Beowulf ( /be.wlf/; in Old English [beowlf] or [bewlf]) is the conventional title[note 1] of an Old English heroic e ic oe!

consisting of "1#$ alliterative long lines% set in &candinavia% co!!onl' cited as one of the !ost i! ortant wor(s of )nglo*&a+on literature. ,t survives in a single !anuscri t (nown as the -owell .ode+. ,ts co! osition b' an anon'!ous )nglo* &a+on oet[note $] is dated between the #th[1][$] and the earl' 11th centur'.["] ,n 1/"1% the !anuscri t was badl' da!aged b' a fire that swe t through a building housing a collection of 0edieval !anuscri ts asse!bled b' &ir 1obert Bruce .otton. 2he oe! fell into obscurit' for decades% and its e+istence did not beco!e widel' (nown again until it was rinted in 1#13 in an edition re ared b' the ,celandic*4anish scholar 5r6!ur 78nsson 2hor(elin.[9] ,n the oe!% Beowulf% a hero of the 5eats in &candinavia% co!es to the hel of :ro;gar% the (ing of the 4anes% whose !ead hall (in :eorot) has been under attac( b' a !onster (nown as 5rendel. )fter Beowulf sla's hi!% 5rendel<s !other attac(s the hall and is then also defeated. =ictorious% Beowulf goes ho!e to 5eatland in &weden and later beco!es (ing of the 5eats. )fter a eriod of fift' 'ears has assed% Beowulf defeats a dragon% but is fatall' wounded in the battle. )fter his death% his attendants bur' hi! in a tu!ulus% a burial !ound% in 5eatland..ontents [hide] 1 &tor' 2he !ain rotagonist% Beowulf% a hero of the 5eats% co!es to the aid of :ro;gar% the (ing of the 4anes% whose great hall% :eorot% is lagued b' the !onster 5rendel. Beowulf (ills 5rendel with his bare hands and 5rendel<s !other with a sword of a giant that he found in her lair. >ater in his life% Beowulf is hi!self (ing of the 5eats% and finds his real! terrorised b' a dragon whose treasure had been stolen fro! his hoard in a burial !ound. :e attac(s the dragon with the hel of his thegns or servants% but the' do not succeed. Beowulf decides to follow the dragon into its lair% at Earnan?s% but onl' his 'oung &wedish relative @iglaf dares Aoin hi! along with 2inshaw. Beowulf finall' sla's the dragon% but is !ortall' wounded. :e is buried in a tu!ulus or burial !ound% b' the sea. Beowulf is considered an e ic oe! in that the !ain character is a hero who travels great distances to rove his strength at i! ossible odds against su ernatural de!ons and beasts. 2he oe! also begins in !edias res (Binto the !iddle of affairsB) or si! l'% Bin the !iddleB% which is a characteristic of the e ics of antiCuit'. )lthough the oe! begins with Beowulf<s arrival% 5rendel<s attac(s have been an ongoing event. )n elaborate histor' of characters and their lineages are s o(en of% as well as their interactions with each other% debts owed and re aid% and deeds of valour. [edit] &tructured b' funerals ,t is widel' acce ted that there are three funerals in Beowulf.[#] 2he funerals are also aired with the three battles described above.[#] 2he three funerals share si!ilarities regarding the offerings for the dead and the change in the!e through the descri tion of each funeral. 5ale Owen*.roc(er (Drofessor of )nglo*&a+on% Eniversit' of 0anchester) in 2he Four Funerals in Beowulf ($GGG) argues that a assage in the oe!% co!!onl' (nown as H2he >a' of the >ast &urvivorI (lines $$9/JKK)% is an additional funeral.[#] 2he funerals are the!selves involved in the ritual of hoardingL the de osition of sacrificial obAects with both religious and socio*econo!ic functions.[M] [edit] First FuneralL &c'ld &cefing (lines 1J3$) 2he first funeral in the oe! is of &c'ld &cefing (translated in so!e versions as B&hield &hiefsonB) the (ing of the 4anes.[1G] 2he first section of the oe!% (the first fitt)% hel s the oet illustrate the settings of the oe! b' introducing :rothgarNs lineage. 2he funeral leads to the introduction of the hero% Beowulf and his confrontation with the first !onster% 5rendel. 2his assage begins b' describing &c'ldNs glor' as a Hscourge of !an' tribes% a wrec(er of !ead*benches.I[1G] &c'ldNs glor' and i! ortance is shown b' the restigious death he obtains through his service as the (ing of the 4anes.[#] :is i! ortance is roven once !ore b' the grand funeral given to hi! b' his eo leL his funeral at sea with !an' wea ons and treasures shows he was a great soldier and an even greater leader to his eo le.[#] 2he oet introduces the conce ts of a heroic societ' through &c'ld. 2he ossessions buried with the (ing are elaboratel' described to e! hasise the i! ortance of such ite!s.[#] 2he i! ortance of these earthl' ossessions are then used to establish this dead (ingNs greatness in res ect to the treasure.[#] &c'ldNs funeral hel s the oet to elaborate on the glor' of battle in a heroic societ' and how earthl' ossessions hel define a ersonOs i! ortance. 2his funeral also hel s the oet to develo the lot to lead into the confrontation between the rotagonist% Beowulf% and the !ain antagonist% 5rendel. [edit]

&econd FuneralL :ildeburgNs (in (lines 11G/J$9) 2he second funeral in the oe! is that of :ildeburgNs (in and is the second fitt of this oe!.[1G] 2he funeral is sung about in :eorot as art of a la' during the feasting to !ar( Beowulf<s victor' over 5rendel. 2he death of :ildeburgNs brother :n?f% son(s) and% later% her husband Finn the Frisian (ing are sung about as the result of fighting in Frisia between the visiting 4anish chieftain :n?f and his retainers (including one :engest) and Finn<s followers. 2he funeral !irrors the use of funeral offerings for the dead with e+travagant ossessions in &c'ld<s funeral.[1G] :ildeburgNs relatives are buried with their ar!our and gold to signif' their i! ortance.[#] 2he second funeral differs fro! the first in that it is a cre!ation cere!on' rather than a shi *burial. Further!ore% the oet focuses on the strong e!otions of those who died while in battle.[1G] &uch gor' details as Hheads !elt[ing]% gashes [s ringing] o en...and the blood [s ringing] out fro! the bod'Ns wounds%I[1G] de ict war as horrif'ing rather than glorious.[#] )lthough the oet !aintains the the!e of ossessions as i! ortant even in death% the glor' of battle is challenged b' the vicious nature of war. 2he second funeral is distinguished b' the!es contrasting with those of the first% as well as b' a change in the direction of the lot which leads to Beowulf<s fight against 5rendel<s 0other. [edit] .ontroversial FuneralL >a' of the >ast &urvivor (lines $$9/JKK) B2he >a' of the >ast &urvivorB is arguabl' an addition to the other three funerals in Beowulf because of the stri(ing si!ilarities that define the i! ortance of the other burials.[#] 2he si!ilar burial custo!s% changes in setting and lot% and changes of the!e arallel those in the other three funerals. 2he setting and lot also suggest that the la!ent is funeralL the >ast &urvivor describes burial offerings si!ilar to those in the funerals of &c'ld &cefing% :ildeburgNs (in% and Beowulf.[#] 2he >ast &urvivor describes the !an' treasures left for the dead such as the wea ons% ar!our and golden cu s[1G]% strongl' aralleling &c'ldNs Hwell furbished shi ...% bladed wea ons and coats of !ail%I[1G] :ildeburgNs (inNs Hblood* lastered coats of !ail [and] boar*sha ed hel!etsI[1G] and Beowulf<s treasure fro! the dragon.[1G] )n additional argu!ent for viewing this assage as a funeral lies in the state!ent% Htu!bling haw( [and] swift horseI[1G]. 2his is an ani!al sacrifice% which was a burial custo! during the era in which the oe! ta(es lace.[#] 0oreover% this assage% li(e the other funerals% signifies changes in setting and lot.[#] ,t has also been argued that this is the third art of the oe! since it describes the settings during the ti!e la se before the final battle between Beowulf and the 4ragon. 2he oet also describes the horror of death in battle% a the!e continued fro! the second art of the oe!% through the >ast &urvivorNs e'es.[#] [edit] 2hird FuneralL Beowulf (lines "1"/J#$) 2he barrow of &(alunda% a barrow that was identified b' the archaeologist Birger -er!an as Beowulf<s burial !ound.[11] 2he final funeral of the oe! is Beowulf<s. 4uring the final battle against the dragon% Beowulf receives fatal wounds and dies. 2he greatness of Beowulf<s life is de!onstrated through this funeral% articularl' through the !an' offerings of his eo le.[#] B@eohstan<s son ( ause) co!!anded it be announced to !an' !en ( ause) that the' should fetch fro! afar wood for the 're.B[1G] for their leader<s funeral. 2he dragon<s re!ains are thrown into the sea% a arallel to &c'ld<s burial in his shi . Beowulf<s funeral is the fourth fitt of the oe! and acts as an e ilogue for the hero who is the B!ost gracious and fair*!inded% (indest to his eo le and (eenest to win fa!e.B[1G] [edit] :istorical bac(ground ) ro+i!ate central regions of tribes !entioned in Beowulf with the location of the )ngles. &ee &candPa for details of &candinavia<s olitical frag!entation in the Kth centur'. 2he events described in the oe! ta(e lace in the late 3th centur'% after the )nglo*&a+ons had begun their !igration to England% and before the beginning of the /th centur'% a ti!e when the )nglo*&a+on eo le were either newl' arrived or still in close contact with their 5er!anic (ins!en in &candinavia and -orthern 5er!an'. 2he oe! !a' have been brought to England b' eo le of 5eatish origins.[1$] ,t has been suggested that Beowulf was first co! osed in the /th centur' at 1endlesha! in East )nglia% as the &utton :oo shi *burial also shows close connections with &candinavia% and also that the East )nglian ro'al d'nast'% the @uffings% were descendants of the 5eatish @ulfings.[1"][19] Others have associated this oe! with the court of Qing )lfred% or with the court of Qing .anute.["] Ohthere<s !ound

2he oe! deals with legends% was co! osed for entertain!ent% and does not se arate between fictional ele!ents and real historic events% such as the raid b' Qing :'gelac into Frisia. &cholars generall' agree that !an' of the ersonalities of Beowulf also a ear in &candinavian sources (s ecific wor(s designated in the following section).[13] 2his does not onl' concern eo le (e.g.% :ealfdene% :ro;gar% :alga% :ro;ulf% Eadgils and Ohthere)% but also clans (e.g.% &c'ldings% &c'lfings and @ulfings) and so!e of the events (e.g.% the Battle on the ,ce of >a(e =Rnern). 2he dating of the events in the oe! has been confir!ed b' archaeological e+cavations of the barrows indicated b' &norri &turluson and b' &wedish tradition as the graves of Ohthere (dated to c. 3"G) and his son Eadgils (dated to c. 3/3) in E land% &weden.[1K][1/][1#] ,n 4en!ar(% recent archaeological e+cavations at >eAre% where &candinavian tradition located the seat of the &c'ldings% i.e.% :eorot% have revealed that a hall was built in the !id*Kth centur'% e+actl' the ti!e eriod of Beowulf.[1M] 2hree halls% each about 3G !etres long% were found during the e+cavation.[1M] Finds fro! Eadgils< !ound% left% e+cavated in 1#/9 at E sala ,n &weden su orted Beowulf and the sagas. OngenSeow<s barrow% right% has not been e+cavated.[1K][1/] 2he !aAorit' view a ears to be that eo le such as Qing :ro;gar and the &c'ldings in Beowulf are based on real historical eo le fro! Kth*centur' &candinavia.[$G] >i(e the Finnsburg Frag!ent and several shorter surviving oe!s% Beowulf has conseCuentl' been used as a source of infor!ation about &candinavian ersonalities such as Eadgils and :'gelac% and about continental 5er!anic ersonalities such as Offa% (ing of the continental )ngles. 1Mth*centur' archeological evidence !a' confir! ele!ents of the Beowulf stor'. Eadgils was buried at E sala% according to &norri &turluson. @hen Eadgils< !ound (to the left in the hoto) was e+cavated in 1#/9% the finds su orted Beowulf and the sagas. 2he' showed that a owerful !an was buried in a large barrow% c 3/3% on a bear s(in with two dogs and rich grave offerings. 2hese re!ains include a Fran(ish sword adorned with gold and garnets and a tafl ga!e with 1o!an awns of ivor'. :e was dressed in a costl' suit !ade of Fran(ish cloth with golden threads% and he wore a belt with a costl' buc(le. 2here were four ca!eos fro! the 0iddle East which were robabl' art of a cas(et. 2his would have been a burial fitting a (ing who was fa!ous for his wealth in Old -orse sources. OngenSeow<s barrow (to the right in the hoto) has not been e+cavated.[1K][1/] [edit] &ources and analogues -either identified sources nor analogues for Beowulf can be roven. Both of these are i! ortant in regards to the uncertaint' surrounding the Beowulf !anuscri t% as the wor(s which it draws fro! or influences suggest ti!e*fra!es of co! osition% geogra hic boundaries fro! which it could be co! osed% or range (both s atial and te! oral) of influence (i.e. when it was B o ularB and where its B o ularit'B too( it). 2here are five !ain categories in which otential sources and/or analogues are includedL &candinavian arallels% classical sources% ,rish sources and analogues% ecclesiastical sources% and echoes in other Old English te+ts.[$1] Earl' studies into &candinavian sources/analogues ro osed that Beowulf was a translation of an original &candinavian wor(% but this idea has been discarded. ,n 1#/#% 5u;brandur =igfTsson !ade the connection between Beowulf and the 5rettis saga. 2his is currentl' one of the onl' &candinavian analogues to receive a general consensus of otential connection.[$1] 2ales concerning the &(AUldungs% ossibl' originating as earl' as the Kth centur'% were later used as a narrative basis in such te+ts as 5esta 4anoru! b' &a+o 5ra!!aticus and :r8lfs saga (ra(a. &o!e scholars see Beowulf as a roduct of these earl' tales along with 5esta 4anoru! and :r8lfs saga (ra(a. Daul Bee(!an 2a'lor used the Vnglingasaga as roof that the Beowulf oet was li(ewise wor(ing fro! 5er!anic tradition.[$1] Friedrich DanPer atte! ted to conte+tualise Beowulf and other &candinavian wor(s% including 5rettis saga% under the international fol(tale t' e "G1B% or B2he Bear<s &onB tale. :owever% although this a roachWthe Bshift ... fro! the Cuasi*historical or legendar' !aterials ... to the fol(tale line of inCuir'%B was seen as a ste in the right direction% B2he Bear<s &onB tale was seen as too universal. ,n a ter! coined b' Deter 7Xrgensen% the Btwo*troll tradition%B a !ore concise fra!e of reference was found. 2he Btwo*troll traditionB refers to Ba -orse <ecot' e< in which a hero enters a cave and (ills two giants% usuall' of different se+es.B Both 5rettis saga and Beowulf fit this fol(tale t' e.[$1] &cholars who favored ,rish arallels directl' s o(e out against ro*&candinavian theories% citing the! as unAustified. @ilhel! 5ri!! is noted to be the first erson to ever lin( Beowulf with ,rish fol(lore. 0a+ 4eutschbein is noted as the first erson to resent the argu!ent in acade!ic for!. :e suggested the ,rish Feast of Bricriu as a source for BeowulfWa theor' that was soon denied b' Oscar Olson. &wedish fol(lorist .arl @ilhel! =on &'dow argued against both &candinavian translation and source !aterial due to his

theor' that Beowulf is funda!entall' .hristian and written at a ti!e when an' -orse tale would have !ost li(el' been agan in nature.[$1] ,n the late 1M$Gs% :einPer 4eh!er suggested Beowulf as conte+tuall' based in the fol(tale t' e H2he :and and the .hild%I due to the !otif of the H!onstrous ar!IWa !otif that distances 5rettis saga and Beowulf and further aligns Beowulf with ,rish arallelis!. 7a!es .arne' and 0artin Duhvel also agree with this H:and and the .hildI conte+tualisation. .arne' also ties Beowulf to ,rish literature through the 2Yin B8 FrYech stor'. Duhvel su orted the H:and and the .hildI theor' through such !otifs as Hthe !ore owerful giant !other% the !'sterious light in the cave% the !elting of the sword in blood% the heno!enon of battle rage% swi!!ing rowess% co!bat with water !onsters% underwater adventures% and the bear*hug st'le of wrestling.I[$1] )tte! ts to find classical or >ate >atin influence or analogue in Beowulf are al!ost e+clusivel' lin(ed with :o!er<s Od'sse' or =irgil<s )eneid. ,n 1M$K% )lbert &. .oo( suggested a :o!eric connection due to eCuivalent for!ulas% !eton'!ies% and analogous vo'ages. 7a!es ). @or(<s essa'% HOd'ssean ,nfluence on the Beowulf%I also su orted the :o!eric influence. :e stated that encounter between Beowulf and Enferth was arallel to the encounter between Od'sseus and Eur'alus in Boo(s /J# of the Od'sse' even to the oint of the! both giving the hero the sa!e gift of a sword u on being roven wrong in their initial assess!ent of the hero<s rowess. 2his theor' of :o!er<s influence on Beowulf re!ained ver' revalent in the 1M$Gs% but started to die out in the following decade when a handful of critics stated that the two wor(s were !erel' Hco! arative literatureI[$1] although 5ree( was (nown in conte! orar' England. Bede states that 2heodore% a 5ree(% was a ointed )rchbisho of .anterbur' in KK#% and he taught 5ree(. &everal English scholars and church!en are described b' Bede as being fluent in 5ree( due to being taught b' hi!. Bede clai!s to be fluent in 5ree( hi!self.[$$] )t this ti!e% :o!er<s oe!s were used as te+tboo(s for the stud' of 5ree(. Friedrich Qlaeber so!ewhat led the atte! t to connect Beowulf and =irgil near the start of the $Gth centur'% clai!ing that the ver' act of writing a secular e ic in a 5er!anic world is contingent on =irgil. =irgil was seen as the innacle of >atin literature% and >atin was the do!inant literar' language of England at the ti!e% therefore !a(ing =irgilian influence highl' li(el'.[$"] &i!ilarl'% in 1M/1% )listair .a! bell stated that the a ologue techniCue used in Beowulf is so infreCuent in the e ic tradition aside fro! when =irgil uses it that the oet who co! osed Beowulf could not have written the oe! in such a !anner without first co!ing across =irgil<s writings.[$1] ) large nu!ber of si!ilarities in e isodes% the!es% and descri tion in the two e ics have been identified. &o!e s ecific e+a! les of these are things such asL 2he rece tion of Beowulf b' the coast guard with drawn s ear and a challenge but the situation is Cuic(l' s!oothed over b' an e+ lanation of wh' the shi has arrived arallels )eneas< landing and ver' si!ilar rece tion with drawn s ear b' Dallas in boo( =,,, of the )eneid. 2he court bard in both e ics sings of the creation of the world. ) hu!an li(e giant% a .'clo s in the )eneid boo( ,,,% 5rendel in Beowulf% co!ing into a hall ever' da' to eat !e!bers of the hero<s crew. :ercules ()eneid boo( =,,,) following a trail to the giant .acus< cave where he wrestles with hi! and (ills hi! arallels Beowulf following a trail to 5rendel<s !other<s cave where he wrestles with and (ills her. 2he scene in the forest of the hero shooting a BhugeB beast with his bow and arrow while his !en watch% and the !en retrieve the bod' * a deer in the )eneid% and a sea sna(e in Beowulf. 2he co!!issioning of a s ecial !etallic shield to fight 2urnus in the )eneid and the dragon in Beowulf. 2he hero<s sword shattering in his final battle before he is (illed% at the end of the oe! * 2urnus< in the )eneid and Beowulf<s in Beowulf. 2he following of a deer leading to a critical encounter with the ene!'. Vouths riding around on horses at the funeral of a great !an * )nchises and Dallas in the )eneid and Beowulf in Beowulf. ) wo!an redicting the fall and destruction of the nation b' invaders * .assandra in boo( ,, of the )eneid and B) 5eatish @o!anB in Beowulf. &o!e !ore funda!ental structural si!ilarities are things such asL 2he division of both oe!s into two distinct hases * a first half Od'ssean hase of wandering and adventuring in a different land and a second half ,liadic hase u on ta(ing leadershi in a new (ingdo! and fighting a terrible ene!' there. Beowulf<s landing% an aw(ward rece tion at first% and sta' at :eorot% being begged to sta' there to fight (ing :rothgar<s ene!ies aralleling )eneas< landing and sta' at .arthage% again% aw(ward at first%

including being begged to sta' there to fight the Cueen<s ene!ies% but the hero decides to leave in s ite of being ro!ised great wealth and rivilege. 2he hero wor(s for and under another (ing for half the e ic. ,n Beowulf% :rothgar. ,n the )eneid% (ing >atinus.[$"] @hether seen as a agan wor( with H.hristian coloringI added b' scribes or as a H.hristian historical novel% with selected bits of aganis! deliberatel' laid on as <local color<% as 0argaret E. 5olds!ith did in H2he .hristian 2he!e of Beowulf%I[$9] it cannot be denied that .hristianit' ervades the te+t% and with that% the use of the Bible as a source. Beowulf channels 5enesis% E+odus% and 4aniel[$1] in its inclusion of references to 5od<s creation of the universe% the stor' of .ain% -oah and the flood% devils or the 4evil% :ell% and the >ast 7udge!ent.[$9] 2he Bible can fall into both the categor' of ecclesiastical sources and also this categor'% as the Beowulf oet would have relied on Old English translations. [edit] 2he Beowulf !anuscri t 1e!ounted age% British >ibrar' .otton =itellius ).Z= Beowulf survives in a single !anuscri t dated on aleogra hical grounds to the late tenth or earl' eleventh centur'. 2he !anuscri t !easures 1M3 + 1"G !!. [edit] Drovenance 2he earliest (nown owner of the Beowulf !anuscri t is the 1Kth*centur' scholar >aurence -owell% after who! the !anuscri t is na!ed% though its official designation is British >ibrar'% .otton =itellius ).Z= because it was one of 1obert Bruce .otton<s holdings in the .otton >ibrar' in the !iddle of the 1/th centur'. Qevin Qiernan argues that -owell !ost li(el' acCuired it through @illia! .ecil% 1st Baron Burghle'% in 13K"% when -owell entered .ecilNs household as a tutor to his ward% Edward de =ere% 1/th Earl of O+ford.["] ,t suffered da!age in the .otton >ibrar' fire at )shburnha! :ouse in 1/"1. &ince then% arts of the !anuscri t have cru!bled along with !an' of the letters. 1ebinding efforts% though saving the !anuscri t fro! !uch degeneration% have nonetheless covered u other letters of the oe!% causing further loss. Qevin Qiernan% rofessor of English at the Eniversit' of Qentuc('% is fore!ost in the co! uter digitalisation and reservation of the !anuscri t (the Electronic Beowulf DroAect[$3])% using fibre*o tic bac(lighting to reveal lost letters of the oe!. 2he oe! is (nown onl' fro! this single !anuscri t% which is esti!ated to date fro! close to )4 1GGG. Qiernan has argued fro! an e+a!ination of the !anuscri t that it was the author<s own wor(ing co '. :e dated the wor( to the reign of .anute the 5reat.["] 2he oe! a ears in what is toda' called the Beowulf !anuscri t or -owell .ode+ (British >ibrar' 0& .otton =itellius ).+v)% along with other wor(s. 2he earliest e+tant reference to the first foliation of the -owell .ode+ was !ade so!eti!e between 1K$# and 1K3G b' Franciscus 7unius (the 'ounger).["] 2he owner of the code+ before -owell re!ains a !'ster'.["] 1everend 2ho!as &!ith and :u!fre' @anle' undertoo( the tas( of cataloguing the .otton librar'% in which the -owell .ode+ was held. &!ithNs catalogue a eared in 1KMK% and :u!fre'Ns in 1/G3.[$K] 2he Beowulf !anuscri t itself is !entioned in na!e for the first ti!e in a letter in 1/GG between 5eorge :ic(es% @anle'Ns assistant% and @anle'. ,n the letter to @anle'% :ic(es res onds to an a arent charge against &!ith% !ade b' @anle'% that &!ith had failed to !ention the Beowulf scri t when cataloguing .otton 0&. =itellius ). Z=. :ic(es re lies to @anle' B, can find nothing 'et of Beowul h.B[$K] ,t has been theorised that &!ith failed to !ention the Beowulf !anuscri t because of his reliance on revious catalogues or because either he had no idea how to describe it or because it was te! oraril' out of the code+.[$K] [edit] @riting 2he Beowulf !anuscri t was transcribed fro! an original b' two scribes% one of who! wrote the first 1M"M lines and a second who wrote the re!ainder% so the oe! u to line 1M"M is in one handwriting% whilst the rest of the oe! is in another.["] 2he scri t of the second scribe is archaic.["] Both scribes roofread their wor( down to even the !ost !inute error. 2he second scribe slaved over the oe! for !an' 'ears Bwith great reverence and care to restorationB.["] 2he first scribe<s revisions can be bro(en down into three categories Bthe re!oval of dittogra hic !aterial; the restoration of !aterial that was inadvertentl' o!itted or was about to be o!itted; and the conversion of legiti!ate% but conte+tuall' incorrect words to the conte+tuall' ro er words. 2hese three categories rovide the !ost co! elling evidence that the scribe was

generall' attentive to his wor( while he was co 'ing% and that he later subAected his wor( to careful roofreading.B 2he wor( of the second scribe bears a stri(ing rese!blance to the wor( of the first scribe of the Blic(ling ho!ilies% and so !uch so that it is believed the' derive fro! the sa!e scri toriu!.["] Fro! (nowledge of boo(s held in the librar' at 0al!esbur' )bbe' and available as source wor(s% and fro! the identification of certain words articular to the local dialect found in the te+t% the transcri tion !a' have been !ade there.[$/] :owever% for at least a centur'% so!e scholars have !aintained that the descri tion of 5rendelNs la(e in Beowulf was borrowed fro! &t. DaulNs vision of :ell in :o!il' 1K of the Blic(ling ho!ilies.["] 0ost intriguing in the !an' versions of the Beowulf F& is the transcri tion of alliterative verse. Fro! the first scribe<s edits% e!enders such as Qlaeber were forced to alter words for the sa(e of the oe!. B2he lac( of alliteration in line 1M#1 forced Qlaeber in his edition% for e+a! le% to change side (the scribe<s correction) to heal. 2he latter scribe revealed not onl' astute !echanical editing% but also unbridled nourish!ent of the h'sical !anuscri t itself.B.[$#] Over the 'ears Beowulf scholars have ut the wor( of the scribes under intense scrutin'% !an' debate whether the scribes even held a co ' as so!e believe the' wor(ed solel' fro! oral dictation. 0en such as BenAa!in 2hor e saw !an' errors in rhetoric and diction% i! l'ing that the transcribing !ade little to no sense. 0ost intriguing however beco!es the abhorrence of the first scribe<s !echanical editing. 2his reveals the strength of Beowulf<s oral histor' as oetic flow were rioritised over dialect/ gra!!atical coherenc'.[$#] [edit] 2ranscri tion ,celandic scholar 5r6!ur 78nsson 2hor(elin !ade the first transcri tions of the !anuscri t in 1/#K and ublished the results in 1#13% wor(ing under a historical research co!!ission of the 4anish govern!ent. :e !ade one hi!self% and had another done b' a rofessional co 'ist who (new no )nglo*&a+on. &ince that ti!e% the !anuscri t has cru!bled further% and the 2hor(elin transcri ts re!ain a riPed secondar' source for Beowulf scholars. 2he recover' of at least $GGG letters can be attributed to these transcri ts. 2heir accurac' has been called into Cuestion% however (e.g.% b' .haunce' Brewster 2in(er in 2he 2ranslations of Beowulf%[$M] a co! rehensive surve' of 1Mth*centur' translations and editions of Beowulf)% and the e+tent to which the !anuscri t was actuall' !ore readable in 2hor(elin<s ti!e is unclear. [edit] )uthorshi and date Beowulf was written in England% but is set in &candinavia. ,t has variousl' been dated to between the #th and the earl' 11th centuries. ,t is an e ic oe! told in historical ers ective; a stor' of e ic events and of great eo le of a heroic ast. )lthough its author is un(nown% its the!es and subAect !atter are rooted in 5er!anic heroic oetr'% in )nglo*&a+on tradition recited and cultivated b' Old English oets called sco s. O inion differs as to whether the co! osition of the oe! is conte! orar' with its transcri tion% or whether the oe! was co! osed at an earlier ti!e ( ossibl' as one of the Bear<s &on 2ales) and orall' trans!itted for !an' 'ears% and then transcribed at a later date. >ord (1MKGL[ age needed]) felt strongl' the !anuscri t re resents the transcri tion of a erfor!ance% though li(el' ta(en at !ore than one sitting. Qiernan (1MMK) argues on the basis of aleogra hical and codicological evidence% that the oe! is conte! orar' with the !anuscri t.["G] Qiernan<s reasoning has in art to do with the !uch*discussed olitical conte+t of the oe!L it has been held b' !ost scholars% until recentl'% that the oe! was co! osed in the #th centur' on the assu! tion that a oe! eliciting s'! ath' for the 4anes could not have been co! osed b' )nglo*&a+ons during the =i(ing )ges of the Mth and 1Gth centuries% and that the oe! celebrates the na!esa(es of #th .entur' 0ercian Qings.["1] Qiernan argues against an #th*centur' rovenance because this would still reCuire that the oe! be trans!itted b' )nglo*&a+ons through the =i(ing )ge% holds that the aleogra hic and codicological evidence encourages the belief that Beowulf is an 11th*centur' co! osite oe!% and states that &cribe ) and &cribe B are the authors and that &cribe B is the !ore oignant of the two.["G] 2his !atches with the ro'al house of England in the earl' 11th .entur' being 4anish% !a(ing the oe! oliticall' co! atible with this ti!e eriod. 2he view of 7. 1. 1. 2ol(ien is that the oe! retains a !uch too genuine !e!or' of )nglo*&a+on aganis! to have been co! osed !ore than a few generations after the co! letion of the .hristianisation of England around )4 /GG.[1] 2ol(ien<s conviction that the oe! dates to the #th centur' is defended b' 2o! &hi e' ($GG/).["$] 2he celebration of deeds of ancient 4anish and &wedish heroes% the oe! beginning with a tribute to the ro'al line of 4anish (ings% but written in the do!inant literar' dialect of )nglo*&a+on England% for a nu!ber of scholars oints to the 11th centur' reign of .anute% the 4anish (ing whose e! ire included all

of these areas% and whose ri!ar' lace of residence was in England% as the !ost li(el' ti!e of the oe!<s creation% the oe! being written as a celebration of the (ing<s heroic ro'al ancestors% erha s intended as a for! of artistic flatter' b' one of his English courtiers. ) suggestion !ade b' 7ohn 0itchell Qe!ble (1#9M) and defended b' 7Rching (1M/K) uts a ter!inus ost Cue! of the earl' Mth centur' on the Finnesburg e isode at least. Qe!ble identifies the character of :n?f son of :oc with the historical )la!annic noble!an :nabi son of :uoching (d. ca. /##)% wor(ed into the earlier e isode set in Frisia around )4 #GG at the earliest.[""] 2he 11th centur' date is due to scholars who argue that% rather than transcri tion of the tale fro! the oral tradition b' a literate !on(% Beowulf reflects an original inter retation of the stor' b' the oet.[1]["9] [edit] 4ebate over oral tradition 2he Cuestion of whether Beowulf was assed down through oral tradition rior to its resent !anuscri t for! has been the subAect of !uch debate% and involves !ore than the !ere !atter of how it was co! osed. 1ather% given the i! lications of the theor' of oral*for!ulaic co! osition and oral tradition% the Cuestion concerns how the oe! is to be understood% and what sorts of inter retations are legiti!ate. &cholarl' discussion about Beowulf in the conte+t of the oral tradition was e+tre!el' active throughout the 1MKGs and 1M/Gs. 2he debate !ight be fra!ed star(l' as followsL on the one hand% we can h' othesise a oe! ut together fro! various tales concerning the hero (the 5rendel e isode% the 5rendel<s !other stor'% and the firedra(e narrative). 2hese frag!ents would be held for !an' 'ears in tradition% and learned b' a renticeshi fro! one generation of illiterate oets to the ne+t. 2he oe! is co! osed orall' and e+te! oraneousl'% and the archive of tradition on which it draws is oral% agan% 5er!anic% heroic% and tribal. On the other hand% one !ight osit a oe! which is co! osed b' a literate scribe% who acCuired literac' b' wa' of learning >atin (and absorbing >atinate culture and wa's of thin(ing)% robabl' a !on( and therefore rofoundl' .hristian in outloo(. On this view% the agan references would be a sort of decorative archaising.["3]["K] 2here is a third view that sees !erit in both argu!ents above and atte! ts to bridge the!% and so cannot be articulated as star(l' as the' can; it sees !ore than one .hristianit' and !ore than one attitude towards aganis! at wor( in the oe!% se arated fro! each other b' hundreds of 'ears; it sees the oe! as originall' the roduct of a literate .hristian author with one foot in the agan world and one in the .hristian% hi!self a convert erha s or one whose forbears had been agan% a oet who was conversant in both oral and literar' !ilieus and was ca able of a !asterful Bre ur osingB of oetr' fro! the oral tradition; this earl' .hristian oet saw virtue !anifest in a willingness to sacrifice oneself in a devotion to Austice and in an atte! t to aid and rotect those in need of hel and greater safet'; good agan !en had trodden that noble ath and so this oet resents agan culture with eCuani!it' and res ect; 'et overlaid u on this earl' .hristian oet<s co! osition are verses fro! a !uch later refor!ist Bfire*and* bri!stoneB .hristian oet who vilifies agan ractice as dar( and sinful and who adds satanic as ects to its !onsters. 0. :. )bra!s and &te hen 5reenblatt assert in their introduction to Beowulf in the -orton )ntholog' of English >iterature that% B2he oet was reviving the heroic language% st'le% and agan world of ancient 5er!anic oral oetr' [[] it is now widel' believed that Beowulf is the wor( of a single oet who was a .hristian and that his oe! reflects well*established .hristian tradition.B["/] :owever% scholars such as 4.Q. .rowne have ro osed the idea that the oe! was assed down fro! reciter to reciter under the theor' of oral*for!ulaic co! osition% which h' othesises that e ic oe!s were (at least to so!e e+tent) i! rovised b' whoever was reciting the!. ,n his land!ar( wor(% 2he &inger of 2ales% )lbert >ord refers to the wor( of Francis D. 0agoun and others% sa'ing Hthe docu!entation is co! lete% thorough% and accurate. 2his e+haustive anal'sis is in itself sufficient to rove that Beowulf was co! osed orall'.I["#] E+a!ination of Beowulf and other )nglo*&a+on oetr' for evidence of oral*for!ulaic co! osition has !et with !i+ed res onse. @hile Bthe!esB (inherited narrative subunits for re resenting fa!iliar classes of event% such as the Bar!ing the heroB%["M] or the articularl' well*studied Bhero on the beachB the!e[9G]) do e+ist across )nglo*&a+on and other 5er!anic wor(s% so!e scholars conclude that )nglo*&a+on oetr' is a !i+ of oral*for!ulaic and literate atterns% arguing that the oe!s both were co! osed on a word*b'*word basis and followed larger for!ulae and atterns.[91] >arr' Benson argued that the inter retation of Beowulf as an entirel' for!ulaic wor( di!inishes the abilit' of the reader to anal'Pe the oe! in a unified !anner% and with due attention to the oetNs creativit'. ,nstead% he ro osed that other ieces of 5er!anic literature contain B(ernels of traditionB fro! which Beowulf borrows and e+ ands u on.[9$][9"] ) few 'ears later% )nn @atts ublished a boo( in which she

argued against the i! erfect a lication of traditional% :o!eric% oral*for!ulaic theor' to )nglo*&a+on oetr'. &he also argued that the two traditions are not co! arable and should not be regarded as such.[9"] [99] 2ho!as 5ardner agreed with @atts% in a a er ublished four 'ears later which argued that the Beowulf te+t is of too varied a nature to be co! letel' constructed fro! for!ulae and the!es.[9"][93] 7ohn 0iles Fole' held% s ecificall' with reference to the Beowulf debate%[9K] that while co! arative wor( was both necessar' and valid% it !ust be conducted with a view to the articularities of a given tradition; Fole' argued with a view to develo !ents of oral traditional theor' that do not assu!e% or de end u on% finall' unverifiable assu! tions about co! osition% and that discard the oral/literate dichoto!' focused on co! osition in favor of a !ore fluid continuu! of traditionalit' and te+tualit'.[9/][9#][9M][3G] Finall'% in the view of Ersula &chaefer% the Cuestion of whether the oe! was BoralB or BliterateB beco!es so!ething of a red herring.[31] ,n this !odel% the oe! is created% and is inter retable% within both noetic horiPons. &chaeferNs conce t of Bvocalit'B offers neither a co! ro!ise nor a s'nthesis of the views which see the oe! as on the one hand 5er!anic% agan% and oral and on the other >atin*derived% .hristian% and literate% but% as stated b' 0oni(a OtterL B...a <tertiu! Cuid<% a !odalit' that artici ates in both oral and literate culture 'et also has a logic and aesthetic of its own.B[3$] [edit] 4ialect 2his article is art of a series onLOld EnglishEse[show]>iterature[show]:istor'[show]>egac'[show] 2his bo+L view \ tal( \ edit 2he oe! !i+es the @est &a+on and )nglian dialects of Old English% though it redo!inantl' uses @est &a+on% as do other Old English oe!s co ied at the ti!e.[citation needed] 2here is a wide arra' of linguistic for!s in the Beowulf !anuscri t. ,t is this fact that leads so!e scholars to believe that Beowulf has endured a long and co! licated trans!ission through all the !ain dialect areas. ["] 2he oe! retains a co! licated !i+ of the following dialectical for!sL 0ercian% -orthu!brian% Earl' @est &a+on% Qentish and >ate @est &a+on.["] Qiernan argues that it is virtuall' i! ossible that there could have been a rocess of trans!ission which could have sustained the co! licated !i+ of for!s fro! dialect to dialect% fro! generation to generation% and fro! scribe to scribe.["] QiernanNs argu!ent against an earl' dating based on a !i+ture of for!s is long and involved% but he concludes that the !i+ture of for!s oints to a co! arativel' straightforward histor' of the written te+t asL ... an 11th*centur' 0&; an 11th*centur' 0ercian oet using an archaic oetic dialect; and 11th*centur' standard literar' dialect that contained earl' and late% cross*dialectical for!s% and ad!itted s elling variations; and ( erha s) two 11th*centur' scribes following slightl' different s elling ractices.["] )ccording to this view% Beowulf can largel' be seen to be the roduct of antiCuarian interests and that it tells readers !ore about Ban 11th*centur' )nglo*&a+onNs notions about 4en!ar(% and its re*histor'% than it does about the age of Bede and a /th* or #th*centur' )nglo*&a+onNs notions about his ancestorsN ho!eland.B["] 2here are in Beowulf rather !ore than thirt'*one hundred distinct words% and al!ost thirteen hundred occur e+clusivel'% or al!ost e+clusivel'% in this oe! and in the other oetical te+ts. .onsiderabl' !ore than one*third of the total vocabular' is alien fro! ordinar' rose use. 2here are in round nu!bers three hundred and si+t' unco! ounded verbs in Beowulf% and fort' of the! are oetical words in the sense that the' are unrecorded or rare in the e+isting rose writings. One hundred and fift' !ore occur with the refi+ ge* (rec(oning a few found onl' in the ast* artici le)% but of these one hundred occur also as si! le verbs% and the refi+ is e! lo'ed to render a shade of !eaning which was erfectl' (nown and thoroughl' fa!iliar e+ce t in the latest )nglo*&a+on eriod. 2he nouns nu!ber si+teen hundred. &even hundred of the!% including those for!ed with refi+es% of which fift' (or considerabl' !ore than half) have ge*% are si! le nouns. at the highest rec(oning not !ore than one*fourth is absent in rose. 2hat this is due in so!e degree to accident is clear fro! the character of the words% and fro! the fact that several rea ear and are co!!on after the -or!an .onCuest.[3"] [edit] For! and !etre )n Old English oe! such as Beowulf is ver' different fro! !odern oetr'. )nglo*&a+on oets t' icall' used alliterative verse% a for! of verse that uses alliteration as the rinci al structuring device to unif' lines of oetr'% as o osed to other devices such as rh'!e% a tool which is used rather infreCuentl'. 2his is a techniCue in which the first half of the line (the a*verse) is lin(ed to the second half (the b*verse) through si!ilarit' in initial sound. ,n addition% the two halves are divided b' a caesuraL BOft &c'ld &cefing ]]

sceaSena Sreatu!B (l. 9). 2his is a for! of accentual verse% as o osed to our accentual*s'llabic verse. 2here are four beats in ever' line J and two in ever' half*line. 2he oet has a choice of e ithets or for!ulae to use in order to fulfill the alliteration. @hen s ea(ing or reading Old English oetr'% it is i! ortant to re!e!ber for alliterative ur oses that !an' of the letters are not ronounced the sa!e wa' as the' are in !odern English. 2he letter BhB% for e+a! le% is alwa's ronounced (:ro;garL :1O2:*gar)% and the digra h BcgB is ronounced li(e BdAB% as in the word BedgeB. Both f and s var' in ronunciation de ending on their honetic environ!ent. Between vowels or voiced consonants% the' are voiced% sounding li(e !odern v and P% res ectivel'. Otherwise the' are unvoiced% li(e !odern f in BfatB and s in BsatB. &o!e letters which are no longer found in !odern English% such as thorn% S% and eth% ; J re resenting both ronunciations of !odern English BthB% as in BclothB and BclotheB J are used e+tensivel' both in the original !anuscri t and in !odern English editions. 2he voicing of these characters echoes that of f and s. Both are voiced (as in BclotheB) between other voiced soundsL o;er% laSleas% suSern. Otherwise the' are unvoiced (as in BclothB)L Sunor% su;% soSf?st. Qennings are also a significant techniCue in Beowulf. 2he' are evocative oetic descri tions of ever'da' things% often created to fill the alliterative reCuire!ents of the !etre. For e+a! le% a oet !ight call the sea the Bswan*roadB or the Bwhale*roadB; a (ing !ight be called a Bring*giver.B 2here are !an' (ennings in Beowulf% and the device is t' ical of !uch of classic oetr' in Old English% which is heavil' for!ulaic. 2he oe! also !a(es e+tensive use of elided !eta hors.[39] 7. 1. 1. 2ol(ien argued that the oe! is an eleg'.[1] [edit] ,nter retation and criticis! ,n historical ter!s% the oe!<s characters would have been -orse agans (the historical events of the oe! too( lace before the .hristianisation of &candinavia)% 'et the oe! was recorded b' .hristian )nglo* &a+ons who had largel' converted fro! their native )nglo*&a+on aganis! around the /th centur' J both )nglo*&a+on aganis! and -orse aganis! share a co!!on origin as both are for!s of 5er!anic aganis!. Beowulf thus de icts a 5er!anic warrior societ'% in which the relationshi between the lord of the region and those who served under hi! was of ara!ount i! ortance. 0. :. )bra!s and &te hen 5reenblatt note thatL )lthough :rothgar and Beowulf are ortra'ed as !orall' u right and enlightened Dagans% the' full' es ouse and freCuentl' affir! the values of 5er!anic heroic oetr'. ,n the oetr' de icting warrior societ'% the !ost i! ortant of hu!an relationshi s was that which e+isted between the warrior J the thane J and his lord% a relationshi based less on subordination of one !an<s will to another<s than on !utual trust and res ect. @hen a warrior vowed lo'alt' to his lord% he beca!e not so !uch his servant as his voluntar' co! anion% one who would ta(e ride in defending hi! and fighting in his wars. ,n return% the lord was e+ ected to ta(e care of his thanes and to reward the! richl' for their valor.[33] 2his societ' was strongl' defined in ter!s of (inshi ; if so!eone was (illed% it was the dut' of surviving (in to e+act revenge either with their own lives or through weregild% a a'!ent of re aration.[33] &tanle' B. 5reenfield ( rofessor of English% Eniversit' of Oregon) has suggested that references to the hu!an bod' throughout Beowulf e! hasise the relative osition of thanes to their lord. :e argues that the ter! Hshoulder*co! anionI could refer to both a h'sical ar! as well as a thane ()eschere) who was ver' valuable to his lord (:rothgar). @ith )eschere<s death% :rothgar turns to Beowulf as his new Bar!.B[3K] ,n addition% 5reenfield argues the foot is used for the o osite effect% onl' a earing four ti!es in the oe!. ,t is used in conAunction with Enferth (a !an described b' Beowulf as wea(% traitorous% and cowardl'). 5reenfield notes that Enferth is described as Hat the (ingNs feetI (line 9MM). Enferth is also a !e!ber of the foot troo s% who% throughout the stor'% do nothing and Hgenerall' serve as bac(dro s for !ore heroic action.I[3/] )t the sa!e ti!e% 1ichard -orth ( rofessor of English% Eniversit' .ollege >ondon) argues that the Beowulf oet inter reted B4anish !'ths in .hristian for!B (as the oe! would have served as a for! of entertain!ent for a .hristian audience)% and statesL B)s 'et we are no closer to finding out wh' the first audience of Beowulf li(ed to hear stories about eo le routinel' classified as da!ned. 2his Cuestion is ressing% given [...] that )nglo*&a+ons saw the 4anes as <heathens< rather than as foreigners.B[3#] 5rendel<s !other and 5rendel are described as descendants of .ain% a fact which so!e scholars lin( to 2he .ain 2radition.[3M] Other scholars disagree% however% as to the !eaning and nature of the oe!L is it a .hristian wor( set in a 5er!anic agan conte+t^ 2he Cuestion suggests that the conversion fro! the 5er!anic agan beliefs to .hristian ones was a ver' slow and gradual rocess over several centuries% and it re!ains unclear the

ulti!ate nature of the oe!<s !essage in res ect to religious belief at the ti!e it was written. 1obert F. Veager (Drofessor of literature% Eniversit' of -orth .arolina at )sheville) notes the facts that for! the basis for these CuestionsL 2hat the scribes of .otton =itellius ).Z= were .hristian is be'ond doubt; and it is eCuall' certain that Beowulf was co! osed in a .hristianised England% since conversion too( lace in the si+th and seventh centuries. Vet the onl' Biblical references in Beowulf are to the Old 2esta!ent% and .hrist is never !entioned. 2he oe! is set in agan ti!es% and none of the characters is de!onstrabl' .hristian. ,n fact% when we are told what an'one in the oe! believes% we learn that the' are agans. BeowulfNs own beliefs are not e+ ressed e+ licitl'. :e offers eloCuent ra'ers to a higher ower% addressing hi!self to the HFather )l!ight'I or the H@ielder of )ll.I @ere those the ra'ers of a agan who used hrases the .hristians subseCuentl' a ro riated^ Or% did the oe!Ns author intend to see Beowulf as a .hristian Er*hero% s'!bolicall' refulgent with .hristian virtues^[KG] @riter E. 2albot 4onaldson see!ed e+tre!el' certain in his criticis! of the oe!% focusing on the e+act age and locational ele!ents that surrounded the oe! itself. :e clai!ed that it was robabl' co! osed !ore than twelve hundred 'ears ago during the first half of the eighth centur'. 4onaldson also believes the writer to be a native of what was then @est 0ercia% located in the @estern 0idlands of England. :owever% the late tenth centur' !anuscri t Bwhich alone reserves the oe!B originated in the (ingdo! of the @est &a+ons J as it is !ore co!!onl' (nown.[K1] )s a result of the 1/"1 fire that seriousl' da!aged the !anuscri t% 4onaldson clai!s that several lines and words have been lost fro! the oe!. .oncerning language% 4onaldson argues that the reason as to wh' Beowulf is difficult to connect with is because there have been nu!erous transcri tions starting fro! the oe!<s co! osition u until it was co ied into !anuscri t for!. Even though there have been !an' debates about whether there are .hristian entities resent within the oe!% 4onaldson is certain that Bthe oet who ut the !aterials into their resent for! was a .hristian and... oe! reflects a .hristian traditionB.[K1] :e oints out the use of 5od and his recognised will as well as describing 5rendel as a descendant of .ain. :e also !entions the inclusion of :eaven and :ell in the oe! as the dead await 5od<s Audge!ent while the da!ned such as 5rendel and his !other are to be thrust into the fla!es of :ell. 7.1.1. 2ol(ien% author and 0erton rofessor of )nglo*&a+on at O+ford Eniversit'% criticised his conte! oraries< own literar' criticis! of the oe! as being confused b' their interest in its historical i! lications.[1] :e noted that as a result the oe! had !ostl' been overloo(ed as a literar' bench!ar( until his 1M"K criticis! BeowulfL 2he 0onsters and the .ritics suggested that the oe!Ns nature His in fact so interesting as oetr'% in laces oetr' so owerful% that this Cuite overshadows the historical content[ Beowulf &u!!ar' 2he oe! begins with a brief genealog' of the 4anes. &c'ld &hefing was the first great (ing of the 4anes% (nown for his abilit' to conCuer ene!ies. &c'ld beco!es the great*grandfather of :rothgar% the (ing of the 4anes during the events of Beowulf. :rothgar% li(e his ancestors before hi!% is a good (ing% and he wishes to celebrate his reign b' building a grand hall called :eorot. Once the hall is finished% :rothgar holds a large feast. 2he revelr' attracts the attentions of the !onster 5rendel% who decides to attac( during the night. ,n the !orning% :rothgar and his thanes discover the bloodshed and !ourn the lost warriors. 2his begins 5rendel<s assault u on the 4anes. 2welve 'ears ass. Eventuall' the news of 5rendel<s aggression on the 4anes reaches the 5eats% another tribe. ) 5eat thane% Beowulf% decides to hel the 4anes; he sails to the land of the 4anes with his best warriors. E on their arrival% :rothgar<s thane @ulfgar Audges the 5eats worth' enough to s ea( with :rothgar. :rothgar re!e!bers when he hel ed Beowulf<s father Ecgtheow settle a feud; thus% he welco!es Beowulf<s hel gladl'. :eorot is filled once again for a large feast in honor of Beowulf. 4uring the feast% a thane na!ed Enferth tries to get into a boasting !atch with Beowulf b' accusing hi! of losing a swi!!ing contest. Beowulf tells the stor' of his heroic victor' in the contest% and the co! an' celebrates his courage. 4uring the height of the celebration% the 4anish Cueen @ealhtheow co!es forth% bearing the !ead*cu . &he resents it first to :rothgar% then to the rest of the hall% and finall' to Beowulf. )s he receives the cu % Beowulf tells @ealhtheow that he will (ill 5rendel or be (illed in :eorot. 2his si! le declaration !oves @ealhtheow and the 4anes% and the revelr' continues. Finall'% ever'one retires. Before he leaves% :rothgar ro!ises to give Beowulf ever'thing if he can defeat 5rendel. Beowulf sa's that he will leave 5od to Audge the outco!e. :e and his thanes slee in the hall as the' wait for 5rendel.

Eventuall' 5rendel arrives at :eorot as usual% hungr' for flesh. Beowulf watches carefull' as 5rendel eats one of his !en. @hen 5rendel reaches for Beowulf% Beowulf grabs 5rendel<s ar! and doesn<t let go. 5rendel writhes about in ain as Beowulf gri s hi!. :e thrashes about% causing the hall to nearl' colla se. &oon 5rendel tears awa'% leaving his ar! in Beowulf<s gras . :e slin(s bac( to his lair in the !oors and dies. 2he 4anes% !eanwhile% consider Beowulf as the greatest hero in 4anish histor'. :rothgar<s !instrel sings songs of Beowulf and other great characters of the ast% including &ige!und (who slew a dragon) and :ere!od (who ruled his (ingdo! unwisel' and was unished). ,n :eorot% 5rendel<s ar! is nailed to the wall as a tro h'. :rothgar sa's that Beowulf will never lac( for riches% and Beowulf graciousl' than(s hi!. 2he horses and !en of the 5eats are all richl' adorned% in (ee ing with :rothgar<s wishes. )nother art' is held to celebrate Beowulf<s victor'. :rothgar<s !instrel tells another stor' at the feast% the stor' of the Frisian slaughter. )n ancient 4anish (ing had a daughter na!ed :ildeburh; he !arried her to a (ing of the Frisians. @hile :naef% :ildeburh<s brother% visited his sister% the Frisians attac(ed the 4anes% (illing :naef and :ildeburh<s son in the rocess. :engest% the ne+t leader of the 4anes% desired vengeance% and in the s ring% the 4anes attac(ed the Frisians% (illing their leader and ta(ing :ildeburh bac( to 4en!ar(. )fter this stor' is told% @ealhtheow resents a nec(lace to :rothgar while leading with her brother*in*law :rothulf to hel her two 'oung sons if the' should ever need it. -e+t she resents !an' golden treasures to Beowulf% such as nec(laces% cu s% and rings. &oon the feast ends% and ever'one slee s eacefull'. ,n the night% 5rendel<s !other a roaches the hall% wanting vengeance for her son. 2he warriors re ared for battle% leaving enough ti!e for 5rendel<s !other to grab one of :rothgar<s counselors and run awa'. @hen Beowulf is su!!oned to the hall% he finds :rothgar in !ourning for his friend )eschere. :rothgar tells Beowulf where the creatures li(e 5rendel live_in a shadow'% fearful land within the !oors. Beowulf ersuades :rothgar to ride with hi! to the !oors. @hen the' reach the edge of the !oors% Beowulf calls for his ar!or% ta(es a sword fro! Enferth% and dives into the la(e. )fter a long ti!e% Beowulf reaches the botto! of the la(e% where 5rendel<s !other is waiting to attac(. Beowulf swings his sword% but discovers that it cannot cut her% so he tosses it awa'. 2he' then wrestle until Beowulf s ies a large sword nearb'. :e grabs it b' the hilt and swings_(illing 5rendel<s !other b' slicing off her head. &till in a rage% Beowulf finds the dead 5rendel in the lair and cuts off his head as a tro h'. )s the' wait% the 4anes have given u all ho e for Beowulf because he has been underwater for such a long ti!e. 2he' are shoc(ed when Beowulf returns with 5rendel<s head and the hilt of the sword (which !elted with the heat of 5rendel<s blood). 2he' bear the hero and his boot' bac( to :eorot% where another celebration ta(es lace. Beowulf recounts his battle; :rothgar raises hi! and gives hi! advice on being a (ing. ) grand feast follows% and Beowulf is given !ore riceless treasures. 2he ne+t !orning% the 5eats loo( forward to leaving 4en!ar(. Before the' leave% Beowulf ro!ises aid for :rothgar fro! the 4anes. :rothgar raises Beowulf and ro!ises that their lands will have an alliance forever. )s the 5eats leave% :rothgar finds hi!self wishing Beowulf would never leave. 2he 5eats return with !uch reAoicing to their ho!eland% where their (ing :'gelac and his Cueen :'gd greet the!. ,n an aside% the narrator co! ares :'gd to the Cueen of the ancient Offa% who is not ta!ed until Offa co!es to subAugate her. Beowulf tells his lord the events of his tri to 4en!ar(. ,n the rocess% he tells another stor' that had reviousl' been un!entioned. :rothgar betrothed his daughter Freawaru to a rince of the :eathobards in order to settle an old feud. Beowulf s eculates that so!eone will goad this :eathobard rince to ta(e vengeance u on the 4anes for all their ast wrongs. :'gelac raises Beowulf for his braver' and gives hi! half the (ingdo!. 2he' rule the (ingdo! together in eace and ros erit'. :'gelac is (illed in a battle soon after% so Beowulf beco!es (ing of the 5eats and rules the (ingdo! well. ,n the fiftieth 'ear of Beowulf<s reign% a !onster arises to terroriPe the 5eats. ) treasure trove was left b' an ancient civiliPation% which guarded it Aealousl' until onl' one !e!ber of the race was left. )fter the last erson<s death% a fire*breathing dragon found the treasure and guarded it for three hundred 'ears. One da'% a slave stu!bled u on the treasure and stole a cu as an offering to his lord. 2he dragon awa(ened to find so!ething !issing fro! his treasure% and began his ra! age u on the 5eats. One da'% Beowulf learns that this dragon has destro'ed his own great hall. 2his attac( sends hi! into dee thought. &oon he orders a shield to use for battle% but not without a heav' heart at what !a' ha en to hi!. :e recalls :'gelac<s death in battle and his own narrow esca e fro! this battle. :e recalls a nu!ber of battles he has seen as he travels to the dragon<s lair with eleven of his thanes. 2he servant who stole the cu leads the! to the lair.

)s the' wait to attac( the dragon% Beowulf recounts the 5eat ro'al fa!il'<s light% in which :'gelac<s oldest brothers (illed each other and left their father to die of a bro(en heart. Beowulf sa's he served :'gelac well% and a sword (na!ed -aegling) that he won while serving :'gelac will hel hi! save the (ingdo! once again. Beowulf leads the charge to the dragon<s cave. 2he shield rotects hi! fro! the dragon<s fla!es% but his !en flee in fear% leaving onl' one !an behind. 2his !an is @iglaf% Beowulf<s (ins!an through Ecgtheow. @iglaf beco!es angr'% but swears that he will sta' b' Beowulf<s side. 7ust then the dragon rushes u to the!. Beowulf and the dragon swing at each other three ti!es% finall' landing !ortal blows u on each other the last ti!e. 2he dragon is beheaded% but Beowulf is bitten and has a !ortal oison fro! the dragon flowing through his bod' as a result. @iglaf bathes his lord<s bod' as Beowulf s ea(s on the treasure. :e sa's that @iglaf should inherit it as his (ins!an; then he dies. )fter his death% the cowards return% to be severel' chastised b' @iglaf. :e sends a !essenger to tell the eo le of their (ing<s death. 2he !essenger envisions the Ao' of the 5eats< ene!ies u on hearing of the death of Beowulf. :e also sa's that no !an shall ever have the treasure for which Beowulf fought. @iglaf and Beowulf<s thanes toss the dragon<s bod' into the sea. 2he' lace the treasure inside a !ound with Beowulf<s bod' and !ourn for Bthe ablest of all world*(ings.