgloughlin@ul.ie
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3. Trinity College Dublin Dr. Patrick Prendergast Department of Mechanical Engineering Phone: 01-6082061 Email: pprender@tcd.ie 4.2 Trinity College Dublin Postgraduate Diploma / MSC in Health Informatics This degree is configured to provide students with a broad background appreciation of Information Technology and of the fundamentals of Health Sciences. In addition to practice and theory it covers appropriate medico-legal and ethical issues. The diploma
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is run over one academic year on a part-time basis, with the MSc extending to one further year during which students undertake an independent research project. Contact Detail: Professor Jane Grimson Trinity College Dublin Phone: 01-6081780 Email: jane.grimson@tcd.ie 4.3 Trinity College Dublin - Faculty of Health Sciences / Haughton Institute Coordinator: Prof. J. Malone (Clinical Medicine/Medical Physics) Duration Diploma, 1 year full-time MSc, 2 years full-time This course, formerly known as Bioengineering or Medical Physics was completely revised and updated in 1993/4. It aims to present the academic foundation for the application of the Physical Sciences in Medicine; to demonstrate practical implementations of medical physics/bioengineering in clinical practice; to provide students with an opportunity to engage in original research in the field of Physical Sciences in Medicine. The Course normally extends over two academic years and is timetabled to facilitate students in full-time employment (who may register for a third academic year in order to complete their dissertation). Contact Detail: Professor Jim Malone Faculty of Health Sciences Trinity College Dublin Email: jfmalone@tcd.ie 5. Postgraduate Degrees by Research / Research Centres 5.1 Overview In addition to the various taught masters degree programmes within the university and IT sectors, students may register for postgraduate studies at all of the listed colleges, leading to award of either an M.Eng or Ph.D. degree by research. There are many well-established research centres located within the universities throughout Ireland, many with both a broad interest in biomedical engineering and also with particular advanced niche specialisation. A brief resume is provided in the following sections of these centres. 5.2 Research Centres
5.2.1 National Centre for Biomedical Engineering Science National University of Ireland, Galway This Centre brings together researchers from many different disciplines in a shared, problem-centred approach addressing fundamental questions originating in biology and medicine, but seeking solutions using technologies, skills and creativity from outside the traditional boundaries of these disciplines. Such interdisciplinary activity,
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carried out by researchers in clusters of critical mass, has been identified as a priority research area in the National University of Ireland, Galway. Aims and Objectives Biomedical Research - the way forward for NUI Galway The establishment of a National Centre for Biomedical Engineering Science on the NUI Galway campus is consistent with the changing needs of society, reflected by the establishment of similar centres of excellence world-wide, dedicated to biomedical sciences and engineering. As the European home of many multinational and national biomedical industries, and with a pool of dynamic and scientifically literate graduates, Galway and Ireland are well positioned at the leading edge of this exciting field. The Centre will act as both a local and national resource, and will, in time, place Ireland in a positive strategic position internationally with respect to this emerging discipline Goals of the Centre To extend and improve the existing research capability in NUI Galway and in its partner institutions, through productive collaboration between talented researchers across a wide range of scientific disciplines To provide state of the art research facilities and an intellectual climate that will foster, encourage and support interdisciplinary activities; and attract international conferences in specialist areas To further improve our research and educational capabilities through formal partnerships with other institutions in the Western region, in Ireland and internationally To initiate a new model of graduate education and training which emphasises problem-oriented multidisciplinary approaches to questions of fundamental importance, and educate graduates of outstanding calibre. Research The fundamental ethos of the National Centre for Biomedical Engineering Science is that sound research is conducted at the interfaces between disciplines. Accordingly, our research programme and development plan brings together engineers, IT specialists, physicians and scientists in a common approach to problems of major scientific and clinical importance. Team members share their experience, insights and expertise with others, and in turn learn from those with whom they collaborate. Our philosophy is reflected in our continuing development and strategic planning. In the short term this involves sharing of postgraduates and postdoctorates among research teams, common equipment facilities and group seminar and symposia programmes. When the Centre is fully established all of our teams and activities will be housed in a single, state of the art research building, further enhancing opportunities for collaboration and productive interaction.
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The research programme encompasses five major priority research areas. These are as follows: Cell and Molecular Biotechnology Biomaterials Biofilms New Measurement Methodologies Biomechanics
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5.2.2 Centre for Biomedical Electronics - Department of Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Limerick The Centre for Biomedical Electronics has at its core two principle activities: The development of Electronic Systems for the Correction of Human Gait Disorders using Functional Electrical Stimulation (F.E.S.). The development of mobility assessment and ambulatory monitoring systems for a wide range of applications Gait Correction Research At present the gait correction activity is focused on the correction of Hemiplegic Drop Foot, a condition resulting from stroke where the sufferer cannot lift his/her foot or dorsiflex while walking. During the Gait Cycle, the ability to dorsiflex is critical as it provides clearance for the foot when the leg is swinging through the air during the swing phase. With a Drop-Foot sufferer the lack of dorsiflexion results in a dragging of the leg and as a result has a significant impact on the persons gait. There are four elements to the gait correction activity of the Centre. The development of Portable Biomedical Electronic Instrumentation The use of Functional Electrical Stimulation (F.E.S) for Gait correction The evaluation of Sensor Technologies for Gait Assessment and Correction The evaluation of Control Strategies including Fuzzy Control for Gait Correction
Mobility Assessment Research: Mobility Assessment refers to the development of Electronic Systems to assess the level of mobility and the type of mobility of an elderly subject, a subject that is recovering following surgery or a subject being assessed for some drug treatment. These mobility assessment systems have strong synergistic links to the gait correction activity of the Centre. Both research activities require the use of gait sensors and portable electronics. Another application of mobility assessment systems is their use in Sports applications. There are three elements to the mobility assessment of the Centre: The development of data compression schemes The development of pattern recognition schemes for mobility assessment applications The evaluation of integrated accelerometers as mobility assessment sensors
Collaboration has been established with: Prof. Peter Veltink, University of Twente, Enschede.
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Prof. Thomas Sinkjaer, University of Aalborg, Denmark. Dr. Duncan Wood, Dr. Jane Burridge and Paul Taylor, Salisbury District Hospital (SDH), Salisbury, England. Prof. Declan Lyons, The Stroke Unit, St. Camillus Hospital, Consultant Gerontologist Prof. Pierce Grace, Regional Hospital, Limerick, Consultant Vascular Surgeon 5.2.3 Biomedical Engineering Research Group, - NUI University College Dublin, Faculty of Engineering Overview The Biomedical Engineering research group has activities in three areas, Rehabilitation Engineering, Biomedical Signal Processing and Physiological Modelling. The Rehabilitation engineering work is mainly done in the Rehabilitation Engineering Research Laboratory in the National Rehabilitation Hospital, which is a unique collaborative venture between the Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering and the Hospital. The group also has strong links with the Department of Human Anatomy and Physiology in UCD and has established an Interdisciplinary Sleep and Breathing Research Group. Projects Brain computer interface for disabled people Gait analysis Music therapy for disabled people Dynamic pressure monitoring for adaptive seating design Computer based environmental control for disabled people Modelling and simulation of electromyography Modelling and simulation of spasticity Respiratory and cardiovascular responses to transient arousal from sleep Novel bioengineering approaches to the study of upper airway muscle fatigue Heart rate variability in obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome Automated detection of arousal from sleep using digital signal processing Image registration of ophthalmic images There are research opportunities on offer in 1. Rehabilitation Engineering 2. Muscle modelling and electromyography Funding: Scholarships are available Contact Staff: Dr. Conor Heneghan; Dr. Richard Reilly; Prof. Annraoi de Paor; Prof. Mark O'Malley
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The Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research University College Dublin Telephone: 353.1.706.2871 Fax: 353.1.706.2872 Email: conway.director@ucd.ie The Research Programme The Conway research portfolio focuses on seven programmes, covering Molecular Medicine, Integrative Biology, Chemical Biology and Bioprocessing which complement research into cancer and vascular biology, infection/immunity and inflammation and neuroscience. The researchers have embraced an interfaculty, interdisciplinary approach to scientific investigation with the hallmarks of success being defined by scientific excellence and exploitation of research findings both into the industrial and healthcare sectors. An International Scientific Advisory Board has been established to provide expert, constructive and objective guidance on how the scientific and research goals of the Conway Institute can best be achieved. Technology Transfer and Collaboration with Bioindustry; The Conway Institute has proactive policy for fast-tracking of discoveries to bioindustry through its links with UCD's University Industry Programme and BioResearch Ireland. Many of the Institute's Principal Investigators have links with the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector in the form of collaborative programmes, contract research, and campus companies. 5.2.4 Centre for Health Informatics - Trinity College Dublin
Health Informatics is a rapidly developing scientific field, which deals with biomedical information, data and knowledge, their storage, retrieval, and optimal use for decision making, diagnosis and treatment of patient illnesses. The Centre for Health Informatics (CHI) is multi-disciplinary and draws on resources and expertise from the Faculties of Health Sciences and Engineering and Systems Sciences in Trinity College Dublin. It incorporates significant clinical and technological resources to design and implement a range of projects in the field of Health Informatics. What is Health Informatics? As one of the largest consumers of public funds, health plays a major role in economic policy throughout the world. The main objectives of western governments in the health sector today are twofold - efficiency and effectiveness - with improved quality of care at the same, or reduced cost. Healthcare is an information intensive industry generating enormous volumes of information every day in hospitals, GP surgeries, clinics and laboratories. Yet most of this data continues to be processed manually in spite of decades of experience in the successful application of Information Technology (IT) in other information intensive industries such as banking and insurance.
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There are many reasons for the slow uptake of IT in healthcare including lack of investment in the technology and a lack of people with the relevant skills. The application of IT in healthcare, now generally known as Health Informatics, is a complex and intellectually demanding interdisciplinary field in which Medicine, Computer Science, Management Science, Statistics and Engineering are all represented. Health Informatics is no longer viewed as a peripheral issue but rather as a central means of improving the overall efficiency and effectiveness of healthcare delivery. This in turn is encouraging Governments to increase investment in IT in healthcare. Academic and research staff in the Faculties of Health Sciences and of Engineering and Systems Sciences, in association with colleagues in St Jamess Hospital, the new hospital at Tallaght, the Federated Dublin Voluntary Hospitals and the Dublin Institute of Technology, have been actively involved in the field of Health Informatics for a number of years. In 1991 a joint inter-faculty Research Centre for Health Informatics was established in Trinity College, and is currently involved in a number of projects funded mainly by the European Commission, covering both research and development, and education and training. 5.2.3
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Biomedical Engineering in Israel
Israel Society for Medical and Biological Engineering Edited by Dan Adam Technion Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
INTRODUCTION
Biomedical Engineering (BME) in Israel has been active for over 30 years, with several graduatelevel programmes creating quite a large number of M.Sc. and Ph.D. professionals. Industry, though active in these areas, was actually seeking engineers graduating from the more classical disciplines. The huge increase of the high-tech industry during the 90s created a very large demand for people of BME background, and a continuously increasing understanding that BME is a discipline of its own. With the establishment of MBE undergraduate programmes in three large academic universities as well as in colleges, the BME discipline and profession are recognised and properly appreciated. The Israel Society for Medical and Biological Engineering (ISMBE), which is the largest and main professional BME society in Israel, has members from universities, BME industry, and hospitals as well as from other BME organisations. It advocates scientific and professional BME activities within Israel, it represents the profession and its members in Israel and in international organisations. 2 The National Society
The Israel Society for Medical and Biological Engineering (ISMBE) was established in 1958, actually in the same year that the first IFMBE meeting convened in Paris. One of the founders of the ISMBE, Prof. Joseph Weinman, was also active in establishing the IFMBE and became one of its Honorary Life Members. In 1969 the ISMBE went through another formal registration, as a non-profit society. In 1979 the ISMBE organised and hosted the International Conference of the IFMBE (in association with the International Organisation for Medical Physics) in Jerusalem, Israel. The Society also organised and hosted the Mediterranean countries regional conference MECOMBE92 in Jerusalem. The ISMBE is the largest body representing the Biomedical Engineers as well as the Clinical Engineers. Additional BME activities are run by the IEEE Israel Section BME subsection. The Association of Engineers and Architects also has a BME subsection, while the Medical Physics Society is working under the umbrella of the Physics Society. Since academic undergraduate programmes of Biomedical Engineering opened only recently, the majority of members of the ISMBE and the other sister-societies are engineers in other fields who got a M.Sc. degree in Biomedical Engineering, or have been working in the area for many years and went through Continuing Education courses. The ISMBE has a name list of over 800 members, but paying membership is fluctuating around 200-300, depending on the activity from year to year (with people tending to pay their dues only at the annual conference and not pay yearly on a regular basis). The majority of the members are working in R&D in industry or within the universities, with only a minority of about 20% working in service and maintenance within hospitals or outside vendors who provide such services to the
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hospitals. While there have been some medium sized manufacturers in operation for over 25-30 years, the last 7 years have seen a significant increase of interest and involvement in BiomedicalMedical equipment, in both development and manufacturing. There are currently around 500 startups in this area, at different levels of operation. Thus the classical roles of societies like the ISMBE have become much more important, the roles and goals that have been defined when the Society was established: Development and advancement of the medical and biological engineering discipline in Israel. Exchange and dissemination of knowledge and information related to the Medical and Biological Engineering discipline within Israel, by organising conferences, seminars and workshops. Encouragement of collegial relationships among members of the Society, advancement of scientific activity and guarding the level of professional ethics. Advancement of professional relationships with local and international organisations and groups of similar interests. Representation of the Israeli Medical and Biological Engineering profession in national and international activities and organisations. Several additional goals have been added since then: Participation in national and international standardisation committees, and producing impact by active participation in government organisations responsible for standardisation. Serving as a vehicle for collaboration among financial bodies and (start-up) industries.
3 3.1
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND ACCREDITATION Education
Graduate level studies in Biomedical Engineering towards M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees have started in Israel in 1968 (at the Technion). Currently there are such programmes in 3 universities, with more than 200 graduate students enrolled, most of them performing a research thesis as part of their studies. Undergraduate studies towards a B.Sc. degree in Biomedical Engineering (4 years programme) have started only in recent years, at 3 universities and one college. Currently about 140 students start each year, and, since the entrance level is extremely high, about 90% are expected to finish. The undergraduate Biomedical Engineering programmes consist of mandatory courses and a wide range of electives. During the first two years students take extended courses in Basic Sciences (Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Computers), in Life Sciences (Anatomy, Biochemistry, Cell Biology and Physiology), and in Basic Engineering (Mechanics, Electronics, Biomaterials and Transport Phenomena). The last two years include: elective courses; two Biomedical Engineering laboratory courses; two design courses and two project courses in which students implement their engineering knowledge to analyse and provide solutions to biomedical needs. The projects are carried out in co-operation with the Biomedical industry. In the elective courses, students choose, for example, two out of the following three tracks: (a) Imaging and Medical Equipment (system engineering and control, non-invasive techniques, principles of imaging, signal processing and processing of medical images). (b) Movement, Rehabilitation Engineering, Artificial Organs and Implants (research of walking and movement, mechanics of sports, equipment for orthopaedic/neurological rehabilitation and aids for the handicapped, surgical implants, bioengineering of cells, tissues and of tissue substitutes, artificial organs); (c) Biomaterial,
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Biotechnology and Tissue Engineering (biochemical engineering, molecular engineering, biosensors, artificial metabolic organs, controlled drug release biological substitutes). There are also Biomedical Engineering tracks in several classical engineering faculties (like EE, Mechanical Eng. etc.). 3.2 Continuing Education/Training
The various universities offer a wide range of courses as Continuing Education courses in many cases these are graduate level courses that are open to the public and to engineers willing to get training in a specific subject. There is no formal requirement for engineers to accumulate Continuing Education courses during their career - though this topic is currently under review. The ISMBE does organise, though, in addition to its annual national conference (which was this year on Feb 17th), also several workshops, Special Topic Conferences etc. For example this spring the ISMBE organises and co-sponsors several one-day Workshops: a. Tissue Engineering - Technion, Haifa, Monday April 8th, 2002 (Details: Prof. Yoram Lamir, Prof. Eitan Kimel). b. Ultrasound and Tissues - Tel-Aviv University, Wednesday, April 10th, 2002 (Details: Dr. Zehava Blechman). c. Molecular Cardiology - cellular and tissue engineering - Kefar Hamakabia, May 9th, 2002 (Details: Dr. Miki Sheinovitz) - co-sponsoring. d. 5th Israeli Symposium on Computer-Aided Surgery, Medical Robotics, and Medical Imaging (ISRACAS'2002), Sheba Medical Centre, Tel-Aviv, Wednesday May 22nd, 2002 co-sponsoring. In these activities the lecturers are from both academia and industry, and the audience is also similarly mixed. These activities are usually free to the ISMBE members, but non-members are charged. The annual ISMBE conference is usually a one day meeting, with several sessions which include lecturers from academia, industry and from hospitals. Oral presentations are given as well as posters. For many years this annual meeting was run as part of a national conference that included many of the medical societies. The last 5 years have seen such an increase of interest in the Biomedical Engineering discipline and in the ISMBE annual conference, thus it was decided to run this annual conference independently. Quality assurance, as part of clinical engineering, quality audit and accreditation of hospital laboratories, are carried out by Government bodies and private laboratories which are authorised to perform these operations. Most of the personnel in such institutions are people who went through Quality Assurance Engineering graduate set of courses (usually obtaining M.Sc. in Quality Assurance Engineering). 3.3 Certification/Accreditation
All university (and college) programmes and degrees are approved by the Higher Education Council, which is a government-supported public entity. Each university department is subject to review (each 3-5 years) by an international committee. There are no national (government or professional) examinations, or certification of an individual; employers accept the university or college grades as valid indication of the professional competence.
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An unofficial survey, among BME department heads, faculty, the ISMBE Board of Directors and a large number of ISMBE members, produced a unanimous agreement to participate in a future accreditation programme if it is established. There is of course willingness to share the workload and be part of establishing the guidelines and in the future committees and site-visit responsibilities.
4. 4.1
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Activities in the Field and Contacts with Authorities
The Israel Standardisation Institute is responsible for promoting initiation of new standards, controlling the oversight of existing standards etc. Due to Israels small population (~6M), most standards are adopted from international standards usually U.S. or European standards. The ISMBE had no official policy, and did not participate in these activities. ISMBE members, though, are active in various standardisation committees and quality assurance bodies. In recent years the ISMBE has intensified its activities as promoter of BME activities within the various national funding institutes in an effort to establish BME as a stand-alone discipline. These efforts must continue, since currently BME is still regarded as some activity between Biotechnology, Medicine and Engineering. This attitude must be changed. 4.2 European and International Activities
The ISMBE has been active in international organisations since it was established. As mentioned above, ISMBE organised and hosted the International Conference of the IFMBE (in association with the International Organisation for Medical Physics) in Jerusalem, Israel, in 1979. The Society also organised and hosted the IFMBE Mediterranean countries regional conference MECOMBE92 in Jerusalem. The Computers in Cardiology International Conference was organised and hosted in Jerusalem in 1989. Many other Medical and Engineering Conferences were held in Israel (but unfortunately this trend was stopped since last year, due to the violence in this region). There are multiple bi-lateral research funding agreements between Israel and various European and other nations. Israel is one of the non-EU countries who participated in the earlier Framework Programmes, currently participates in the Fifth Framework Programme, and plans to participate in the 6th Framework Programme as an ASSOCIATED STATE who may participate WITH COMMUNITY FUNDING, and this participation is In Force. This means that the Israeli Government contributes its share to each Framework Programme budget and that on the other hand industry and academia participate in any of the Fifth European Community Framework Programme covering research, technological development and demonstration activities. This is a major factor in the ISMBE enthusiasm to participate in the effort of the various European BME Societies to create an umbrella organisation and to promote the BME discipline within the European Commission Community Research.
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Biomedical Engineering Education in Italy prof. Marcello Bracale Dept. of Electronic Engineering and Telecommunications University of Naples "Federico II" Via Claudio, 21 80125 - Napoli, ITALY
1. Introduction Biomedical engineering teaching activities in Italy started in the years 1968-69. The course Biomedical Electronics" was activated at the University of Padova and at the University of Naples and the courses "Bio-energetic" and "Biological Electronics" started at the Polytechnic of Milan. Since then many other courses and educational programmes have started in many Italian Universities. Post-graduate courses started in the years 1971-72 when "post-graduated courses of biomedical instrumentation" were set-up at the University of Naples, while Bioengineering PhD courses were activated in 1982 as consortium of various universities with two administrative headquarters in Milan and Bologna. In 2000, about 150 undergraduate courses in Biomedical Engineering were active at 19 Italian Universities (Ancona, Bologna, Brescia, Firenze, Genova, Milano, Modena e Reggio Emilia, Napoli, Padova, Pavia, Pisa, Roma 1"la Sapienza", Roma 2 "Tor Vergata", Roma 3, Roma Campus Biomedico, Sassari, Siena, Torino and Trieste), while PhD courses in Bioengineering and postgraduate courses were available in 9 universities (see Appendix 1). According to the reform of the European Higher Education, since 2001, a new educational path was adopted in Italy, consisting of a first level degree (3 years) eventually followed by a second level, specialist degree (2 years) and /or Masters and finally by the PhD. At the moment, the Universities of Bologna, Genova, Milano, Napoli, Padova , Pavia, Pisa, Roma 1"la Sapienza", Roma Campus Biomedico and Torino offer the first level degree (3 years) in Biomedical Engineering and in the next future will offer the specialist degree (2 years). Other Universities offer specific curricula or some modules of Biomedical Engineering within other engineering degree courses (see Appendix 2).
2. The National Society As early as 1965, a group of medical engineers headed by Prof. G. Francini met to formally organise the Italian Electronic Group applied to Medicine and Biology in affiliation to the International Federation of Medical and Biological Engineering (I.F.M.B.E.). Later, in 1967, the constitution of the Association was approved together with the name "Associazione Italiana di Ingegneria Medica e Biologica" (A.I.I.M.B.). It had started with 76 members of medical engineers, physicist and physicians all over Italy. Its objectives are scientific informative and educational with the specific aims of encouraging researches, spreading scientific information, applying knowledge and promoting collaboration with other specific groups. At present the A.I.I.M.B. counts about 130 active members. Most of them work at universities while the others are clinical engineers and physicians working at hospitals and other healthcare departments.
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The A.I.I.M.B. had participated in and organised many scientific activities, conferences, symposia, and round tables on different topics regarding Biomedical Engineering. In 1997, A.I.I.M.B. initiated the series of the MEDICON - Mediterranean Conferences on Medical and Biological Engineering (September, 12-17, 1977 - Sorrento, Italy). Subsequently, A.I.I.M.B. hosted also the VI MEDICON in Capri island (July, 5-10, 1992 - Italy) and will host the X MEDICON in Ischia island (June or September 2004 - Italy). The A.I.I.M.B. also co-ordinates in co-operation with other Italian and International Technical and Scientific Organizations general and specialized activities in the field of Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Engineering within the structures of the National Health Services. A.I.I.M.B. participates in the Italian Group Sub-Committee 62D of the International Electrotechnical Commission for the Standardization of Medical Equipments. The A.I.I.M.B. has formed two Working Groups on "Clinical Engineering" and on "Biomechanics" since 1983. Recently a Working Group on "Cellular Engineering" has been established. The A.I.I.M.B. maintains co-operation with different Italian associations (such as: Gruppo Italiano di Ultrasonologia Vascolare - GIUV, Societ Italiana Reti Neuroniche, Associazione Italiana di Fisica Biomedica - AIFB, Sezione Italiana dell'International Society of Electrophysiological Kinesiology ISEK).
3. BME Education, Training and Accreditation in Italy 3.1 Education University degree programmes in Biomedical Engineering are provided in Italy at both undergraduate and post-graduate level. According to the new definitions of the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research, there are two scientific-disciplinary sectors (i.e. homogeneous scientific-educational topics or areas) concerning Biomedical Engineering education at university level: "Electronics and Informatics Bioengineering" ING-INF/06: This sector born from the organic integration of the methodologies and the technologies proper of the engineering, principally of the information, with the medical and biological problems of the life science, of the clinical engineering, of the labour world and of the sport. the basic methodologies of this sector concern the modelling of the physiological systems (from the cellular components to the apparatus and organs); the description of the electrical and/or magnetical phenomena and the device to measure or modify them; data end signal processing; biomedical images; the representation of the medical and biological knowledge. The technologies include the biomedical and biotechnological instrumentation (diagnostic, therapeutic, and rehabilitative: from its elementary components to the to the integrated hospital systems); prosthesis; biomedical robots; artificial intelligence systems; systems for the healthcare management and organisation; informatics systems at patient, ward, hospital, regional and national level; medical informatics; telemedicine. Advanced research areas in biology and neuroscience include cellular and tissue engineering; informatics techniques for biology and neurology (neuro-informatics and bio-informatics); bio-electronics. "Industrial Bioengineering" ING-IND/34: This sector born from the organic integration of the methodologies and the technologies proper of the industrial engineering, principally of the mechanics and chemistry, with the
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medical and biological problems of the life science. The aim of such integration is directed to the technological, industrial, scientific, clinic and hospital environment. Scientificdisciplinary contents relate to the bioengineering application of methodological, technological, theoretical, and experimental aspects proper of the chemical and mechanical engineering and therefore the study, the planning, the technologies, and the functional evaluation of medical instrumentation, device or implants, of natural and artificial materials, tissues, apparatus and organism by means of models, analytical and numerical instruments. Methods proper of the sector are based on structure-property link characteristic of biomaterials and biomechanical structures. Also the knowledge thorough examination, based on the observation scale, allows the biomechanical characterisation of the biological structures and the analysis of the biological-artificial interface characteristics, which are the support for the planning of biomedical devices. At present, there is a total of 83 teachers (of which 27 are full professors, 28 associate professors and 28 researchers) belonging to ING-INF/06 sector and there is a total of 24 persons (of which 9 are full professors, 11 associate professors and 4 researchers) belonging to ING-IND/34 sector. 3.1.1 Undergraduate degrees In 2000, about 150 undergraduate courses in Biomedical Engineering were active at 19 Italian Universities (Ancona, Bologna, Brescia, Firenze, Genova, Milano, Modena e Reggio Emilia, Napoli, Padova, Pavia, Pisa, Roma 1"la Sapienza", Roma 2 "Tor Vergata", Roma 3, Roma Campus Biomedico, Sassari, Siena, Torino and Trieste), while PhD courses in Bioengineering and postgraduate courses were available in 9 Universities (see Appendix 1 for details). The 2000-2001 academic year witnessed a historic transition because Italy will pass from the traditional system of one level (the degree) to a system organised around different levels (the degree, the specialised degree, the master's degree, and the doctorate of research), aligned with the goal of a European space of higher education which is contained in the declaration signed by the Ministers of Education or their equivalents of twenty-nine European countries at the University of Bologna on 19 June 1999. The challenge which universities are now facing is a colossal one, and it has forced them to revise all the university curricula and to create new ones adapted to a society based upon knowledge which innovates and renews at extraordinary rhythms. In this revision the universities are finally enjoying certain spaces of autonomy and in the interest of the students are interacting with employers' associations and trade unions and other state and private systems which are interested in university education and training. The credits system has been adopted to be in line with the ETCS European system of credits, in which credits go from 1 to 60, are based upon the course unit, and describe the total work burden which each course unit requires. At the moment, the Universities of Bologna, Genova, Milano, Napoli, Padova, Pavia, Pisa, Roma 1"la Sapienza", Roma Campus Biomedico and Torino offer the first level degree (3 years) in Biomedical Engineering and in the next future will offer the specialist degree (2 years). Other Universities offer specific curricula or some modules of Biomedical Engineering within other engineering degree courses (see Appendix 2 for details). 3.1.2 Postgraduate degrees In Italy the PhD in Bioengineering is a research degree, usually of 3 years duration. Entry to doctoral study is allowed to postgraduates (until now, students who took a 5 years university degree), while having a Master's degree or a post-graduate specialisation is not a prerequisite.
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In 1982 a PhD course in "Bioengineering", based on a consortium of the Universities of Genova, Milano, Padova, Pavia and Pisa (with administrative headquarters in Milan) and another Bioengineering PhD course based on a consortium of the Universities of Ancona, Bologna, Firenze, Napoli and Roma (with administrative headquarters in Bologna) have started. In 1985 a Bioengineering curriculum was activated within the PhD programme in Information Engineering at the University of Trieste. In 1997 a PhD course in "Bioengineering and Medical Informatics" started at the University of Pavia. In 1998 a PhD course in "Bioengineering and Bioelectronics" started at the University of Genova. In 2000, at the University of Pavia, the PhD course in "Bioengineering and Medical Informatics" turned into the PhD course in "Bioengineering and Bioinformatics". In 2000 a PhD course in "Biomedical Technologies Applied to Dentistry" started with a collaboration of the University "Federico II" of Napoli and the Second University (SUN) of Napoli. In 2001 a PhD course in "Bioengineering" started at the University of Padova. In 2001 a PhD course in "Biomedical Engineering" started at the Polytechnic of Torino. In 2001 a PhD course in "Healthcare Economics and Management" started at the University "Federico II" of Napoli (a collaboration of the Faculties of Medicine, Economy and Engineering). In 2001 a PhD course in "Diagnostic of Laboratory and Bioengineering" started with a collaboration of the University "Federico II" of Napoli and the Second University (SUN) of Napoli. In 1989 the Italian Universities of Bologna, Milano, Napoli and Padova joined the "European Course on Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics" organised in Patras, Greece, within the Erasmus project. The Italian participants in the Course so far are both teachers and students. In 1991 a postgraduate specialisation school in Clinical Engineering was established at the University of Trieste. The duration is two years. 3.1.3 Other educational activities Since 1982, the Italian scientific community of Bioengineering annually organises monothematic schools held in Bressanone of a duration of few days about specific Biomedical Engineering topics. Every year many students (undergraduate and postgraduate) and teachers participate in the school. 1982 - Methods and analysis of the neuro-sensorial systems; 1983 - The computer in the clinical practice; 1984 - Biomaterials; 1985 - Eidetic Bioengineering; 1986 - Bioengineering of the cardiovascular system; 1987 - Bioengineering of the Rehabilitation; 1988 - Structure of the biomedical knowledge; 1989 - Cellular and molecular bioengineering; 1990 Bioengineering of the artificial organs; 1991 - Neuroscience and science of the artificial: from neuron to intelligence; 1992 - Bioelectronics and nanotechnologies for bioengineering; 1993 - Biosystems and complexity; 1994 - Biomedical and healthcare technologies: development evaluation and management; 1995 - Prosthesis and aids for the communication; 1996 - Informatics healthcare systems; 1997 - Mechanics of the biological tissues; 1998 - Bioengineering of the metabolic systems; 1999 - Technology and methodology for functional images. 2000 - Analysis and modification of biomolecules and cells; 2001 - Bioengineering of the respiratory system. Various courses on specific Biomedical Engineering subjects have been organised for PhD students in different Italian universities.
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3.2 Training At present, biomedical engineers in Italy usually do not undergo training in addition to their education. Unlike in the case of Medical Physicists, there is not yet any recognition of the Clinical Engineer by the National Health Service in Italy. Final training for engineers employed in hospitals, healthcare structures or industries is optional and, in general, carried out independently.
3.1 Accreditation of Education and Training 3.3.1 Accreditation of Degrees At present, in Italy there is not yet an accreditation process for the university education nor for specific training. After the ministerial decree (DM 509/99) on autonomy in the sphere of teaching, some of the traditional customs and habits of Italian universities are changing, passing from the traditional system of one level (the degree) to a system organised around different levels (the degree, the specialised degree, the master's degree, and the doctorate of research), aligned with the goal of a European space of higher education which is contained in the "Bologna Declaration". Recent documents already contain the new general organisational principles and present the characteristics that the university system should have acquired at the end of the process of innovation, among which there is the accrediting of the courses of study (a system of certification based on the cultural value of a qualification derived from university studies, on the meeting of the social and economic demand, and on the suitability of the resources deployed by universities). In particular, in July 2001, the National Committee for the Evaluation of the University System (Italian Ministry for Education Universities and Research), issued a document (Doc 12/01) about the "Activation of an accrediting system of the degree courses in the Italian Universities: first recommendation and proposals" Furthermore, the Institution "National System for the Accreditation of the Courses of Study in Engineering" (S.I.N.A.I.) will be soon constituted. The aim of the SINAI Institution is to determine the Minimal Requirements (in terms of Credits and arguments covered) in order that a course of study would be "accredited" (i.e. to get recognition at national and eventually international level). At moment the accreditation matter is at the attention of the CRUI (The Italian Rectors' Conference) and of the National Committee for the Evaluation of the University System. Concerning the Biomedical Engineering Education, in April 2001 the Education Committee of the National Group of Bioengineering submitted to the Committee of the Deans a proposal about the contents of the courses in Biomedical engineering (see Table 1). In July 2001, the Committee of the Deans transmitted a new proposal (see Table 2) to receive comments, remarks and objections in order to prepare soon a document about the minimal requirements for the Courses of Study in Engineering.
Table 1 Bioengineering Models of biological systems. Transfer function. Feedback. Stability. Simulation. Identification. Biomaterials Metallic, ceramic, polymeric materials and their chemical-physical properties.
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Biocompatibility and biodegradation. Biomechanics Mechanical properties of biological and artificial materials. Human motion analysis. Prosthesis. Biology and Physiology Cellular biology. Tissue biology. Integrated physiological functions (respiration, circulation metabolism, functions of the neuro-sensorial and muscular system, water and metabolite homeostasis). Biomedical Signal and Image Processing Principal characteristics of the biomedical signals and images. Analysis in the frequency domain. Sampling. Numerical filtering. Applied Electronics Components. Analogue and digital electronic circuits. Semiconductor memories. Analogue to digital conversion. Electrotechnique Electrical circuit in DC and AC. Transient response. Elements of electrical devices. Mechanics and Thermodynamics Mechanics of the rigid body, elastic bodies and fluids. Mechanical components. Kinematics chains. Thermodynamics of the open system. Energy and mass balance. Transport phenomena. Biomedical Instrumentation Elements of the measure. Functioning principles of the main instruments for diagnosis, therapy and rehabilitation. Network instruments and telemedicine. Electrical safety of the biomedical device and legal aspects.
Table 2 Mechanics and Biomechanics Mechanics of the rigid body, elastic bodies and fluids. Mechanical components. Kinematics chains. Biomedical applications. Operating devices: pumps and compressors. Mechanical properties of biological and artificial materials. Prosthesis. Bioengineering Mathematical models of simple biological systems. Experimental assessments and determination of empirical parameters. Simulations. Biomaterials Metallic, ceramic, polymeric materials Biocompatibility and biodegradation. and their chemical-physical properties.
Biomedical Signal and Image Processing Principal characteristics of the biomedical signals and images. Analysis in the frequency domain. Sampling. Numerical filtering.
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Measures and Biomedical Instrumentation Measure theory. Measure of electrical, thermal and mechanical quantities. Functioning principles of the main instruments for diagnosis, therapy and rehabilitation. Safety of the biomedical devices. Biology and Physiology Cellular biology. Tissue biology. Integrated physiological functions (respiration, circulation metabolism, functions of the neuro-sensorial and muscular systems, water and metabolite homeostasis). Technological Installations in Hospitals Conditioning and heating systems. Electrical systems. Auxiliary installations and normative aspects. Thermodynamics and transport phenomena. Thermodynamics of open systems. Mechanics of the fluids. Mass and heat transport. Electrotechnique Electrical circuit in DC and AC. Transient response. Principles of functioning of electrical devices. Building typologies. Converters and inverters. Applied Electronics Components. Electrical analogical circuits, elementary amplifier and the operational amplifier. Digital circuits and main logic families. Semiconductor memories. Analogue to digital conversion. Automatic Controls. Analysis of the control systems. Criteria for stability. Methods of synthesis of control systems. Basic aspect of the digital control. Components of a control system, sensors and actuators.
3.3.2 The Right to practice for engineers In Italy engineers who intend to practice the engineering profession have to register with the Italian Council of the Engineers (Ordine degli Ingegneri). Recently, after the new reform of university education, the Council of the Engineers decided to form two sections, Section A for those having the Specialised Degree in Engineering (giving the professional title of Engineer) and Section B for those having only the Degree in Engineering (giving the professional title of Junior Engineer).
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APPENDIX 1
BME Education in Italy
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List of Biomedical Engineering courses in ITALY in 2000 (This list is available at AIIMB web-site at the address: http://biomant.die.unina.it/aiimb/BMEcourses_iten.htm) updated to January 16, 2001 Note that Italian names of the courses, topics and degrees have been freely translated to English University of ANCONA Degrees: Electronics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course) PhD in Bioengineering Courses: Bioengineering Bioengineering of the physiological systems Biological systems models
University of BOLOGNA Degrees: Biomedical Engineering Degree Electronics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course) Biomedical Engineering Bachelor PhD in Bioengineering (consortium with the Univ. of Ancona, Firenze, Napoli and Roma 1) Courses: Physiology Automation and organization of the health services Bioengineering I Bioengineering II Bioengineering III Biomedical data and signals processing Biomedical instrumentation Biomaterials Biomechanics constructions
University of BRESCIA Degrees: Electronics, Mechanics, Civil, Management Engineering Degree Courses: Automation and organisation of the health services
University of FIRENZE Degrees: Electronics Engineering Degree (Bioengineering course) Mechanics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course) PhD in Bioengineering Courses: Physiology
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Biological systems models Biomedical instrumentation Biomedical technologies Medical informatics Biomechanics Biomechanics constructions
University of GENOVA Degrees: Biomedical Engineering Degree PhD in Bioengineering Courses: Bioelectromagnetism I Bioelectromagnetism II Biomechanics I Biomechanics II Bioimages Biomaterials Bioelectrochemistry Bioengineering and medical informatics Biomedical data and signals processing Medical informatics II Bioengineering laboratory Biological systems models Perceptive systems models Anthropomorphological robotics Natural and artificial intelligent systems Biomedical instrumentation Biomedical technologies Biochemistry Human physiology
Polytechnic of MILANO Degrees: Biomedical Engineering Degree Bioengineering Bachelor PhD in Bioengineering Courses: Human physiology Biomaterials I Biomechanics Bioelectromagnetism Instrumental analysis and materials control (Lab) Automation and organisation of the health services Bioimages Bioengineering of the physiological systems I Bioengineering of the physiological systems II
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Bioengineering of the rehabilitation and prosthesis I Bioengineering of the rehabilitation and prosthesis II Molecular biology Biomachines Biomaterials II Biomaterials III Biomechanics of the rehabilitation I Biomechanics of the rehabilitation II Biomechanics of the rehabilitation III Biomechanics constructions (Lab) Biomedical data and signals processing I Biomedical data and signals processing II Biomedical data and signals processing III (Lab) Biological transport phenomena Medical informatics I Medical informatics II Medical informatics III (Lab) Artificial organs and prosthesis I Artificial organs and prosthesis II Natural and artificial intelligent systems Biomedical instrumentation Technology of the biomaterials Biomedical technologies
University of MODENA and REGGIO EMILIA Degrees: Medicine, Health-Care Planning Sciences Degree Courses: Biomedical technologies Medical informatics
University of NAPOLI "Federico II" Degrees: Electronics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course) PhD in Bioengineering PhD in Biomedical Technologies Applied to Dentistry Courses: Biomedical electronics Biomedical data and signals processing Biomedical instrumentation Biomedical technologies Automation and organisation of the health services
University of PADOVA Degrees: Electronics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course)

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Biomedical Engineering Bachelor Courses: Bioengineering Biological systems models Biomedical data and signals processing Biomedical instrumentation Biomedical technologies Elements of physiology Medical informatics Biomachines Biomaterials Biomechanics Biomechanics construction
University of PAVIA Degrees: Biomedical Engineering Degree Computer Science Degree (Bioengineering course) PhD in Bioengineering Courses: Human physiology Biomedical data and signals processing Bioengineering Automation and organisation of the health services Economics of health services Biomedical technologies Biomedical instrumentation Medical informatics
University of PISA Degrees: Electronics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course) Bioengineering Bachelor Courses: Bioengineering I Bioengineering II Biomedical electronics I Biomedical electronics II Biomedical data and signals processing I Biomedical data and signals processing II Automation and organisation of the health services
University of ROMA 1 "La Sapienza" Degrees: Electronics, Telecommunications, Computer Science, Mechanics Engineering Degree (Bioengineering course) Movement Sciences Degree
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PhD in Bioengineering Courses: Biological systems models Biomedical instrumentation Seminars and laboratory of human physiology Biomedical data and signals processing Hospital systems Bioelectromagnetic interaction Biomechanics of the human movement
University of ROMA 2 "Tor Vergata" Degrees: Medical Engineering Degree Courses: Science and technology of the materials of biological interest Mechanics of biological systems Human biomorphology Diagnosis devices Physiology
University of ROMA 3 Degrees: Electronics Engineering Degree Mechanics Engineering Degree (Bioengineering course) Courses: Biomedical instrumentation
ROMA Campus Biomedico Degrees: Biomedical Engineering Degree Courses: Biomaterials Elements of physiology and anatomy Hospital systems Biomedical instrumentation Biochemistry Bioelectrochemistry and biomedical technologies Biomaterials II Biomechanics Chemical kinetics and biochemistry Biomedical data and signals processing Biomedical transport phenomena Physiology Biomedical fluid-dynamics Medical informatics
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Bioelectromagnetic interaction Nuclear methods for therapy and diagnostics Biological systems models Artificial organs
University of SASSARI Degrees: Medicine and Dentistry Degree Courses: Mathematics and physics methodologies
University of SIENA Degrees: Medicine and Surgery Degree Bachelor (audiometrist technician, audioprosthesis technician, physical therapist, dental hygienist, nurse, logopedist, technician in neurophysiopathology, orthoptist-assistant in ophthalmology, obstetrician, sanitary technician of medical radiology, sanitary technician of biomedical laboratory) Courses: Medical physics and bioengineering Human physiology (physiological systems models) Medical informatics Biomedical technologies Biomedical instrumentation Biomedical electronics Biomedical data and signals processing Electronic bioengineering
Polytechnic of TORINO Degrees: Mechanics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course) Electronics Engineering Degree (Bioengineering course) Courses: Biomechanics Biomechanics constructions Biomaterials Basic techniques of biomedical data and signals processing Advanced techniques of biomedical signals processing Human physiology and measurements on living systems Biomedical instrumentation University of TRIESTE Degrees: Electronics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course) School of Specialisation in Clinic Engineering Bachelor (sanitary technician of medical radiology) Courses: Processing of data and images of clinical interest
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Elements of human physiology Elements of human morphology Hospital information systems Instrumentation for functional explorations Telematics and integration of the health services Biomaterials, artificial organs and prosthesis Electrical systems in the hospitals Organisation and management of the health services Planning and organisation of the health services Health risks and prevention in hospital Safety and prevention in hospital environment Medical statistic and epidemiology Instrumentation for bioimages Instrumentation for clinical chemistry Bioengineering Biomedical instrumentation Radiology equipments-Electronic bioengineering Informatics and archiving-General informatics Informatics and archiving-Electronic bioengineering
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Synoptic table of Biomedical Engineering degree courses in ITALY from the Academic year 2000-2001 This information is preliminary and in progress - last update October 2001 BME curriculum (another degree) (Electronics) (Electronics) (Mechanics) YES (Information) YES (Information & Industrial) YES (Information) YES (Information) YES (Information) YES (Information & Industrial) (Electronics) (Informatics) (Mechanics) YES (Information & Industrial) YES (Information & Industrial) (Electronics) YES YES YES YES YES BME specialised degree
UNIVERSITY University of ANCONA University of BOLOGNA University of FIRENZE University of GENOVA Polytechnic of MILANO University of NAPOLI (Federico II) University of PADOVA University of PAVIA
BME degree (class)
BME PhD
YES (Information)
YES
Bioengineering Bioengineering Bioengineering Bioelectronics Bioengineering Bioengineering Bioengineering Bioengineering Bioinformatics Robotics, Industrial automation systems, Bioengineering Bioengineering
University of PISA
YES
University of ROMA 1 (La Sapienza) University of SASSARI University of SIENA Polytechnic of TORINO University of TRIESTE
YES
YES
Biomedical Engineering
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List of the Biomedical Engineering courses in ITALY (within the BME 1st level Degree - 3 years) from the Academic year 2000-2001
This information is preliminary and in progress - last update October 2001 Note that Italian names of the courses, topics and degrees have been freely translated to English
University of BOLOGNA BME Courses Biomedical Laboratory L-A Bioengineering L-A Biomechanics L-A Biomedical Laboratory L-B or English course L-B Biomaterials L-A Biomedical Instrumentation L-A Biomedical Data and Signals Processing L-A CFU 3 5 5 3 5 5 5 Year II II / III T II / III T III III / I T III / II T III / II T
University of GENOVA BME Courses Bioengineering + Medical informatics Bioengineering Laboratory Principles of Bioelectronics and Bioinformatics Principles of Biomedical Instrumentation Biomedical Signals and Images Processing Mathematical Physics or Principles of Mechanics and Biomechanics Medical Informatics II Biological Systems Control and Models Informative Systems and Telemedicine CFU 12 5 10 5 5 5 5 5 5 Year I/IS II II / I S II / II S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / II S III / II S
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Polytechnic of MILANO BME Courses Principles of Bioengineering Electronics Principles of Bioengineering Mechanics Principles of Bioengineering Chemistry Medical Informatics Bioelectricity and Biomagnetism I Biomechanics I Chemical Phenomena in Biological Systems I Safety and Regulations for Medical Equipment Training/Project, Table P, other courses Electronic Hospital Instruments and Equipment Clinical Bioimages Biomachines Chemical Hospital Instruments and Equipment Automation and Organisation of the Health Systems Hospital Systems Quality and Organisation in Biomedical Companies Technology for Prosthesis and Artificial Organs Technology for Sensors and Instrumentation Instrumentation and Methods for Functional Evaluation Life Support Systems Techniques of Functional Electrical Stimulation Aids and Prosthesis for Hearing and Seeing Systems for Motor and Postural Rehabilitation Aids for Environment and Mobility CFU 10 7.5 5 5 5 5 5 2.5 2.5 5 2.5 5 2.5 5 5 2.5 10 10 5 5 2.5 2.5 7.5 2.5 Year II / I S II / I S II / I S II / II S III / II S III / II S III / II S
III / I S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / I S
University "Federico II" of NAPOLI BME Courses Principles of Bioengineering I Principles of Bioengineering II Biomedical Instrumentation Biomedical Data and Signals Processing Organisation and Automation of the Health Services Biomedical Technologies Clinical Engineering Artificial Organs, Prosthesis and Rehabilitation Technologies Biomaterials I Biomaterials II
CFU 3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Year I / II S II / I S II / II S III / I S
II III
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Bioelectromagnetism Installations and Systems in Hospitals Cellular and Molecular Engineering
6 6 6
III III III
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University of PADOVA BME Courses Biomaterials Biomechanics Biomedical Signals and Models Biomedical Instrumentation Mechanics Bioengineering CFU 6 6 6 6 6 Year II / III T III / I T III / II T III / II T III / III T
University of PAVIA BME Courses Bioengineering Chemistry and Biomaterials Medical Informatics Hospital Informative Systems Biomedical Data Processing Biomechanics Biomedical Signals Processing Internet and Medicine Biomedical Technologies Biomedical Instrumentation Clinical Engineering CFU 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 5 Year I / II S II / I S II / I S II / II S II / II S II / II S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / II S
University of PISA BME Courses Biomedical Data and Signals Processing Electronics Bioengineering Biomedical Measurements and Biomedical Instrumentation Organisation and Automation of the Health Services Medical Informatics Chemistry and Chemistry Bioengineering Mechanics Bioengineering Biological Transport Phenomena Biomaterials CFU 12 12 12 6 6 12 12 6 6 Year
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University "La Sapienza" of ROMA BME Courses Biomedical Instrumentation Hospital Systems Biomedical Data and Signals Processing Biological Systems Models Biomedical Instrumentation CFU 6 6+4 training 5 5 10 Year II
Polytechnic of TORINO BME Courses Mechanics Bioengineering I Electronics Bioengineering I Technologies of the Biomaterials Mechanics of the Fluids for Bioengineering Mechanical Construction of Biomedical Devices Chemistry Bioengineering Electronics Bioengineering II Mechanics Bioengineering II Sensors for Bioengineering or Microsystems for Medical Use Support to Clinical Decision or Classification and Interpretation of Biomedical Data Electronics Bioengineering III Assisted Design of Biomechanical Structures Mechanics Bioengineering P II Sensors for Bioengineering or Microsystems for Medical Use Mechanics Bioengineering III A or Mechanics Bioengineering III B Bioimages Management of Health Technologies or Hospital Informative Networks Medical Informatics Hospital Systems Mechanics Bioengineering P I Support to Clinical Decision or Classification and Interpretation of Biomedical Data Electronics Bioengineering P CFU 4 4 6 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 Year II / II S II / II S II / II S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / II S III / II S III / II S III / II S III / I S III / II S III / II S III / II S III / II S III / I S III / I S III / I S III / II S III / II S III / II S
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Legenda: in the field "Years", where specified, is indicated the year (I, II or III) where the module is allocated and the corresponding Semester (S) or Trimester (T).
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Status Reports on Biomedical Engineering: Latvia 1. National Society Latvian Medical Engineering and Physics Society (LMEPS). The LMEPS had been established in 1996. It has about 30 members. Its main goals are: The development of recommendations on education in the field of medical (biomedical) engineering and physics; Dissemination of information on the achievements in the field of medical (biomedical) engineering and physics; Education and training for professionals (medical engineering and physics) The Society is a member of IFMBE and joined EFOMP. The representatives of the Society are active at the Physica Medica Journal and the European Scientific Institute. The Society is closely co-operating with the International Agency on Atomic Energy, EC and Latvian governmental organisations and medical societies. 2. BME Education In Latvia, two universities are offering BME education/degrees. An undergraduate BME programme, Medical Engineering and Medical Physics, is offered by Riga Technical University. Its completion takes 3-4 years, the awarded degree is the BSc. There are two graduate BME programmes in Latvia: An MSc in Medical Engineering and Medical Physics can be obtained at Riga Technical University; (it takes 2-1 year, up to the above BSc duration) A 2 year MSC programme in Biomedical Optics is offered by the University of Latvia. All programmes have been developed within the framework of the EC TEMPUS project and are in accordance with the ECTS. Medical engineering and medical physics programmes have been achieved at the interdisciplinary level. The medical module is delivered by the Medical Academy of Latvia. Additionally, the Faculties of Computer Science, Mechanical Engineering, Telecommunications, and Economics contribute. In addition to these programmes, Riga Technical University is delivering engineering education (BSc+2 years or 4 years without BSc) and college-type education for medical professionals (1.5 years) with continuation to engineering education (2.5 years). The Biomedical Optics programme is interdisciplinary: the Faculties of Mathematics and Physics, Medicine and Economics contribute. Ph.D. programmes are offered by Riga Technical University and the University of Latvia in dependence on the previous MSc education.
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3. Training/Continuous Education Training is delivered voluntary by Riga Technical University: Radiation safety and protection in medicine. This course is supervised by the Radiation Protection Centre of Latvia. 4. Certification/Accreditation All above university programmes are accredited internationally. 5. Registration There is no mandatory registration as Engineer, Euro Engineer or Chartered Engineer. Such a procedure does not in power in Latvia for the BME field. 6. Appendix The BME syllabi and courses are available from www.bimi.vip.lv , www.rtu.lv and www.lu.lv
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Status Reports on Biomedical Engineering in Norway 1. National Society: The Norwegian Society for Biomedical Engineering has 320 members. Its goals are to support the biomedical engineering activities in Norway, to give its members a network of persons working/interested in the field and to organise courses and meetings. It is a member of IFMBE. 2. BME Education B.Sc. in Clinical Engineering (1 university college) M.Sc. in Biomedical Engineering (2 universities) Occasionally Ph.D. programmes. 3. Training/Continuous Education Given by the employer / manufactures 4. Certification/Accreditation Voluntary: Clinical Engineer MTF and Medical technicians MTF issued by the society. 5. Registration None 6. Appendix Syllabi and courses in BME at universities offering BME degrees: On the the universities, normally written in Norwegian only. homepage of
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Biomedical Engineering in Poland at the Beginning of XXI Century Ewaryst Tkacz Silesian University of Technology, Institute of Electronics, Division of Biomedical Electronics, Gliwice, Poland 1. Brief historical background The history of both medical physics and biomedical engineering development in Poland is strongly connected with the history of the Radium Institute (currently Center of Oncology) in Warsaw. That former institution was established in 1934 and the main inspiration had come from a double Nobel Prize winner, Maria Skodowska-Curie. In 1936 professor Cezary Pawowski, the leader of the division of physics in the Radium Institute, started first training courses incorporating subjects from the area of medical physics and biomedical engineering. The regular courses on biomedical engineering at the academic level were introduced in 1946 at the Warsaw University of Technology (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) as a very first in the world (next to the similar courses at the University of London). Professors: Pawowski, Keller and Nowosielski have introduced a multidisciplinary direction of study named at that time medical electrotechniques. Students with basic knowledge in electrical engineering were further trained in the following disciplines: medical fundamentals, radiology, light therapy, Rtg devices and electromedical devices. During more than 50 years of experience the system of biomedical engineering education was modified many times with respect to both programme contents and some organisational aspects. In 1951 biomedical engineering was transferred into the newly established Faculty of Communication which was 15 years later renamed into Faculty of Electronics. In 1970 an additional discipline was established and named Medical Electronic Equipment, which after several years was modified and renamed again into Biomedical Engineering. At the same time three other universities of technology i.e. Gdask, Gliwice and Wrocaw introduced training courses in Biomedical Engineering. Recently courses in Biomedical Engineering were also introduced at polytechnics in Biaystok, Cracow and d especially directed into both orthopaedic and prosthesis engineering. Currently, apart from normal regular academic courses in Biomedical Engineering, some additional courses for graduated students as well as Ph.D. students are organised. The later courses are mainly organised in association of academic institutions such as universities of technology.
2. Research and development of BME 2.1. Introduction The previous subchapter allows the conclusion that research in Biomedical Engineering (BME) has a long tradition in Poland. However, due to very well know reasons mainly political, many ideas, activities and possibilities were lost irreparably. A more ordered approach to both research and education on BME started in 1972, when the Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering Committee of the Polish Academy of Sciences was founded. Earlier almost all of the research projects were initiated by members of the following organisations: Polish Biophysics Society, Polish Biocybernetics Society and Polish Medical Physics Society. Three years later, i.e. in 1975, the Institute of Biocybernetics and Biomedical
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Engineering in Warsaw was established and directly after that took over the coordinating position in country research projects from the BME area. At the beginning there were 58 research groups participating in these programmes and the main activity was focused on: analysis and modelling of physiological systems with particular emphasis on the nervous system, methods and measurement systems for medical diagnostics, artificial internal organs, biomaterials, biomechanics and medical informatics. Research in these above mentioned areas was continuously developed through 1980s. Altogether, at country level coordinated BME programmes, 136 research groups participated during the period of 1986-1990. Growing popularity of BME as a scientific discipline stimulated the organisation of the National Conference on Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering. The first conference was held in 1975 and further conferences were organised biannually. There were 12 conferences organised until now. In 1989-1990 the 6 volume monograph Problems in Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering, edited by professor Maciej Nacz, was prepared by the above mentioned groups participating in the previously listed research programmes. Currently the second, enriched 9 volume edition of that monograph is under preparation and will be published within the next two years. In 1988 the International Centre of Biocybernetics (ICB) was organised with the aim to arrange international conferences, seminars, symposia as well as training courses. These meetings slowly converted themselves into an excellent opportunity for scientists from West and East to meet and discuss. There were 32 seminars organised by the ICB, so far. Advances in biocybernetics and biomedical engineering in Poland were recognised in other countries. In 1991 both the Institute and Centre were appointed as a Collaborating Centre of the World Health Organisation (WHO) and were nominated for membership in the UNESCO Global Network for Molecular and Cell Biology. In 1991 a significant change in sponsorship of BME research was introduced. The countrywide research programmes were cancelled and financing based upon direct support of institutes and research grants was established. At the same time the State Scientific Committee for Research was brought into existence. 2.2. Present organisational structure At present the research in biomedical engineering is conducted in three self-reliant institutions as well as in 35 other laboratories at the institutes of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Medical Academies and Universities of Technologies. The research institution incorporating most of the BME activity areas is the Institute of Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering (IBBE) of the Polish Academy of Sciences (PAS) in Warsaw. The IBBE employs at present about 150 persons including 30 senior researchers and its structure consists of four departments and three research units: Department of Biomeasurements and Biocontrol Department of Bioflow Department of Biomedical Information Processing Methods Research Unit of Clinical and Experimental Bioengineering Research Unit of Clinical Informatics Research Unit of Rehabilitation Engineering and Biomechanics The IBBE is the only institution in Poland entitled to grant both the Ph.D. and D.Sc. degrees in the field of biocybernetics and biomedical engineering. There are two industrial institutions dealing with BME in Poland. First is the Institute of Medical Technology and Equipment in Zabrze and the second one is the Medical Engineering Centre in Warsaw. 2
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Among the numbers of smaller research centres working in the area of biomedical engineering, some have already a long tradition and play an important role in the development of BME in Poland. Most of these centres are localized directly at the universities of technology institutes, departments or divisions and their missions cover both BME education and research. The main BME education and research centres are the following: Warsaw University of Technology; Faculty of Mechatronics, Institute of Fine and Biomedical Engineering, Institute of Nuclear and Biomedical Electronics prof. T. Pako, prof. G. Pawlicki, prof. A. Pitkowski Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice; Faculty of Automatic Control and Computer Science, Institute of Electronics, Division of Biomedical Electronics prof. J. ski, prof. E. Pitka, prof. E. Tkacz Centre for Bioengineering in Gliwice; an institution coordinating collaboration between University of Silesia, Silesian Medical Academy and Silesian University of Technology prof. J. Marciniak Technical University of Gdask; Department of Medical and Ecological Electronics prof. A. Nowakowski Technical University of Wrocaw; Department of Automatics and Electronics prof. M. Kurzyski, prof. R. Bdziski Mining and Metallurgy Academy; Department of Automatics, Electronics and Electrical Engineering prof. R. Tadeusiewicz Technical University of Szczecin prof. H. Mikosza Foundation of Cardiac Surgery Development in Zabrze prof. Z. Religa The total number of researchers working actively full or part time in the field of biomedical engineering in Poland can be estimated at a little more than 1000 persons including about 70 professors and 150 Ph.D.s. The important inspiriting role in both planning and coordination of research in the whole country plays the Committee of Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering PAS, Polish Society of Medical Physics and Polish Society of Biomedical Engineering. Also there are some Polish journals devoted to publish achievements in this field of research, namely: Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering and ICB Lecture Notes, both in English, as well as several others published in Polish such as Medical Physics and Engineering, Technical Problems in Medicine, Polymers in Medicine and scientific booklets named Works of IBBE PAS. 3. Common BME teaching programme at Polish academic institutions Biomedical Engineering teaching programmes slightly differ from one academic institution to another (see Appendix 1). However, it is not difficult to notice that the most important subjects and courses taking into account the specificity of Biomedical Engineering education are quite similar. In general one may say that to start BME education it is necessary to gather a basic knowledge covering many scientific disciplines, with a special emphasis placed on the medical sciences. The explanations of this well known fact are the general features, which characterise the biomedical systems. Among many features possible to enumerate, the most important is that a biomedical system can easily be damaged during experiments. Therefore, pure technical disciplines applied in the biomedical engineering courses must be specially adopted in a way that they fit the requirements resulting from the specificity of biomedical systems. 4. Conclusion
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The current status of Biomedical Engineering in Poland fortunately is not fixed or established, but it permanently develops into the right direction. This is a process which is impossible to restrain, especially taking into account a worldwide science development, change of political conditions and in the background of those former two, the fact that Poland will very soon join the European Community.

P L A N OF S T U D Y for ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION II level study (M.Sc. degree) speciality: Biomedical Electronics
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Hours
Training courses in particular semesters (number of teaching hours per week)
Name of Course
including
sem 7 ECTS
sem 8 ECTS L 3E 30 7 C Lab P 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 E E 0 E 16 3 6 5 1 2 2 2 2 L 4
sem 9 ECTS C Lab P 2 2 0 10 L 0
sem 10 ECTS C Lab P 0 2 0
Total COMMON AND 1 INDIVIDUALLY CHOSEN COURSES 2 MEDICAL FUNDAMENTALS 720 45 75 60 45 60 30 45 75 45 30 1230
Lab 210 45 30 30 30 30 0 0 30 0 0 405
P 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 15 15 0 0 45
C Lab P 7 0
375 135 0 30 30 15 30 30 30 30 30 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 0
14 4
3 PATTERN RECOGNITION 4 BIONICS 5 6 ELECTROMEDICAL MEASUREMENTS RTG AND RADIATION DEVICES
2 2 E E 1 2 1 E E
3 5 2 4 6 2 2 1 3 2 1 7 2 0 5
7 ARTIFICIAL ORGANS BASICS OF 8 ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE 9 MEDICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS
10 BIOCYBERNETICS 11 CARDIOLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS SYSTEMS TOTAL
630 150
14 4 25
30
11 3 25
10 1
30
13 2 25
30
NUMBER OF HOURS PER WEEK NUMBER OF EXAMS NUMBER OF OTHER COURSES
3E 9
3E 7
4E 6
EGZ. DYPL. 4
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NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MEDICAL ENGINEERING AND BIOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY

Technical University of Cluj-Napoca Medical Engineering Center Str. George Baritiu Nr. 25, room 167 3400 Cluj-Napoca, ROMANIA Tel/Fax: +40 (0)64 194548
Biomedical Engineering Education in Romania Professor Radu V. CIUPA Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania Radu.Ciupa@et.utcluj.ro
1. INTRODUCTION The modern techniques and apparatuses used in medical care institutions require qualified assistance for many operations and procedures: correct technical installation and utilisation, extension of standard performances, maintenance, etc. At the same time, the companies and research institutes specialised in research, design, manufacturing and the marketing of medical care technique (mainly electric products) are interested in a highly trained, multidisciplinary qualified personnel. Biomedical engineering is an interdisciplinary domain where all engineering and technological sciences merge into solving the problems that arise in Biology and Medicine. All activity sectors benefit from the recent, fast growing engineering technology: modern medical hardware is produced and utilised with technical engineering assistance; modern, highly accurate investigation methods through visualisation and measurements demand specialised, modern instrumentation; modern therapy calls for assistance in adapting and individualising the treatment schemes prior to their application, etc. On a national scale, in hospitals, research services, educational institutions, technical medical schools, or technical assistance and governmental organisms for medical instrumentation regulations and specifications, there is a major need for biomedical engineering specialists. To respond to this demand, consistent educational programmes in biomedical engineering are needed. An educational curriculum in biomedical electrical engineering is interdisciplinary, concerned with both engineering and medical sciences. A recent survey of the current trends and effectiveness of the educational process towards career oriented goals shows that the biomedical engineering professional education has to rely on the modern engineering curricula, yet to be focused on specific aspects of biomedical engineering. This approach corresponds also to the national goal of integration in the European academic and career-related policies and structures. An important role is played by the Romanian Society of Medical Engineering and Biological Technology both in the promotion of biomedical engineering in Romania and in the education and training of the individuals engaged in biomedical engineering and science. 2. THE NATIONAL SOCIETY The NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MEDICAL ENGINEERING AND BIOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY was established on June 2nd 2000, when 49 founders were present, and was legally recorded on March 30th 2001. The NSMEBT is an independent scientific organisation with an interdisciplinary background, aiming at promoting the co-operation, research, application of know-how and dissemination of
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information related to the utilisation of modern technology in the field of medical, clinical and biological engineering. Some of its objectives and aims are: To participate in the development and promotion of biomedical engineering in Romania, To take part in the co-ordination of activities concerning the professional upgrading of engineers and technicians working in biomedical engineering, To organise national and international conferences, To be involved in improving the curricula for the training and education of the interested parties, To act as consultant for the establishment of laws, regulations and standards or norms with reference to biomedical engineering, To generate and disseminate valuable field-related information to other partners in the technical, medical and biological community. Our Society has organised an international conference (in June 2000) and a national conference up to the present. Preparations have been made in view of publishing a scientific journal, as an answer to the national level requirements expressed in the domain of biomedical engineering. The serious commitment of our Society to education is also shown by the fact that the majority of its members are university staff; other members work in research institutes, hospitals, clinics, health care departments, and private companies trading medical equipment or offering service for the equipment. However, we are certain that there still are a number of people with significant concern or activity in medical engineering and biological technology who have not signed up (yet) to become members of our Society. Another thing to be admitted is the fact that besides our Society there are other organisations or societies that are involved in fields more or less related to biomedical engineering. 3. BME EDUCATION, TRAINING AND ACCREDITATION IN ROMANIA 3.1 Education. BME education in Romania has been developed both at undergraduate-short-cycle (3 years), and graduate-long-cycle (5 years) as well as postgraduate level (1-2 years). The position of biomedical engineer was not included in the Romanian job list up to March 2001; at that date the profession was officially included in the job list so that the status of the graduates should improve and a larger number of applicants should be met in the future. 3.1.1 Undergraduate Bachelor Degree. The Bachelors Degree is awarded after three years of college education, in what we call shortcycle. The undergraduates are qualified as higher-educated technicians. Their job descriptions show that they are dedicated to practical work on biomedical equipment, to repair, build, maintain and operate the equipment as described by specific medical-related situations and cases. This type of education operates within several universities in Romania: 1. The Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, the Technical College (Medical Engineering) 2. The Politehnica University of Timisoara, the Technical College (Medical Engineering) 3. The University of Oradea (Medical Engineering) Details of the curricula are given in Appendix 1. 3.1.2 Graduate Masters Degree The graduate Masters Degree is conferred after five years of study (long-cycle); at present the curricula and syllabi are varied and diverse, although their basic principle consists in having a common-core education in the first and second year (possible, third too); in the majority of cases such courses belong to the electrical engineering field. During the last years of study (the third, fourth and fifth), elective courses are offered in packages (modules) for more specialisation in the domain of medical engineering. This form of education is developed now in the following universities in Romania: 1. The Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 2. The Politehnica University of Timisoara, 2
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3. The Politehnica University of Bucharest, 4. The University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Iasi. More details are presented in Appendix 2. 3.1.3 Postgraduate Masters Degree This kind of degree is awarded 1 year after graduating (sometimes 2-year long courses, but in other field than biomedical engineering). The degree courses are addressed to graduates of five year courses, whose qualification is that of engineers (or physicists, or doctors). The only Romanian University to offer such a course is the Politehnica University of Bucharest. It should be mentioned, however, that about 20 Romanian students have attended the postgraduate programme in BME held at the University of Patras (Greece), in the interval 1995-1999; their attendance is due to the partnership of the Cluj-Napoca, Timisoara and Bucharest Technical Universities with the University of Patras. 3.1.4 PhD Degree The PhD is a research degree, generally extended over the duration of four years. Normally, only graduates who have already got a Masters degree are permitted to attend PhD courses. But at present there are no teams, departments or universities to organise PhD courses in BME. PhD candidates are enrolled to function in the competence field of the supervisors-university professors. Annually, quite a significant number of dissertations are focused upon biomedical engineering topics. Unfortunately, with us the records do not specify the narrow field or topic of the PhD dissertation; only large domains are mentioned, such as engineering: mechanical, electrical, etc. or humanistic: literature, languages, etc. 3.2 Training No coherent training system for postgraduate study organised to confer professional competencies in BME exists. Updating and upgrading courses, refreshing courses or the like are mainly organised by universities not in the framework of a well-defined time-table, but following the demand of a group or institution. This situation originates in the relatively small number of experts, the official absence of the position of biomedical engineer (up to March 2001) as well as in the socially and economically unfavourable state of Romania during the last decade. We regard the National Society of Medical Engineering and Biological Technology as a body which is responsible for taking over the main role in establishing an Act on Training in Health Care on a legal basis. 3.3 Accreditation of Education According to the Romanian legislation, accreditation is performed by state authorities (normally accreditation boards of corresponding ministries) and not by professional organisations. These organisations may supply their recommendations, views and proposals. 3.3.1 Accreditation of Degrees All degrees and study programmes must be accredited by the Ministry of Education and Research (through the National Council for Academic Assessment and Accreditation). Otherwise the university is not allowed to award the degrees (this is valid for both state and private universities). For the practice in health care, the degrees and study programmes are accredited by the Ministry of Health of Romania. All degrees are accredited by evaluating the degree content in the light of the syllabus. The academic staff, their expertise and the infrastructure available within the university are also considered. The qualification level for engineers working in health care is presented in chapter 3.1 Appendix 1 3
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TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CLUJ-NAPOCA The Technical and Administration College Specialisation: Medical Engineering The duration of the courses is 6 semesters, out of which, in the sixth semester, students do field work and practical application in hospitals, clinics, production companies, companies for service, repair, installation of medical equipment and write their graduation paper. Each of the 6 semesters lasts 14 weeks and each ends in a session of exams. The table below presents a list of subjects with the number of classes allotted per week in the respective year of study: Course title Mathematics Physics Computer Programming I,II Physiology Electricity in Medicine. Biophysics Introduction to Biomedical Engineering Biomedical Amplifiers Sensors and Transducers Biomechanics Electrical, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems Biomedical Measurements Data acquisition and Teletransmission Biosignals Processing Management Prosthesis and Rehabilitation Radiological Devices Nr. hours/week 10 4 4+5 4 5 3 6 5 4 4 5 5 6 3 5 4 Year of study 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 Appendix 2 TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CLUJ-NAPOCA Specialisation: Biomedical Engineering After common-core courses for three years, students can opt for packages of elective courses, according to their specialisation. It should be mentioned that college (3-year course) graduates can continue their studies on the condition that they passed some exams to supplement their college diploma with their long-term educational purpose of 5-year courses. These exams are necessary as there are no identical subjects during the first three years of study for the graduates of the long- and short-term education. Individual BME Courses: Medical Informatics Bioelectromagnetics Modelling of Biomedical Systems Image Processing and Analysis Medical Electronics Biomedical Instrumentation Biomedical Measurements Expert Systems in Medical Diagnostics It is necessary to pass all courses mentioned above for obtaining a certificate on BME study. Moreover, it is necessary to pass the BME Diploma Thesis. 4
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GR.T.POPA UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY - IASI FACULTY OF MEDICAL BIOENGINEERING EDUCATION, TRAINING AND ACCREDITATION Founded in 1994 at Gr.T.Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy in accordance with the governmental resolution H. G. 568/ 1995, 360 / 1997 and having 4 specialities: BIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AND MEDICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY BIOMATERIALS AND PROSTHETIC TECHNOLOGY BIOINSTRUMENTS AND MEDICAL TECHNIQUE BIOINFORMATICS AND HEALTH CARE MANAGEMENT
The Faculty of Medical Bioengineering is one of the first such institutions in Central and Eastern Europe The Faculty of Medical Bioengineering has an undergraduate enrolment of 459 students and 45 students at post-graduate studies.
Education University degree programmes in medical or biomedical engineering at both the undergraduate and the postgraduate level are provided in Gr.T.Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy. The training programme for undergraduate level has been developed based on an interdisciplinary curriculum. The curriculum has 2 cycles. Cycle I (terms 1-5) trains the students in fundamental sciences belonging to the biological, exact, informational and technical domains; the training is completed by the inclusion of a humanities programme. Basic biological interdisciplinary science: they are included in integrated modules, focusing on Molecular, Cellular and Tissue Biology, in order to prepare the students for the phase during which they study the applications of technical sciences in the field of medicine: a) a general presentation of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Genetics, Histology, Biochemistry, Biophysics, Physiology, Microbiology, Immunology and Biometrology b) a systematic approach to Anatomy, Histology, Biochemistry, Biophysics, Physiology, Bioinstruments and Function Testing. - Exact Sciences: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry. The inclusion of these subjects in the Ist cycle is seen as a means to prepare the students for the IInd cycle during which the applied sciences will be studied within the framework of the 4 specialities. - Informatics: Basic Informatics, Multimedia Informatics and Theory of Systems. The study of these disciplines will allow the students to successfully approach Medical Informatics, Health Care Informatics, System Analysis and CAD, during the IInd educational cycle. - Applied Biotechnical Sciences: Science and Technology of Materials and Biomaterials, Technical Design and Computer Graphics. The knowledge thus acquired will permit the students to better understand Biomaterials, Biomechanics, Prosthetic Technology, Bioinstruments and Medical Technique. - Humanities: Modern languages (which help the students gain access to specialist information and participate in the communication process going on in the scientific community), Philosophical and Functional Anthropology (contributing to the development of a holistic vision of the human body as a complex bio-system), Physical Education and Kinesiology (assisting in the understanding of the concept of human locomotion). Cycle II (term 6 through 12) introduces the students to clinical science, applied sciences selected according to the requirements of the 4 specialities: 5
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Bioactive Substances and Medical Biotechnology; Biomaterials and Prosthetic Technology; Bioinstruments and Medical Technique; Bioinformatics and Health Care Management.
It is worth mentioning that the contents and the objectives of the second cycle are compatible with the Bioengineering programmes devised by European and American educational institutions active in the same domain. The structure of the curriculum, its contents and coherent succession of disciplines and modules expose the students to an adequate theoretical and practical input, according to the specificity of each of the 4 specialities. In order to give the students the best opportunities, the practical activities are scheduled to take place not only in the industrial and administrative environments but also in hospital or health centre laboratories, medical and surgical wards and in public health institutions. The purpose of the practical training is the acquisition of technical and managerial skills in accordance with the specificity of various work places such as laboratories, pharmacies, plants specialised in the production of drugs, biomaterials, biomedical research equipment, diagnostic and therapeutic equipment, information processing hardware and managerial departments in the health care system. Beginning with the second cycle the students are encouraged to participate in research activities and to present and publish the results of their endeavour. In order to graduate the faculty, the students have to take and pass a series of examinations, one of which consists in the presentation of an original paper or of a project, produced under the guidance of our specialists. Bachelor Degree The graduate is awarded the Bachelor of Medical Bioengineering (BMB) degree and thus he becomes a MEDICAL BIOENGINEER specialised in one of the 4 domains he chose at the beginning of the second study cycle. Master Degree Master degree Medical Bioengineering education (one year) has been organised in Gr.T.Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy for the following specialities: - Systems of monitoring and telemedicine - Progresses in the fields of the bioactive synthesis substances - The biomechanics of the orthopaedic prosthetic systems - Health care management Training BIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AND MEDICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY The current application of biotechnology in medicine impinges upon many important health issues, changing the way in which diagnosis, treatment and pathology are understood. The following domains can benefit from the contribution of biotechnology: the production of drugs and vaccines used in the treatment of various disorders such as cancer, multiple sclerosis, AIDS, obesity, heart conditions, etc; the possibility to use enzymes as prostheses or their administration as iv injections, the production of antibiotics, vitamins, biosensors (etc); the biotechnology of biological processes under sterile conditions involving the creation of tests meant to help the physician reach an exact diagnosis soon enough, so that the disease could be treated in an early stage. BIOMATERIALS AND PROSTHETIC TECHNOLOGY Biological molecules such as proteins and complex sugars are often used as structural elements in plastic surgery.
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Biomaterials are used to create an interface between the tissues of the human body and the materials used for implants and prostheses. The implantable materials include alloys, ceramics, polymers and mixed material. Biomaterials have to possess certain characteristics: they should not be toxic and carcinogenic; also they should be chemically inert and stable and they are expected to show a high endurance over a long period of time so that the necessity to change them should occur very infrequently. The production of prostheses and artificial organs implies a good knowledge of biomechanics, including the study of the motion of various organs and cells, the deformation of materials and the circulation of blood as well as other substances within the body. An interesting type of activity within the domain is medical rehabilitation. In this case, the specialist can engage in the production of customised prosthetic devices, adapted to the needs of each patient. BIOINSTRUMENTS AND MEDICAL TECHNIQUE The bioinstruments represent an application of advanced electronics and of measurement principles and techniques to the field of medicine in order to establish a diagnosis, and also, with respect to carrying out certain therapeutic procedures (e.g. medical investigations based on imaging). In this context, the specialist as part of the health care team is responsible for the development of the computer data bases, the recording of the biosignals and the use of sophisticated medical equipment. The specialist may also work, alongside with the physician, on the adaptation of the medical equipment to the specific needs of the doctor or to those of the hospital. This could often involve the development of an interface between the equipment and the computerised systems as well as the creation of specialised software employed in the control of the equipment and in the analysis of the recorded data. BIOINFORMATICS AND HEALTH CARE MANAGEMENT Computer modelling is used in the data analysis and in the mathematical description of physiological phenomena. In research, models are mainly used in order to initiate new experiments. Application domains: monitoring the reactions of the body during surgery, intensive care or under unusual conditions; the development of decision making strategies for clinical situations using expert systems and artificial intelligence; processing biological signals and performing image analysis; the computerised simulations of the function of the human body; the analysis and the classification of medical and biological methods and technologies. Health Care Management comprises many types of activities such as: the analysis of the relations cost effectiveness and cost income in connection with the evaluation of health care programmes; the economic evaluation of biomedical research; the assessment of the influence of environmental hazards and mortality upon health status and health indices; other issues to deal with could include: health insurance, biostatistics, health care policy and the choice of applicable reforms. Accreditation of Education and Training According to Romanian legislation, accreditation is performed by state authorities after the 3rd series of graduated students. In 2002 the University of Medicine and Pharmacy from Iasi has to apply for final accreditation. In 2001 the new profession named Medical Bioengineer was inserted into the Romanian Classification of Jobs
THE ELECTRICAL BIOMEDICAL EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMME AT THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING POLITEHNICA UNIVERSITY OF BUCHAREST 7
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The Electrical Engineering Department at POLITEHNICA University of Bucharest initiated, in 1994, an optional electrical engineering educational programme aimed at specialising the undergraduate students in the final years (fourth and fifth), in the area of: electro-physiological (natural and stimulated) phenomena, electrical and electronic measurements in medical diagnosis and therapy, electrical drives and equipment used in medicine. The programme was concerned with orienting students' and graduates' interest and knowledge to applied electrical engineering in medicine, that means: approaching and understanding electro-physiological phenomena from the engineering perspective, using their major specialisation based on classic electromagnetic theory and applications, adjusting to the specific medical environment (basic knowledge, concepts and vocabulary, healthcare needs and priorities, specific technologies and instrumentation, etc.).
The growing interest in electrical biomedical engineering motivated us into undertaking the challenges arising from the re-orientation of the educational curriculum that was offered by the Department of Electrical Engineering at POLITEHNICA University of Bucharest. Currently, a major educational grant by the National Council for Higher Education (CNFIS) sustains our efforts of profiling and substantiating what is thought to be a consistent curriculum in electrical biomedical engineering. The CNFIS project for the biomedical educational programme. The objectives of the CNFIS project are both quantitative and qualitative, and the financial support that it provides is directed mainly to developing experimental and computational laboratories, to acquiring informative and educational materials (books, periodicals, multimedia software, etc.). A better orientation of the specific disciplines (Biophysics and Biochemistry, Bioelectromagnetism, Medical Instrumentation and Measurements, Modelling in Biology and Medicine, Drives and Electric Equipment in Medicine) is a major concern of the programme, and it implies both a sustained textbook publishing activity and the creation of a modern, exciting and stimulating environment for teaching and learning. On a broader scale, the current project is also contributing to reducing the disparity in education that exists in this area, with a regional educational impact on the interdisciplinary academic co-operation, and on graduates training and career-related orientation. The educational goals and means of the project are within the limits of the regulations and policies that are formulated by the Ministry of Education and Research and by POLITEHNICA University. The strategic objectives of the proposed project are: Students professional, career-related orientation, aimed at explaining the biomedical engineering curriculum, the career-related options, better information for the selection of their major field of study, the understanding of biomedical electrical engineering as a discipline, professional goals and possible careers. The re-evaluation of the educational curriculum focused on the electives for the IIIrd Vth years of studies, the optionals for the Ist IIIrd years of studies, and on the integration of research into the educational curriculum. The balance between the professional specialisation that is offered and the labour market demand (both biomedical and classical electrical engineering related positions). The main components to approaching these objectives are: A. The Educational component (re-evaluation of the educational programme, its focus on biomedical electrical engineering). 8
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B. The Research component (integration of research into the educational curriculum); C. The Infrastructure component (acquisition of adequate laboratory and computational hardware and software, publications, etc.). D. The Informative component (labour market trends; technical database; academic exchanges aimed at learning the educational experience of other universities interested in implementing similar programmes). The First Phase of the project (1999) was exploratory. It was aimed at a global modernisation of the present educational curriculum in biomedical engineering with focus on the IIIrd year of studies. It also helped defining the main tracks of action towards an in-depth change of the educational programme for all years of study, which is the final objective of the major programme. The Second Phase (2000) is concerned with assisting the IVth year of studies The Third Phase (2001) that concludes the project addresses the educational programme for the Vth year of studies. The system of transferable credits to be finalized in the near future at PUB will significantly contribute to the individualization of the educational programme that is needed in defining a consistent, modern interdisciplinary educational offer.
The PROGRAMME Main Phases and Key

Phase I Phase II Phase III
Educationa
A 1. Biomedical classes update A 2. The educational programme for the IV-V years of studies the technical component A 3. The educational programme the nontechnical component A 4. Extra-curricular lectures A 5. Practical practice at affiliated institutions A 6. Other means and ways of modernising the educational programmes
Researc
B 1. Own research B 2. The undergraduate/graduate research integration within the educational process B 3. Other means and ways to developing the interdisciplinary research
Infrastructure
C 1. Publications and related materials C 2. Hardware/software and multimedia C 3. Hardware/software and multimedia for laboratory works and research
Own efforts
Information
D 1. Job market survey D 2. Technical data base D 3. Exchanges / expertise
1999
2000
2001
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Biomedical Engineering in the Slovak Republic Milan Tyler, Institute of Measurement Science, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava Peter Kneppo, Faculty of Mechatronics, University of Trenn, Duan imk, Jozef ivk, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Koice Klra pov, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of ilina 1. Introduction Biomedical Engineering in the Slovak Republic has quite a long tradition. The first undergraduate educational programme in the former Czechoslovakia started at the Technical University of Brno in 1967. But already in 1971, an educational programme for medical electronics has been established at the Slovak Technical University in Bratislava. In the late sixties, research in this area also began in the Institute of Measurement Science of the Slovak Academy of Sciences and the development of medical electronics was established in the former main medical electronics company Chirana in Star Tur. In the eighties and nineties, biomedical engineering courses started at other universities and nowadays undergraduate biomedical engineering courses are taught at three major universities in Slovakia: in Koice, ilina and in Bratislava. Besides these undergraduate programmes, postgraduate courses in co-operation between universities and the Slovak Academy of Sciences have been organised since the eighties. Since 1969 biomedical engineers also have their own professional organisation - the Society of Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics, which is organised as one of the societies belonging to the Slovak Medical Association. Since the beginning it closely co-operated with the Czech Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics and they alternated in organising common biannual biomedical engineering congresses. 2. National Society The Society of Biomedical Engineering was established in 1969 as one of the professional societies belonging to the Slovak Medical Association. It was founded by a group of medical engineers, biophysicists and medical doctors from universities, research and development as well as industrial institutions, but clinical engineers and doctors also joined. In 1996 it was transformed into the Society of Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics and two working sections, Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics, were established. Since its origin, the society is active mainly in the scientific and educational fields, but recently legislative activities became more and more important too in connection with the economic and health care system transformation in the country. The Society is involved mainly in following activities: - organisation of national and international congresses, conferences, seminars and workshops in biomedical engineering and medical informatics, - publishing activities, the Society is a co-publisher of the journal "Lka a technika" published in Czech and Slovak languages by the Czech Society as the main publisher, - co-operation with state institutions in preparation of new legislative regulations, which is important in connection with the approximation of Slovak legislative to the legislative of the EU. In 2002 the society has over 30 active members participating in most Society activities. Another more than 40 BME specialists co-operate with the Society on an informal basis. Most of the members are from universities and research institutions, some of them are clinical engineers and practising medical doctors. The Society is the official representative of the Slovak biomedical engineering and medical informatics community in the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE) and International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA).
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3. Biomedical Engineering Education, Training and Accreditation in Slovakia 3.1. Education Slovak universities have the right to render the university education and an exclusive right to grant titles and academic titles to graduates of the university study. The universities also have the right to execute scientific training in the form of doctoral study and an exclusive right to grant scientific academic degrees. Undergraduate study At present Biomedical Engineering in Slovakia is organised as an interdisciplinary study with fixed or flexible curriculum. Undergraduate BME courses are organised at three technical universities: at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University in Koice (FME TU), at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of ilina (EF UZ) and at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Slovak Technical University in Bratislava (FEI STU). Currently, at all universities biomedical engineering is a Master degree study only. Bachelor study has only a short tradition in Slovakia and is not introduced at all universities yet. However, current changes lead to an approximation to European universities, so the Bachelor degree in BME might be possible in the future. At FME TU specialised BME courses are taught in the 4th and 5th year of the study and the students graduate as mechanical engineers specialised in Biomedical Engineering. At EF UZ the students are specialised from the beginning of the study, however, some courses are common with other specialisations. The students graduate as electrical engineers specialised in Biomedical Engineering. At FEI STU optional courses of medical electronics are taught in the 4th and 5th year of the study, students graduate as electrical engineers specialised in Radioelectronics. Postgraduate study The PhD study is the highest type of University study in Slovakia. The goal of the PhD study is to prepare a candidate for individual creative scientific activity. Besides the above mentioned universities the Slovak Academy of Sciences as an external scientific and educational institution also has the right to organise postgraduate study. The Institute of Measurement Science (IMS) is one of the institutes of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, which has been authorised by the Ministry of Education to guarantee the postgraduate PhD study in the following scientific specialisations: 39-71-9 Measurement Science 39-52-9 Bionics and Biomechanics The standard duration of the study is 3 years and a student who successfully finishes the study obtains the PhD (Philosophiae Doctor) degree. The training residencies of the Bionics and Biomechanics postgraduate study, which is the currently possible official specialisation for BME students, are the Institute of Measurement Science in Bratislava and the Mechanical Engineering Faculty at the Technical University of Koice, which only has rights to award the PhD degree in Bionics and Biomechanics after approval by the Scientific board of the Faculty. Both training residencies are responsible for all the educational processes for all postgraduate students accepted for study at the residency. The common examination commission for thesis defence consists of members from several universities and institutes of the Slovak Academy of Sciences. The whole process of the postgraduate study in Bionics and Biomechanics is controlled by the Joined Scientific Board (JSB) situated in the Institute of Measurement Science. Members of the board are Scientists from the Institute of Measurement Sciences, the Technical University of
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Koice, the Slovak Technical University in Bratislava and the Medical Faculty of the Comenius University in Bratislava. The Bionics and Biomechanics PhD postgraduate study is designated for students with MSc. graduation or with an MD degree. Possible languages of study are Slovak or English. 3.2. Training In general, no special training is required for biomedical engineers at present. In some hospitals attestations similar to those passed by medical doctors are required for BME engineers who come into contact with patients. They usually have to pass some courses at the Postgraduate Academy of Medicine, including subjects on health care technologies and medical informatics. 3.3. Accreditation According to Slovak legislation accreditation of education is performed by state authorities, namely by the Accreditation Commission of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic. Currently only the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University in Koice and the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of ilina have accreditation for education in biomedical engineering. Only the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University in Koice currently has the right for habilitation of docents and inauguration of professors of biomedical engineering in Slovakia.
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Appendix Biomedical Engineering at the Technical University of Koice Biomedical engineering study at the Technical University of Koice was initiated in 1987 by the main producer of medical devices in the former Czechoslovakia - CHIRANA company in Star Tur. Instrumental engineering was the background for that programme. It meant basic level of knowledge on the subjects medical equipment design, system design, operation control and field service of instruments. The extra package of subjects was oriented on special medical knowledge. It was expected that these engineers would work in design and development of medical devices, in medical systems projecting and in the clinical engineering field at medical facilities. Theoretical fundaments are common for all students at the Mechanical Engineering Faculty. They take the first three years of study. In next the two years, students can choose Biomedical Engineering (current name) as their specialisation. It is a branch accredited by the Ministry of education of the Slovak Republic. The current courses of Biomedical Engineering include of following subjects:
a) obligatory: Biomedical Engineering I, II Measurement, Monitoring and Control Biomechanics Medical Electronics Anatomy and Physiology Fundamentals Biomechanisms b) elective: 4 th year Biophysics Biocybernetics Biomeasurement Sensors and Transducers Mechatronics Electrical Actuators Precision Mechanics Biomaterials and Biotolerance
Dependability and Safety of Instruments Components and Modules of Medical Instruments Ergonomic and Kinesiologic Measurements Medical Apparatuses I, II Medical Systems Design Human Engineering
5 th year Medical Products Design Rehabilitation Devices Surgical Technology Diagnostics and Therapy in Orthopaedics Maintenance and Diagnostics of Medical Instruments Small Business Foreign Language Physical Training
During last two years students also solve two semestral projects and a Diploma project, which are mostly parts of research or practical tasks for clinical field. Diploma projects orientation and numbers during period 1992 - 1999 Diploma project themes Numbers Rehabilitation 35 Measurement 22 Medical informatics 6 Stomatology 6 Others 27
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PhD postgraduate study of Bionics and Biomechanics The general orientation of the Bionics and Biomechanics specialisation is as follows: - biomedical engineering, - automated measuring and monitoring systems, - imaging methods and image processing - modelling of biological objects and structures, - sensoric systems, - neural networks, - artificial intelligence, - biomechanics, - biometrics. In accordance with the Bionics and Biomechanics main orientation, the postgraduate student must pass a qualifying examination (exam from 2-3 subjects based on selected thesis themes). One subject is from the group of a general character like selected parts of physics or mathematics, theoretical electrical engineering and others. Two subjects should be from the group of specialised areas like there are modelling, simulation and control in physiology; biomechanics; bio-cybernetics and biocontrol; rehabilitation engineering. Research in the field of BME BME research at the university is oriented mainly in the following activities: - medical manipulation systems, - rehabilitation systems, - exercise and diagnostic machines for motion system treatment, - sensors for clinical applications.
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Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of ilina The University of Zilina was established in 1953 as the University of Railway Transport in Prague. In 1959 the institution changed its name to University of Transport and moved to Zilina. In 1980 the name was amended to University of Transport and Communications and after wide-ranging changes at the beginning of the nineties, it was renamed to University of Zilina pursuant to the law passed by the Slovak National Council on November 20, 1996. Interdisciplinary study of Biomedical Engineering was prepared as a result of an international Tempus/Phare programme of the EU "Applied informatics in biomedicine and medical engineering" in the years 1996-1999 with participation of 4 universities from EU countries and 6 Slovak university and research institutions. The study started in 1999 and in 2000 the university obtained accreditation from the Ministry of education of the Slovak Republic to graduate students in the study branch Biomedical engineering. The interdisciplinary BME study is organised in co-operation with Jesenius Medical faculty, Comenius University in Martin. It takes five years and students graduate with the Universitys basic engineers degree (corresponding to MSc. degree). The students are specialised from the beginning of the study but some general courses are common with other study branches. The curriculum of the courses is selected such that the students should obtain not only theoretical technological knowledge but also knowledge of selected medical disciplines. Study subjects of Biomedical Engineering branch at the EF UZ Algebra and Geometry Mathematical Analysis 1, 2 Introduction to Engineering Physics 1, 2 Basic Chemistry Basics of Electromagnetic Compatibility Basic Human Anatomy and Histology 1, 2 Seminar of Physics Basic Biochemistry Algorithms Medical Biology Seminar of Theoretical Electricity 1, 2, 3 Medical Biophysics Probability and Statistics Sensors and Measuring Methods in Biomedicine Numerical and Discrete Mathematics Radiation and Protection from Radiation Simulation Languages Basic Physiology and Pathological Physiology 1,2 Wave Processes Digital Image Processing Quality Management Computer Modelling of Biosystems Introduction to Physics Diagnostic and Therapeutic Methods 1, 2 Structural Programming in C Modelling of Real Processes Theory of Circuits Basic Medical Bionics Complex Quality Management Biostatistics Physical Basis of Optoelectronics Electrical Measurements Logical Circuits Information Systems in Biomedicine Digital Signal Processing 1, 2 Tomographic Diagnostic Methods Database Systems Radiology and Nuclear Medicine Audio and Video Basics Bioethics and Medical Ethics Transport Media Management of Health Care Services Transportation Technology Seminar of Mathematics Data networks Computers Basics Neural Networks Materials for Electrical Engineering Microelectronic Systems Electrotechnology Digital Sound Processing High Programming Languages Analogue Circuits Functions of Complex Variable and Integral Psychology and Sociology
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Transformations Theoretical Electricity 1, 2, 3 Services of Computer Networks Theory of Information Electronics 1, 2 Theory of Signals and Systems
Gymnastics Foreign Language - English Foreign Language - German Professional English Professional German
Research in the BME field The university has established contacts with many universities in Slovakia and abroad. Professors and researchers at the university participate in international educational and research projects. These include the European Union projects TEMPUS, COPERNICUS, COST, SOCRATES ERASMUS, LEONARDO and, since 1994, the university has included the programme CEEPUS for collaboration with other universities in Central and Eastern Europe. The academic staff is actively involved in co-operation within the EU 5th Framework programme.
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Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Slovak Technical University, Bratislava The study of electrical engineering at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Slovak Technical University, Bratislava, takes 5 and a half years, with the Bachelor degree study taking 4 years and Master degree study 1 and a half years. Within the Department of Radioelectronics, the educational programme of medical electronics started in 1971 as the first in the Slovak part of Czechoslovakia. This specialisation is maintained until today and 6 special courses are taught for students oriented to medical electronics: subject Biophysics Sensors of Biosignals Medical Devices Digital Image Processing Dignostics in Medicine Biosignal Processing semester 7 7 8 9 10 10
The students graduate as Electrical Engineers (MSc.) with specialisation in Radioelectronics.
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Institute of Measurement Science, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava Students interested in biomedical engineering can also pass postgraduate courses at the Institute of Measurement Science, Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava. The Institute is the seat of the Joined Scientific Board (JSB) for Postgraduate Study in Bionics and Biomechanics and offers 3 years of study on selected topics. The students are graduated as PhDs (Philosophiae Doctor) at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Koice. Students of Measurement Science graduate as PhDs (Philosophiae Doctor) at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics of the Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava. Possible languages of study are Slovak or English. Requirements for the study are: - MSc graduation certificate, - Acquirement of integrated theoretical knowledge and mastering of scientific research methods, - Qualifying examination after the first year of study including an exam from 3 subjects based on the selected thesis theme and defence of a tractate (introduction) of the dissertation, - Dissertation defence at the end of the study. Postgraduate study of Bionics and Biomechanics is oriented towards the exploitation of knowledge of biological processes for solving problems of medical electronics, automated medical monitoring systems, medical imaging, modelling and simulation of biological objects and structures, medical sensor systems, neuronal networks and biomechanics. Depending on the theme of the dissertation, a selection of following subjects has to be studied: special subjects Biophysics Basic Physiology Normal Anatomy, Histology and Embryology Biochemistry Modelling, Simulations and Control in Physiology Biotechnology Electrical Measuring Methods, Sensors and Devices Imaging Methods and Systems Digital Image and Speech Processing Biosignal Processing and Analysis Medical Electronics Biomechanics and Biomechanisms Biocybernetics and Biocontrol Biomaterials Biomedical Optics Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields Medical Informatics Artificial Intelligence Applied Mechanics Rehabilitation Engineering Safety of Medical Devices Postgraduate study of Measurement Science is oriented to measuring methods in Biology and medicine, presumes a deep knowledge of mathematics and physics, enabling original solutions of general subjects Selected Parts of Mathematics, Selected Parts of Physics, Theoretical Electricity, Theory of Information and Signals, Theory of Electromagnetic Field, Probability and Mathematical Statistics
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problems of measurement science in biology and medicine based on the latest technologies, computing methods and informatics Depending on the theme of the dissertation, a selection of following subjects has to be studied: Selected Parts of Mathematics Selected Parts of Physics Measurement Theory Measuring Devices and Systems
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Biomedical Engineering in Slovenia D. Miklavcic, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia 1. Introduction Biomedical Engineering in Slovenia is a scientific discipline with rich tradition and a number of excellent research groups. It is well recognised and relatively well funded on a national level. Many of these research groups have also participated in European research programmes like BIOMED and 5th PCRD. In spite of all efforts so far Biomedical Engineering as a professional discipline is not recognised. The development of biomedical engineering in Slovenia started four decades ago with the research work of Professor Lojze Vodovnik on functional electrical stimulation. He was able to join efforts of medical doctors and engineers to work on problems related to rehabilitation of disabled patients. His enthusiasm and vision motivated many researchers throughout Slovenia. A number of new research groups were formed, and an educational programme of biomedical engineering was introduced at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana. He was also one of the founding members of the then Yugoslavian Society for Medical and Biological Engineering. After the fall of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the Slovenian Society for Medical and Biological Engineering was established and is now the member of the IFMBE. 2. The National Society The only society joining various individuals working actively in the area of biomedical engineering and those interested in it is the Slovenian Society for Medical and Biological Engineering which has a stable membership of about 100 members. The vast majority of members is coming from the University of Ljubljana and is actively involved in research. An important number of members is coming from hospitals and other medical institutions. The main activities of the Society are publishing of the Newsletter four times per year and organising various national and international scientific meetings. Three years ago a section for Clinical Engineering was formed with the aim to join all engineers working in medical institutions. Since their work is not well respected in hospitals they joined our Society in order to have an organisational structure allowing them to improve their work and cohesion. The majority of the members, however, are not active in the Society. The activities are strongly supported by researchers from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering. All the work and activities are performed on a voluntary basis. The Society has an excellent co-operation with the Croatian society CROMBES and good relationships with other national societies, e.g. Slovenian Biophysical Society and its section for Medical Physics. 3. Education 3.1. Undergraduate programme As a part of the university level electrical engineering programme, Biomedical Engineering is available to students at the University of Ljubljana. The duration of the electrical engineering university programme available is four and a half years and an
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additional half year for the preparation of diploma work. Students can choose to enter Biomedical Engineering courses after the third year. On average 10 students are enrolled in this sub-programme every year. Many of them continue their studies after graduation for a Masters degree and Ph.D. and work in research. In a very short time we expect the restructuring and reorganisation of undergraduate programmes in the light of Bologna declaration. 3.2. Postgraduate programme After graduation students can choose various courses offered by the University of Ljubljana. Some of the courses also cover different topics and areas of Biomedical Engineering. The choice of courses is variable and students are free to choose. No dedicated programme of Biomedical Engineering that would lead to the degree of Biomedical Engineer is available in Slovenia. In introducing Biomedical Engineering courses on the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, and throughout many reforms of higher education, the choice was made not to offer a special degree in Biomedical Engineering, due to low professional recognition and employment opportunities for biomedical engineers. This is the case for all specialities in Electrical Engineering and this way, the employment opportunities at least formally are not restricted. There is no formal accreditation of either Clinical or Biomedical Engineers in Slovenia. Appendix Undergraduate Programme of Biomedical Engineering at the University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Electrical Engineering. The Faculty of Electrical Engineering offers a five-year university programme (nine semesters of lectures and six months of Diploma thesis work), which leads to the degree University Dipl. Eng. of Electrical Engineering. The entry requirement for this programme is the national secondary school baccalaureate. Graduates from this programme can continue with M.S. and Ph.D. study.
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1st year
Common curriculum Common curriculum Power Eng.

PS ST CT
2nd year
3rd year
Automatic Control
Electronics
Telecommunications
4th year
PA PA
IS
RO CM
5th year
IS
RO CM DIPLOMA THESIS
PA - Process Automation IS - Intelligent Systems RO - Robotics CM - Cybernetics in Medicine
PS - Power Systems ST - System Technology CT - Construction Technology
The undergraduate programme of electrical engineering has a general core-curriculum in the first two years which consists of mathematics, physics, fundamentals of electrical engineering and computer engineering. After the second year students choose one of the fields of studies (Automatic Control, Electronics, Telecommunications or Power Engineering). Students choosing the Automatic Control field of studies can choose Biomedical Engineering (which in fact is called Cybernetics in Medicine, due to historical reasons) after the third year. The following courses form the Biomedical Engineering programme: 4th year: Biomedical Instrumentation Medical Informatics and Diagnostics Biocybernetics (covering basic biochemistry, biological evolution, cell biology, human physiology, molecular genetics, theory of chaos, therapeutic application of electrical currents in medicine, ...) Bioelectromagnetic Phenomena (covering volume conductor theory, health risk effects of electromagnetic fields, ...) 5th year: Biomedical Signal Processing Biomechanics Neurocybernetics (covering basic neurophysiology and functional electrical stimulation) The study programmes of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering are registered with the European Federation of National Engineering Associations (FEANI) and meet the criteria for the title EUR ING.
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Biomedical Engineering Education in Spain Laura M. Roa (1) and Enrique J. Gmez (2) (1) Biomedical Engineering Group, University of Seville (2) Biomedical Engineering and Telemedicine Research Centre, Technical University of Madrid
1. Introduction Biomedical engineering activities in Spain started 25 years ago around several research groups located at Barcelona, Madrid, Valencia and Seville universities and hospitals. Teaching activities were initiated in the 80s in universities of those main cities. Since then many other universities have created undergraduate and postgraduate educational programmes in biomedical engineering. Nowadays more than 60 undergraduate courses in biomedical engineering are offered by 8 Spanish universities. They are listed in Appendix 1. The number of research centres is even bigger, growing up to 20, showing the more intense activity in research rather than in education in Spain. A non-exhaustive list of some of the most important research centres is included in Appendix 2. The BME education scenario in Spain will change in the next months after the official approval of a new degree on Biomedical Engineering. This second-cycle degree is a clear recognition of the current relevance of the biomedical engineering field in Spain. This degree is being developed by several universities in response to the growing demand of the Spanish society to incorporate biomedical engineers into the industrial, university and health sectors.
2. The National Society The first BME National Society named Asociacin Espaola de Bioingeniera (Spanish Association of Bioengineering) was created by a small group of BME researchers at the beginning of the 70s. This society has evolved during the last years to the current Spanish Society of Biomedical Engineering (SEIB Sociedad Espaola de Ingeniera Biomdica). The SEIBs main goal is to promote and support the research and education activities of professionals, researchers and students that work in the Biomedical Engineering field in Spain. This society belongs to the International Federation of Medical and Biomedical Engineering.
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Nowadays the SEIB has 150 members working in many BME areas such as bioelectronics, modelling of physiological systems, telemedicine, biosignal processing, medical imaging, biomechanics, etc. The SEIB has fostered many scientific conferences and activities having the responsibility for the organisation of its Annual Conference and an International Symposium on Biomedical Engineering held every four years.
3. BME Education, Training and Accreditation in Spain
3.1 Education Undergraduate courses BME undergraduate courses are not provided in a homogeneous way by Spanish universities. Most universities are offering these courses as elective subjects under engineering degrees such as Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. Postgraduate courses Postgraduate studies are mainly pursued at the Doctoral level. The PhD is a research degree (normally of 3 years duration) comprising courses and research work. This situation is currently changing due to the last Spanish Doctoral Law that allows universities to offer a Third-Cycle Degree after students overcome the PhD courses and before getting the PhD degree. Other activities Many other training and education seminars are organised by research groups in specific BME areas.
3.2 Training Biomedical engineers in Spain are not undergoing training activities in addition to their education.
3.3 Accreditation In Spain, there are neither established procedures nor criteria for BME accreditation.
3.4 The new degree: Biomedical Engineering
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This degree arose from a joint effort of several BME educational and research groups from five Spanish universities (Barcelona, Madrid, Seville, Valencia and Zaragoza). The degree is already officially approved and will be developed and set up in the next years. It is a Second Cycle degree (4 and 5 course of Engineering Degree) consisting of a minimum of 120 hours of lectures. The mandatory subjects constitute a minimum of 75 hours of lectures including subjects such as Medical Foundations of BME, Bioelectronics, Bioinstrumentation, Biomedical Signals and Images, Biomaterial and Biomechanics, Physiological Modelling and Simulation, Medical Decision Support Systems, Information Technologies and Communications in Medicine, Clinical Engineering and Health Care Models. The elective subjects are organised around three main specialities: Bioelectronics and Biomedical Instrumentation Information Technologies and Communications in Medicine Biomechanics and Rehabilitation Engineering
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Appendix 1 List of Biomedical Engineering Courses in Spain
Technical University of Catalonia Degrees Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering PhD Programme in Biomedical Engineering Master Programme in Bioengineering Undergraduate courses Medical instrumentation Engineering in medicine Postgraduate courses (PhD) Bioelectric signals acquisition systems Frequency analysis of biomedical signals Bioelectrical signal processing Multivariante analysis of biomedical data Nonlinear modelling of biomedical systems Biomedical image processing by fuzzy techniques Biomedical instrumentation Electrical safety in the electronic design Interaction of electromagnetic fields and biological systems Electromagnetic compatibility Biomechanics Robotics in medicine Postgraduate courses (Master) Introduction to biomedical engineering Biomedical instrumentation Therapeutic devices Clinical engineering Hospital safety Biomedical signals and images processing Statistical analysis of biomedical data Analysis and modelling of biomedical systems Biomechanics Biomaterials
Technical University of Cartagena
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Degrees Control and Industrial Electronics Engineering PhD Programme in Robotics Vision and Biomedical Engineering Undergraduate courses Biosignal instrumentation Postgraduate courses (PhD) Biomedical engineering Technical University of Madrid Degrees Telecommunications Engineering (Biomedical Engineering Speciality, comprising six BME subjects) PhD in Telecommunications Engineering (including Biomedical Engineering) Undergraduate Courses (Biomedical Engineering Speciality) Foundations of biomedical engineering Biomedical signal processing and medical imaging Telemedicine Neurosensorial engineering Lab. of telemedicine Lab. of biomedical signal processing and medical imaging Postgraduate courses (PhD programme) Telemedicine Medical imaging Biomedical sensors and instrumentation Medical decision-support systems Postgraduate courses (Master) Information technologies in medicine Telemedicine and information systems for physicians New information technologies for nurses Information processing in hospitals Medical imaging Information technologies for managers
Technical University of Valencia Degrees Electronics, Automatics and Telecommunications Engineering Informatics Engineering PhD in Bioengineering and Instrumentation Undergraduate courses
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Bioelectronics (Telecommunications Engineering) Bioelectronics (Automatics and Electronics Engineering) Biomedical signals and images Bioinformatics
Postgraduate courses (PhD programme) Amplification of bioelectric signals Bioelectronics. bioelectric signals Biosensors Modelling of bioelectric systems (I) Modelling of bioelectric systems (II) Biomedical instrumentation Electromagnetic compatibility: shielding and grounding Signal acquisition Biosignal processing techniques Low level signal acquisition and processing. Application to bioengineering Analysis and diagnostic techniques applied to biological signals.
University of A Corua Degrees Licenciated in Informatics Postgraduate courses (PhD programme) Medical Informatics
University of Sevilla Degrees Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Postgraduate courses (PhD programme) Biomedical engineering
University of Valencia Degrees Electronics Engineering Undergraduate courses Biomedical engineering
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University of Vigo Degrees Telecommunications Engineering Undergraduate courses Foundations of biomedical engineering Biomedical signal processing
University of Zaragoza Degrees Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Postgraduate courses (PhD programme) Design of electromedical devices Neural networks for modelling and simulation Electrical implants for in vivo physiological data acquisition Rehabilitation Surgery simulators for training Home automation for elderly and handicapped Universidad Nacional de Educacin a Distancia (UNED) Postgraduate courses Biomedical techniques and instrumentation
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Appendix 2 List of Biomedical Engineering Research Centres
Technical University of Catalonia Biomedical Engineering Research Centre (CREB) The CREB research network is comprised by five divisions: Biomaterials and biomechanics Instrumentation, sensors and interfaces group Biomedical signals and systems Robotics and vision Dosimetry and ionising radiation Its working areas are: Bioimpedance measurements: impedance tomography and spectroscopy Biosignal acquisition, processing and analysis Physiological monitoring by non-invasive measurements Diagnostic, therapeutic and preventive systems Implants and biomaterials Technologies for the handicapped Applications of radiation to medicine
Technical University of Cartagena Medical and Industrial Electronics Group (EIMED) Its working areas are: Medical equipment innovation, Technical aids for handicapped people Elderly care services Evaluation of cognitive and functional skills
Technical University of Madrid Biomedical Engineering and Telemedicine Research Centre (GBT) The GBT R&D centre has two research laboratories: Telemedicine Medical Imaging. Its working areas are: Research on telemedicine applications Biomedical signal processing Data mining
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Intelligent monitoring and decision support systems Home care technology, systems and services Medical image processing and visualisation Surgery simulators for laparoscopic surgery
Biomedical Image Technology Group (BIT) Its working areas are: Analysis of quantitative and functional studies: cardiac and cerebral activity Automatic analysis of optical microscopy images Magnetic resonance acquisition techniques
Technical University of Valencia Bioengineering Net Centre (BNT) The BNT research network spreads over eight divisions: Bioengineering, Electronics and Telemedicine Group Centre of Biomaterials Centre of Research and Innovation on Bioengineering (ci2b) High Performance Networking Computation Group Institute of Biomechanics of Valencia Integrated Laboratory of Bioengineering (LIB) Laboratory of Computer Medical Imaging Medical-Physics Engineering of Ionising Radiations Group Centre of Research and Innovation on Bioengineering (ci2b) This centre comprises the following research groups: Bioelectronics and Medical Instrumentation Group Advanced Graphics Applications Group Inmunotechnology Group Integrated Laboratory of Bioenginering (LIB) This laboratory comprises the following sections: Bioelectronics and Biosensors Immunoassays and Monoclonal Antibodies Production Unit Its working areas are: Biomaterials Biomechanics Bioelectronics Medical instrumentation Medical images Surgery assistance Information and communication technologies in medicine Bio-analysis
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Radio-physics
University of A Corua Laboratory for Research and Development in Artificial Intelligence (LIDIA) Its working areas are: Medical applications of expert systems Intelligent patient monitoring and management Medical informatics Representation of temporal knowledge in biomedical domains
University of Navarra (Public University) Medical Applications of Radiofrequencies and Microwaves Group Its working areas are: Treatment of cancer by hyperthermia Treatment of cardiac arrhythmia by catheter ablation
University of Sevilla Biomedical Engineering Research Group Its working areas are: Modelling and simulation of physiological systems Integration of information technologies and communications in biomedical systems Bioelectromagnetism
University of Valencia Digital Signal Processing Group (GPDS) Its working areas are: Biomedical signal processing Medical diagnosis aid and support systems
University of Zaragoza BioEngineering Research Group of the University of Zaragoza (BERGUZ) The BERGUZ research group spreads over four divisions: Group of Structural Mechanics Group of Biomaterials Group of Medical Signal Processing Electromedical Instrumentation Group
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Its working areas are: Constitutive behaviour of bone and biological soft tissues Finite element analysis of fractured bones and implants Applications of shape memory alloys in medicine UHMWPE in total joint replacements Medical signal processing Design of electromedical devices Modelling and simulation of neural networks
Hospital Universitario Puerto de Hierro (Facultad Medicina Universidad Autnoma de Madrid) Bioengineering and Telemedicine Laboratory Its working areas are: Biomedical signal processing Medical imaging processing Teleradiology Out-of-hospital follow-up and monitoring
Instituto de Salud Carlos III Dept. of Research on Telemedicine and Information Society Its working areas are: Telemedicine
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Biomedical Engineering in Sweden Swedish Society for Medical Engineering and Medical Physics Edited by Olof Lindahl Ume University, Sweden
INTRODUCTION
Biomedical Engineering (BME) in Sweden is a scientific as well as a professional discipline with a long Swedish history. There are several larger academic centres in Sweden that offer education in the field of BME, e.g. Linkping University, Chalmers University in Gothenburg, and also in Stockholm, Lund, Malm and Ume. Those universities also have Ph.D.- programmes in BME. There are also BME-programmes at universities in Uppsala, Mlardalen, rebro, Bors etc. The Swedish Society for Medical Engineering and Medical Physics gives courses and has a self-accreditation system for professionals in BME and there are several other organisations in Sweden that are engaged in giving courses and creating networks for BME professionals, e.g. SLF (for BME-companies), Kanalen MT, SEMKO etc. BME has been a scientific discipline in Sweden since 1950 when the first Swedish professor, Henry Wallman, introduced it as a subject at Chalmers University. Today there are more than 20 professorships in BME at Swedish universities. The Swedish society has members from BME industry, universities, and hospitals and from other organisations with connections to BME. Sweden has a very good reputation concerning development of new companies from BME ideas and several organisations are involved in that business, usually commissioned by the Swedish government. 2 The National Society
The Swedish Society for Medical Engineering and Medical Physics (MTF) is working in the fields of medical physics, biomedical engineering and biophysics. The society was first founded in 1956 and it was called at that time "The Swedish Society for Medical Physics and Medical Engineering". The society was also affiliated to the Royal Swedish Society of Medicine in 1956 and hence, MTF is one of the oldest sections of it. In the beginning the members of MTF had technological, medical or scientific backgrounds and their main interest was in the fields of research and higher education. In 1971 a subdivision, "The Division of Engineering in Health Care" was founded to meet the demands, not only from the persons who were working in clinical engineering at the hospitals and engineers from industry manufacturing biomedical equipment, but also from the medical doctors working with biomedical equipment in their everyday life. Since the activities of these two groups within the main society served the same purpose, the annual meetings 1981 decided that the groups should join together and establish a mutual society with the present name. The society started to act in the new form in 1982 and today has about 1000 members. Most of the members, about 70%, are working with service and maintenance of medical equipment, but also taking a part in development and research projects, especially in the larger hospitals. About 10% of the members are employed by universities and therefore involved with education of graduate students in biomedical engineering. However, even the clinical engineers at the hospitals give education to nurses and other health care staff in biomedical 1
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and clinical engineering. Almost all of the members employed by universities work with own research projects in several fields of biomedical engineering. In Sweden there is a great number of companies, which are working with biomedical engineering. Some are small and others larger, but only 14% of the MTF members are employed by these companies. Very often these members have a past within the clinical engineering departments at the hospitals, but they might also have been student members. The goals of MTF are to support and encourage the scientific development and education within the areas of interest to arrange seminars and meetings on current topics. - to work for clinical engineering in health care, that is well adapted to its purpose and is of high quality to work for the exchange of experience and co-operation between the members to work actively for increased competence and educational level of the clinical staff concerned and for increased safety for the patients and personnel the society acts actively in standardisation of Medical devices and equipment through members who are working in several national and international standardisation committees and it acts as a body to which proposed standards and official reports are referred for consideration. 3 3.1 EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND ACCREDITATION Education
There are university degrees in BME on the levels of 120 and 180 ECTS engineering programmes as well as on the MSc level. Furthermore there are Ph.D.-programmes at the larger universities. The foundation of all those programmes is traditional engineering education with more or less courses in medicine and BME. For more details see Appendix 1. 3.2 Courses and training
MTF arranges several post graduate courses during each term. Some of these courses are recurrent like "Medicine for Engineers" and some are arranged only once, often required by new laws and regulations or new technologies, but also the members can propose topics for a course. The members at their hospitals or at the local universities organise most of the courses. Often the lecturers come from the same organisation, a fact that will hold the costs of the course low. As an example of recent courses can be mentioned "Respiratory Physiology", "Ultrasound Technology" and "Legal Consequences of the Responsibility for the Medical Equipment in Health Care". The next course that will be arranged in April is the above mentioned "Medicine for Engineers" and already in May there will be arranged a course in "EMC-Electromagnetic Compatibility of Electromedical Systems". The courses are a very important source of income for the society. The Society also organises different national meetings and symposia. One appreciated meeting has been the "Biomedical Engineering Day", during which special technologies have been presented and discussed. In the past there have been topics like laser technology, biomagnetism and thermo therapy. In the beginning of April NUTEK, the Swedish National 2
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Board for Industrial and Technical Development, arranges a two day meeting on biomedical engineering research. During these two days several research projects will be presented. The projects are from areas as biocompatibility, medical image analysis and minimal invasive medical technology. MTF's programme deals with actual issues in clinical engineering, for example Quality Assurance (QA), Quality Audit and accreditation of hospital laboratories. MTF has also arranged a larger meeting in QA a few years ago in order to elucidate the specific issues of the QA in biomedical and clinical engineering. This meeting can bee seen as a starting point for the co-operation with the Medical Quality Council. This council was established in 1992 and its aim is to work with QA in medical practice. However, MTF has its own Quality Committee, which works at the moment for consensus of how to measure quality in the field of clinical engineering. The Annual Meeting of the society is held in Stockholm in late November or in early December in connection to the Annual conference of the Royal Swedish Society of Medicine. This conference is a four-day arrangement with oral and poster sessions and the largest medical fair in Sweden. At the MTF annual meeting the society awards some person who has achieved distinguished research work in biomedical engineering or medical physics. The amount of this award, the Erna Ebeling prize, has been slightly more than SEK30000 during the last few years. In connection to the Annual Meeting a session is arranged with presentation of scientific papers and technical reports from a variety of biomedical fields. Following topics have been covered recently: construction of ectomographic gamma camera system, optical transillumination for mammography with non ionising radiation, X-ray radiography using laser produced plasma, spectral analysis of heart rate variability, estimation of leakage flow through heart valves, hyperthermal treatment and decision support in respiratory treatment. Sometimes even symposia are arranged to cover more thoroughly topics of interest, for example a symposia with the title "Economic control and clinical engineering for or against a cost effective health care system". There are also other organisations in Sweden that give courses in the area of BME, e.g.: SLY, Swedish organisation/network for BME-companies. Kanalen MT, gives BME courses. SEMKO, gives courses and is specialised on MDD and CE-marking
3.3
Certification/Accreditation by MTF
There is no actual government approved accreditation from BME professionals in Sweden. However, the Annual MTF Meeting approved in 1993 a proposal according to which members have the possibility to apply for Certification in Clinical or Biomedical Engineering and this process was started in September 1994. The aim of this procedure is to provide for: 1. the patient's demands of controlled and safe medical equipment 2. the health care system's needs of well-defined competence 3. the individual engineer that the health care system makes the best use of his competence. Each application to become a Certified Clinical or Biomedical Engineer will be assessed by an Accreditation Panel. This panel will place considerable emphasis on checking that the candidate has not only the formal education, but also a competence, which is well in accordance with the aims of this procedure. Last year 115 members applied for certification 3
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and 75 of them were certified. In the first occasion for 1995 to apply for certification more than 100 members have send their applications. 4. 4.1 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF STANDARDISATION AND CONTACTS WITH AUTHORITIES HSS, the Swedish Health Care Standards Institution, represents Sweden in ISO and CEN in matters dealing with standardisation of equipment, material and use of equipment and material in health care and medical services. HSS has the purpose to look after the field of standardisation together with Swedish experts to pursue the Swedish interests in the international standardisation work. A number of technical committees and working groups are working within HSS for the purpose to work out proposals for Swedish standards and to review the proposals for international standards. MTF is represented in these committees and working groups, e.g. in TK62, which is the national counterpart of the IEC TC62. In this way the society takes part in the European and international standardisation work. MTF is also included in the group of reviewing organisations so that even a larger number of society members can judge the proposals. It is not only the HSS, which organises the standardisation work in Sweden. SEK, the Swedish Electrical Committee, has a working group that works with the Electromedical equipment. In this group the society is also represented. The society has good relations to the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs and to the National Board of Health and Welfare, which makes it possible to discuss important matters of the fields of activity with key-persons. These authorities use the society as a reviewing organisation when new laws and ordinances that affect the fields of biomedical and clinical engineering or medical physics are to be established. In judging accidents or near accidents the National Board of Health and Welfare often consults the society with its expertise. However, it is important that this type of events is reported so those colleagues will be informed of them. It will be discussed within the society how to improve the flow of information and how it can be made more accessible. 4.2 International activities The engagement of MTF in international co-operation is formalised through the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering. However, several research institutes have contacts with other organisations and institutes. In 1967 the society arranged a World Congress on Biomedical Engineering in Stockholm and applied for the 1997 World Congress. But at the Kyoto meeting 1991 the application was withdrawn and MTF did offer full cooperation for Nice'97. MTF has hosted the Nordic Meeting in Biomedical Engineering twice, 1981 and 1993. This meeting has the status of an IFMBE regional meeting. The 9th Nordic Meeting on Medical and Biological Engineering, was arranged in June 13 16, 1993 in Lund. 236 participants from 24 different countries attended this meeting. During the three conference days 36 scientific sessions were held and each day two special lectures were given. The special lectures covered laser technology, MRI, nuclear medicine, ultrasound and biosensors. In addition two of the lectures were about the Lund University Hospital and the WHO University in Malm. The organisers worked very hard to make it possible for the colleagues from the Baltic countries to attend the conference and they succeeded well. Thus several new and important contacts were made during the conference. The representatives from the Baltic countries had also a 4
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possibility to describe for the IFMBE National Secretaries Committee the situation in the field of biomedical and clinical engineering in their countries. After the Lund meeting a biomedical engineering society was founded in Estonia and even in Lithuania and Latvia work is done to establish societies. This positive development in the Baltic countries is reflected by the new name that was adopted for the Nordic Meeting in Tampere, Finland in 1996 - "The 10th Nordic Baltic Meeting". The Swedish society is also taking part in this arrangement, both in the Organising Committee and the Scientific Committee.
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Appendix 1 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN SWEDEN (Source MEDTECH info 1/2000) Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering
University/ College
University Mlardalen of College of Bors University College, Vsters Electro-engineer Electro-engineer Bachelor of Electrotechnics in specialising in specialising in Science in specialising Biomedical Biomedical Biomedical Engineering, Engineering Engineering. Engineering. 180 ECTS Advanced May be masters course, supplemented starts in 2002 with one years studies ECTS 22,5 ECTS Courses in Comprehensive 15 courses during Medicine for Biomedical Biomedical terms 4-6 Technicians and engineering in Engineering Cell Biology in the third year the second year. Comprehensive courses whereof 15 ECTS are optional courses
Linkping Institute Technology
Mid Sweden University, stersund Electro-engineer specialising in Biomedical Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Specialised Biomedical Engineering University/ College Gllivare Distance Education via Ume University in B.Sc. in B.Sc. in Bachelor of B.Sc. Engineering Biomedical Science in Medical Engineering. Engineering, Visual Studies with Biomedical Individual 180 ECTS Engineering programme profile which started in 1999 Malm University Ume University Mlardalen University College, Vsters Industrial Economy specialising in Biomedical Engineering Sdertrn University College, Stockholm Management in Biomedical Engineering, Biomedical Engineering economist. May be supplemented with one
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Biomedical Engineering Orientation
years studies Special Emphasis on 30 ECTS 30 ECTS Note: This is programme X-ray, MRI, Biomedical Biomedical not a B.Sc. including X- radiology etc. Engineering Engineering, Programme of ray, 45 ECTS of which 7,5 30 ECTS Engineering. ultrasound, Biomedical ECTS Business 90 ECTS MRI and Engineering Radiology Economy Economy, 48 other imaging of which 22,5 ECTS technology ECTS Biomedical Radiology Engineering, 42 ECTS Applied Physics
Master of Science in Biomedical Engineering University/ Linkping College Institute of Technolog y Chalmers University of Technolog y, Gteborg Technical ElectroElectroPhysics and technology technology Electrospecialising specialising technology in in Signals with Biomedical and Biomedical Engineering Systems Engineering profile Minimum requirement for Biomedical Engineering profile is 25,5 ECTS 7,5 ECTS foundation course in Biomedical Engineering , 15 ECTS specialisati Royal Institute of Technolog y, Stockholm Lund Ume Institute of University Technolog y Technical Physics with special emphasis on Biomedical Engineering Technical Physics with Medical Radiation Physics profile University College of Bors
Master of Science in Engineerin g, 270 ECTS
Courses in Biomedical engineerin g
Masters Programme of Electrotechnology specialising in Biomedical Engineering , starting in 2002 6,75 ECTS 6 ECTS Comprehen Supplement Medicine Medicine sive ary course for for advanced for B.Sc. in Technicians Technicians courses in Engineering , 7,5 ECTS , 6 ECTS Radiology specialising Medical Medical and in Electronics Measureme Medical Biomedical 7
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from a on in broad optional selection of areas 3-9 ECTS courses in Medical Technology
nt Radiation Techniques Physics
Engineering . Comprehen sive courses in Medical Technology as from the third year.
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Biomedical Engineering in Switzerland Dieter Meier and Ralph Mller Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University and ETH Zrich, Switzerland 1. INTRODUCTION Biomedical Engineering in Switzerland is a scientific and professional discipline with a wide range of career options. Teaching activities in Switzerland started in 1970 when a new Institute of Biomedical Engineering was integrated at the University of Zrich and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH, Technical University). The integration of Biomedical Engineering at the Faculty of Medicine of the University and within the Departments of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Natural Sciences at ETH was essential for the success of Biomedical Engineering within Switzerland. Basic and applied research in the field of BME has played an increasingly important role in Switzerland over the last decades. After the 1970s BME has also been established at other Swiss universities and universities of applied sciences. 2. THE NATIONAL SOCIETY The National Society, the Swiss Society of Biomedical Engineering (SSBE), was founded in 1970 and is, today, well established at the Swiss universities and companies. One of the goals of the Society is to build a network for education, research, manufacturing and politics within the background of BME. With the organisation of regular scientific meetings, all these fields are brought together. Annual scientific prices stimulate also younger members to play an active role in the Society. One of the long term plans of the Society are a stronger integration of small and large companies in the SSBE and to become an important partner with respect to education in the different universities and universities of applied sciences (UAS, Fachhochschulen) as well as the various federal and state-based technology institutes. The field of Medical Physics is separated from the activities of the Society and is represented by another national partner society (Swiss Society of Radiobiology and Medical Physics). These two societies work together very closely and have a long-standing tradition of organising common activities such as yearly meetings and industry visits on a regular basis. In 2001, SSBE included an active membership of 15 corporate members and 125 individual members. Most of the individual members work at the universities, the universities of applied sciences, and the affiliated technology institutes. Other members are engineers and physicians working at hospitals and in biomedical companies. The Society represents the Swiss biomedical community in the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE) and it is also a member of other national and international societies such as the European Society for Engineering in Medicine (ESEM), the International Union for Physical and Engineering Sciences in Medicine (IUPESM), and the Swiss Academy of Engineering Sciences (SATW).
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3. EDUCATION, TRAINING AND ACCREDITATION IN SWITZERLAND 3.1. Education In Switzerland there are currently no degree courses in biomedical engineering at the university level. Biomedical engineering is typically taught as part of other more classical engineering disciplines such as electrical and mechanical engineering. Currently, M.Sc. degrees in electrical and mechanical engineering are awarded with a major in biomedical engineering. The largest educational programmes in biomedical engineering can be found at the two Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology (ETH/EPF) in Zrich and Lausanne where most of Switzerlands engineering degrees at the university level are decreed. It is expected that in the future and with the introduction of the Bachelor/Masters degrees at the university level as part of the Bologna declaration there will also be specific graduate and undergraduate degree courses in biomedical engineering. Additionally, Ph.D. degrees in biomedical engineering can be obtained from ETH/EPF as well as the University of Bern Medical School as part of the universities research programmes. The programme is open to national and international candidates with a masters degree in engineering, physics, or similar qualification. Since the Ph.D. programme in Switzerland has a strong research component, the project work can be performed either directly at ETH/EPF or other accredited universities, affiliated technology institutes, and various university hospitals as well as biomedical companies with independent research departments. At the level of the universities of applied sciences, there are several undergraduate degree courses in engineering with a specialisation in biomedical engineering available such as the UAS Buchs and Winterthur. Additional information on the various degree courses in biomedical engineering in Switzerland can be found at the following web pages: http://www.ethz.ch/education/ http://www.epfl.ch/Eformation.html http://www.ntb.ch/ http://www.zhwin.ch/ 3.2. Training Currently, the Society is not directly involved in continuous training of the biomedical engineers in Switzerland except for the organisation of meetings and industry visits for its members. Postgraduate training is also possible at ETH/EPF, where a twoyear course in Medical Physics has been offered since 1994. Besides the aspect of Medical Physics this postgraduate course also includes tracks on biomedical engineering, biomechanics, and tissue engineering and has always attracted physicists, engineers and physicians alike. A postgraduate programme in Medicine, Technology and Management can be found at the University of Applied Sciences Bern and a programme in Medical
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Systems Engineering has been developed at the Interstate University of Applied Sciences of Technology in Buchs. Additional information on postgraduate training courses in biomedical engineering in Switzerland can be found at the following web pages: http://www.biomed.ee.ethz.ch/nds/ http://www.hta-be.bfh.ch/~wwwmed/ http://www.ntb.ch/WB/NDS-NDK/ 3.3. Accreditation As in most European countries, university accreditation in Switzerland is performed by federal and state authorities. Nevertheless, the implementation of new degree courses such as a Masters in Biomedical Engineering is currently in the hands of the universities. With the implementation of a national body of accreditation and quality control in education, this is likely to change in the future. The Swiss Society of Biomedical Engineering is actively involved to help instrument new accreditation procedures as well as new degree courses in Biomedical Engineering as a partner for university leadership, members of parliament and government administration.
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Biomedical Engineering in the Netherlands Dick W Slaaf, Eindhoven University of Technology 1. INTRODUCTION In the Netherlands, Biomedical Engineering is covering various scientific and professional disciplines with a variety of career possibilities. The Vereniging voor Biofysica en Biomedische Technologie [The Netherlands Society for Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, URL: www.vvb-bmt.nl] represents scientists originating from the Exact Sciences working in the biomedical field. At present, Biomedical Engineering can be studied in the Netherlands either as a bachelor/master programme at the Eindhoven University of Technology and the University of Twente or as a specialisation during the master phase after a bachelor degree in an engineering discipline or physics at several other universities. The Nederlandse Vereniging voor Klinische Fysica [The Dutch Society for Medical Physics, URL: www.nvkf.nl] is well established and represents physicists and engineers that work in health care and are closely involved with clinical patient care. This society accredits education and training for Medical or Clinical Physics as a specialisation after a master in Physics or Engineering. 1.1 The development of Biomedical Engineering In the eighteenth century, the Dutch physician Herman Boerhave pointed out that the understanding and application of physics was of utmost importance for a medical doctor. Boerhave was lucky enough to be able to use a thermometer of Fahrenheit. In this way measurement instruments advanced into the hospital. However, physics also helped in the development of conceptual models for the understanding of biological phenomena. In the early part of the twentieth century, when electronic devices were not yet available, some Dutch researchers performed important work on the human heart. Willem Einthoven performed fundamental research on the recording of heart potentials using his invention: the snare Galvanometer. In present times, the Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a routine application in the clinic. Burger, professor at the University of Utrecht, perfected many biomedical measurement techniques and founded the first Department of Medical Physics in the Netherlands. A broader application of the ideas and techniques of Engineering and the Sciences to Medicine and Biology developed in the last part of the twentieth century. Biomedical Engineering has become very important in recent years. All over the world Biomedical Engineering Education programmes have been and are being developed either as new [sometimes integrated] programmes, or as part of existing engineering and physics programmes. Nowadays in the Netherlands, a close collaboration exists of Biomedical Engineers and Clinical Physicists on the one hand with researchers in Medicine and Biology on the other, leading to the development of engineering solutions to biomedical problems. Biomedical Engineering flourishes in a multidisciplinary environment. A very interesting observation is the fact that in the Dutch Biomedical Engineering programmes the participation of women and men is about equal, which differs quite dramatically from the male domination in other engineering disciplines.
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At this very moment, a new position is being created in the field of Medicine: the Medical Engineer. Education in this new discipline of Medical Engineering (see below) will start this year at the Eindhoven University of Technology. 2. THE NATIONAL SOCIETIES In the Netherlands Biomedical Engineers are represented by two different societies: The Vereniging voor Biofysica en Biomedische Technologie [The Netherlands Society for Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering] and The Nederlandse Vereniging voor Klinische Fysica [Dutch Society for Medical Physics]. 2.1 The Netherlands Society for Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering On February 13, 1932, the Stichting Biofysica [Foundation for Biophysics] was founded. Aims were to stimulate communication between Biophysicists and to create possibilities for new research. In 1978 these aims were adopted by the Society for Biophysics. As of that time, the new Foundation for Biophysics promotes especially subsidising of research. On March 24, 1999 the name of the Society for Biophysics was changed into Vereniging voor Biofysica en Biomedische Technologie [VvBBMT, The Netherlands Society for Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering], in order to acknowledge the fact that the vast majority of its membership consisted of Biomedical Engineers. The Society has more than 650 individual members and covers with this membership the majority of the Dutch professionals in this field. The VvBBMT is member of the International Union for Pure and Applied Biophysics (IUPAB), the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE), the European Biophysical Societies Association (EBSA) and the European Society for Engineering and Medicine (ESEM). The Society is organised in various divisions and sections: Organ Physics Sections: o Heart and Circulation; o Lung Function; o Physics of Respiration. Cellular and Molecular Physics Sections: o Molecular Biophysics; o Transport and Biomembranes; o Cell Biophysics; o Electrophysiology; o Vital Cell Imaging. Neuro Physics Sections: o Auditory System; o Movement Control; o Ophthalmological Physics; o Visual Informatics. Technical Biophysics Sections: o Biomedical Engineering; o Biomedical Optics.
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This covers all major fields of interest. The divisions and sections of the VvBBME organise scientific meetings in order to stimulate Biophysics within the Netherlands and meet in a general scientific meeting every second year. The society has a website: http://www.vvb-bmt.nl 2.2 The Dutch Society for Medical Physics (Nederlandse Vereniging voor Klinische Fysica, NVKF) was established in 1973. The society has about 350 members with 180 of them officially registered as Medical Physicist (this is about 90% of the Medical Physicists in the Netherlands). The name Medical Physicist is a protected name and profession, and requires 4 years of postgraduate training. The society is a member of the European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics (EFOMP) as well as the International Organisation for Medical Physics (IOMP). Medical Physicists are responsible for the standardisation and calibration of the medical instrumentation, in close co-operation with medical and paramedical professionals. Furthermore, they are responsible for the accuracy and safety of physics methods, applied in the hospital for diagnosis and therapy. The medical physicist, therefore, often has a strong position with respect to radiation safety, investments in medical equipment and independent quality control. Medical professionals and hospital management rely heavily upon his or her judgement. Subjects of the profession can be divided into five areas of interest: General Medical Physics, Radiation Therapy, Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Audiology. Publications The society publishes a quarterly journal in an edition of 700, each issue devoted to a specific topic of interest. This journal is sent to all members and also to most hospital boards of directors. The journal offers advertising opportunities to commercial companies. A homepage is published on the Internet (http://www.nvkf.nl). 3. ENGINEERING IN THE BIOMEDICAL FIELD
The introduction of Engineering in the field of Medicine and Biology has lead to a variety of fields, each with specific requirements. 3.1 Biomedical Engineering In Biomedical Engineering, problems are approached from various disciplines. Knowledge about the functioning of the human body, understanding by using mathematical models and computer simulations, data collection and design of new techniques and research methods all play an important part in the education. A Biomedical Engineer closely interacts with engineers of various technical disciplines, but also with biologists, biochemists and medical specialists. Biomedical Engineering is a good starting point for further specialisation. Education in Biomedical Engineering in the Netherlands focuses on research aspects, but graduates are expected to find jobs in research laboratories, hospitals, biomedical companies, etc. 3.2 Medical Physics Medical Physicists play an important role in diagnosis and treatment of patients, regarding the application of methods from Physics and techniques. The responsibilities of a Medical Physicist are best explained using the Policy Statement of the European Federation of Organisations in Medical Physics [EFOMP]: The roles, responsibilities and status of the Clinical Medical Physicist. A Medical
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Physicist is a supporting specialist in the hospital. He plays an essential role in medical care and service. The main responsibility of the Medical Physicist is to ensure a high level of care in the hospital. Two roles may be discerned: clinical physics [usually not covered by medical, paramedical or technical specialisations] and research for and development of new techniques, physical methods, and equipment. 3.3 Medical Engineering Medical Engineers will become engineers in clinical practice. They will work in clinical teams and have an independent contribution to diagnosis, intervention, planning of operations, etc. It concerns those activities where the application of highquality technology is essential. Examples are formation and interaction of medical images using MRI and CT in radiology, planning of radiation therapy in radiotherapy, but also solutions for eye and ear problems in ophthalmology and audiology. The ongoing developments in technology (among others as a result of Biomedical Engineering) open new venues: Elaborate analyses and simulations will soon precede many high-quality, high-risk operations in brain, heart and vascular disease, orthopaedics, etc. Complicated decision supporting tools will be developed and used to optimise treatment. By acting more predictive in clinical problems, the contribution of the medical engineer will prove to be indispensable. It is anticipated that medical engineers will soon perform a number of tasks, now performed by medical doctors who are not educated to perform these tasks. 4. EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Engineering Education in the Netherlands occurs at the level of the School of Higher Vocational Education (HBO) or at the (Technical) Universities. Both tracks start after a suitable high school training. The level of education of the HBO is that of a Technician, at the (Technical) Universities it is of Masters level. The schools are licensed to accredit. This report limits itself to the academic Biomedical Engineering training. 4.1 Training in Biomedical Engineering A Biomedical Engineering degree may be obtained through an integrated bachelor/master education at the Eindhoven University of technology and the University of Twente. There the whole curriculum integrates the Sciences and Engineering disciplines from the onset with (cell-) biology and (patho-) physiology. The bachelor phase includes mathematics, physics, (bio-) mechanics, (bio-) chemistry, informatics, (bio-) statistics, cell biology, (bio-) molecular engineering, signal theory, data modelling and processing. In Design Centred Learning the students acquire the following skills: to analyse, model, experiment, simulate, and design. Also communicative skills and report writing skills are developed. Several blocks are devoted to practical engineering and biomedical skills. In the Master phase, students will specialise in topics as Molecular Bioengineering, Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering, Biomedical Imaging and Informatics, Biosignals and Regulation, etc. Courses for these specialisations are provided from a rather general level to very specialised. The final year is spent in a (research) laboratory at the University or in institutions that closely collaborate with the University.
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Entrance requirement of the educations above is a high school diploma including Physics and Mathematics at the highest level or the profiles Nature and Technique or Nature and Health. At other Universities the Biomedical Engineering phase starts after a bachelor degree is obtained in Physics or an Engineering discipline. In these cases, biomedical courses such as (cell-) biology and (patho-) physiology are added in the Master phase. 4.2 (Post graduate) Training and registration of Medical Physicists In the Netherlands, training and education in Medical Physics is a postgraduate education controlled by the Dutch Society for Medical Physics. The society has set up a programme for continuing education and a system for accreditation. Professionals have to fulfil certain conditions [such as attending refresher courses] in order to successfully apply for re-registration every five years. The training and education programme takes 4 years. The training period consists of a general section lasting two years and another two years for specialised training in a chosen field. This is usually under the local supervision of a certified medical physicist in a hospital and under the supervision of the examination committee of the society. The general section can be divided into eight areas of knowledge, other than radiation hazards and general safety and risk analysis. The Dutch Society for Medical Physics also runs a 4-year Medical Physics curriculum at the Eindhoven University of Technology. After a basic training of 2 years, including 50% training at an institution for medical care, a 2-year period of practical experience is acquired at the Medical Physics Department of a hospital. Entrance requirements for education to Medical Physicist are: Master in Physics or Technical Physics of a Dutch University or a degree that is considered equivalent by the examination committee of the Dutch Society for Medical Physics. Applicants have to be employed for at least 50% by a recognised institution and to work under the guidance of a recognised instructor. The following has to be studied: anatomy, physiology, pathology, mathematics, statistics, physics, electronics, informatics, business economics, management, and organisation of health care. Part of the required knowledge is of general nature, meant for a good understanding of medical treatment, some is specialist, meant for direct application and responsibility for decision making. 4.3 Training in Medical Engineering This new Engineering discipline is only available at the Eindhoven University of Technology. The bachelor phase of the curriculum largely coincides with the bachelor of Biomedical Engineering at the Eindhoven University of Technology. In the Master phase, the students are educated in one specialty, for instance: (parts of) radiology, radiotherapy, anaesthesiology, intervention cardiology, etc. This phase has a dual track; much attention is given to mimic via simulations of practical problems and to predict the reactions to an intervention. 5. Engineering Accreditation In the Netherlands a governmental committee accredits engineering programmes. This holds for the various Schools of Higher Vocational Education, as well as for the Universities (of Technology). Each of the Universities is therefore licensed to register their students as Biomedical Engineer or an equivalent title. Only Medical Physics has
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a separate accreditation track. Here a register of specialists and the quality control of the education are kept by the society.
APPENDIX 1
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS INTEGRATED Programmes of Biomedical Engineering including Bachelor and Master Degree UNIVERSITY EINDHOVEN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY OF B.SC. IN BIOMEDICAL IN ENGINEERING; STARTED IN 1997 OF M.SC. IN BIOMEDICAL FIRST IN ENGINEERING; GRADUATES IN 2002. SPECIALISATIONS: MOLECULAR BIOENGINEERING Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering Biomedical Imaging and Informatics Biosignals and Bioregulation UNIVERSITY TWENTE OF
BACHELOR SCIENCE BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING MASTER SCIENCE BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
B.SC. IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING; STARTED IN 2001 M.SC. IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING; STARTS IN 2003. SPECIALISATIONS: Materials and Tissue Engineering Restorations of Human Functions Healthcare Technology
Bachelor of Science with Specialisation in Biomedical Engineering UNIVERSITY BACHELOR SCIENCE ENGINEERING BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING ORIENTATION UNIVERSITY OF GRONINGEN IN APPLIED OF B.SC. WITH BME IN PHYSICS SPECIALISATION: STARTED IN 1999 B.Sc. in Life Science and Biomedical Technology; with BME stream; starts in 2002
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Master of Science in Biomedical Engineering UNIVERSITY MASTER SCIENCE BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF GRONINGEN OF M.SC. IN BIOMEDICAL FIRST IN ENGINEERING: GRADUATES IN 2002. SPECIALISATIONS: Biomaterials Medical Instrumentation Medical Imaging
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Biomedical Engineering in Ukraine Prof. Yu. Liakh Donetsk Medical University Medical Physics Department. e-mail: liakh@dsmu.donetsk.ua The exact term Biomedical Engineering it is not used in Ukraine despite its generally wide usage and neither universities nor other schools of higher education schools currently prepare specialists. However, this does not mean that biomedical engineering research is not performed and specialists in this area are not trained in Ukraine. As a matter of fact, this is exactly what some departments of Biological and Medical Faculties of Universities are involved in. Education process allows students to acquire the knowledge necessary in the area of Biomedical Engineering. This is supported by the facts that many of our postgraduates successfully work in this area in many world research laboratories. Thus, the Master of Science degree takes 6 years for completion and the students are required to take the following basic courses: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Physiology, Microbiology, Genetics, Biophysics, Biochemistry, Virology, Molecular Biology, Biotechnology, Radiobiology, Cytology and Immunology. as well as many specialized courses: biophysical methods of investigation (molecular spectroscopy, electrical biophysics, electron microscopy), physical-chemical methods in biology, computer simulation, the base of theoretical physics, biophysics of photosynthesis, biophysics of excitable cells, the influence of the physical factors upon the biological objects, the structure and the function of proteins, biophysics of synapses, the methods of kinetic analyses in biology, biophysics of ion channels, biophysics of muscles, biophysics of nucleic acids, the base of molecular biology, biophysics of sensor systems, physical-mathematical modelling in biology, the computerisation of biophysical experiments, the protein motors and the motility of the cells. Thus, a successful completion of these specialised and normative courses provides all the necessary training for successful work in the area of Biomedical Engineering. At the same time I believe that presently there is a need of the official acknowledgement of this specialty in Ukraine. And there is hope that in the nearest future we will have corresponding science departments in Ukraine. As example below are given some courses from Donetsk Medical University.
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1.
The name of the programme The educational programme on discipline " BIOPHYSICS, COMPUTER SCIENCE AND MEDICAL EQUIPMENT " for the students of maximum medical educational institutions of education I-IV levels of accreditation (specialty " medical business " "pedonosology"). The programme on discipline " MEDICAL COMPUTER SCIENCE ". The programme on discipline " Maximum mathematics " for the students of maximum pharmaceutical educational institutions. The programme on discipline " Biophysics and physical methods of research " for the students of maximum pharmaceutical educational institutions and pharmaceutical faculties of maximum medical educational institutions of education III-IV levels of accreditation. The programme on discipline " Biophysics and medical equipment " for the students of faculties education of the medical sisters and colleges. The programme on discipline " Information technologies in a formation " The programme on discipline Metrology and standardisation" The programme on discipline Medical cybernetics for the students 2 courses The programme on discipline " The Systemic approach and systemic analysis " for the students 2 courses. The programme on discipline " Medical computer science " for the post-graduate students and selectors. The programme on discipline " Devices and methods of medical biological gauging " for the students 4 courses
The name of the unit 1. Mathematical processing of the medical biological data. 2. Physical methods of research of medical biological systems. 3. The electron medical equipment. Statistical methods for processing medical biological information.
Quantity of hours 25 38 26
Obligatory or voluntary Obligatory Obligatory Obligatory
Accredit ation
2.
46
Obligatory
3.
216
Obligatory
4.
Physical methods of research of biological systems.
84
Obligatory
5.
1. Physical methods of research of biological systems. 2. The electron medical equipment.
12 32 165
Obligatory Obligatory Obligatory
6.
7. 8. 9.
54 42 46
Obligatory Voluntary Voluntary
10.
Methods of the analysis of biological and medical information.
52
Obligatory
11.
126
Obligatory
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BIOMEDICAL ENGINERING IN THE UNITED KINGDOM J C Barbenel, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow

1 INTRODUCTION
Biomedical Engineering in the United Kingdom is a widely recognised scientific and professional discipline with a range of career options. The National Society, the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine, is well established and accredits education and training; it also plays an important role in the registration of those working within the National Health Service. The Institute is unusual in its membership because it includes both Biomedical Engineers and Medical Physicists and, in addition, has both professional and technical members. 1.1 The development of biomedical engineering
In the 17th century, Galileo commented on the design of animals from what would now be recognised as a biomechanical viewpoint. This seminal idea was subsequently taken up by a number of workers but Biomedical Engineering, as the application of the ideas and techniques of Engineering and the Sciences to Medicine and Biology, developed in the 20th century, expanding rapidly in the 1960s. Part of the development arose from physicists and engineers applying their knowledge and skills in recognisably engineering areas but there was also the initiation of clinically applicable work arising from the collaboration of medical and engineering researchers. Much of this collaborative work arose from clinical need, identified by the clinicians, and the development of appropriate engineering solutions by physical scientists and engineers. Thus, from its very outset, Biomedical Engineering in the UK had a very strong multi-disciplinary base and was application focussed.
THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
The UK National Society, the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) developed from two precursors, both founded in the 1960s, which reflected the two sources of UK Biomedical Engineering. The Biological Engineering Society (BES) was initially founded as a forum to bring together those working in the nascent area of Biomedical Engineering. The membership encompassed several hundred scientists, engineers and clinicians at both the professional and technical/technician level. BES was primarily a scientific society, but it became increasingly active in professional matters as the career opportunities in Biomedical Engineering developed. The Institute of Physical Sciences in Medicine (IPSM) was founded as a charitable company by the Hospital Physics Association (HPA). The joint membership comprised graduate scientists and students. HPA transferred all its scientific and publishing activities to IPSM, retaining only its trade union functions.
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The Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (www.ipem.org.uk) was formed in July 1995 when the Institute of Physical Sciences in Medicine and the Biological Engineering Society merged. In 1997 the Association of Medical Technologists merged with the Institute. When reading IPEM literature it should be noted that Clinical Engineering is used to mean Biomedical Engineering. 2.1 Nature of Members
In 2002 the Institute had 2748 members who were engineers and/or physicists, who were either Professionally qualified or Incorporated or Technical members who had non-professional qualifications. Membership grades for Medically qualified applicants have recently been introduced. Approximately 20% of IPEM members are engineers. The IPEM has an Engineering Group Board, which has delegated authority from the Institutes Council for Engineering Council Matters and represents matters specific to the engineering members of IPEM, particularly relating to the registration of engineers, their education, training, CPD and accreditation.
2.2
Employment
From their entries in the subscription form the 310 engineers who described their employment, did so as: Hospital Trust 219; Community Health Trust 30; Private Hospital 4; Purchaser/Agency 8; University 46; Industry 3. The details regarding the main specialities selected by engineers are: Administration 28; Bioengineering 121; Biomaterials 10; Biomechanics 42; Bioprocess 2; Clinical Instrumentation 78; Computing & Medical Informatics 40; Diagnostic Radiology 9; Equipment Management 108; Non-Ionising Radiation 1; Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 2; Nuclear Medicine 1; Physiological Measurement 60; Radiation Protection 3; Radiotherapy 19; Rehabilitation Engineering 138; Ultrasound 19.
3 EDUCATION, TRAINING AND ACCREDITATION BY THE NATIONAL BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING SOCIETY 3.1 Education
There are University degree courses in medical or biomedical engineering at both the undergraduate and the postgraduate level. 3.1.1 Undergraduate Degrees
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Application for University study within the UK is made via the University and College Application Services (UCAS). Examination of their web site (www.ucas.com) suggests that degrees in, or containing a component of, biomedical or medical engineering are offered by many Universities; these are listed in Appendix 1, which also contains explanatory notes on the UK University educational system. These are other degrees in specialised areas of biomedical engineering, especially Biomedical Electronics and Biomedical Materials. The undergraduate degrees are either the standard Bachelors degrees with honours or extended undergraduate Masters degrees which are one year longer than the equivalent Bachelors degree. 3.1.2 Postgraduate Degrees
There is no centralised application procedure for Postgraduate study and information on such degrees is more fragmentary than for undergraduate degrees. Postgraduate study in biomedical/medical engineering can be pursued at both the Masters and the Doctoral level. There are a variety of Masters degrees: MSc; generally a one year, largely instructional, degree which contains a research component. MRes; a one year degree containing less instruction and a greater research component. MPhil; is a research degree which be of either one year or two year duration.
The PhD is a research degree, generally of 3 years duration. Direct entry to Doctoral study is the normal route in the UK where having a Masters degree is not a prerequisite. Traditionally, research degrees in the UK have contained little or no instructional component but it is increasingly recognised that an instructional, preresearch component is valuable and it is likely that in the future that all research degrees will contain some instructional element. 3.1.3 Technologist Qualifications
IPEM has extended its interest to included undergraduate education leading to Technologist Training programmes and have developed a normative syllabus. This recognises that technologists enter the profession via a number of different routes, but seeks to establish vocational degree entry as the route of choice. The UK Department of Health has been asked to fund this scheme nationally.
3.2
Training
Most biomedical engineers will undergo some training in addition to their education. Training for those employed by Universities, or similar teaching institutions, and Industry is usually carried out independently of the National Society. IPEM does, however, have responsibility for education and training programmes for Medical Physicists and Clinical Engineers in Health Care.
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The IPEM training scheme normally lasts for 6 years, being divided into 3 training periods. During training the trainees are employed as Medical Physicists or Clinical Engineers within the National Health Service at an appropriate training grade. Basic training is normally the entry to the profession and is for 2 years. After obtaining an appropriate first degree, the trainee enters a period of hospital training and an accredited MSc programme, either taken sequentially or interleaved. Alternatively the candidate can enter the training scheme after completing an MSc accredited by IPEM, followed by a training period lasting at least 15 months. Successful completion of the Basic Training Scheme leads to the award of a Diploma and the candidate may now progress to the next stage of training. Advanced training is also of 2 years duration. During this period the trainee will be expected to achieve a deeper understanding of a more specialised area and be able to demonstrate progress in their post with increasing work responsibility. Responsible experience must be demonstrated in the last 2 years of the training scheme. The trainee undergoes an appropriate assessment after completing the training scheme and, if successful, is eligible for Corporate Membership of IPEM. The advanced training and responsible experience are normally combined as a single 4 year Programme of Advanced Training and Responsibility (PATR). Participation in the IPEM Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Scheme is obligatory for those undertaking PATR. Biomedical Engineers may enter the Training Scheme by non- standard routes eg after obtaining a PhD. For those with a relevant PhD who are employed in the NHS at an appropriate grade, it is recommended that they register for PATR but that they undergo some basic training in the 1st year and obtain the Diploma. The remainder of the PATR programme would then follow during a further 3 years. Those with a nonrelevant PhD may undergo the complete training programme before registering for PATR. IPEM have defined an MSc syllabus and the competencies to be developed during the training period. Details will be found in Training Scheme Prospectus for Medical Physicists and Clinical Engineers in Health Care; an outline of the syllabus and competencies as they relate to biomedical engineers will be found in Appendix 2. 3.3 3.3.1 Accreditation of education and training by IPEM Accreditation of degrees
The IPEM does not accredit Undergraduate degrees, although these may be accredited by non-Biomedical Engineering organisations (see section 4). The Institute accredits some MSc degrees (see Appendix 1). The IPEM accredits MSc degrees by evaluating the degree content in the light of the syllabus (and its emphasis) specified in the IPEM Training Scheme Prospectus. The academic staff, their expertise, the infrastructure available within the University and
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interaction with Health Care deliverers will also be considered. IPEM does not evaluate the programmes in terms of Academic Quality but assumes that this is the responsibility of the University. 3.3.2 Organisation and accreditation of training Training takes place in training centres that have been accredited by IPEM. A training centre may be one or more departments working as a consortium that meet the following standards:

The training centre must be able to provide training in at least 6 major subject areas There must be at least 20 engineers/clinical scientists working in the training centre There must be at least 3 engineering/clinical scientists working in each major subject area
In each training centre there is a training coordinator who is responsible for the day- to- day management of the training process, including the appointment of trainees, agreeing the training plan, monitoring the training process and ensuring assessments are carried out. Trainees are appointed on an annual basis through a national appointment process run by the Department of Health. There are approximately 60 places per annum in medical physics and clinical engineering; c. 10% of these are in clinical engineering.
3.4
The right to practice
The UK Department of Health will require all those who interact with patients, either directly or indirectly, be registered with the Health Professions Council as Clinical Scientists. Applicants for registration must show that they have achieved the competences required after 4 years participation in the IPEM training scheme, although these may be obtained by alternative, non-IPEM routes. CPD will be a requirement for continuing registration. Although the scheme is primarily for those employed with the National Health Service, others eg those employed in a University may register. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Organisations in cognate areas
4 4.1
In addition to IPEM there are other organisations involved in aspects of Biomedical Engineering. These include organisations which are primarily scientific societies in sub-areas of BME eg Biomaterials, but in terms of professional recognition and accreditation the important organisations are the Professional Engineering Institutions. In October 1998 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between 6 professional institutions founding an umbrella organisation the Association of Institutions concerned with Medical Engineering (AIME). The constituent members in addition to IPEM are:
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The Institution of Chemical Engineers The Institution of Electrical Engineers The Institute of Healthcare Engineering and Estate Management The Institution of Incorporated Engineers The Institute of Materials The Institute of Physics The Institution of Mechanical Engineers
Further details can be found on www.aime.org.uk/ IPEM is also a member of International Organisations for Medical Physics and Bioengineering, including the European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics (EFOMP). 4.2 Engineering accreditation
In the UK suitably qualified and experienced engineers may register with the Engineering Council as a Chartered Engineer (CEng), Incorporated Engineer (IEng) or Technician (Eng Tech). Registration requires evidence of appropriate education, training and responsible experience. The academic component is accredited under licence by one of the recognised engineering Institutions. There are, therefore, a number of undergraduate engineering courses which are accredited but not in respect of their Biomedical Engineering content. The Engineering Council will, however, recognise Biomedical Engineering as providing the necessary training and responsible experience for engineering registration and there are a number of biomedical engineers who have registered on this basis. It must be noted, however, that registration as a Chartered Engineer is not a form of Biomedical Engineering accreditation eg it will not satisfy the requirements for registration as a Clinical Scientist. The Engineering Council participates in the European Federation of Engineering Institutions (EFEI) and it is also possible to register as a Euro Eng after registration with the Engineering Council.
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APPENDIX 1 - HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UK A1 Autonomy of the Universities
The degrees or related qualifications offered by Universities are authorised under Royal Charter or Act of Parliament, or by a special order of the Department of Education and Employment. Institutions seeking such permission to award degrees are required to demonstrate that they have a commitment to quality assurance and an adequate system for safeguarding academic standards. The Government is advised on these matters by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. Universities are self governing institutions with full and clear legal responsibility for the quality and standards of their programmes and awards, which decide for themselves the title, content and duration of degree programmes, which inevitably leads to considerable variation. Some vocational or professional qualifications may be accredited or validated by professional institutions eg The Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which requires that the degree contains specified core knowledge and competencies, none of which are in Biomedical Engineering. Such accreditation refers only to undergraduate degrees and some of the undergraduate degrees listed below will be accredited but others are unaccredited. A1.1 Explanation of duration and the nomenclature
Undergraduate degree duration is listed as the time required to complete the degree by full time (FT) study; some degrees require an industrial placement period and are known as Sandwich (SW) Courses and are generally one year longer than full time study. University education in Scotland is different from the remainder of the United Kingdom, the most obvious difference being that University courses are one year longer in Scotland, for equivalent degrees. Some of the degrees below are listed as with or and. In general, the word with indicates that the degree contains a major and a minor component, commonly in the ratio of approximately 2:1. The word and usually suggests that the 2 degree topics are of equal weight but there are exceptions eg Mechanical and Bio-Medical Engineering, University of Surrey, in which the Bio-Medical Engineering appears to be a minor rather than an equal component.
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A1.2
Undergraduate Courses in Biomedical or Medical Engineering Duration (y) and Degree 3FT/ 4SW BEng 4FT/5SW MEng 4FT MEng 3FT/ 4SW BEng 4FT/5SW MEng 3FT BEng 4FT MEng 3FT BEng 3FT BSc 3FT BEng 4FT MEng 4FT MEng
University and Course Title Bath Medical Engineering
Birmingham Biomedical Engineering Bradford Medical Engineering
Cardiff
Medical Engineering
City
Biomedical Engineering & Applied Physics Biomedical Engineering Biomedical Engineering
Imperial, London
Leeds
Mechanical with Medical Engineering
Liverpool
Clinical Engineering and Materials Science 3FT BEng Medical Engineering Medical Engineering 3FT/4SW BEng 4FT MEng 3FT MEng 5FT MEng 4FT/5SW MEng 3FT/4SW BSc 4SW BSc
Nottingham Trent QMW, London Sheffield
Biomedical Engineering Mechanical Engineering with Biomedical Engineering Mechanical & Bio-medical Engineering Biomedical Engineering Bio-medical Engineering
Strathclyde
Surrey Teesside Ulster
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A1.3
MSc Degrees Accredited by IPEM Course Title Biomedical Engineering Medical Imaging Information Engineering (Medical Instrumentation and Information) Physical Sciences in Medicine Biomedical Engineering Science Biomedical Instrumentation
University Aberdeen City1
Trinity College, Dublin DundeeP
Imperial College, London2 Engineering and Physical Sciences in Medicine Kings College, London3 Manchester Sheffield (M.Med.Sci.) Surrey P 1 2 3 Medical Engineering and Physics Biomedical Applications for Physical and Computing Sciences Medical Physics and Clinical Engineering Biomedical Engineering Provisionally accredited. It is intended that this status will be reviewed. Course accredited for the BIOCINI specialisation. Course accredited for the Engineering Track only. Course accredited for the Engineering and Medical Physics Tracks. Most combinations of options for the Applied Clinical Sciences Track have also been approved. For details candidates should apply to The Chair of the IPEM Education Panel.
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APPENDIX 2 IPEM SYLLABUSES AND COMPETENCIES The IPEM Training Scheme requires that a Trainee acquiring adequate knowledge of the application of physical sciences and engineering to medicine from an MSc course which is the basis of the competencies developed during the subsequent training period. The design of both education and training is based on the recognition that many different specialities in a wide variety of biomedical engineering areas may be offered within the training scheme (as in the profession).
A2.1
MSc Courses
A suitable knowledge base for biomedical engineering is defined by the IPEM as one which provides a realistic balance between i) breadth of topics giving the trainee an adequate overall view of the subject and ii) a study in sufficient depths of a coherent limited set of topics, expected to equip the Trainee with the knowledge necessary to underpin practical training and future work. The IPEM syllabus has 3 main levels of knowledge. Prescribed topics in which Trainees must demonstrate a satisfactory knowledge and performance in all subjects. Core topics are intended to form elements which are important in their own right but also provide the basis for In-depth topics, which form the specialist topics within the knowledge base. The list of topics below includes only those that would be appropriate for a biomedical engineer. Prescribed Topics In-depth Topics Anatomy and Physiology Magnetic Resonance Safety Ultrasound Principles of Quality Management Non-Ionising Radiation Statistical Methods Medical Imaging Image & Signal Processing Core Topics Anaesthesia & Respiration Therapy Medical Imaging Physiological Measurement Non-Ionising Radiation Computer Engineering Signal Processing Medical Equipment & Instrumentation Computing Rehab Engineering Mobility & Posture Equipment Management Rehab Engineering Sensory & Communication Medical Electronics Clinical Biomechanics Biomechanics Special Topics Biomaterials Audiology
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Design and Project Management
Opthamology Information Management & Information Systems
A2.2
Training
The purpose of training is to allow the Biomedical Engineer to undertake a given job description of work in any appropriate department in the UK or abroad. The Training is reference to the competencies developed by the trainee. A2.2.1 Basic Training During basic training the trainee will spend substantial periods of attachment in 3 Major Subject areas, together with shorter acquaintanceship periods in a number of other specialities (normally 3) within Biomedical Engineering. It is possible to replace one Major Area with 2 Minor Areas in which the depth of training is maintained, but the breadth is reduced. The competencies include compulsory core elements and choices from a range of subject areas. Those appropriate for biomedical engineering are listed below.
Core Competencies Scientific Clinical Management Communication Skills Quality and Safety Information Management and Technology
Major Subject Areas and Competencies Magnetic Resonance Imaging Ultrasound Non-Ionising Radiation Physiological Measurement Information and Management Technology Medical Electronics and Instrumentation Rehabilitation Engineering* Medical Engineering Design and Development* Biomechanical Engineering* *Due to overlap of these subject areas trainees may only select 2 out of these 3 subject areas.
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A2.2.2 PATR PATR is designed to provide those who have acquired basic competencies with further training and responsible experience in at least one speciality. In addition the trainee is expected to extend their core competencies. Those registered for PATR are also registered by IPEM for their Continuing Professional Development programme.
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Report from the Yugoslav Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics (YUBEMP)
Svetlana Andri and Dejan B. Popovi
Yugoslav Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics (YUBEMP) The new Yugoslav Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics (YUBEMP) was founded in 1996 as the national society of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The Society continues the activities in the fields of biomedical engineering and medical physics that were organised for many years within the former Yugoslav Society for Medical & Biological Engineering, founded in 1984. Mission statement. The YUBEMP main goals are the following: 1) encourage and promulgate the scientific work and technology developments in the fields of activity of its members, 2) follow the development and support the application of biomedical engineering and medical physics methods in Yugoslavia, 3) participate in education, training, and accreditation programmes, 4) disseminate professional and scientific information through publications and meetings, 5) provide organised consulting in the fields of activities, 6) publish or participate in publishing professional scientific and technical publications in the fields of Biomedical Engineering (BME) and Medical Physics (MP), 7) organise or participate in national and international conferences, 8) follow the development and collaborate with partners on national and international levels, 9) participate in works of relevant governmental organisations promoting the initiation for national law regulatives, standards and recommendations related to the development and application of methods of BME and MP, and 10) collaborate with similar national and international organisations and associations. It is expected that YUBEMP will greatly contribute to the formation of new and better educational programmes at undergraduate and graduate levels in the near future following the European policies with special emphasis on accreditation.
History. The first organised activity in the field of Biomedical Engineering took place within the Yugoslav Society for Electronics, Telecommunication, Automatics and Nuclear Sciences (ETAN) that started with many activities in the early fifties. ETAN organised many meetings, courses, and special
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events that brought together the most prominent scientists from East and West during the era of the cold war. ETAN was closely linked to the appropriate organisations around the world. The Commission for Biomedical Engineering was formed within the Yugoslav Society for ETAN, and then it evolved into the Yugoslav Society for Biomedical Engineering in 1984. At that time there was a separate Yugoslav Society for Medical Physics due to the evolution of the work in nuclear medicine, radiology, radiation protection etc. The young YUBEMB is surrounded by all the problems that are related to economy and politics during the last decade of the twentieth century on the Balkans.
Education in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering in Yugoslavia Education of Medical Physicists in Yugoslavia could be divided into three levels with different categories. The undergraduate programmes (level I) at several universities include many courses that provide the needed background for a specialised education in medical physics and biomedical engineering. Medical Physics. The four or five years undergraduate education in Yugoslavia is still very traditional with a strong emphasis on basic sciences that comprises at least four high level courses in mathematics and general physics as well as several specialised courses in physics (atomic physics, nuclear physics, physics of solid state, physical electronics of gases and solids, quantum mechanics, statistical physics, etc). This programme ends with a Bachelor's degree (BS). At the University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute for Physics, in addition there are courses in Medical Physics in the last year of the BS programme that started in 1997. At the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Natural Sciences (Physical Chemistry or Physics) there are several subjects that are dealing with modern medical physics. At the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Department for Nuclear Physics, there are several subjects in medical physics and techniques during the last two (out of five) years of the BS programme.
Biomedical Engineering. The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering is organising a two-year elective programme with emphasis on biomaterials and molecular issues. These subjects correspond to 30 credits. The Faculty of Engineering, University of Novi Sad, started in 2000 with elective courses in Biomedical Instrumentation and Biomedical Measurements in addition to the specialist course in Control of Complex and Biological Systems. These subjects correspond to 16 credits.
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The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Kragujevac has several courses in biomechanics especially related to cardiovascular and urinary systems. The University of Kragujevac is starting the multidisciplinary graduate programme in Biomechanics. The Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, organised earlier a five-semester specialisation that follows the five-semester long general education (BS programme equivalent to 135 credits). The students are offered the following specialised courses: Medical Physics, Biomaterials, Biomechanics, Biomedical Instrumentation, Biomedical Measurements, Medical Imaging, Reconstruction of Medical Images, Nuclear Medical Instrumentation, Radiation Measurements and Protection, Telemedicine, Information Technologies in Medicine. The equivalent of the courses is 45 credits. These courses are part of the general education that includes sensors and actuators, data acquisition systems, statistics, signal processing at various levels and a very high-level education in electrical engineering. The Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Belgrade, is now organising undergraduate education in English that has been designed following the Bologna declaration. The new undergraduate programme in Biomedical Engineering at the Faculty of EE, Belgrade, follows the harmonisation trend in Europe. The requirements for a degree of BSEE at the Biomedical Engineering Division are 39 courses with a total of 122 credits including a final project accepted and defended in public. The 39 courses required for a degree include the first three semesters joint courses for all students at the Faculty for Electrical Engineering (49 credit units). Students choose between courses (34a, 34b), and (39a, 39b). All A courses are mandatory. Five B courses can be replaced with selected courses from other divisions based on the written approval from the BME division supervisor. Students lab and theoretical work are constantly evaluated throughout each semester. There is a final written examination in each course at the end of each semester. Grade points are allocated as follows: 1) 10 per cent of the final grade points for the home works; 2) 20 per cent of the final grade points for the mid semester test; 3) 20 per cent of the final grade points for the second test; and 4) 50 per cent of the final grade points for the final examinations held at the end of each semester. A student is considered to have passed a course if the grade point is not less than 60 per cent. The following grade points are adopted: 4.00 (90-100 marks), 3.50 (85-89 marks), 3.00 (80-85 marks), 2.50 (75-80 marks), 2.00 (70-75 marks), 1.50 (65-70 marks), 1.00 (60-65 marks), 0.00 (less than 60 marks).
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The graduation assessments are as follows: Distinction: with grade point average (GPA) 3.60-4.00; Very good: 2.80-3.59 GPA; Good: 2.00- 2.79 GPA; Satisfactory: 1.50-1.99 GPA. The first three semesters are the same for all students and comprise general engineering education with emphasis on mathematics, physics and electrical engineering basic courses. The plan for the 5 last semesters dedicated to BME is the following: Semester 4: Electronics II, Object Oriented Programming, Basic Human Anatomy & Physiology, Basic Biophysics, Principles of Communication; Semester 5: Modelling and Simulation of Biophysical Systems, Biomechanics, Sensors and Actuators in Biomedicine, Biomedical Instrumentation; Semester 6: Digital Signal Processing, Medical Information Systems and Internet, Programming Languages II, Real Time Computer Systems, Medical Nuclear Engineering; Semester 7: Control Systems in Biomedicine, Data Acquisition in Clinical Engineering, Soft Computing, Statistics in Biomedical Engineering; and Semester 8: Medical Imaging Systems and Analysis, Telemedicine, Intelligent Decision Making Systems, Final project. POSTGRAFDUATE EDUCATION Level II Medical Physics. Postgraduate education has two directions: 3-year postgraduate studies with Master's degree, and 3-year specialist studies with hospital training leading to the specialist degree. Postgraduate studies, organised jointly by the Faculty of Physics and the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Novi Sad, were established in 1995. The programme consists of lectures, seminars, practical and tutorial work followed by practical training in hospitals under the supervision of experienced MPs. The curricula include Physics of the Human Organism, Physiology and Cell Biology; Informatics, Medical Statistics, Modelling, Medical Instrumentation, Radioisotopes in Medicine, Radiation Diagnostic and Therapy Physics, Basic Course in Radiotherapy and Radiobiology. All undergraduate students coming from different faculties of natural sciences are allowed to enter the programme. Students are mostly physicists (BS), medical doctors (M.D.), and to some degree engineers (BS). Students choose between the following electives: Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Medical Optics, Ultrasound in Medicine, Pharmacology, Lasers in Medicine, and Monte Carlo Simulation. In spite of the attractive programme only a small number of participants have passed through the course until now. The Centre for Multidisciplinary Studies of the University of Belgrade established a programme in postgraduate studies in Biomedical and Clinical Engineering (CBE) in 1977, and revised the programme in 1993. Although not explicit in name, it covers many aspects of MP through the courses of Ionising Radiation in Medicine, Biomedical Signal Processing, Basic Nuclear Medicine, Artificial
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Intelligence in Medicine, Laser Medical Techniques and Radiation Protection. The special courses in Biomedical Engineering with written seminars provide the students the opportunity to learn more about special topics in the field directly related to their M.Sc. thesis. This programme is now undergoing major changes that follow the European trends of harmonisation. At the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, a specialisation programme in Radiology and Physical Therapy (2 years) has been organised. Also, within the M.Sc. degree studies in Radiology, courses in General and Specialised Radiology, Physical Therapy, Radio-Pathology, and Radio-Toxicology have been included. The specialist programme in Medical Nuclear Physics is officially recognised and certified by the Ministry of Health of the Republic Serbia. Medical physicists employed in hospitals or in institutions for health care and radiation protection must pass a six weeks basic course during the first year of employment. The course is organised by the Centre for Permanent Education at the Institute of Nuclear Sciences "Vinca", with the general subject "Radio Nuclide Application". An examination is organised to grade the success during the special course.
Biomedical Engineering. Graduate education in Biomedical Engineering, that is also included at the Faculties of Electrical Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, is part of other programmes; there is no special curriculum for biomedical engineering. The University of Belgrade is organising multidisciplinary studies through the Centre for Multidisciplinary Studies. The 2-year master programme and 3-year PhD programmes in biomedical engineering have the following plan.
Course requirements for the 2 years MS degree I 1 Principles of Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements 15 2 Mandatory course A 3 Elective course B 4 Elective course C 5 Elective course B 6 Elective course C 7 MS Examination 8 MS Thesis Credits per semester 9 6
Semester II 15 III IV
9 6 15 15 30 30 30 30 30
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Course requirements for the 3 years PhD degree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Principles of Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements Mandatory course A Elective course B Elective course C Elective course B Elective course C Elective course B Elective course C PhD Examination PhD Thesis Credits per semester I 15 9 6 9 6 II 15
Semester III IV
VI
30
30
9 6 5 10 30
20 10 30
30 30
30 30
Mandatory courses A A1. Basic anatomy and physiology (for students with the BS degree in technical sciences) 1. Basic principle of living tissue: The cell. Embryology and characteristics of specific cells (neural cell, muscle cell, bone cell, etc). Basic process at the cell membrane. Synapse. Anatomical and physiological connections of cells in the organism. 2. The heart. Functional organisation of the circulatory system. Principles of haematology. Functional analysis of the respiratory system. Functional organisation of the digestive tract. 3. Functional organisation of the skeletal system. Bones and joints. Organisation and functional systems in the central and peripheral nervous system. Organisation and functional specificity of musculo-tendonal systems. The role of connective tissues. 4. Vegetative nervous system. 5. Regulation of the cardio-vascular system. Regulation of breathing. Regulation of the gastrointestinal system. Regulation of the urinary system. Senses A2. Principles of biomedical engineering (for students with the BS degree in life sciences) 1. Principles and phenomena in biomedical systems at the macro and micro levels. Integral principles of momentum, mass, and energy - application in biomedical engineering. 2. Momentum transfer and its application in biomedical systems. Mechanisms of the momentum transfer in one-phase systems. Momentum transfer in dispersive systems. 3. Mass transfer in biomedical systems. 3. Mass transfer by diffusion. Mass transfer by convection. Transport of nutrients to the tissues. Transport of active substance to the cell. Transfer of mass supported by biochemical reactions. Enzymatic disintegration of the active substance. Cell membrane transport (passive and active). Analogies of mechanical systems. Biothermodynamics of cell growth. 4. Mathematical methods frequently used in biomedical engineering. 5. Components of biomedical engineering for measurements with special emphasis on computer aided systems.
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List of courses B: Tissue engineering, Biomechanics, Biological systems and radiation, Modelling of biophysical processes, Biophysics, Nanotechnology in medicine, Molecular machines, Biocybernetics, Acquisition systems and methods in electrophysiology, Medical image processing techniques, Information technologies in medicine, Telemedicine List of courses C: Biomaterials, Sensors for biomedical instrumentation, Biothermodynamics, PET, SPECT, Gamma camera in medicine, Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Ultrasound in medicine, Instrumentation and methods in clinical engineering, Clinical electrophysiology selected topics, Movement rehabilitation systems and methods, Magnetic and electrical stimulation, Neural prostheses, Advanced medical signal processing selected topics, Artificial intelligence in medicine, Neurocomputing, Soft-computing, Genetic engineering, Genetic algorithms, New surgical methods selected topics, Prosthetics and orthotics. There is an initiative to establish collaboration with European partners following the Bologna declaration and to promote education in Health Science and Technology (HST). This new HST curriculum will be for students of Engineering and Life Sciences of several universities, Belgrade, Podgorica and Novi Sad from FRY, and the University of Sarajevo from BIH. It will include the following core courses: 1) Instrumentation and Measurements, 2) Medical Imaging Systems, 3) Modelling of Biophysical Systems, 4) Medical Informatics, 5) Bio-statistics and Stochastic Systems, 6) Biomedical Networking and Health Care Information Systems. The basis for teaching will be very likely the University of Belgrade. The whole curriculum, as well as the particular syllabi will be project based. The curriculum will follow the ECTS rules. The European harmonisation of the new curriculum will be maximised: EU partners will provide the necessary know-how and experience for the transfer of the European credit system. The EU dimension of the programme will allow the flow of students and young investigators from FRY and BIH to Europe, especially because of the very high standards established many years ago at the FRY universities. TEMPUS funding facilitates this initiative within the project named InCo-Health, which stands for Information and Communication in Health Technologies.
POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION Level III Level III leads to the Ph.D. degree. The PhD degree is offered at the Universities of Novi Sad and Belgrade at different faculties to students with a master degree in the corresponding field. The main part is the doctoral thesis which has to be an independent, original contribution to science that has been
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recognised by peers (published in the peer-reviewed journals). There are no courses that are offered at the PhD level, but the typical project lasts for at least three years and it follows the seven years of undergraduate and graduate courses that are equivalent to the course content given in most other European countries.

Status Reports On BME in Europe PDF

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BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN EUROPE STATUS REPORTS

Copyright 2005 BIOMEDEA

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Previous study of Medicine 06-12 48-54 18-24 12-18 90

60 90 *) Masters thesis not included

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Biomedical Engineering in Bulgaria V. Todorov and I. Daskalov

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

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BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Biomechanics III - problems of cardiovascular biomechanics.

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Optional courses: Diagnostics in Medicine Biocybernetics Biosignal Processing

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Status Report of BME Education in Denmark Prepared by Johannes J. Struijk

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

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BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts