Frozen in Terror: The FLQ and the Global Struggle against Western Capitalism

Table of Contents Introduction Chapter 1 Chapter # Chapter $ Conclusion''' Wor*s Cited ! 1" #" %& () ((

Introduction In the +ears follo,ing the Second World War- the ,orld sa, itself falling .ictim to man+ of the same perils that characterize the current state of affairs' The falsel+ named Cold/War defined the geopolitical climate and polic+- both foreign and domestic for .irtuall+ e.er+ countr+ in the ,orld' 0ctions ta*en at the international le.el re.erberated throughout societ+- culminating in social and political unrest that plagued the nations of the ,orld during the 1&%)1s and ")1s' 2ne manifestation of this .olatile milieu ,as the proliferation of re.olutionar+ guerrilla mo.ements- often hea.il+ influenced b+ 3ar4ist/Leninism that sought to liberate their countries from their percei.ed oppressors' 0lthough in academia and the popular imagination this sort of struggle is often confined to the countr+side- after the Cuban 5e.olution in 1&6& man+ significant guerrilla mo.ements too* to the streets- focusing their efforts on the ne, urban centers of po,er' Certainl+- urban elements could be found in .iolent re.olutionar+ struggles prior to this- but ne.er before ,as the cit+ the primar+ site of conflict and contestation' I belie.e that anal+sis of the rise of the urban guerrilla ultimatel+ gi.es us the tools to better understand the distinctl+ urban ,orld that ,e li.e in toda+ and the social and political mo.ements that ha.e emerged from this urban e4perience' 2ne of the last places that most people ,ould thin* to find an+ t+pe of .iolent re.olutionar+ mo.ement is Canada' 3ost people consider Canada politicall+ and sociall+ stablea prosperous nation that rarel+ becomes in.ol.ed in international crises' 7et in +ears follo,ing the Cuban 5e.olution the French/spea*ing pro.ince of Quebec became the site of a crisis that threatened to destro+ the unit+ of the Confederation of Canada' Its une4pected location is not the onl+ thing that ma*es the Front de Libration du Qubec 8Quebec Liberation Front or FLQ9

note,orth+' The group and its members had numerous lin*s- both material and ideological to similar groups around the ,orld' This is one of the characteristics ,hich distinguished the FLQ from the ma:orit+ of nationalist mo.ements; the FLQ ,as part of transnational urban guerrilla mo.ement- a net,or* that utilized common tactics- a shared discourse and ideological foundation and a strong material relationship ,ith similar mo.ements throughout the ,orld' This pro:ect has t,o main ob:ecti.es: first- to combine pre.iousl+ separate schools of thought to create a theoreticall+ informed definition of a <transnational urban guerrilla mo.ement'= Second- to use the FLQ as a case stud+ for the possible e4istence of this phenomena and to further elucidate its nature' 0lthough the focus is on FLQ- a significant amount of attention ,ill be paid to the groups ,ith ,hich the organization shared transnational lin*snamel+ militant >lac* ?o,er mo.ements in the @nited States- Aorth 0frican and 3iddle Bastern <terrorist= groups- and anti/authoritarian mo.ements in the South 0merica- primaril+ @rugua+0rgentina and >razil' 0 complete historical anal+sis of these mo.ements ,ould be both impossible and impractical for the purposes of this pro:ect' 5ather I ,ill see* to prepare the reader for the comparati.e anal+sis of these mo.ements in the bod+ of this paper b+ re.ie,ing and locating rele.ant literature' The Cuestion of QuDbec- namel+ separatism1- has lingered on the fringes of QuDbDcois nationalism since 1"%) ,hen the Bnglish defeated and conCuered Ae, France#' There it remained- a .irtual non/issue 8at least for Bnglish Canada9 until 1&%)- ,hen a formerl+ conser.ati.e nationalism ,as turned into a more liberal and increasing separatist brand of nationalism' Traditionall+- QuDbDcois nationalism had a federalist tendenc+- ,hich promoted the
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It should be noted that QuDbec separatists self/identif+ as <so.ereigntists'= Wilson- Fran* L' <French/Canadian Separatism'= The Western ?olitical Quarterl+- Eol' #)- Ao 1' 83ar'- 1&%"9p' 11%' FST25' Gampshire College Librar+' " 3ar' #))"'

interests of QuDbec ,ithin the frame,or* of the Confederation of Canada' Canadian sociologist Leon Hion attributes the rise of this ne, form of nationalism to t,o things: first the election of Fean Lesage to the office of ?remier of Quebec and the ,idespread electoral success of the Liberal part+ in 1&%) elections; second- and most rele.ant to the purposes of the paper the rise to po,er of independence mo.ements in 0frica and 0sia follo,ing the end of World War II- ,hich lead the QuDbDcois to ,onder <,h+ not usI=$' This brand of nationalism- ,hich Hion refers to as <nationalism of gro,th= promoted pro.incial autonom+ from 2tta,a and the modernization of the pro.ince1s econom+ and economic infrastructure and establishment of state/o,ned industrial pro:ects' Lesage1s election ushered in the so/called Quiet 5e.olution- a transformation of the go.ernment and subseCuentl+ the societ+ of QuDbec' This mo.ement ,as characterized b+ rapid secularization of a pro.ince pre.iousl+ administered b+ the Catholic Church- the creation of a ,elfare state- and the rise of nationalism among the Francophone population' @ntil this pointt,o forces- Bnglish capitalist interests and the French Catholic Church- had controlled QuDbec' The Church ,as gi.en authorit+ o.er the education s+stem and administration man+ other sections of societ+- <a .irtual hegemon+ o.er the li.es of French Canadians!'= >ecause of thisand man+ other factors- including a categorical refusal to assimilate- the QuDbDcois people remained sociall+- culturall+ and economic separate from Bnglish' Aot surprisingl+- separate did not mean eCual' Statisticall+ spea*ing- before the Quiet 5e.olution- the QuDbDcois people formed an economic underclass and that the means of production la+ in the hands of either Bnglish Canadian or foreign 8mostl+ 0merican9 capitalist
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Hion- LDon' Quebec: the @nfinished 5e.olution' 3ontreal: 3cGill/QueenJs @?- 1&"%' p'$1 Fen,ic*- 5ud+' KSocial Change and Bthnic Aationalism: a Gistorical 0nal+sis of the Separatist 3o.ement in Quebec'K Comparati.e Studies in Societ+ and Gistor+- Eol' #$- Ao' #- 81&(19: p'#))' FST25' Gampshire College Librar+' " 3ar' #))"'

interests' In his boo*- Negres Blanc dAmrique 8White Aiggers of 0merica9 the intellectual leader of the FLQ ?ierre EalliLres de.elops a material/dri.en- 3ar4ian anal+sis of the histor+ les habitants- the ancestors of modern da+ QuDbecois and their constant antagonistic relationship to the Bnglish economic elites and the Church' It is a stor+ that is reminiscent of that of indigenous people is Latin 0merica; the habitants ,ere gi.en to ,orst land in an attempt to de.elop the pro.ince- but much of the land ,as so infertile that families could not e.en gro, enough food to feed their famil+' While the habitants- the eCui.alent of the proletariat in EalliLres1 anal+sis ,ere star.ing- the non/French Canadian elites controlled of the most fertile land for ,heat production and other goods to be e4ported6' B.entuall+ the QuDbDcois ga.e up on ,or*ing the frozen- roc*/filled land and mo.ed to the cit+ in search of :obs as the pro.ince industrialized' >oth Hion% and Fen,ic*" see the mo.e to the cit+- the struggle for economic eCualit+ and the rise of the QuDbDcois middle/class as the causes of increased popularit+ of leftist nationalisms in the pro.ince' >ut nationalism in QuDbec should not be seen as a monolithic mo.ement ,ith one .ision and one methodolog+' B.en ,ithin separatism- a fringe of nationalism itself- social pluralism and ideological di.ersit+ factionalize the mo.ement(' EalliLres and Charles Gagnon- another ,riter and member of the FLQ ,ere part of a nascent intellectual mo.ement ,ithin QuDbec during the 1&%)1s' The nature of the discourse highlights the factionalized the nature of the political actors ; it focused on the <proper ,a+s of associating separatism ,ith socialism; on the roles of .iolence in achie.ing an independent and socialist QuDbec; on the *ind of socialism best suited for QuDbec- on the proper ,a+s of

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EalliLres- ?ierre' The White Aiggers of 0merica' Ae, 7or*: 3onthl+ 5e.ie, ?- 1&"1' p'#6 Hion p'4ii Fen,ic* p'#)6 Hion p'$"

<decolonizing= QuDbec; on the conditions of the class struggle in QuDbec- and so on&'= Hion1s anal+sis focuses on the t,o largest branches of separatist nationalism- social/democratic and socialist' The former has found e4pression in the Part Qubcois 8?Q9 and the Bloc Qubcoispolitical parties at the pro.incial and federal le.el- respecti.el+' The latter found its most e4treme manifestation in the FLQ and other militant groups in the 1&%)1s- the fringe of a social and political mo.ement alread+ on the left fringe of the Canadian politics' ?erhaps much better *no,n are the e.ents of the ci.il rights mo.ement in the 0merican South and the hundreds of +ears of brutal oppression suffered b+ 0frican 0merican' This is not onl+ true in Aorth 0merica- but in the entire ,orld' 3ilitant ci.il rights acti.ist- 0' ?hilip 5andolph sa, the implications of this position: <The problem of the Aegro in the @nited States is no longer a purel+ domestic Cuestion but has ,orld significance' We ha.e become the barometer of democrac+ to the colored peoples of the ,orld1)'= This status is manifested in the rhetoric of numerous re.olutionar+ mo.ements- as ,ill be highlighted throughout this paper' 3an+ around the ,orld could relate to the political- economic and social oppression e4perienced b+ 0merican >lac*s' The image of the @nited States as a countr+ di.ided b+ race ,as :u4taposed ,ith the image that the @nited States go.ernment pro:ected in its o,n rhetoric at the time- a free societ+ and the enem+ of t+rann+- usuall+ So.iet/influenced socialism' The >lac* ?anthers and other militant ci.il right mo.ements became a source of inspiration- and sometimes transnational collaboration for man+ political organizations around the ,orld- as I ,ill sho, in m+ anal+sis' With that in mind- it seems that m+ anal+sis of the historical conte4t of militant >lac* ?o,er groups should focus on the .er+ thing that made them uniCue- their militanc+' 0t its
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Hion p'1!% T+son- Timoth+ >' 5adio Free Hi4ie : 5obert F' Williams M the 5oots of >lac* ?o,er' Chapel Gill: @ni.ersit+ of Aorth Carolina ?- 1&&&' p'#(

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simplest- the choice of some members of the ci.il rights mo.ement to use methods of .iolent resistance ,as a reaction to e4treme forms of .iolence- institutional and other,ise directed against 0frican 0mericans- particularl+ those in.ol.ed in the ci.il rights mo.ement' In 1&!"5obert Williams- the grandfather of the >lac* ?o,er along ,ith other +oung 0frican 0merican .eteran of the Second World War too* up arms against Nu Nlu4 Nlan members in 3onroe- Aorth Caroline' Williams did so in order to defend the bod+ of a blac* man ,ho had been e4ecuted b+ the state for *illing his ,hite boss' The group successfull+ deterred the Nlansmen from stealing the bod+ ,ithout firing a shot - using onl+ the threat of retaliation' 3an+ of the men there that night ,ould later become in.ol.ed in Williams1 efforts to form groups based on his philosoph+ of <armed self/reliance11'= This ,as not an isolated case of blac* .eterans ,ho became in.ol.ed in militant political action' In fact- racial militanc+ among 0frican 0merican soldiers in World War II became so pre.alent that the War Hepartment began to fear re.olt b+ the disenfranchised ser.ice men and ,omen1#' 0fter returning home and e4periencing the <freedom= that the+ had fought so hard to defend- 0frican 0merican .eterans began to combine their militanc+ ,ith political acti.it+'1$ Concurrentl+- as a reaction to the ci.il rights mo.ement1s challenge to the old social order of the South- militanc+ also began to gain support in the conser.ati.e ,hite communities- causing resurgence in Nlan membership and therefore .iolent acti.it+' It ,as in response to the increased danger of being acti.e in the ci.il rights mo.ement that led Williams to began carr+ing his 0rm+ issue Colt 1&11 '!6 on his belt in public and promoting <armed self/reliance= as a ,a+ to defends one1s self from Nlan and police .iolence1!'
11 1# 1$ 1!

T+son p'6) T+son p'$" T+son p'6$ T+son p'(%/("

Eiolence- institutional and other,ise ,as also a large part of the 0frican 0merican e4perience in ma:or urban centers as ,ell' The number of race riots in the @'S' increased dramaticall+ during the 1&%)1s16' ?artiall+ in response to raciall+ moti.ated .iolence- support for armed self/defense gre, among 0frican 0mericans in the ci.il rights mo.ement' 3alcolm O continued the legac+ of 5obert Williams- preaching an ideolog+ of armed self/defense combined ,ith his o,n form of >lac* Aationalism ,hich ,as based hea.il+ on the teachings of Islam' 0fter 3alcolm O1s assassination in 1&%6- the >lac* ?anther ?art+ for Self/Hefense 8>??9 ,as formed in 2a*land- California but soon spread throughout the @'S'- establishing ma:or presences in cities li*e Washington H'C' and Ae, 7or*' 3ore than the bearer of his ideological torch- the >lac* ?anthers became the ph+sical manifestation of 3alcolm OJs ideas and perhaps the most radical e4pression of >lac* ?o,er in the nation1s histor+' The groups positioned themsel.es along side resistance mo.ements in their rhetoric The >lac* ?anthers created and pro.ided a critical lin* that transformed the blac* liberation from a purel+ domestic concern to a part of a global struggle for liberation' While F>I and others in 0merican politics portra+ed and continue to portra+ the >lac* ?anthers and other blac*s ,ho defended themsel.es ,ith arms as inherentl+ criminalstatisticall+ spea*ing the NNN and other ,hite supremacists group ,ere responsible for most of the <terrorist= actions and race based .iolence in the @nited States bet,een 1&%$ and 1&")precisel+ the time period on ,hich I focus m+ anal+sis' >lac* ?o,er ,as in part a defensi.e response to racist acts of .iolence perpetrated b+ ,hite supremacists and police- t,o groups that ,ere not al,a+s mutuall+ e4clusi.e' If one loo*s at trends o.er time- the is an in.erse
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Fones- Charles C' and Feffries- Fudson L' KJHon1t belie.e the h+peK : debun*ing the ?anther m+tholog+= The >lac* ?anther ?art+ P5econsideredQ' Bd' Charles B' Fones' >altimore: >lac* Classic ?- 1&&(' p'#6

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relationship bet,een the number of <,hite supremacist attac*s on blac*s and ci.il rights ,or*ers= and the number of <blac* acti.istsJ attac*s on ,hites and shootouts ,ith the police;= as the >lac* ?anthers and others began to defend themsel.es through .iolence- the amount of .iolence committed against them dropped dramaticall+1%' Terrorism1" in the 3iddle Bast and Aorth 0frica- because of its continued rele.ance to and impact on life around the ,orld is also a much more ,idel+ follo,ed and discussed topic than terrorism in Canada' 0dditionall+- an+ partiall+ adeCuate account of the historical factors behind their rise in +ears follo,ing World War II is be+ond the means and the purposes of this paper' Therefore- m+ anal+sis ,ill be limited to the guerrillas of the ?alestinian national liberation mo.ement and the post/colonial 0lgerian state- beginning ,ith its roots as an urban insurgenc+' The 0lgerian 5e.olution ,as the first successful national liberation mo.ement to ha.e had as a component a ma:or urban insurgenc+ and as such has remained a .i.id part of the ,orldJs collecti.e memor+' 0s ,ith all insurgent mo.ements- but to a much greater e4tent- the mo.ement is remembered .er+ differentl+ for .arious purposes' Bspeciall+ of interest toda+ is the struggle bet,een the urban guerrillas of the Front de Libration Nationale (National Liberation Front or FLN) and the French colonial forces no !no n as the "battle of Algiers#$ The mo.ie of the same name has seen a resurgence in popularit+ in recent +ears- especiall+ among counter/insurgenc+ instructors in the @'S' 0rm+1(' In :u4taposition- the film is screened to
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5oss- Feffer+ I'- and Ted 5' Gurr' KWh+ Terrorism Subsides: a Comparati.e Stud+ of Canada and the @nited States'K Comparati.e ?olitics- Eol' #1- Ao' !' 8Ful'-1&(&9: p'!16' FST25' Gampshire College Librar+' " 3ar' #))"' The definition of terrorism is ob.iousl+ something about ,hich there is much debate' This issue ,ill be discussed at great length in the follo,ing chapter- as ,ill the distinction bet,een urban guerrilla ,arfare and terrorism' 0hmad- BCbal' <The 3a*ing of %he Battle of Algiers'= The Selected Wor*s of BCbal 0hmad' Bd' Carollee >engelsdorf- 3argaret Cerullo- and 7ogesh Chandrani' Ae, 7or*: Columbia @?- #))%' p'(6'

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uni.ersit+ students to gi.e them a snapshot of colonialism and anti/colonial insurgenc+' 0lthough there ,as a significant urban struggle as part of the 0lgerian re.olution- it ,as successfull+ Cuelled and independence ,as ,on largel+ through efforts of rural guerrillas' 0lgeria soon became- especiall+ after achie.ing independence in 1&%# a hub for re.olutionaries either e4periencing the re.olution or training to start their o,n' 0s I hope to pro.e in this paper- the countr+ ,as a locus at ,hich transnational actors crossed paths and as such ,as an integral component of a transnational urban guerrilla net,or*' Li*e the people QuDbec- there has been an increased per.asi.eness nationalism among ?alestinians since the loss of statehood and much of their national territor+' The forced relocation and migration of thousands of ?alestinians to the surrounding 0rab states and the ?alestinian territories created a large- decentralized diaspora' This presented a challenge to those ,ho sought to organize the dispossessed nation' 0s a result- the ?alestinian Liberation 3o.ement had to organize transnationall+ as the nation ,as li.ing in multiple nation/states and not ,ithin the one that it sought to liberate' This forced transnationalism of necessit+ is distinct from the agenc+/ dri.en transnational actions of the other groups e4amined herein- as the e4perience and mentalit+ of a person or a people li.ing in e4ile is dramaticall+ different than a person ,ho is tra.eling the ,orld .oluntaril+' Hue the hardships the+ endured- after 1&!( <the ?alestinian refuges ,ere so traumatized and consumed ,ith mere ph+sical sur.i.al 8most became ,ards of the international communit+the @nited Aations9= that the+ ,ere <politicall+ paral+zed= until 1&6" ,hen a +ounger generation guided b+ ne, ideologies- notabl+ pan/0rab nationalism began to re.italize political acti.ism among their people1&' The Suez War of 1&6% helped to fuel pan/0rab nationalist
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Farsoun- Samih N'- and Aaseer G' 0ruri' <The rise and fall of the ?alestinian Aational Liberation 3o.ement

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sentiment throughout the 3iddle Bast' 0s a result- the defeat of Israel and the re/establishment of a ?alestinian state became the issue around ,hich the interests of ?alestinian nationalism pan/ 0rab solidarit+ became increasingl+ intert,ined' The @nited StatesJ generous support of Israel helped to ma*e pan/0rab nationalism increasingl+ anti/imperial in their discourse and actions' Huring the 1&%)Js the ?alestinian nationalist mo.ement began to be manifested in an e4tra/legal manner that complemented the actions of .arious legal ?alestinian political organizations; in 1&%6 guerrillaJs associated ,ith 7asser 0rafatJs Al&Fatah part+ began to cross the border from Fordan in order to launch attac*s inside Israeli territor+' 3+ anal+sis in m+ third chapter pic*s up at this moment and follo,s the de.elopment of the ?alestinian resistance- specificall+ their transnational interactions ,ith the other urban guerrilla groups e4amined in this paper' ?erhaps it is fitting to conclude m+ historical conte4tualization of guerrilla mo.ements b+ focusing on the source of the image of <the guerrilla= in the popular imagination of the @nited States' >ut m+ interest is in Latin 0merican guerrilla mo.ements that completel+ contradict this image- that go against the foundation of e.er+thing ,ritten about guerrilla strateg+ from Eon Clause,itz#) to Che; their operations are focused on the cit+ and not the countr+side' The reasoning behind this shift has to do- in large part ,ith the 1&%" death of Gue.ara- a man ,hose ,ritings and life inspired countless guerrilla uprisings in the region and around the ,orld' 0lthough his name and .isage are rather ,ell *no,n throughout the ,orld- the li.e of Gue.ara and the e.ents of the re.olution in ,hich he pla+ed a ma:or part are less present in the collecti.e memor+ of the a.erage global denizen' Gue.ara ,as born into an aristocratic famil+ in
1&!(/1&&$= ?alestine and the ?alestinians: a Social and ?olitical Gistor+' #nd ed' >oulder- C2: West.ie, ?#))%' p'1"%/1"" Carl .on Clause,itz is often regarded- at least in Western academia as the first serious anal+sis of ,hat is no, called guerrilla ,arfare' Go,e.er- Sun Tzo1s The 0rt of War offered tactics and strateg+ that could be- and ha.e been applied to the conduct of guerrilla ,arfare' In fact- much of 3ao1s ,ritings- often held up as cannons of guerrilla strateg+ borro,ed hea.il+- at some points almost .erbatim from The 0rt of War'

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0rgentina- ,here he gre, up and e.entuall+ completed his degree in medicine' Ge tra.eled e4tensi.el+ throughout Latin 0merica before settling in Guatemala' Ge ,as forced to flee the countr+ for 3e4ico after the coup against Facobo 0rbenz in 1&6!' It ,as in 3e4ico that Gue.ara met a +oung Fidel Castro- a Cuban re.olutionar+ li.ing in e4ile- :oining him in his in.asion of the island of Cuba and establishment of a guerrilla insurgenc+ in the Sierra 3aestra mountains' >+ 1&6& their forces had gro,n in po,er and o.erthre, the go.ernment of Fulgencio >atista' The ne, Cuban state- lead b+ Castro began to institute a series of ,ide ranging social- economic and political reforms- including agrarian reform' 0fter ,or*ing inside of Cuba in .arious capacities- Gue.ara attempted to e4port re.olution through his rhetoric and his actions' Ge ,ent to Congo to support an alread+ established rural insurgenc+ in the countr+ and left ,ith little to sho, for his efforts' Ge tra.eled to >oli.ia to support another insurgenc+ based in the countr+Js :ungles' Aeither his presence nor the cause for ,hich he fought recei.ed that popular support that he anticipated- leading to his e.entual capture and e4ecution' Fust as the e.ents and accomplishments of his life ,ere a source on inspiration and emulation for other guerrilla mo.ements- his death fore.er changed the historical tra:ector+ of the Latin 0merican guerrilla' In a se.erel+ reductionist model- the presence of numerous guerrilla mo.ements throughout Latin 0merica can be causall+ related to the rise of authoritarian regimes in the region during the post/,ar period' The South 0merican countries in the region to be e4amined in this paper- @rugua+- 0rgentina and >razil ,ere all ruled b+ .arious t+pes of authoritarian go.ernments as the Cold War heated up' >ut the presence of repressi.e regimes is not and logicall+ cannot be the sole cause of .iolent resistance to these regimes' In attempting to account for the rise of urban guerrilla mo.ements- 0ustralian :ournalist 5obert 3oss identifies three main

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factors that led some to abandon the countr+side' First- potential guerrillas sa, the failure of rural guerrilla mo.ements throughout Latin 0merica to continue Castro1s pan/continental socialist re.olution- ,hich came to a head ,ith the failure of the >oli.ian re.olution and the death of Che' Second- this lead them to adopt tactics aimed at ,inning popular support not simpl+ militar+ .ictories ,hen formulating the strategies of the o,n insurgencies' Thirdguerrillas- as ,ell as other social actors sa, the potential for re.olution in spaces created b+ the e4plosi.e rates of urbanization throughout the region' @nfortunatel+ 3oss does not re.eal if these factorJs contributed to to the rise of the urban guerrilla in other parts of the ,orld#1' 0s pre.iousl+ stated- this paper attempts to establish the e4istence of a transnational urban guerrilla mo.ement using the FLQ as a case stud+' The aforementioned mo.ements in this introduction ,ill ser.e a secondar+ function to this end' The first chapter ,ill de.elop a theoretical and conceptual .ocabular+ to use in the discussion of this hitherto unde.eloped theor+' The paper ,ill dra, on se.eral schools of thought- notabl+ nationalism and transnationalism- anti/colonialism- and insurgenc+Rguerrilla theor+' The goal is to bring together these .arious disciplines- de.eloping the theoretical tools necessar+ to define the characteristic of a <transnational urban guerrilla mo.ement= and describe ho, I see this idea manifested in the late t,entieth centur+' The second chapter ,ill pro.ide a detailed account of the actions of the FLQ- its members1 and the le.el and form of their interactions ,ith other guerrilla mo.ements- primaril+ urban but rural to some e4tent as ,ell' I am concei.ing of the transnational net,or* as an intricate ,eb composed of hundreds of ideological and material flo,s- ,hose con:unctions are the sites of transnational guerrilla actions' Finding and describing actual ph+sical mo.ements of
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3oss- 5obert' @rban Guerrilla Warfare' London: The International Institute for Strategic Studies 1&"1' p'!

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people- arms and mone+ ,ill be the primar+ concern of this paper as connections of these .arieties constitute- under the definition that I ,ill pro.ide in the ne4t chapter the most con.incing e.idence in support of m+ thesis' 0 corollar+ component of the argument made in this chapter ,ill be an anal+sis of these groupsJ shared discourses of anti/colonialisminternationalism and nationalism' 0dditionall+- I am .er+ interested in the similarities in the groups1 strateg+ and their repertoire of tactics- specificall+ tracing their roots bac* to common tacticians and strategists- such as GuillDn and 3arighella- ,hose ,ritings ,ill contribute to m+ theoretical frame ,or* de.eloped in m+ first chapter' In m+ conclusion- I ,ill refer bac* to the criteria de.eloped at the beginning of the paper m+ argument for either in .alidating or discrediting m+ thesis' I ,ill also attempt to trace out the tra:ectories of these mo.ements to present da+ and e4amine their current position' This ,ill be the space ,here I address ,h+ issue ,ho ,h+ the sub:ect matter in rele.ant and ,orth+ of future stud+' I hope to e4plicate ,hat ,e- in the t,ent+/first centur+ can learn from both the achie.ements and failures of these mo.ements and ho, that can be applied to the struggle of the oppressed people of the ,orld against the s+stem of global capitalism that some ha.e deemed <the Forth World War##'=

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Subcomandante 3arcos' <The Forth World War Gas >egun'= Aepantla: Eie,s for the South $'# 8#))19' p'6%)

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Chapter 2ne While this paper is not o.erl+ concerned ,ith the le.el of semantics associated ,ith <high= theor+- it is necessar+ to de.elop a theoretical frame,or* to pro.ide a point of reference for the ensuing discussion' Its goal is to define and e4plore the nature of a ne, historical narrati.e and- as such- elements from se.eral pre.iousl+ disparate schools of thought must be combined' These theories can be organized into four main categories- ,hich freCuentl+ o.erlapped; first- transnationalism; second- nationalism and anti/colonialism; third- urban and urban social mo.ement theor+; forth- insurgenc+ and re.olutionar+ theor+' This chapter ,ill de.elop a theoretical .ocabular+ that ,ill incorporate the aforementioned ideas in a coherent and elucidati.e manner' It should be noted that e.en ,ith m+ o,n customized frame,or*- the e.ents of histor+ do not al,a+s fit neatl+ into the categories of anal+sis de.eloped b+ the .arious theorists utilized in this paper' For e4ample- the Qubcois' b+ some definitions ,ere not a colonized people- as the+ did ha.e full political representation in both pro.incial and federal go.ernment' 0dditionall+- urban social mo.ement theor+ is largel+ concerned ,ith ci.il societ+from ,hich the FLQ is inherentl+ e4cluded due to their use of .iolence- and thus is freCuentl+ anal+zed using the conceptualization of terrorism often used in the West' @nfortunatel+- in this paradigm acts of terrorism are inherentl+ irrational and illegitimate and so- b+ e4tension are the political or social mo.ements the+ are associated ,ith' 0 space must be found to be able to discuss the FLQ and other urban guerrilla groups as a rational political organizations that used .iolence but ,ere dri.en b+ legitimate grie.ances' Transnationalism is the e4perience of ,hen a single group of people is located in t,o or more separate nation/states and ,hose actions and influence transcends the ph+sical- geopolitical boundaries of those states' 2ne nation can act in unison- despite their ph+sical separation and 1%

different national citizenships' In the case of the .arious urban guerrilla groups acti.e throughout the ,orld during the 1&%)1s and 1&")1s- ho, their action could constitute transnationalism is not readil+ apparent' The .arious groups do not al,a+s share a common language- culture- territor+ or an+ other attributes that bind together people into nations under traditional definitions' Gerein lies one of the largest challenges in pro.ing the e4istence of a transnational net,or*: demonstrating that there ,ere enough similarities- interaction and coherence bet,eens these groups to constitute a singular nation' Go, can a net,or* that in theor+ renders the boundaries of nation/states effectuall+ obsolete be composed of separate guerrilla groups ,ith nationalist tendenciesI 3ic*olus argues that <go.ernment controlled or directed= political terrorism ,ith the <direct in.ol.ement of nationals of more than one state= Cualifies as international- ,hile terrorist groups ,ithout go.ernmental ties ,hose membershipJs are multinational act transnationall+#$' 0dditionall+- as I ,ill sho, in this paper- the urban guerrilla often targets indi.iduals and institutions that are representati.e of more than one state' Some action support other resistance mo.ements transnationall+ b+ targeting representati.es of their enemies- such as ,hen the FLQ attac*ed the @'S' consulate in 3ontrDal in opposition to the ,ar in Eietnam' B.en though I am e4ploring the possibilit+ that these groups ,ere part of a unified mo.ement- I am not arguing that combined the+ compose <a nation'= 5ather I see them as a net,or* that acted transnationall+' Aor could the+ collecti.el+ e.er be considered <a nation= of urban guerrillas- gi.en the ardentl+ nationalist nature of man+ of these groups1 rhetoric and actions' Aationalism can be defined as the acti.e promotion of the interests of a particular nation or nation/state or of the creation of ne, nation/state from territor+ of a pre.iousl+ e4istent one' The latter is of particular

#$

3ic*olus- Bd,ard' <Transnational Terrorism'= The ?olitics of Terrorism' Bd' Stohl- 3ichael' #nd ed' Ae, 7or*: 3arcel He**er- Inc'- 1&($' p'1!&

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interest for this paper- as this is the brand of nationalism practiced b+ the FLQ- separatist 8although the+ prefer the term <so.ereigntist=9 nationalism' >ut I ,ould argue that these t,o t+pes of nationalism often go hand in hand' The FLQ fought in order to ad.ance the interests of the QuDbDcois people- ,hich for the group meant the establishment of the so.ereign Socialist nation of QuDbec' >ecause nationalism often constructs the identit+ of the citizens of this nation 8French QuDbDcois9- it also defines ,ho does not belong to the nation 8Bnglish Canadians9' It is the promotion of one nation1s interests o.er 8or at the e4pense of9 those others' >e+ond the inherent contradictions bet,een nationalism and transnationalism- there are further contradictions bet,een each groups1 nationalism' What distinctions can be dra,n bet,een an armed partisan- a guerrilla- a terrorist- and an insurgentI To begin ,ith- these different terms relate to different periods of ,arfare' ?artisan is rather antiCuated at this point and is usuall+ used to refer to irregular armed fighters resisting occupation forces during World War II- in France and the >al*ans- for e4ample' The term guerrilla 8literall+ <small ,ar=9- as it e4ists in the popular imagination and academia toda+- is used to describe irregular re.olutionar+ forces during the post/,ar period- although guerrilla ,arfare ,as ,ritten about and practiced most freCuentl+ in Latin 0merica- 0frica and 0sia' 0s pre.iousl+ discussed- Che Gue.ara and his method of rural insurgenc+ are almost s+non+mous ,ith guerrilla ,arfare in the .ie, of man+' This paper hopes to dispel this misconceptionma*ing the idea and definition of a guerrilla more inclusi.e Terrorist is ob.iousl+ a loaded term- the sub:ecti.it+ of ,hich has become increasingl+ apparent and rele.ant in recent +ears' There is no accepted definition of terrorism- but the minimalist definition states that terrorism is the s+stematic use of .iolence as a means of

1(

intimidation- often for political ends' 2ne sur.e+ of the .arious criteria used in one hundred different definitions found that there are fi.e that are ,idel+ accepted: First- terrorism is a method of combat in ,hich random or s+mbolic .ictims are targets of .iolence' Second- through pre.ious use of .iolence or the credible threat of .iolence- other members of that group of class are put in a state of chronic fear' Third- the .ictimization of the target is considered e4tranormal b+ most obser.ers- ,hich- forth- creates an audience be+ond the target of terror' Fifth- the purpose of terrorism is either to immobilize the target of terror in order to produce disorientation andRor compliance or to mobilize secondar+ targets of demands 8for e4ample- go.ernments9 or targets of attention 8for e4ample- public opinion#!' 5oss and Gurr enhance this definition b+ adding propert+ as potential- and popular targets of terror#6' >ut more important than ho, terrorism is defined in academia is ho, societies construct their notions of terrorism' Gurr summarizes the Western paradigm nicel+: ?olitical terrorism is a distincti.e re.olutionar+ strateg+ in ,hich sustained campaigns of .iolent actions are directed against highl+ .isible public targets one that is resorted to especiall+ b+ alienated- +outhful members of the middle classes It has a pronounced international dimension as ,ell- ,hereb+ re.olutionar+ terrorists rel+ on substantial support from similarl+ disposed groups and nations else,here'#% Clearl+ there is an inherent problematic nature using a homogenized definition to describe all urban guerrilla and terrorist groups- but this .ie, does introduce some interesting criteria' It gi.es a minimum duration of acti.it+- the t+pe of targets chosen- a profile for members of these groups and argues that terrorism is inherentl+ international' While this ma+ be applicable in certain situations- the FLQ does not fit this profile and highlights the contradictions of the Western stereot+pe' This paradigm ser.es to delegitimize political groups and mo.ements as a ,hole- in particular those ,hich challenge the established s+stems of po,er- and not those

#! #6 #%

5oss and Gurr p'!)% 5oss and Gurr p'!)% Gurr p'#$ In this conte4t I thin* that <nations= is being used interchangeabl+ ,ith <nation/states=

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,hich support it' Insurgent is a blan*et term for an+ irregular armed fighter- regardless of time period or tactics but is no, used in reference to the resistance fighters in IraC and 0fghanistan' Insurgents are in.ol.ed in continuous militar+ operations against the established militar+ and the state ,hich it defends- ,hich could consists of multiple acts of terrorism' 0lthough each term is problematic in itJs o,n right I ,ould consider insurgent the least biased and most academic term' Traditionall+- guerrilla insurgenc+ theor+ has been essentialized into t,o schools of thought' The first- Gue.arism is mar*ed b+ its adherence to Che Gue.ara1s foco theor+- ,hich sa+s that a re.olutionar+ uprising can create the necessar+ social conditions for a successful socialist re.olution' It is a radicall+ .anguardist- deri.ed from 3ar4ist/Leninism and adapted for social- political- economic and geographic conditions of Latin 0merica ' The second- 3aoism is more traditional and conser.ati.e in that it considers fa.orable conditions among the rural population to be a necessar+ prereCuisite for staging a guerrilla insurrection' >ut both agree that the countr+side is the onl+ place ,here such an insurrection is to ta*e place and .ictor+ decided' In their anal+sis the urban sphere is completel+ e4cluded as the site of legitimate- potentiall+ successful guerrilla operations' Without this- such mo.ements become simpl+ <terrorists-= linguisticall+ and conceptuall+ separate from a tradition to ,hich it rightfull+ belongs' ?erhaps the most significant theorist in the urban guerrilla tradition is 0braham GuillDn- a former fighter in the Spanish Ci.il War ,ho mo.ed to South 0merica after escaping from Franco1s prison' Ge ,rote e4tensi.el+ about the Tupamaros guerrillas of @rugua+- a mo.ement he highlighted as pro.iding a model used b+ other urban guerrilla mo.ements on the continent in his essa+ <?roblems of 5e.olutionar+ Strateg+'= This essa+ has earned canonical status- as urban guerrilla

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groups throughout South 0merica during the 1&%)1s and 1&")1s ,ere trained b+ GuillDn and his manual' It de.elops a discourse on urban guerrilla strateg+ through an in/depth critiCue of re.olutionar+ mo.ements- both contemporar+ and historical' Ge dra,s on dozens of e4amples throughout the ,orld- not :ust in Latin 0merica- although this is ,here the bul* of his anal+sis is focused' This is compared to Gue.araJs <Guerrilla Warfare= in ,hich his anal+sis is based entirel+ on his e4perience in the Sierra 3aestra during the Cuban re.olution' >ecause of the historicall+ influential nature of Che and his ,ritings- he has become almost s+non+mous ,ith guerrilla insurgenc+' Criticisms of Che and his method are eCuated in man+ peopleJs minds ,ith the problematic nature of guerrilla ,arfare as a ,hole' 0s such- GuillDn ,ritings- particularl+ his critiCue of foquismo are a refreshing change from Gue.ara1s non/self/critical tome and a positi.e addition to the discourse of guerrilla ,arfare' It is not immediatel+ clear ,hat distinguishes urban guerrilla mo.ements from their rural counterparts- other than the fact that the+ operate in cities' 0s pre.iousl+ stated I hope to elucidate these characteristics using the frame,or* outlined in the beginning of this paper as ,ell as m+ o,n anal+tic insight' Hespite their ob.ious and significant differences- the rural :ungle and the so/called <urban :ungle= ser.e the same purpose for the guerrilla- protection through concealment' Similar to rural guerrillas disappearing into the :ungle after an attac* on an urban center- the Tupamaros guerrillas of @rugua+ retreated to the safet+ of 3onte.ideo after their temporar+ occupation of ?ando- a small to,n immediatel+ outside the capital' Concealmentpro.ided b+ the densit+ of .egetation in the mountains is supplied b+ the densit+ of population and de.elopment in the urban en.ironment' 0dditionall+- the cit+ pro.ides anon+mit+ due to the alienation and disassociation of people from each other that man+ argue is inherent in urban

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social relations' The concealing properties of both t+pes of terrain allo, the guerrilla to suddenl+ appear- stri*e and melt into their surroundings' While some similarities can be found bet,een the tactics and strategies of the t,o t+pes of guerrillas- se.eral ma:or differences distinguish them' To begin ,ith- the dail+ life of the urban guerrilla is far less in.ol.ed ,ith the insurgenc+ than that of the rural' 0ccording to 0braham GuillDn- the urban guerrilla should li.e separatel+ and fight together ,ith their comrades in arms#"' The rural guerrilla1s entire life is the insurgenc+; the+ li.e- eat- march- sleep and fight together- almost completel+ separated from societ+' >ut all t+pes of guerrilla theor+ stress the importance of mobilit+ and non/reliance on permanent terrain 8in the countr+ permanent basesin the cit+ safe houses or arm caches' 0dditionall+ the nature and st+le of their .iolent actions are .er+ distinct' To begin ,ithurban guerrilla groups usuall+ contain far fe,er acti.e members than rural groups- as bombings and *idnappings reCuire fe,er troops' The rural guerrilla- ,hile certainl+ assisted b+ acts of sabotage- fights .er+ much li*e a con.entional arm+ in that their conflicts are primaril+ gun battles' While the+ are irregular forces and utilize certain tactics to gain an ad.antage o.er a technologicall+ superior opponent- the rural guerrilla arm+ is organized and beha.es li*e a con.entional arm+' The urban guerrilla tends to a.oid gun battles if at all possible and prefers three main t+pes of actions- ones that ta*e full ad.antage of the urban en.ironment and the benefits that it pro.ides- all of ,hich ,ere utilized b+ the FLQ; armed robber+- *idnappings- and bombings' 0rmed robberies are ob.iousl+ nothing ne, and no different in function than the suppl+ raids of rural guerrillas' The urban guerrilla robs ban*s- gun stores- shooting ranges- and
#"

GuillDn- 0braham' K?roblems of 5e.olutionar+ Strateg+'K ?hilosoph+ of the @rban Guerrilla: the 5e.olutionar+ Writings of 0braham GuillDn' Bd'- Trans' Honald C' Godges' Ae, 7or*: William 3orro, and Compan+- Inc'1&"$' p'#%!

##

police and arm+ barrac* in order to gain both funds and munitions' Nidnappings are also sources of income for the urban guerrilla but also a potentiall+ useful political tool' Some are merel+ acts of e4tortion ,hile others- such as ,hen a politician- member of the bourgeoisie- or their famil+ member had the additional benefit of demonstrating the ,ea*ness of the go.ernment and implicitl+ the strength of the guerrilla- freeing political prisoners or supporting non/.iolent labor mo.ements such as a unions on stri*e' The urban guerrilla uses bombings for .er+ much the same reason: to demonstrate the state1s lac* of control- itJs inabilit+ to maintain its monopol+ on .iolence 8as described b+ Weber and Foucault9 and stop the bombing of ci.ilians and infrastructure' Foucault sees politics and the states relationship to societ+ as inherentl+ .iolent- arguing that politics are an e4tension of ,ar b+ other means#(- reformulating .on Clause,itz1s famous adage#&' Gis theor+ of biopo,er argues that the modern state utilizes <an e4plosion of numerous and di.erse techniCues for achie.ing the sub:ugations of bodies and the control of population$)'= This is a *ind of .iolence is omnipresent and in.isible to those being controlled' 0dditionall+- the state uses its .arious forms of legitimized .iolence to maintain its monopol+ on means of .iolent coercion- b+ suppressing popular and non/state .iolence- i'e' riots- crime- guerrilla insurgenc+- etc' The urban guerrilla challenges this monopol+- the cornerstone of legitimized rule and therefor challenges the legitimac+ of the stateJs e4istence' This is the theor+ that guides the use of bombings b+ man+ of the groups discussed in this paper' The Cuestion of .iolence- of ,hether .iolence can be be used as a legitimate method of a
#(

#& $)

See Foucault- 3ichel' KChapter 11: 1" 3arch 1&"%'K Societ+ 3ust >e Hefended : Lectures at the CollLge de France- 1&"6/"%' Bd' 3auro >artani and 0lessandro Fontana' Trans' Ha.id 3ace+' Ae, 7or*: ?icador- #))$' and KGo.ernmentalit+'K The Foucault Bffect: Studies in Go.ernmentalit+' Bd' Graham >urchell- Colin Gordonand ?eter 3iller' Chicago: The @ni.ersit+ of Chicago ?- 1&&1' ("/1)!' Eon Clause,itz- Carl' 2n War' Ae, 7or*: Nnopf- 1&&$' Foucault- 3ichel' The Gistor+ of Se4ualit+' Ae, 7or*: ?antheon >oo*s- 1&"(' p'1!)

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achie.ing social change- of ,hether .iolence is e.er legitimate- is one that should not be separated from an+ discussion of insurgencies- although it often is' I am of the opinion that .iolence is unfortunatel+ an omnipresent phenomena in the ,orld and that ,hile not the preferable choice of a means to an end- sometimes it is the onl+ choice' The acts of .iolence described in this paper did not originate from a .oid- the+ ,ere the result of actual social and historical conditions' The+ ,ere responses to social and political sub:ugation and economic oppression e4perienced e.er+da+ b+ the under classes of the ,orld' B.en this does not necessaril+ legitimate or :ustif+ .iolence of an+ t+pe' While it is commonl+ belie.ed that the ends do not :ustif+ the means- I ,ould argue the in.erse; the means do not :ustif+ the ends' G+potheticall+- ,ould the failure b+ ci.il societ+ to bring do,n a brutal dictatorship that tortured and *illed in o,n people be :ustified because the+ too* the moral high groundI Too man+ times in histor+ good people ha.e stood b+ ,hile others ha.e been tortured and *illed b+ forces of t+rann+' In some situations the preferable and most desirable outcome- i'e' preser.ation of human life can onl+ through the destruction of other human life' >ut ,hile the+ are representati.es of the state- the ran* and file of the police and the militar+ consists of economic conscriptsmembers of the poorest sectors of societ+ ,ho enlist because out of necessit+- not lo.e of countr+' Nilling a cop or a soldier is essentiall+ no different than *illing a ci.ilian or a politician' Hestruction of propert+ is a gra+ area on the legitimac+Rmoralit+ spectrum; ,as the FLQ a more legitimate political organization because the+ focused their attac*s on buildings and monumentsrather than airplanes and other human targetI I donJt reall+ ha.e man+ ans,ers on the sub:ectonl+ Cuestions- ones that I ha.e grappled ,ith for Cuite sometime and that I hope to tr+ to ,or* through in m+ anal+sis'

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For the purposes of this paper I ,ill use se.eral criteria that the numerous groups and indi.iduals anal+zed in m+ paper ,ill ha.e to meet in order to be considered a transnational urban guerrilla mo.ement' First- in order to be transnational ideolog+- tactics- people and arms must ha.e flo,ed bet,een the entities in.ol.ed- unfettered b+ the borders of nation/states' Second- I am defining an urban guerrilla group as an associated collection of indi.iduals engaged in a prolonged campaign of .iolent acts in the forms discussed in this chapter- ,hich ,as conducted primaril+ in an urban en.ironment or directl+ outside of one' Third- these groups ,ould ha.e had to ha.e operated as contemporaries and shared a common relationship to the geopolitical en.ironment of the time- in addition to the cohesion described in m+ first set of criteria' If these groups ,ere to meet all of these criteria- then it ,ould argue for the e4istence of a transnational urban guerrilla mo.ement originating post/1&6&'

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Chapter # The rise of radicall+ leftist forms of QuDbDcois nationalism and the FLQ- culminating in the 2ctober Crisis radicall+ transformed the pro.ince of QuDbec and Canada as a ,hole- perhaps more dramaticall+ and e4tensi.el+ than an+ e.ent since the >attle of the ?lains of 0braham- in ,hich the >ritish captured Quebec Cit+- transforming Ae, France into Lo,er Canada' The 2ctober Crisis- the culminating e.ent in the struggle of the FLQ- ,as a ,atershed moment in Canadian politics and in the collecti.e imagination of the countr+- and ,ill be discussed in depth throughout this chapter' 0n Bnglish Quebec*er I spo*e ,ith .i.idl+ remembers soldiers in the streets and snipers on the roof of her school ,hen ?ierre Laporte 8,ho ,as later *illed9 and Fames Cross ,here *idnapped b+ the FLQ' >ut ho, and ,h+ did the struggle of the FLQ end so dramaticall+ and ,ith such long lasting effectsI The ans,er to this Cuestion and anal+sis of the FLQ contained in this paper are both integrall+ related to a specific period of time and moment in histor+' >et,een 1&%" and 1&"# the actions of .arious t+pes of resistance mo.ements and the reaction b+ go.ernments around the ,orld culminated- often in .iolent ,a+s- and that a correlati.e or causal relationship e4isted bet,een the actions of the urban guerrilla groups under consideration' This chapter e4amines the struggle of the FLQ in QuDbec and e4plores their connections to militant >lac* ?o,er groups in the @nited States- .arious leftist urban guerrilla groups in South 0merica- and 0rab nationalist groups in Aorth 0frica and the 3iddle Bast- utilizing the anal+tic tools de.eloped in the pre.ious chapter' 0dditionall+ I ,ill e4amine the role pla+ed b+ other countries that ,ere connected to and associated ,ith the .arious indi.iduals and groups that comprised the transnational urban guerrilla net,or*- 8such as Cuba9 in the historical milieu

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that this paper e4plores' >e+ond this- there are se.eral contemporar+ urban guerrilla groups ,ith ,hom the FLQ had no transnational lin*s- notabl+ the Irish 5epublican 0rm+ 8I509- Bus*adi Ta 0s*atasuna

(BT0- <>asCue Gomeland and Freedom9 in the >asCue countr+ of Spain- and the (ote Armee
Fra!tion 850F- <5ed 0rm+ Faction=9 of West German+$1' In much of the literature on the FLQthe group is set against the bac*ground of these Buropean urban guerrilla organizations- not because of an+ material connections but because the+ ,ere historical contemporaries' While the FLQ ,as established in 1&%$- its true origins can be traced bac* to World War T,o or before' The Front de Libration du Qubec began ,ith onl+ three members: Georges Schoeters- a former courier for the >elgian resistance mo.ement during the Second World Waraccredited ,ith training earl+ FLQ members; Gabriel Gudon- ,ho constructed the FLQ1s first functioning bombs; and 5a+mond Eilleneu.e- ,ho had all formerl+ been in.ol.ed ,ith political organizations de.oted to QuDbDcois independence- including (essamblement )our lind)endance nationale 85IA or 5all+ for Aational Independence9 and then (seau de (sistence 855 or 5esistance Aet,or*9- the same name as the French and >elgian 5esistances in World War T,o' From these three and a dozen or so more- the membership s,elled to thirt+/fi.e before t,ent+/three people ,ere arrested in connections ,ith the FLQ1s first ,a.e of action later that +ear' 0n e4ploration of Schoeters1 life prior to 1&%$ re.eals that the FLQ ,as rooted in transnational actions from its .er+ inception' 2f all the members of the FLQ- Schoeters1 transnational actions ,ere probabl+ the most e4tensi.e and influential on the future of the

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It should be noted that man+ ,riters set the struggle of the FLQ against those of the I50- BT0- and 50F despite the lac* of collaboration bet,een them'

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organization' Gis e4periences during World War T,o in >elgium- specificall+ his in.ol.ement in the resistance- ,ere perhaps the most formati.e of his life' When he arri.ed in 3ontrDal in 1&61 he ,ore his .eteran resistance fighter status as a badge of honor'$# 0fter training to become an electrician- he enrolled at the @ni.ersit+ of 3ontreal in 1&6$ and began to stud+ economics and sociolog+' ?rior to this point he had maintained staunchl+ monarchist political .ie,s- but the Hepartment of Sociolog+ had nationalist tendencies at that time and Schoeters1 ,orld .ie, ma+ ha.e been influenced b+ his ,or* there- as ,ell as his association ,ith politicall+ radical students$$' 0fter si4 +ears of undergraduate stud+- he graduated ,ith a >0 in economics' That same +ear Castro came to 3ontrDal on his Aorth 0merican .ictor+ tour and ,as recei.ed b+ a student delegation at the @ni.ersit+ of 3ontreal- ,hich included Schoeters- ,ho accepted Castro1s in.itation to participate in Cuba1s ne, agrarian reform program' That 0ugustSchoeters- his ne, ,ife- and a dozen other students tra.eled to the island nation as part of the +outh solidarit+ delegations from Aorth 0merica' Ge ,or*ed through the Aational Institute of 0grarian 5eform- and had the opportunit+ to meet Fidel Castro once again and Camilo Cienfuegos'$! Sources conflict on the details of Schoeters1 time in Cuba' 3orf1s account of the FLQ1s struggle- %error in Quebec- ,ritten before the end of the 2ctober Crisis- in 1&") contends <since his ,ife ,as pregnant- Georges sent her bac* to 3ontreal' 0nd after ser.ing the re.olution for about a +ear in Cuba- he also returned'$6= 2n the other hand- Fournier1s FLQ Anatom* of an +nderground ,o-ement- ,ritten a decade after the final defeat of the FLQ claims that Schoeters left Cuba- onl+ to return that fall <to ,or* for a fe, months in agrarian reform=
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$$ $!

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KFidelJs Hisciple'K Time 1! Fune 1&%$' #) 0pr' #))" Shttp:RR,,,'time'comRtimeRmagazineRarticleR)-&1"1-("!(#1-))'htmlT' 3orf- Gusta.e' Terror in Quebec' Toronto: Clar*- Ir,in M Compan+ Limited- 1&")' p' ## Fournier- Louis' F'L'Q': the 0natom+ of an @nderground 3o.ement' Trans' Bd,ard >a4ter' Toronto: AC ? Limited- 1&(!' p'#& 3orf p' #$

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and meet Che Gue.ara'$% 2ther sources mention that he recei.ed training in guerrilla insurgenc+ and he ,as certainl+ depicted as ha.ing been in the media$"- but ,hether he actuall+ did is not clear' In an+ case- after his time in Cuba- Schoeters returned to 3ontrDal onl+ to lea.e in 1&%1 to tra.el abroad' 0rmed ,ith a ne, sense of re.olutionar+ idealism- Schoeters made a tour of Burope and 0frica- tra.eling to Ital+- S,itzerland- Tur*e+- Tunisia and 0lgeria- ,here he met ,ith members of the Aational Liberation Front 8FLA9 and obtained instructions on <for the ma*ing of 3oloto. coc*tails and time bombs-= ,hich ,ould later be used b+ Gabriel Gudon to ma*e the bombs used in the FLQ1s first ,a.e of actions'$( It does seem strange that Schoeters ,ould not construct the bombs himself- gi.en his training as an electrician and past e4perience ,ith resistance groups' 0fter returning to QuDbec he found e4isting political groups dedicated to QuDbec1s independence from Canada 8i'e' the 5IA9 to be insufficientl+ radical for his li*ing' 5IA ,as a traditional political organization ,ith actions limited to rallies- protests and participation in electoral politics' It ,ould also be one of the founding organizations of the Part Qubcois- a progressi.e nationalist part+ acti.e onl+ in QuDbec1s pro.incial go.ernment that has since become ,ell established- holding the ma:orit+ of seats in QuDbec Aational 0ssembl+ as of the ,riting of this paper'$& Schoeters ,as too impatient to ,ait for QuDbDcois independence through electoral means- opting instead to start the 55' While certainl+ more militant than 5IA- the 55Js actions ,ere limited to s+mbolic acts of .andalism and destruction of propert+ through non/ e4plosi.e means' Go,e.er- the group1s membership ,as not ,illing to go far enough for the cause- to mo.e from spra+ paint to d+namite- from .andalism to terrorism so Schoeters- along ,ith Gudon and Eilleneu.e formed the FLQ as a splinter group- ,ith ,hich the+ could struggle for the independence of QuDbec ,ith ,hat e.er means the+ deemed appropriate' 3an+ QuDbDcois so.ereigntists1 belie.ed that the struggle for independence had become stagnant; the FLQ intended to <:ump start= the mo.ement through its actions' In pro/FLQ literature that ,as released after the first ,a.e of arrests argued that this stagnation ,ould lead to impatience- ,hich ,ould e.entuall+ ,ould turn into <a despair ,hich ,ill Ue4plode1 in the
$% $" $( $&

Fournier p' #& <FidelJs Hisciple= 3orf p' #$ QuDbec is the onl+ pro.ince in Canada ,ith a Aational 0ssembl+- e.er+ other pro.ince has a ?ro.incial 0ssembl+' The de.iation in nomenclature results from the strong influence of the so.ereignt+ mo.ement in the Canadian federal and QuDbec pro.incial go.ernment'

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forms of bombs and other acts of .iolence'!)= QuDbec so.ereigntists sa, the success of other national liberation and anti/colonial mo.ements- ,hich made them ,onder <,h+ not QuDbecI= From the start- their attac*s ,ere Ks+mbolicK in nature and designed to reduce the ris* to human life- ci.ilian or militar+' Their .er+ first action in Februar+ of 1&%$ ,as to place t,o bombs- one near a C>C/TE- the Canadian state/o,ned media outlet transmitter on top of 3ount 5o+al- an upscale- predominatel+ Bnglish neighborhood in the center of the island of 3ontrDal; and another near a pri.ate radio station that- as 3orf notes- <,as an Bnglish Station- ,hich had freCuentl+ come out against separatism' 3oreo.er- the station had ignored U,arnings1 b+ the ne,l+ born FLQ to stop pla+ing UGod sa.e the Queen'11!1 The bombs ,ere poorl+ constructed and failed to detonate- prompting the group to entrust bomb ma*ing to Gudon 8after ,hich the+ e4perienced far fe,er problems9' Their campaign continued o.er the course of the ne4t t,o months; lobbing dumm+ 3oloto. coc*tails through the ,indo,s of three armories around 3ontreal- toppling a statue of the Bnglish general ,ho captured the cit+ from the French; bombing!# rail road trac*s outside of 3ontrDal- a Canadian Legion building- the main railroad station in 3ontrDal- the Canadian eCui.alent of the I5S- Aational 5e.enue and 5o+al Canadian 3ounted ?olice 85C3?9 building in Westmount' 0dditionall+ the letters <FLQ= ,ere painted on the door of the Lieutenant Go.ernor1s house in QuDbec Cit+' 3oss identifies one of the most ,idel+ used tactics of urban guerrilla groups as attac*ing indi.iduals and institutions representati.e of the oppressi.e s+stem that the+ see* to destro+'!$ The anti/colonial discourse of the FLQ ,as manifested in these highl+ s+mbolic actions- each
!) !1 !#

!$

3orf p'1"/1( 3orf p'# It should be noted that not all of their bombs detonated before being disco.ered and defused' Go,e.er as the+ still had their desire effect of intimidation- the+ still bear mentioning' 3oss p'#

$)

one targeted a representation of or institution associated ,ith Bnglish Canada- <0nglo/0merican imperialism= 8the terminolog+ used in their rhetoric9- the influence of Great >ritain and the @nited States in Canada and therefore QuDbec- or the federal and pro.incial go.ernments- targets often found in Bnglish Canadian neighborhoods' This pattern ,ould continue in the actions of the FLQ- and remains a hallmar* of QuDbDcois nationalist actions to this da+'!! These actions ser.ed se.eral purposes- but primaril+- seem to ha.e intended to intimidate Bnglish Quebec*ers- ma*ing them feel un,elcome in their o,n neighborhoods and ,or*places' The idea that the ne4t mailbo4 that the+ ,al*ed past could e4plode ,ould certainl+ terrif+ the residents of Westmount' >+ 1&") the+ ,ould ha.e been li.ing in fear for se.en +ears as the go.ernment failed to defeat the menace of QuDbDcois separatism- hearing and seeing bombs e4plode do,n the street for se.en +ears' Gi.en their goals- it appears that the FLQ attac*ed s+mbols of Bnglish Canada in an attempt to intimidate Bnglish Quebec*ers into lea.ing' 0nd it ,or*ed- after 1&") a significant number of the pro.inceJs Bnglish/spea*ers immigrated to other parts of Canada' The second purpose of these attac*s is to demonstrate that the Canadian go.ernment ,as too ,ea* to maintain its monopol+ on .iolence and bring the insurgenc+ under control and the relati.e strength of the FLQ as a re.olutionar+ organization' This augments the primar+ intention of these actions; if the go.ernment cannot *eep +ou safe- ,hat reason ,ould +ou ha.e to ris* +our life li.ing in a place ,here +ou are not ,anted b+ most of the populationI 0dditionall+- to full+ understand ,h+ the FLQ chose to attac* s+mbols of <0nglo/ 0merican imperialism= one has to consider ho, histor+ ,as and is read b+ members of the QuDbec so.ereignt+ mo.ement' For them- QuDbec became a >ritish colon+- the QuDbDcois a

!!

In #))1- former FLQ member 5heal 3athieu ,as con.icted of attempting to bomb se.eral Second Cup coffee shops in 3ontrDal' The+ ,ere targeted because of their Bnglish name'

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colonized people- ,hen Quebec Cit+ fell to >ritish 0rm+ under the command of General Wolfe in 1"6&' 0s described in m+ introduction- leftist QuDbDcois academics such as ?ierre EalliLres and Charles Gagnon de.elop a 3ar4ist historical narrati.e in ,hich the conCuered French citizens of QuDbec are turned into an ethnic underclass- culturall+ oppressed and economicall+ e4ploited b+ the Cro,n and the Catholic Church' 5elations bet,een the QuDbDcois people and the >ritish go.ernment had become particularl+ strained during the t,o World Wars' Furious o.er being forced to fight a ,ar- not e.en for Canada but for 3other Bngland- QuDbec1s cities erupted in conscription riots- the last ma:or acts of political .iolence in the pro.ince before the rise of the FLQ' That fact that the+ consider themsel.es colonized nation came into pla+ ,hen choosing targets' When the+ targeted 5C3? and Canadian 0rm+ buildings- the+ did so because these ,ere the police and arm+ of the colonizers- ,ho act in the interests of the colonizer- ,hich often times mean acting against the interests of the QuDbDcois' Westmount ,as- at that point a middle/ and upper/class 0nglophone cit+!6- a bastion of the Bnglish Canadian bourgeoisie and the richest area per capita in Canada' For the FLQ- it ,as the home of the colonizers- analogous to the French Quarter of 0lgiers' In addition to these acts of .iolence- the FLQ began releasing communiCuDs 8penned b+ Schoeters9 that paid homage to Fidel Castro and the >elgian 5esistance in order to better communicate their message and intentions behind the actions to the Canadian public' The communiCuDs ,ere titled <A-is . la )o)ulation-= the same as communiCuDs released b+ the >elgian 5esistance and al,a+s ended ,ith <ind)endance ou mort= 8independence or death9- a .ariation on Castro1s famous sign off <re-olucon o muerte= 8re.olution or death9'!% These
!6

!%

Hespite being on the island of 3ontrDal and completel+ surrounded b+ the cit+ of 3ontrDal- Westmount has maintained it1s status as a separate cit+' 3orf- p' 6

$#

communiCuDs ,ere one of the first- but not last- appearances of ideological and discursi.e lin*s bet,een the FLQ and the other resistance mo.ements to be e4amined in this paper' Schoeters ,as also purported to ha.e designed the first flag of the FLQ b+ combining the Cuban colors of blue and ,hite ,ith the structure of the 0lgerian flag and adding a red fi.e/pointed star to s+mbolize socialism'!" Gis e4periences in >elgium- 0lgeria and Cuba hea.il+ influenced the s+mbolic e4pressions of the FLQ that composed the rhetorical <character= of the nascent urban guerrilla group' The+ also ser.ed a sources of inspiration for the FLQ- ,ho <held discussions 8in ,hich9 Schoeters ga.e glo,ing accounts of the Cuban and 0lgerian re.olutions'!(= CommuniCuDs are an integral ,eapon in the arsenal of an+ insurgenc+- a ,eapon to be used in the political struggle to ,in o.er public opinion' Without some form of communication to the populace- the go.ernment and bourgeoisie .ersions of the stor+ are the onl+ ones that reach the public' The contest for public support is of paramount importance for the guerrilla- in particular the urban guerrilla- ,ho because of the <terrorist= nature of their actions <can ne.er ,in popular support unless the+ can e4plain their actions as something more than random criminal assaults or lunatic gestures'!&= 0braham GuillDn- the definiti.e urban guerrilla theoriststrategist and tactician criticized the Tupamaros for being o.erl+ reliant on tactics- arguing that strategic and political .ictories much more integral to a successful guerrilla campaign'6) 2ften the publication of communiCuDs b+ mainstream media outlets is the onl+ ,a+ that guerrillas can ma*e their .oices heard' In cases of particularl+ authoritarian regimes- e.en this ma+ not be possible- as 3oss notes in the case in @rugua+: <In the face of official censorship- the Tupamaros ha.e tried to construct Ucounter/media-1 including a pri.ate radio transmitter and the use of
!" !( !& 6)

Fournier p' #& 3orf p'#! 3oss p' # GuillDn p' #")

$$

electronics e4perts to brea* into normal broadcasts ,ith special messages

8ta*ing9 o.er public

meeting/places li*e cinemas and ,or*ers1 canteens to deli.er impromptu harangues'=61 The <problem of message= and the battle o.er public opinion ,ill be recurrent themes in m+ anal+sis of the Tupamaros- the FLQ and other urban guerrilla groups' Communicating their intentions became much more important as the first ,a.e of FLQ attac*s continued' 2n 0pril #)th- 1&%$ members of the FLQ placed a bomb in an alle+,a+ behind a Canadian 0rm+ recruitment center- ,here the+ thought that its e4plosion ,ould be another bloodless s+mbolic attac* as there ,ere too man+ people around the monument that ,as their original target' Ironicall+- the bomb ,ent off around midnight- *illing a %6 +ear/old night ,atchman- one month from retirement' The media and the public- both French and Bnglish ,ere outraged at ,hat the+ sa, as the senseless slaughter of an innocent ci.ilian b+ e4tremists' The FLQ did not accept blame for the death- ,riting it off as an unfortunate accident in a necessar+ struggle- stating in a communiCuD released shortl+ after <unfortunatel+- there is no re.olution ,ithout bloodshed' It ,ould be @topian to maintain the contrar+' While Gandhi ,as in stri*ehundreds of his compatriots ,ere mo,ed do,n b+ >ritish machine guns' 6#= 5ealizing the negati.e reaction to the death had significantl+ hurt their cause- the FLQ began ta*ing e4tra precautions against unnecessar+ deaths and utilized other techniCues for increasing the impact their actions had on public support' 0t this point- the mo.ement began to more closel+ resemble the model urban guerrilla group de.eloped b+ GuillDn' In addition to a.oiding bloodshed ,hene.er possible 8< a popular arm+ that resorts to unnecessar+ .iolence cannot ,in popular support=6$9- the FLQ also began to emplo+ a tactic promoted b+ GuillDn61 6# 6$

3oss p'& 3orf p'" GuillDn p'#%%

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utilized b+ urban guerrilla mo.ements throughout South 0merica6!- and identified b+ 3oss as one of the four main techniCues of the urban guerrilla: the <stiffening= of stri*es'66 In an attempt to regain support among the people- particularl+ the ,or*ers of QuDbec the FLQ tried to pressure the management at the Solbec Copper 3ine to negotiate ,ith the stri*ing ,or*ers' To do so the+ placed a bomb in the bathroom of the Solbec offices- ,hich ,as found after the FLQ notified the press- and dismantled ,ithin t,o minutes of its programmed detonation' The head of the union denounced the action- although the reaction of the ran* and file ,as not clear- more militant or politicall+ radical ,or*ers at the mine ma+ ,ell ha.e supported it' 0s pre.iousl+ mentioned- GuillDn paid considerable attention to the abilit+ of the guerrilla to strengthen the po,er of labor mo.ements and resol.e stri*es in the fa.or of the ,or*ers' The @rugua+an anarcho/s+ndicalist 5e.olutionar+ ?opular 2rganization 82?5/$$9 supported and helped ,in stri*es in fa.or of cement and railroad ,or*ers- in the latter e4ample in collaboration ,ith the Wor*er/Student 5esistance 852B9 and the @rugua+an 0narchist Federation 8F0@9' GuillDn contrasts this to the Tupamaros1 bac*ing of a political part+- ,hich lost' Ge continues- highlighting the case most similar and rele.ant to the FLQ: the stri*e at SB50L- a foot,ear manufacturer- lasted more than a +ear' Where the Communist/controlled unions failed- 2?5/$$ and 52B succeeded' The anarcho/s+ndicalists initiated the stri*e at SB50L; the+ endured hungeras*ed for collections in the streets of 3onte.ideo and mobilized popular support' >ut the o,ner- an e4/,or*er- could not be mo.ed' Finall+- his son disappeared' 2?5/$$ ,as apparentl+ behind the operation but- unli*e the Tupamaros- admitted nothing' Ao ransom ,as as*ed; ,ords ,ere unnecessar+' In .ie, of the circumstances it ,as tacitl+ understood that the o,ner- 3alaguero- could reco.er his son b+ negotiating ,ith the ,or*ers' In this ,a+ the most difficult stri*e in @rugua+ ,as ,on: ,or*ers ,ere compensated for lost pa+; their union ,as recognized as the onl+ legal bargaining agent'6%
6! 66 6%

GuillDn p'#"#/#"$ 3oss p'&/1) GuillDn p'#"$

$6

In this situation- .iolence ,as used as a last resort- ,hen other efforts pro.ed futile' When the 2?5/$$ finall+ resorted to .iolence b+ *idnapping to intimidate the factor+ o,nerthe+ remembered that <an+ guerrilla action that needs e4plaining to the people is politicall+ useless: it should be meaningful and con.incing b+ itself'=6" GuillDn1s critiCues of South 0merican urban guerrilla groups could be eCuall+ applicable to the actions of the FLQ- not :ust at this point 8three +ears before the publication of GuillDn1s /trateg* of the +rban 0uerrilla in 1&%%9- but throughout their e4istence- especiall+ in regards to the 2ctober Crisis' 0s the organization continued to gro, in numbers and resources 8mone+ from ban* robberies and s+mpathetic indi.iduals9 and efforts b+ the Canadian state to find and stop the perpetrators of these .iolent acts increased- the FLQ began a series of actions that- if not for their deadl+ nature seemed more li*e the pran*s of :u.enile delinCuents than those of militant nationalists' Bight da+s after bombing another armor+ in 3ontrDal- the FLQ placed time bombs in nine separate public mailbo4es throughout Westmount- ,hich ,ould continue to repeatedl+ targeted neighborhood for reasons discussed abo.e' 0fter remo.ing t,o of the bombs- a police bomb technician ,as handling a third e4plosi.e de.ice ,hen it e4ploded- maiming but not *illing him' While mailbo4es ma+ seem li*e an odd target- 3orf e4plains that- <the bo4es- ,hich bare the ro+al arms ,ith the ,ord UCanada1 beneath- ,ere singled out as s+mbols of foreign occupation'6(= 3ean,hile in QuDbec Cit+- eighteen stic* of d+namite 8the e4plosi.e material in all of the FLQ1s bombs at this point9 ,ere placed in mailbo4es- this time ,ith no detonator and therefore no real danger' The first ,a.e of attac*s b+ the FLQ ,ould end ,ith a spectacular clima4 follo,ed b+ a
6" 6(

GuillDn p' #%% 3orf p'&

$%

de.astating blo, dealt to the ran*s of the FLQ' Continuing ,ith their offensi.e against s+mbolism of Bnglish imperialism- the FLQ decided to pro.ide some fire,or*s for Queen Eictoria1s >irthda+ on the #!th of 3a+' The plan ,as to detonate their largest bomb to date 8se.ent+/fi.e stic*s of d+namite9 on the bridge bet,een Gull- QuDbec ,ith 2tta,a- the capital of the Confederation of Canada- s+mbolicall+ destro+ing the lin* bet,een the pro.ince of QuDbec and authorit+ e4erted from the Federal Go.ernment- seated in 2tta,a' >efore the+ reached the bridge- the three FLQ members ,ho ,ere to set the charge ,ere stopped b+ police and had their IHs chec*ed' The encounter spoo*ed the group- so the+ returned to 3ontrDal and planted the e4plosi.e near a Canadian 0rm+ building- ,here it detonated- destro+ing the four ci.ilian automobiles' 0 ,ee* later- on their ,a+ to place another bomb- three members of the FLQ ,ere arrested- ,ith most of their compatriots subseCuentl+ rounded up- ending the first ,a.e of FLQ attac*s' The police had successfull+ managed to infiltrate the organization ,ith the help of Fean/ FacCues Lanciault ,ho ga.e the police a list of FLQ members in 3ontrDal in e4change for V%)-)))' In a sign of things to come the police did not release the names of the arrested members of the FLQ nor allo, them to see a la,+er as to not alert the remaining members before the+ could be arrested' This ,as not the end of the 3ontrDal police1s apparent .iolations of the FLQ members1 ci.il liberties: 8the9 complaint of se.eral of the prisoners ,as that the+ ,ere beaten b+ the police' The beating up of prisoners ,ho refuse to gi.e pertinent information to the police is unfortunatel+ an old tradition in Quebec' The militants of the FLQ ,ere not treated ,orse in this respect than others' Schoeters declared later- <When fourteen +ears old I ,as made prisoner b+ the Germans- but the+ treated me better than the 3ontreal police'= ?ierre Schneider ,as held for da+s in a cell ,ithout a bed- ,ithout a chair and ,ithout proper light6&
6&

3orf p' 11 These details ha.e become increasingl+ rele.ant as the @S/led <War on Terror= has progressed and

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Huring the trial- as during their detention the guerrillas ,ere defiant and disobedient to,ards their captors- refusing to recognize the court as legitimate- demanding to be s,orn in on a cop+ of Fanon1s %he 1amned of %his 2arth- and generall+ ta*ing ad.antage of the publicit+ generated b+ the trial to broadcast their re.olutionar+ rhetoric'%) This beha.ior is especiall+ interesting for the purposes of this paper because <it corresponds to a pattern ,hich became almost general in 1&%( after the student riots in the @S0- France and German+- ,hen the defendants did e.er+thing the+ could to ma*e the court loo* ridiculous%1'= 0pparentl+ the FLQ ,as ahead of its time in their re.olutionar+ hubris' >+ 2ctober- fourteen members of the FLQ 8fifteen if +ou include Gilles ?runeau ,ho :umped bail and fled to France9 ,ere con.icted of .arious crimes and recei.ed sentences ranging from t,el.e +ears to simple probation%#- ,ith BugDne ?ilote being acCuitted due to lac* of e.idence' Four of those con.icted had tried to ?runeauJs lead and ,ent to St'/?ierre and 3iCuelon- French Islands off the coast of Ao.a Scotia,here the+ ,ere denied political as+lum' 2ne returned to 3ontrDal ,hile the other three ,ere arrested in >oston on their ,a+ to 3e4ico and Cuba'%$ 2n its face- the Canadian go.ernment had ,on its fight against the FLQ' 0fter the arreststhe police chief of 3ontrDal- 0drian 5obert declared in a press conference: <The FLQ has been smashed' It ,as onl+ a small group of anarchists- and I don1t thin* ,e1ll hear an+ more from them'%!= Whether this ,as ,ishful thin*ing or :ust plain ignorance- it ,as ob.iousl+ not true'

%)

%1 %#

%$ %!

the treatment of <enem+ combatants= b+ the @S has become public' ?erhaps the leadership ,as inspired b+ Castro1s famous <histor+ ,ill absol.e me= speech deli.ered at his trial follo,ing his failed assault on the 3oncada barrac*s in 1&6$' 3orf p'1# The members of the FLQ ,ould not remain in prison long; b+ 1&%" the+ had all been released earl+ on probation- ,ith Schoeters being e4iled to >elgium' Fournier p'!6 Fournier p'$&

$(

Gi.en the tactics of counter/insurgenc+ and the fact that the FLQ ,ould remain acti.e for another ten +ears- this seems to ha.e been nothing more than propaganda designed to temporaril+ appease a ,orried Canadian populace' >+ describing the group as anarchist- 8despite the fact that it ,as clear that the+ ,anted a separate QuDbDcois state9 the police chief ,as attempting to discredit the group b+ ma*ing them seem e.en more radical than the+ alread+ ,ere and e.en more of a threat' With thirt+/fi.e members- and thirteen in prison and one on paroleand presumabl+ under close ,atch- that left at least t,ent+ remaining members of the FLQ to continue their struggle for independence' The contemporar+ QuDbDcois literature that defended the actions of Schoeters and his compatriots soon became popular in QuDbec and effecti.el+ bolstered public support for the FLQ and the use of .iolence to achie.e independence'%6 In their arrest and trial the+ ,ere able to achie.e more political gains than ,ith all bombings and communiCuDs combined' B.en in Le 1e-oir- a prominent pro/so.ereignt+ French/language paper published in QuDbec a s+mpathetic :ournalist ,ent be+ond supporting the group and predicted future ,a.es of actions- effectuall+ legitimizing the FLQJs use of .iolence- ,riting: besides those FLQ members ,ho ,ere before the court- there are other .ictims ,ho are alread+ engaged W and ,ho are ma*ing militar+ preparations W to stage the >attle of the ?lains of 0braham again ,ith the opposite results' ''' In their re.olutionar+ m+sticism- the+ *no, that there ,ill be .ictims' The+ e4pect this' Aot to combat b+ force an arm+ of three united police forces- but to Ustimulate1 the separatist chiefs- to Ustrain1 the situation- to intimidate responsible politicians and manipulate public opinion' There ,ill be other e4plosions other attac*s- other threats: at least to accelerate the march to independence'%% This is e4ceptionall+ adept anal+sis of the FLQ as an urban guerrilla mo.ement- not a terrorist or e4tremist group- ,ritten before most of the sources used to construct a theoretical
%6 %%

3orf' p'1( 3orf' p$1

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.ocabular+ ,ith ,hich to discuss terrorism in m+ first chapter' This article is e.en more interesting because it demonstrates that the FLQ- and their conception of histor+ ,as beginning to lea.e the fringes and enter the mainstream of the QuDbec so.ereignt+ mo.ement' Completel+ unassociated ,ith the member of the FLQ- three indi.iduals began their o,n cell- calling themsel.es (sistance du Qubec' Huring the summer of 1&%$ the group bombed a monument of Queen Eictoria in Quebec Cit+- stopped shipping b+ attac*ing a railroad bridge and set fires in at three armories in 3ontrDal and a train stop shelter' The three acti.ists responsible ,ere soon arrested; one of them ,as FacCues LanctXt Fortunatel+ for the FLQ- LanctXt ,as gi.en a differed sentence of t,o +ears- allo,ing him to continue to fight for the independence of QuDbec- e.entuall+ :oining the FLQ' The police continued their in.estigation and e.entuall+ arrested >ernabe Garcia- a fort+/three +ear/old anarchist born in Spain' Garcia is especiall+ interested but unfortunatel+ literature on the FLQ has little to sa+ for him' It is also unclear ,hat his actual in.ol.ement in the FLQ ,as- as: Ge ,as a perfect target WW a man ,ithout a countr+- bearded to boot- and ,ith a large collection of KsocialistK boo*s in his Saint/Louis SCuare apartment' The police identified his as a KtheoreticianK of the FLQY >ecause he had fought ,ith the 5epublican side during the Spanish Ci.il War- Garcia had had to flee from FrancoJs regime at the age of 1(' Ge :oined the resistance mo.ement in France during the Aazi occupation- ,as sent to ,or* camps in German+- the ,ent into .oluntar+ e4ile in Quebec%" It seems that Garcia ,ould pro.ide strong e.idence to support the e4istence of a transnational urban guerrilla mo.ement- but it is still Cuestionable ,hether he ,as affiliated ,ith the FLQ or if he ,as un:ustl+ arrested in a .ain attempt to stop the spread of terrorism in QuDbec' The remaining members of the original FLQ continued their struggle for QuDbDcois so.ereignt+- recruiting ne, Ksuicide commandos'K Go,e.er- the ne4t series of FLQ action%"

Fournier p'!&/6)

!)

consisting of ban* robberies and raids on armories 83)ration 4asernes- 2peration >arrac*s9led b+ Gabriel GudonJs +ounger brother 5obert is of little interest for the purposes of this paperas none of the participants acted transnationall+' The group- ,hich called itself KL5Arme de liberation du QubecK 80LQ or Quebec Liberation 0rm+9- orchestrated nine hold/ups and robberies o.er a period of eight months in 1&%$ and 1&%!- obtaining fort+ thousand dollars in cash as ,ell as fift+/fi.e thousand dollars ,orth of electronics and militar+ eCuipment before being arrested'%( What is note,orth+ is that a group of mostl+ untrained nineteen to t,ent+/three +ear/olds could stage such sophisticated actions against militar+ targets' 0t the .er+ least these robberies demonstrated to the people of QuDbec ho, .ulnerable the militar+ and financial institutions of the pro.ince ,ere' Seen in this perspecti.e- the second series of FLQ actions ,ere successful- despite the fact that the+ ended in numerous arrests and repossession of all captured munitions b+ the Canadian authorities' Fust one e4ample of their raids e4emplifies this perfectl+: Carried out ,ith cloc*/li*e precision- the raid began at half/past se.en in the morning of Fanuar+ $) 81&%!9 and ,as o.er b+ nine oJcloc*' 0n 0LQ commando unit o.erpo,ered the night ,atchman and tied him up- along ,ith eight other ci.ilian and militar+ emplo+ees of the Hepartment of Aational Hefense' 80s in all reser.e arm+ barrac*s- there ,ere no troops Cuartered there'9 0 truc* ,as bac*ed into the drill hall on 0.enue des ?ins and loaded up; 6& >elgian FA "'%# semi/automatic rifles 8the t+pe used b+ A0T2 troops9; four >ren light machine guns and $! Sten submachine guns ,ith firing pins; four %)/millimetre field mortars; three bazoo*a/t+pe roc*et launchers; hand grenades; fi.e >ro,ning automatic pistols; 1$-))) rounds of '## calibre ammunition; #-))) rounds of "'%# ammunition; and #-$)) rounds of '$)$ ammunition' 0dd to this: 16 t,o/,a+ radio sets- t,o portable field telephones- storm lanterns- electric ,ire 2fficial estimates put the total .alue at about V##-)))'%& This capture alone ,ould ha.e been enough to start an insurgenc+- had there been enough FLQ members to use the guns' Toda+ it seems absurd that such a large cache of munitions ,ould be

%( %&

3orf p' $%/$" Fournier p'6$

!1

left .irtuall+ unguarded an+,here in Aorth 0merica' >ut at that point in time nobod+ e4pected such le.els of political .iolence in Canada; the same reason ,h+ d+namite ,as so eas+ to come b+ in such large Cuantities' It must ha.e been an alarming re.elation to both the Canadian state and the people of Canada to realize ho, easil+ Ke4tremistsK could rob the arm+ of so man+ dangerous ,eapons' For e4ample- mortars are currentl+ freCuentl+ used b+ the IraCi insurgenc+ in the construction of the Impro.ised B4plosi.e He.ises 8IBH9 used in attac*s against militar+ and ci.ilian targets' The 0LQ ,as formed ,hen the first group had alread+ been arrested but before the+ ,ere sentenced as the militar+ branch of the FLQ' 0round the same time a separate net,or* began to publish an underground paper- La 4ogne acting as the political branch and .oice of the FLQ' The net,or* of FLQ members ,as one of the most secure and long lasting cells of the organization- continuing to publish the groupJs rhetoric and re.olutionar+ instructions underground- despite the best efforts of the authorities to shut do,n the paper' The net,or* that ,rote and published also acted as the central leadership and decision/ma*ing organization for the FLQ' Their paper ser.ed as a means of disseminating information from the leadership to the ran* and file' >ecause the staff of La 4ogne ,as not necessaril+ associated ,ith all of the indi.iduals ,ho carried out actions in the name of the FLQ- the paper ,as often the onl+ means of letting their feelings *no,n in terms of possible future actions or distributing instruction in urban guerrilla ,arfare' In the fall of 1&%6- the FLQ set up a re.olutionar+ information ser.ice through their Kclandestine :ournal-K ,hich ,as no, published bimonthl+ detailing Kho, to commit sabotage- ho, to steal d+namite- ho, to hold up a ban*- ho, to ma*e a bomb- ho, to

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set a fire etc'K That Ao.ember the !%th issue of La 4ogne featured KJ5e.olutionar+ TechniCuesJ directions copied from the re.olutionar+ literature of other countries ho, to

pro.o*e the police- ho, to a.oid arrest- ho, to launch false rumors- ho, to beha.e in different situations- and so on'K With these instructions- an+ indi.idual or group of indi.iduals could start their o,n cell of the FLQ- fund it- arm it- and carr+ out attac*s in the name of a free QuDbec")' It is through the paper that the public learned of the FLQ presence in 0lgeria' The Ful+ 16th- 1&%! edition featured a letter from Gilles ?runeau- the FLQ acti.ist ,ho :umped bail and a.oided imprisonment after the first series of arrests' Ge ,rote that <he had made contact ,ith the 0lgerian FLA and J,ith our friends in Burope and Aorth 0frica"1'JK It is not clear e4actl+ ,hat the relationship bet,een the FLQ and FLA ,as- other than Schoeters recei.ing instruction on constructing e4plosi.e de.ices there' Fournier re.eals that >en >ella- the ?resident of 0lgeria at the time conceded pri.atel+ that Kthe FLA maintained relations ,ith the FLQ until the beginning of the se.entiesK and Kthat during a pri.ate meeting ,ith General de Gaulle in ?aristhe French president had urged him to help the QuDbDcois in their fight for national liberation"#'K 0dditionall+- Salem and Selim- t,o FLQ members ,ho recei.ed training in Fordan ,ould later establish the 1lgation e6trieure du FLQ 8FLQ Helegation 0broad9 in 0lgiers"$' Their choice to do so rather than return to fight for the FLQ in QuDbec ,as li*el+ due to the loss of popular support the organization e4perienced after the 2ctober Crisis'' He Gaulle apparentl+ decided to heed >ellaJs ad.ice and politicall+ support the QuDbDcois peopleJs aspirations for independence' Ge .isited the pro.ince in 1&%" and ,as ,elcomed as a hero- much as he ,as in France after the second ,orld ,ar' 0s he boarded his
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plane to lea.e- he turned to the cro,d and ,ith four little ,ords set the pro.ince ablaze: <7i-e le Qubec Libre 8Long li.e a free QuDbec9Y= The ,ords in.igorated and incited the so.ereignt+ mo.ements leading to se.eral .iolent demonstrations- after ,hich the Canadian go.ernment reclassified France as an <enem+ po,er-= rather than itJs pre.ious status as a <foreign po,er"!'= Inspired b+ the success of the first and second ,a.es of the FLQ- a ne, cell of the FLQ ,as formed"6' The leader ,as in man+ ,a+s similar to Georges Schoeters; FranZois Schirm ,as a Gungarian/born immigrant ,hose transnational actions ,ere as e4tensi.e as those of Schoeters- onl+ more sinister in nature' SchirmJs famil+ had fled to 0ustria follo,ing the 5ussian in.asion of Gungar+ during World War II- returned to Gungar+ ,hen the 5ussians occupiedfinall+ settling in German+ after the War- ha.ing left So.iet occupied/Gungar+ loo*ing for a better life'"% When he turned eighteen he :oined the French Foreign Legion- training as a paratrooper in 0lgeria before being sent to defend the French colon+ of Eietnam- then called French Indo/China' B.en though he fought ,ith .alor- reaching the ran* of sergeant he recognized that the ,ar ,as lost before hostilities had ended' Schirm ,as redeplo+ed to 0lgeria to fight the FLA- another lost cause for the colonialists' Ge ,as reportedl+ disgusted ,ith colonialism and the actions of the French in their counter/insurgenc+ campaigns' ?erhaps this is ,h+ he refused French citizenship after lea.ing the Legion and ,ent to 3ontrDal in 1&6"' Li*e the initial founders of the FLQ- he became a member of the 5IA' Ge remained a part of the group until the bombs of the first FLQ a,o*e a re.olutionar+ instinct- calling him to ta*e up arms in the name of a free QuDbec' SchirmJs life in Burope seems to contradict man+ of his actions in QuDbec- highlighting
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Fournier p'11% While it is often referred to the third ,a.e- this author fails to see ho, one failed raid on a gun store could be called a ,a.e' 3orf p'!%/!(

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some of the contradiction bet,een the realit+ of the FLQJs position in the ,orld and the ho, the+ position themsel.es in their rhetoric' For e4ample- li*e man+ Gungarian ,ho ,itnessed So.iet/ occupation of their countr+- Schirm ,as an anti/communist and +et he :oined an organization that sought to establish a ,or*erJs state in QuDbec' Go,e.er disgusted ,ith the French colonial pro:ect he ,as- the fact is that he ,as .oluntar+ member of a colonial arm+ ,ho fought against the national liberation mo.ements ,ith ,hich the FLQ ,ould later identif+ and collaborate' The FLQ ne.er resol.ed the contradictions bet,een their nationalism based hea.il+ on being French and their identification ,ith anti/colonial and anti/imperial insurgencies in French colonies' This d+namic is further complicated b+ the fact that the literature often li*ens the FLQ to mo.ements in Burope- such as the I50- BT0 and 50F- as pre.iousl+ mentioned- ,hile the rhetoric of the FLQ ne.er ma*es reference to the group' 0cademics also compare the struggle of the FLQ ,ith those ,ho are e.o*ed in the groupJs discourse- the ?L2 and FLA' Schirm ,as not the onl+ founding member of the 05Q pre.ious militar+ e4perience; se.eral others in the group had ser.ed in the Canadian armed forces'"" 0 training camp ,as set up at a camp in St' >oniface- north of 3ontrDal and a,aited the supplies promised b+ the FLQ central leadership so that the ma+ start training FLQ members for an arm+ of K,ell/trained and highl+ mobile commando units'"(K The group gre, impatient ,ithout food- munitions or funding and decided to ta*e matters into their o,n hands' The decision ,as made to rob a gun store in order to obtain their o,n supplies' The problem ,as that Schirm- ,hile an e4perienced counter/ insurgent had ne.er parta*en in a hold/up of an+ sort- and onl+ one other member of the 05Q had been in.ol.ed in a prior FLQ action- Kbut the+ *ne, about hold/up techniCues from FLQ

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Fournier p'%6 This ,ould became more common in the ran*s of the FLQ as time progressed' Fournier p'%%

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instructors-"&K li*el+ from an issue of La 4ogne# Schirm and three others attempted to hold the gun store up- but the o,ner ,as fatall+ shot b+ a ner.ous member of the 05Q' 0n emplo+ee escaped and hailed do,n a passing police car,hich ,as coming for a false alarm nearb+' 0s the+ e4ited the store- Schirm and his compatriots encountered t,o armed police officers' Schirm fired ,arning shots into the air and the police returned fire- *illing the storeJs gunsmith as he came out of his ,or*shop ,ith a gun- tr+ing to defend the store' The group fled- some captured ,ithin hours- others t,o da+s later ,hen the police raided the training camp in St' >oniface- arresting all of the members of the nascent guerrilla unit' 2n 3a+ #1st - 1&%6 Schirm and his compatriot ,ho fired the shot that *illed the storeJs o,ner ,ere sentenced to death- ,hich the+ had reduced to life sentences- the same as the other three 05Q members' Hespite the best efforts of the FLQJs central leadership to coordinate all .iolent actionSchirmJs ,as not the onl+ .anguard attac* done in the name of QuDbec in 1&%6' That Februar+other members of the QuDbec so.ereignt+ mo.ement ,ere arrested for conspiring ,ith members of the militant @'S' group- the >lac* Liberation Front 8>LF9- and attempting to suppl+ the groups ,ith d+namite stolen in QuDbec' The arrests ,ere a result of the >LF and subseCuentl+ the FLQ being infiltrated b+ the F>I' Se.eral members of the 5IA and the FLQ ,ere arrested in connection ,ith the case after a prominent QuDbDcoise tele.ision personalit+- 3ichDle Hupos ,as stopped b+ the F>I ,hile attempting to dri.e from 3ontrDal to Ae, 7or* Cit+' In her trun* ,as d+namite intended for use b+ the >LF in their plot to behead the Statue of Libert+()' The >LF seems to ha.e been a fairl+ small group- but their transnational actions are significant' This
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e4ample is note,orth+ as it highlights the transnational nature of counter/insurgenc+ ,as ,ell as insurgenc+' T,o other FLQJs ,ere acti.e that summer- ta*ing ad.antage of the ,arm ,eather to establish guerrilla encampments in the Laurentian mountains- near a A250H base that ,as home to tactical nuclear missiles- the presence of ,hich ,as .er+ unpopular among certain sectors of QuDbDcois societ+' The authorities claimed but ne.er pro.ided e.idence that the group intended to blo, up the base' This <commando unit= ,as the continuation of SchirmJs 0LQ' ?olice disco.ered the camp after recei.ing a tip from a local resident' From their supplies it seems that the+ had ambitious plans: <The+ ,ere ,ell armed and had- among their eCuipmentdocuments outlining techniCues for sabotaging electric and telephone lines- more than #)) detailed militar+ maps- and a complete medical *it ,orth V16-)))'= The commandos e4changed fire ,ith the police before fleeing ,ith one police officer as a hostage- starting a massi.e four da+ man hunt' This incident- Fournier argues <sho,ed that the FLQ ,as capable of planning ma:or operations against the forces of <national securit+(1'= 0pparentl+ unrelated- there ,ere also a series of attac*s carried out against the railroads lines of QuDbec after La 4ogne published instructions on bombing railroad trac*s that Fanuar+' The follo,ing summer .iolent social uphea.al ,as accompanied b+ a series of high profile bombings in 3ontrDal; on 3a+ 1st a bomb e4ploded at the @'S' consulate- coinciding ,ith <the first mass demonstrations organized against 0merican aggression in Eietnam and in support of the Eietnamese Aational Liberation Front'(#= This action ,as most clearl+ transnational; the FLQ targeted the @nited States in Canada- effectuall+ supporting the FLA militaril+- using bombs- not

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:ust communiCuDs' 0dditionall+- this bombing ,as a sign that FLQ ,as beginning to ,or* in support of labor and other political mo.ements- ,hich ,ere becoming increasing militant and socialist leaning' Con.ersel+ the QuDbec so.ereignt+ mo.ement began to support the FLQ through political action' 2n 3a+ #!th- Eictoria Ha+- the Queen1s >irthda+ the annual QuDbec so.ereigntist demonstration erupted in .iolence: Feelings ran high because FranZois Schirm and Bdmond GuDnette had been sentenced to death onl+ three da+s earlier' The demonstrators1 plan ,as to march to ?lace Eictoria- the site of 8a9 recent bomb attac*' >ut the+ had hardl+ set out ,hen the police bloc*ed the ,a+' 0t ?arc Lafoutaine- police stic*s flailed and 3oloto. coc*tails fle,' When it ,as all o.er- dozens of people had been in:ured#)$ arrested- and 1$1 demonstrators dragged into court on charges of illegal assembl+- assaulting a police officer- refusing to *eep mo.ing- or disturbing the peace'($ The same da+ the FLQ bombed the office building that housed the >ritish Trade Commissioner and placed a bomb that ,as defused at the central post office of the cit+' The pre.ious da+ four thousand postal ,or*ers in 3ontreal had begun an illegal stri*e' The da+ of .iolence prompted the police chief of 3ontrDal to comment- <We are no longer dealing ,ith separatists- but ,ith genuine re.olutionaries'= 2n 3a+ #%th the FLQ detonated a bomb at the construction site of B4po %" in support of a labor dispute' This ,as in addition to <other acts of .iolence 8bombs- 3oloto. coc*tails9 occurred during stri*es of doc* ,or*ers- truc*ers 8fi.e truc*s ,ere d+namited Bn.elope Co'(!'= The FLQ bombings and pro/so.ereignt+ demonstrations continued throughout the summer' That 2ctober- three men ,ere arrested and charged in connections ,ith the summer1s
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bombings; onl+ one of them merits mentioning here- Gaston Collin' Thirt+/t,o +ear/old ,as sentenced to t,o +ears in prison- but he ,as released on parole after onl+ one +ear- plus the nineteen months he spent a,aiting trial' >efore :oining the FLQ- he ser.ed as telecommunications and electronics technician for t,el.e +ears in the Canadian 0rm+ Kincluding dut+ in Norea and ,ith the @nited Aations inter.ention force in the Congo'(6K When he ,as in prison he read e4tensi.el+- including militant >lac* ?o,er acti.ist Bldridge Clea.ersJ /oul on 8ce(%# 0fter he ,as released- he follo,ed the lead other FLQ members and fled to Cuba- ,here he ,or*ed in the sugar cane fields- meeting FLQ co/founder 5a+mond Eilleneu.e' Ge too became disillusioned ,ith the Cuban condition and returned to QuDbec ,here he ser.ed another +ear in :ail for parole .iolation'(" 0fter these ,a.es of Kad.enturismK and uncoordinated FLQ actions- the organizationJs leadership decided that the ne4t series of attac*s ,ould be done ,ith careful strategic planning' The t,o most important ,riters of La 4ogne and members of the FLQ in general ,ere ?ierre EalliLres and Charles Gagnon- Kthe intellectualsK of the mo.ement' While the+ did not recei.e training in an+ other countries- the+ incorporated instructions for other guerrilla mo.ements in the literature distributed to the FLQ ran*/and/file and acted transnationall+ in other ,a+s' For e4ample- that fall <a number of QuDbec re.olutionaries W including ?ierre EalliLres W got in touch ,ith the Cuban consul in 3ontreal- ,ho- as it happened- ,as not onl+ a UGue.arist1 but also a supporter of independence for Quebec(('= Through carefull+ planned actions- the FLQ leadership hoped to re.italize and professionalize the group- strengthening the militar+ ,ingincluding members of SchirmJs 05Q creating a Kne, FLQ'K >efore the forth ,a.e of FLQ
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actions had started- the public recei.ed a ,arning of things to come from Foseph Costisella- an 0ustrian/born professor and a member of the QuDbec so.ereignt+ mo.ement ,ho ,rote in his histor+ of anti/Bnglish colonial resistance in the pro.ince: 0ccording to ,ell/informed sources- the current period of calm in Quebec is onl+ the preparator+ stage of a ne, ,a.e of armed resistance such as Quebec has not *no,n since 1($"' 0ppl+ing guerrilla tactics elaborated b+ Che Gue.arausing the pre.ious e4periences of the FLQ- and ,ith the help of accomplices e.en ,ith the police force- a Quebec liberation arm+ is preparing for a final assault on colonialism(& 2.er the Baster ,ee*end of 1&%% EalliLres- Gagnon and other members of the FLQ met to discuss the future of the organization and carefull+ planned out a series of hold ups- robberies of munitions and bombings to be carried out that +ear' 0fter raising mone+ b+ holding up of a theater and acCuiring arms through brea*/ins and robberies- the FLQ mo.ed to support a +ear old stri*e at Lagrenade shoe factor+ b+ placing a bomb in the form of parcel outside the factor+ o,ner1s office' The factor+ ,as notified b+ telephone but the threat ,as ignored and the factor+ ,as not e.acuated' 0s a result of the o,ner1s secretar+- ThDrLs 3orin ,as *illed as she pic*ed up the bomb ,hen she returned from lunch' The bombing ,as a complete failure ho,e.er; the ,or*ers didnJt get their :obs bac* because the factor+ ,as force to close' @ndeterred- the FLQ attempted to support another group of stri*ing ,or*ers- this time at the Hominion Te4tile mill' T,o ,ee*s after the fiasco at Lagrenade- a bomb ,as e4ploded at one of HominionJs mills outside of 3ontrDal- this time ,ith no causalities' @nfortunatel+- that Fune ,hen the FLQ attempted to bomb another Hominion Te4tile mill in 3ontrDal- it detonated prematurel+- *illing Fean Corbo- the si4teen +ear old FLQ courier sent to deli.er the de.ice' The death of Corbo pro.ed to be the beginning of the end for this FLQ group' >eside causing di.isions ,ithin the
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organization- it ,as also a strategic failure politicall+ ,hen the public became disgusted b+ the deaths of innocent ci.ilians' Ironicall+- this ,a.e of FLQ actions ,as meant to be most coordinated and carefull+ planned series of bombings and hold/ups but in the end it ,as a poorl+ orchestrated disasterlea.ing t,o dead- both QuDbDcois and the organization in shambles' The members of the FLQ ,ent into hiding at their training camp in the Laurentian mountains north of 3ontrDal' 0 botched hold up of a theater in 3ontrDal led to the arrest more than t,o dozens people in connections ,ith the prior series of bombings' EalliLres and Gagnon had been touring the @nited States<getting in touch ,ith the main 0merican re.olutionar+ organizations- including the >lac* ?o,er mo.ement- in hopes of organizing a *ind of coordinating committee of Aorth 0merican liberation mo.ements'&)= Ga.ing heard ne,s of the arrest of their comrades the duo opted to li.e in Ae, 7or* Cit+ and support the FLQ from abroad' 2nce there- the+ staged a t,o/man protest in front of the @nited Aations- attempting to dra, attention to the cause of the Quebec in the international communit+' 0fter a short inter.ie, b+ the Canadian >roadcasting Corporation- the t,o ,ere arrested and held in the infamous 3anhattan Gouse of Hetention for 3en for four monthsduring ,hich EalliLres ,rote his tome <The White Aiggers of 0merica'= There ,ere a number of acts of solidarit+ the most notable of ,hich ,as the telegram of solidarit+ the pair recei.ed from >lac* ?anther Sto*el+ Carmichael addressed to <our brothers of the FLQ-= ,ith ,hom the t,o met in Washington H'C' during their tour&1' T,o +ears later- in 2ctober of 1&%( Carmichael spo*e at 3cGill @ni.ersit+- ironicall+ a s+mbol of Bnglish/Canada and urged the attendees to

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<Get all the guns +ou can find' 7ou ,ill not be re.olutionaries until +ou are read+ to ta*e up arms and *ill to defend +our brothers&#'= Gis repeated use of the term <brother= to describe first t,o members of the FLQ and then the QuDbDcois people as a ,hole is .er+ significant as it demonstrates that not onl+ did Carmichael e4press support for the cause of independence- but he also uses terminolog+ usuall+ reser.ed for 0frican 0mericans' >ecause of this EalliLresJ comparison of the QuDbDcois to 0frican 0merican is much more .alid; I doubt that a >lac* ?anther e.er referred to <our brothers in the I50'= The duo unsuccessfull+ fought deportationRe4tradition to Canada- ,here - upon their return in Fanuar+ of 1&%" the+ ,ent to trial for their participation in the FLQ actions of the pre.ious +ear' 0 high profile attorne+ ,ho ,as e4tremel+ politicall+ acti.e in the QuDbec so.ereignt+ mo.ement 5obert Lemieu4- used his o,n brand of <:udicial guerrilla ,arfare in for the trials of EalliLres and Gagnon' Ge had been the Cuban go.ernmentJs legal representati.e in 3ontreal since the 1&6& re.olution''' an acti.e supporter of the Eietnamese FLA- he defended 0merican deserters and conscientious ob:ectors ,ho fled b+ the hundredJs to 3ontreal' In 1&%6 he ,as in.ited to the ?eopleJs 5epublic of China&$'= That spring EalliLres ,as sentenced to life in prison for the death of 3orin- and Gagnon ,as found innocent in the death of Corbo- but recei.ed t,o +ear for conspirac+ to commit armed robber+' Se.en other members of the FLQ ,ere tried and con.icted of .arious crimes shortl+ thereafter' 0s ,ith the first FLQ- those tried and con.icted became heroes- political prisoners for the cause of QuDbec independence after going to prison' The period of 1&%" to 1&") represented the pea* of FLQ acti.ities in terms of number of

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attac*s&!- the high profiles of their targets and number of members in.ol.ed in the organizations ,ide range of acti.ities' This pea* or culmination corresponded a rise in social turmoil in QuDbec and around the ,orld' The +ear of 1&%(- for e4ample sa, the follo,ing e.ents: the escalation of the Eietnam War- including the Tet offensi.e and 3+ Lai 3assacre- clashes bet,een ci.il rights acti.ists and police in the @S - the assignations of 3arin Luther Ning and 5obert F' Nenned+- the .iolent confrontation bet,een anti,ar acti.ists and police outside the Hemocratic Aational con.ention in Chicago- massi.e student and ,or*er stri*es in ?aris- months before France tested itJs first nuclear ,eapon- the massacre of student protesters b+ policesoldiers and snipers in 3e4ico Cit+- the rise to po,er of Czech Communist ?art+ resulted in a brief period of political liberalization before the @SS5 brought Warsa, ?act troops in- the decolonization of S,aziland and BCuatorial Guinea and the o.erthro, of the ?anamanian go.ernment b+ militar+ coup dJetat' In terms of the groups e4amined in this paper- this period ,as also ,hen most of the ma:or- effecti.e actions of the Tupamaros ,ere carried out- a topic ,hich ,ill be e4panded upon later in this paper' The sheer number of bombings that ,ere part of the fifth ,a.e of the FLQ is astounding' >ut as ,ith EalliLres and Gagnon- those in.ol.ed did not act transnationall+ until the ,ere forced to lea.e Canada to escape arrest' With ne, members and leadership- the FLQ stopped publication of La 4ogne in fa.or of starting a ne, paper La 7ictoire# This paper printed instructions for conducting guerrilla ,arfare- much more than its predecessor- including ad.ice to <acCuire light ,eapons- such as the semi/automatic 3/1 '$) calibre rifles- preferabl+ from the @'S'- ,here their sale ,as legal in most states&6'= We do *no, that some FLQ members did cross

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the border to bu+ parts for this particular model of rifle- one of the fe, instances ,here arms ,ere imported into QuDbec in a .er+ transnational ,a+' The instructions gi.en in La 7ictoire ,ere certainl+ put to their intended use' >et,een September of 1&%( and 3arch of 1&%&- <e4actl+ si4t+ bombs had been placed in 3ontreal alonefi.e in the rest of the pro.ince- and a half dozen in 2tta,a&%'= The bombings targeted companies and institutions that ,ere either s+mbols of Bnglish capitalJs hegemon+ of QuDbecJs econom+ or currentl+ in.ol.ed in labor disputes as ,ell as Canadian militar+ and other go.ernment buildings' The most notable ,ere the bombing of the 3ontreal Stoc* B4change- in:uring t,ent+ se.en- attac*s on the 3inistr+ of Labour and the QuDbec Federation of Labour- a union seen as <collaborators= b+ the FLQ and the bombing of a retail boo*store of the QueenJs ?rinter- the Canadian Federal go.ernments publishing compan+' It ,as this last attac* that led to the arrest of ?ierre/?aul Geoffro+ on 3a+ 6th- 1&%&- ,ho the police alread+ *ne, had <attac*ed a policeman during a .iolent demonstration at the Se.en/ @p plant- in Februar+ 1&%('= When the police arri.ed at his apartment to ma*e the arrest <he ,as alone and offered no resistance''' Three finished bombs ,ere ,aiting' 2ne of them ,as boob+/ trapped; it ,ould e4plode if a piece of paper ,as remo.ed' Since it ,as l+ing on top of ninet+/ se.en stic*s of d+namite- the ,hole house ,ould ha.e blo,n up- had the police not been careful'= This account of his arrest re.eals ho, professional and therefor deadl+ the FLQ had become' The+ ,ere no, e4tremel+ efficient in their abilit+ to steal the materials for and construct a bombs that actuall+ ,or*ed' 0dditionall+- Geoffro+Js actions at he Se.en/@p plant suggest that the FLQ ,as a ma:or part of the demonstrations that often turned .iolent- effectuall+

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using the cro,d as a ,eapon ,ith ,hich to attac* members of the stateJs repressi.e apparatus&"' This ,as not the onl+ demonstration that turned into a riot during this time' 0s ,ith the clash at ?arc Lafoutaine in the spring of 1&%6- .iolence erupted at a demonstration on St'/Fean/ >aptist da+- Fune #!th of 1&%(' 0fter a bottle ,as thro,n at the police- the+ released a storm of batons and tear gas- to ,hich the protesters responded ,ith 3oloto. coc*tails' The e.ent became *no,n as <?olice/club 3onda+=' T,o of the protesters arrested that da+ ,ere FacCues LanctXt and ?aul 5ose ,ho met in a police car after being beaten and arrested&(' This association ,ould lead to the formation of one of the most influential cells of the FLQ- the Liberation Cell' The police ,rongl+ assumed that Geoffro+ ,as ,or*ing alone and thus the+ did not tr+ to find his fello, FLQ members' Aor ,as the FLQ the onl+ group that the Bnglish/Canadian establishment and Canadian go.ernment had to ,orr+ about ,hile the Geoffro+ net,or* ,as acti.e' 0 militant labor organization called the ,ou-ement de libration du ta6i 8Ta4i Liberation 3o.ement or 3LT9 helped- along ,ith other fringe elements of the QuDbec so.ereignt+ mo.ement to stage a series spectacular actions the night of 2ctober $)th- 1&%(: In a huge- carefull+ timed mo.e- .er+ much li*e an urban guerrilla operation- about a thousand ta4i dri.ers- students and FL? 8Front de libration )o)ulaire or ?opular Liberation Front9 and CIS 84omit ind)endance&socialisme or Committee for independence and Socialism9 acti.ists bloc*ed the approach to Hor.al 0irport and paral+zed traffic in se.eral parts of the metropolitan area' Tra.eling in #6) ta4is- the attac*ers struc* at .arious strategic points- hurling 3oloto. coc*tails and setting fire to buses and installations of the 3urra+ Gill Compan+ ,hich had a monopol+ of the ta4i business from 3ontrealJs main airport&&' 0t least t,o participants that night- 3arc Carbonneau and FacCues LanctXt- ,ould soon become acti.e in the FLQ' These .iolent demonstrations captured the the political milieu of
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QuDbec- as ,ell as man+ other part of the ,orld at that time' 0fter Geoffro+Js arrest- his comrade in arms fled the countr+ to meet ,ith their prearranged emergenc+ contacts in Ae, 7or* cit+- the >lac* ?anthers- ,ho immediatel+ sent them to Students for a Hemocratic Societ+ 8SHS9- ,ho helped them go underground to a.oid arrest' Some members ,ould later tra.el to Cuba or 0lgeria to support the FLQ from abroad1))' Hespite the dispersal of the Geoffro+ net,or*- the FLQ attac*s and the .iolent demonstrations- fueled b+ the 3LT and FL?- continued' The socio/political climate in QuDbec became more tense and the relationship bet,een the Canadian state and QuDbDcois societ+ became increasingl+ strained' The 3ontrDal police and the 5C3? became increasingl+ aggressi.e in their anti/insurgent efforts' Throughout 1&")- pressure ,ould build until it culminated in one of the most significant moments in Canadian histor+' This ,as the +ear that a French translation of 3arighellaJs 3inimanual of the @rban Guerrilla- including a preface e4plaining the manualJs application to the struggle for QuDbDcois so.ereignt+- including the recommendation of emulating- or at least learning from the urban guerrillas of >razil ,ho had orchestrated <a series of *idnappings of foreign diplomats- ,hich led to the liberation of se.eral political prisoner= began circulating in the pro.ince1)1' In all li*elihood members of the FLQ read this- and the manual almost certainl+ influenced in their decision to *idnap Cross and Laporte as a result' This is the first of man+ concrete lin*s that de.eloped bet,een the .arious urban guerrilla net,or*s of South 0merica and the FLQ' 2ne factor in this de.elopment ,as li*el+ LanctXt- <an admirer of Cuba and the Tupamaros1)#= ,ho had recentl+ became in.ol.ed ,ith the FLQ- after being e4tremel+ acti.e in the 3LT' The *idnappings of the 2ctober Crisis
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,ere- if not inspired b+- directl+ influenced b+ the *idnappings staged b+ urban guerrilla in South 0merica' For e4ample- around the same time that 3arighellaJs ,ritings appeared in QuDbec- the FLQ began to bu+ and rent safe houses around the pro.ince and the cit+ of 3ontrDal- one of ,hich ,as to be a <training centre- a hideout- and Jpeoples prisonsJ 8follo,ing the e4ample of the Tupamaros91)$'= 0t the same time- LanctXt began to plan the *idnapping of the Israeli consul in 3ontrDal 3oise Golan' The plan ne.er reached fruition because LanctXt and his co/conspirator ,ere pulled o.er in dri.ing a .an in 3ontrDal- in ,hich police found se.eral ,ic*er bas*ets large enough to fit a human- a sa,ed off rifle- the ,ord <Golan= on a piece of paper and a list of the telephone numbers of .arious media outlets' Fortunatel+ for LanctXt- the authorities did not put all the clues together and released him on bail- at ,hich time he immediatel+ ,ent underground using the net,or* of safe houses :ust established b+ the .arious cells of the FLQ' That spring the communit+ of FLQ e4iles had become increasingl+ disenchanted ,ith li.ing in Cuba- ha.ing not recei.ed an+ of the guerrilla training that the+ ,ere hoping to to recei.ed' The+ did ho,e.er <ma*e contact ,ith other re.olutionaries in e4ile: Latin 0mericans of course- but also Aorth 0mericans- such as the >lac* ?anthers- ,hose leader- Bldridge Clea.erhad ta*en refuge in Ga.ana before going to 0lgeria'= Three of them ,ere able to secure passage to Burope and begin their li.es in a more comfortable form of e4ile' FLQ co/founder 5a+mond Eilleneu.e settled in ?aris ,here he ,as in contact ,ith his former comrade in arms Gilles ?runeau- ,ho had recentl+ resettled from 0lgeria' ?erhaps it ,as this association that led Eilleneu.e to begin <to+ing ,ith the idea of setting up an FLQ delegation in 0lgiers- a pro:ect that materialized b+ the end of the +ear-= ,ith the help of Aormand 5o+ and 3ichel Lambert1)$

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member of the Geoffro+ net,or*'1)! Throughout the +ear the FLQ had been stealing and stoc*piling d+namite and other arms and beginning in the summer the group continued their tradition of bombings- including some in support of stri*ing postal ,or*ers' Eeteran FLQ members out of prison on parole re/:oined the ran*s of the group- helping to finance it through a series of ban* robberies and hold/ups' EalliLres and Gagnon ,ere both released from prison and continued their in.ol.ement in the FLQJs political branch- the latter helping to start a >lac* ?anther solidarit+ committee- at a time ,hen the F>IJs counter/insurgenc+ efforts against the group ,ere in full s,ing' 0t this time3ontrDal- and the FLQ hosted a number of high/profile guests from their neighbor to the south: the >lac* ?anthers la,+er 0rthur Turco and member G' 5ap >ro,n- as ,ell as Weather @nderground members William 0+ers and Aaomi Bsther Faffe- ,ho ,ere alleged to ha.e recei.ed funding from the FLQ1)6' The cell created b+ LanctXt and ?aul 5ose ,as not did not allo, the failure of their plot against the Israeli Consul to hinder their aspirations to conduct the groupJs first diplomatic *idnapping- in an attempt to free a number of political prisoners' The group rented a cabin north of 3ontrDal and began to plan the *idnapping of the @'S' Consul in 3ontrDal- Garrison W' >urgess- going so far as to print the communiCuD to be released that outlined their demands and compared their group ,ith liberation mo.ements in Latin 0merica- especiall+ Cuba- the ?alestinian diaspora- 0frica- 0sia- Burope and Aorth 0merica' >ut the police soon learned of the cell- launched an in.estigation and arrested fi.e members of the FLQ- seizing their stoc*pile of arms and e4plosi.es- copies of the communiCuD and more that V#%-))) in cash' The+ also
1)! 1)6

Fournier p'1(%/1(" Fournier p'1&$/1&!' >ro,nJs freCuent .isits ,ith the FLQ led him to conclude that <Quebec is a cornerstone of the Aorth 0merican re.olution'=

6(

disco.ered an address for a farm in the countr+ side of QuDbec- ,here si4 FLQ members managed not to arouse suspicion and therefor a.oided arrest' The group had been dealt a hea.+ blo,- but reorganized and mo.ed their center of operations else,here- still determined to carr+ out a high profile *idnapping of a foreign diplomat1)%' The substantial losses incurred b+ the FLQ ,ere some ,hat offset b+ the political gains made through a .er+ po,erful- but completel+ unplanned piece of propaganda that broadcast across Canada on C>C' 0 Canadian film ma*er ,ho ,as ma*ing a documentar+ about the ?alestinian resistance mo.ement- met t,o QuDbDcois men using the noms de guerre Selim and Salem in Fordan' In actualit+ the+ ,ere Aormand 5o+ and 3ichel Lambert' The pair- shrouded in !effiehs' announced that the+ had :ust finished training ,ith ?alestinian guerrilla and planned to return to QuDbec ,ithin a +ear to carr+ out selecti.e assignations- a tactic in ,hich the+ had :ust been trained' 0fter the+ left Fordan the+ ,ould mo.e to 0lgeria and establish a permanent FLQ presence on the continent- in correspondence ,ith other FLQ elements in QuDbec and France1)"' The remaining members of the FLQ began to research- plan and coordinate ,ith their support net,or* to preparation for the *idnapping of Fames 5ichard Cross- a >ritish Trade Commissioner ,ho li.ed in 3ontrDal' Then on the morning of 2ctober 6th- four members of the FLQ- including former 3LT members LanctXt and Carbonneau barged into Cross residence armed ,ith an 3/1 rifle- the same *ind recommended b+ La 7ictoire as eas+ to purchase in the @'S'- and t,o handguns' 5ushing to his bedroom- the+ handcuffed Cross and transported him to their safe house in the Aorth end of 3ontrDal' 2ther members of the cell issued an eight/page manifesto outlining their demands- nearl+ identical to those outlined in the plot against the Israeli

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consul and the ne,s of *idnapping began to spread immediatel+' Their demands are notable- not the+ ,ere unreasonabl+ high- but also because of the transnational actions that resulted from some of them being met: the publication of the manifesto in the media- the release of t,ent+ three political prisoners- an airplane- containing V6))-))) in gold bouillon to ta*e the *idnappers to Cuba or 0lgeria- the rehiring of stri*ing postal ,or*ers- and the name of a police informant inside the FLQ' The ne4t da+ another communiCuD ,as released threatening to e4ecute Cross if their demands ,ere not met ,ithin t,ent+ four hours' The go.ernment stalled for time under the guise of potential negotiations- facilitated b+ FLQ la,+er 5obert Lemieu4 ,hile simultaneousl+ launching a massi.e manhunt- assisted b+ the CI0 for the *idnappers' Fust before the deadlinethe go.ernment announced that it ,as ,illing to negotiate through an+ part+ designated b+ the FLQ and a radio station complied ,ith their first demand- the broadcast of the Liberation CellJs manifesto' The manifesto- masterfull+ penned b+ LanctXt created some public support and s+mpath+ for the action and alerted FLQ members raising mone+ for the group in the @'S' that the+ ,ould be of better use to the organization bac* in QuDbec- and returned to form the Chenier Cell1)(' >ut the Canadian go.ernment- led b+ statesman ?ierre Blliot Trudeau- continued to bide their time- ignoring the FLQJs repeated threats of e4ecution ,hile the+ hoped to resol.e the conflict through the use of the stateJs repressi.e apparatus- the police- intelligence ser.ices and the militar+' 2ne member of the Chenier Cell- Francis Simard ,rote in his autobiographical account of the 2ctober crisis- ,hile the FLQ ,aited for a response from the go.ernment he felt

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that his cell ,ould ha.e to escalate the situation if the Liberation cellJs demands ,ere not met1)&' The original demands of the group ,ere re.ised to one demand: the release of the political prisoners- to ,hich the go.ernment refused- onl+ conceding semi/.oluntar+ e4ile for the *idnappers' The go.ernment issued a statement of refusal- ,hich made it abundantl+ clear to the FLQ that the state had no intention of resol.ing the situation their fa.or' The Chenier Cell had alread+ planned a contingenc+ for this scenario- ha.ing selected a pre.iousl+ researched go.ernment official- Eice ?remier and 3inister of Labour ?ierre to be the ne4t person to be *idnapped b+ the FLQ' The morning after the go.ernmentJs announcementfour FLQ members armed ,ith t,o 3/1 rifles and a sa,ed/off shotgun pulled Laporte into their car ,hile he ,as pla+ing football ,ith his nephe,' The+ follo,ed .er+ much the same procedure as the Liberation Cell- one car too* the hostage to their safe house and another ,ent to alert the media and release another communiCuD' The ball ,as no, in the go.ernmentJs court- so to spea*- and the FLQ suspended their deadlines- ma*ing it clear that the+ ,ould e4ecute their hostages if necessar+ and ,aited for the go.ernmentJs response' >ut the state continued to heighten their repressi.e response- conducting raids against peaceful political mo.ements and e.entuall+ arresting more than fi.e hundred people- at a time ,hen acti.e FLQ members numbered around thirt+ fi.e11)' Li*el+ due to a combination of the stateJs refusal to negotiate- their ,illingness to deplo+ their militar+ and police the forces for purposes of broad political repression- and the artful crafting of the FLQJs communiCuDs- the clandestine net,or* ,as recei.ing a fa.orable response to their first t,o diplomatic *idnappings' 2n 2ctober 1!th- nine da+s after Cross ,as ta*en from

1)& 11)

Simard- Francis' Tal*ing It 2ut' Trans' Ha.is Gomel' 3ontreal: Guernica- 1&("' p'#%/#" Fournier p'#$(

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his home- fifteen signatories representing .arious political organizations and trade unions issued a statement of declaring their <most urgent support to negotiations to e4change the t,o hostages for the political prisoners'= Fournier argues that this <Heclaration of the Fifteen= had almost the opposite effecti.e than ,as intended; it seemed to confirm the Canadian go.ernmentJs fears that there ,as a ,idespread anti/go.ernment conspirac+ among the political sector of the pro.ince as ,ell as further bolstered support for the FLQ among QuDbecJs more mainstream left111' This rather unfa.orable social and political climate onl+ made the Canadian state more determined to resol.e the hostage crisis in order to protect the unit+ of the Confederation of Canada- using ,hate.er tools the+ had at their disposal' The tools so chosen ,ere the Aational Hefense 0ct and an semi/archaic la, called the War 3easures 0ct' 2n the 16th of 2ctober the Canadian 0rm+ Cuic*l+ occupied the cit+ of 3ontrDal- ta*ing up positions around the island and defending *e+ go.ernmental institutions' 0t four in the morning the follo,ing da+- TrudeauJs cabinet enacted the War 3easures 0ct- suspending ci.il liberties declaring- effecti.el+ declaring martial la, in the pro.ince' The proclamation ,as purposefull+ made as an <emergenc+ measure= at a time ,hen parliament ,as not in secession and therefor did not technicall+ need to be consulted' The go.ernment ,as no, legall+ allo,ed to arrest and detain people ,ithout charges for up to three ,ee*s' The numbers associated ,ith ,a.e of raids and the arrests of more than fi.e hundred people arrested the follo,ing da+ highlight ho, desperate the authorities had become in their efforts to resol.e the situation: of those arrested and interned- ninet+ percent ,ere release ,ithout charges and of those charged ,ith crimes- ninet+ fi.e percent ,ere later acCuitted or had their charges dropped; in addition securit+ forces conducted more than thirt+

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thousand searches of streets- buildings and e.en ,hole to,ns11#' Trudeau made sure to remind a concerned public that <the *idnappers might ha.e seized an+one at all- *ou' me' a child 8emphasis added911$#= The FLQ ,as faced ,ith the e4tremel+ difficult Cuestion of ho, to respond' The+ had said that if push came to sho.e- that the+ ,ould sho.e bac* b+ e4ecuting their hostages' 0gainSimardJs boo*11!- among other sources- details the length+ deliberations- both ,ithin the group and the consciousnesses of the members of the Liberation and Chenier cells that ,ent on before an+ further action ,as ta*en' LanctXt theorized that Washington had applied pressure on 2tta,a to ta*e a strong stand- as to discourage the >lac* ?anthers and the Weather @nderground from follo,ing the e4ample of the FLQ116' The Liberation Cell released a communiCuD that ,as not publicl+ broadcast that declare ,ar on the Canadian Go.ernment and commuted CrossJ death sentence- turning him into a political prisoner to be used as a bargaining chip in negotiations' It ,as hoped that the communiCuD ,ould prompt the Chenier cell to spare the life of their prisoner in fa.or of further negotiations' Laporte- upon hearing that the go.ernment that he lo+all+ ser.ed had sentenced him to death tried to escape through a ,indo,- se.erel+ in:uring himself' To sa+ that the atmosphere of the cellsJ respecti.e safe houses had become tense ,ould be an understatement' Three da+s after soldiers marched on 3ontrDal- the Chenier cell finall+ bro*e their FLQJs stalemate ,ith the authorities' The+ strangled Laporte to death ,ith his o,n religious chains and left his bod+ in the trun* of a car- ,hich the+ abandoned before notif+ing the media of itJs e4istence' 0t this moment the struggle of the FLQ had reached its pea* and began a do,n,ards
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spiral from ,hich the organization ne.er successfull+ reco.ered' The e4ecution ,as not recei.ed ,ell b+ the public- including b+ the pre.iousl+ supporti.e elements of the mainstream QuDbec so.ereignt+ mo.ement' Finall+- after almost a month authorities raided the safe house of Chenier cell- most of the members of ,hich ,ere able to narro,l+ escape and into hiding in rural QuDbec' 3ean,hile- the Liberation cell released a ne, communiCuD and a photo of Cross pla+ing cards on a bo4 of d+namite' Through the use of police informants and other means of in.estigation- the Canadian authorities e.entuall+ disco.ered the location of Cross and ,here the three fugiti.e members of the Chenier cell gone into hiding' The police arrested t,o members of the Liberation Cell as the+ left the safe house on Ao.ember #(th' When their compatriots did not return- the remaining *idnappers *ne, their location had been disco.ered' The cell ,as no, do,n to si4 people ,ho had been inside the same house for t,o months ,ith the man that the+ *idnapped' Fi.e da+s later- at #:)) 03 their electricit+ ,as cut- leading them t,o thro, their last communiCuD out the ,indo,' It ,arned the police <If +ou tr+ an+thing- 3r' F' Cross ,ill be the first to die' We ha.e se.eral primed stic*s of d+namite= and listed t,o :ournalist ,ho ,ould be acceptable negotiators' Within si4 hours- more than a thousand police and soldier surrounded the house ,hile the appointed negotiator arranged ,ith the Cuban consulate and the Canadian Go.ernment the terms of political as+lumRe4ile and a flight aboard a Canadian militar+ plane to the island nation' 0ll eight members of the Liberation Cell and their families dro.e under police escort to an area temporaril+ designated Cuban soil before fl+ing to Ga.ana and Fames 5ichard Cross ,as free after fift+/nine da+s of capti.it+11%' @nfortunatel+ the Chenier Cell and e4tended FLQ net,or* ,ere not co.ered b+ this deal11%

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the+ had *illed their hostage- their onl+ bargaining chip and means of deterring the ine.itable assault of the arm+ that occupied their pro.ince' B.entuall+ the three remaining members of the cell ,ere disco.ered in a ingeniousl+ hidden secret room in the basement of a farm house' 0 total of t,ent+ people ,ere arrested and con.icted of .arious crimes associated ,ith their in.ol.ement in the e.ents of the 2ctober Crisis' 0t this point the FLQ had in effect burned itself out- losing almost all of its resources- e4pertise- membership and political support from the public' For the purposes of this paper an e4ploration of the FLQ be+ond the end of 1&") is almost useless' The e4ception being the transnational actions of the FLQ members ,ho li.ed in e4ile in .arious parts of the ,orld- ,hich ,ill be discussed at greater length in the follo,ing chapter' 0t this point- gi.en all of the e.idence presented in the preceding chapter- I can ma*e the follo,ing arguments about the FLQ- including their position in the transnational urban guerrilla net,or*' First- the potential contradictions bet,een the actions of the FLQ and the theoretical frame,or* ,hich I ha.e de.eloped must be addressed' ?erhaps biggest issues arise from the contradictions bet,een the FLQJs brand of Franco/phone nationalism- their identification and collaboration ,ith He GaulleJs France- and their freCuent rhetorical calls of solidarit+ ,ith liberation mo.ements in the former French colonies of 0lgeria and Eietnam' QuDbec is- in man+ ,a+s a .er+ different *ind of colon+ from those that the FLQ so freCuentl+ e.o*ed' The QuDbDcois are the descendants of a colonizers ,ho ,ere conCuered b+ another colonial po,er' 0dditionall+- one member of the FLQ- Francois Schirm ,as an acti.e member of the French colonial forces and ,as acti.el+ engaged in t,o counter insurgenc+ effort- in countries ,ith ,hich the FLQ e4pressed solidarit+ ,ith' Hespite reports that he left the French Foreign Legion

%6

throughl+ disgusted ,ith the colonial pro:ect- the fact remains that he continued to be enlisted for a +ear longer than ,as reCuired' While certainl+ note,orth+- these contradictions do not negate the .alidit+ or importance of the transnational relationship that the FLQ maintained ,ith other liberation mo.ements' Second- the profound number of ideological- tactical- organizational and material lin*s that FLQ de.eloped o.er se.en +ears demonstrates that their internationalist tendenc+ ,as not onl+ manifested in their communiCuDs- but in the actions as ,ell' Contrar+ to ,hat some scholars argue- the members of the FLQ did not simpl+ spout hollo,- baseless claims of unit+ ,ith the post/re.olutionar+ Cuban and 0lgerian states- the >lac* ?anther ?art+ and other >lac* ?o,er organizations- armed sectors of the ?alestinian nationalist mo.ement and the anti/authoritarian urban guerrilla groups of South 0merica' The FLQ relationships to and interactions ,ith these groups de.eloped o.er time as the po,er and influence of the organizations gre,' The ,eb/li*e net,or* created b+ those lin*s discussed in this chapter are further elaborated upon in the ne4t chapter' The net,or* ,as composed of people- ideas- literature- arms and other resources mo.ing around the ,orld unfettered b+ the restrictions traditionall+ associated ,ith the boundaries of nation/states' Third- the FLQ- e.en more than urban guerrilla groups in general does not fit neatl+ into traditional anal+tical categories' >e+ond the une4pected geopolitical location and the distincti.e form of colonialism against ,hich the FLQ struggled- it is hard to e.en describe ,hat *ind of .iolent social mo.ement it ,as' The e4tremel+ lo, number of dead on all sides- insurgentmilitar+ and ci.ilian in m+ mind e4clude the group from man+ traditional conceptualizations of <terrorism'= The+ de.iate from the pattern of man+ of the other groups e4amined in this paper in

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that the+ ne.er engaged in armed confrontations ,ith agents of the state- sa.e for their presence in .iolent demonstration in ,hich fists- roc*s and 3oloto. coc*tails ,ere used in response to the clubs- tear gas and handcuffs ,ielded b+ their opponents' This does not ma*e the .iolent acts of the FLQ more or less legitimate or moral; the+ still too* four human li.es- in:ured man+ more and causes millions of dollars in damages' For e.er+ piece of the stor+ ,hich further elucidates the form and function of the FLQ and their location ,ithin a transnational urban guerrilla net,or*- there are more Cuestions that remain unans,ered' The e4act nature of the FLQJs delegation in 0lgiers remains a m+ster+- for e4ample' >uilding upon the strong e.idence of the transnational nature of the FLQ presented abo.e- m+ scope of anal+sis shifts itJs focus to the urban guerrilla mo.ements ,ith ,hich the organization collaborated' 2f particular interest are the li.es of the FLQ diaspora- members li.ing in e4ile- predominantl+ in Cuban- 0lgeria and France'

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Chapter $ 0lthough the FLQ is the main case stud+ in this paper- there could not and ,ould not be a transnational net,or* ,ithout some interaction bet,een the .arious urban guerrilla groups ,ith ,hich the FLQ maintained relations' 3oss argues that the <international solidarit+= bet,een urban guerrilla groups ,as limited <interchange of cadres and resources'= The e4ceptions in his .ie, ,ere the Cuban state and ?alestinian guerrillas- ,ho ,ent so far as to pro.ided training to urban guerrilla mo.ements' 0dditionall+ he highlights the e4ample of at least se.ent+ >razilian political prisoners ,ho ,ere freed b+ the *idnapping of a S,iss 0mbassador in 1&"1 had recei.ed training from the Tupamaros- ,ho also had <close lin*s ,ith guerrilla mo.ements in 0rgentina and >oli.ia11"'=0s should be ob.ious from the pre.ious chapter- the amount of interaction and collaboration bet,een geographicall+ disparate urban guerrilla mo.ement during the 1&%)Js and 1&")Js ,as far greater than 3oss describes' This chapter aims to enumerate the contradictor+ e.idence to 3ossJs argument and the ,idespread belief that actual transnational collaboration bet,een urban guerrilla groups ,ith internationalist rhetoric ,as the e4cept and not the rule' This chapter ,ill continue to e4amine the transnational nature of urban guerrilla groups throughout the ,orld: the Tupamaros of @rugua+- the >lac* ?anther ?art+ and other blac* po,er groups in the @nited States and ?alestinian nationalists through the 3iddle Bast and Aorth 0frica' Furthermore- the discussion ,ill e4tend to the actions of FLQ members- particularl+ those in li.ing in e4ile' 0dditionall+- I ,ill anal+ze ho, Cuba and 0lgeria acted as hubs through ,hich urban guerrillas mo.ed and in ,hich the+ often recei.ed instruction in guerrilla ,arfare' I ,ill also attempt to highlight patterns and correlations bet,een these groups and the location in
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the societies and polities of their respecti.e countries' These transnational lin*s ,ere not merel+ <interchanges of cadres and resources= but often consisted of the transfusion and e.olution of *no,ledge- in the form of literature and training across national borders and geographic boundaries' The transnational discourse of insurgenc+ had a much greater influence on the groups in.ol.ed than an+ of the material connections bet,een them' The first point to note is the impact that Buropean resistance mo.ements had on the sub:ects of this paper' The end of the ,ar signaled the beginning of the Cold War- the historical epoch in ,hich the urban guerrilla groups described herein operated' 3oreo.er- the .arious resistance mo.ements and irregular forces that fought against allied occupation and other forms of fascism in Burope had a significant effect on later guerrilla groups in a multitude of ,a+s' We ha.e alread+ e4amined the ideological lin*s ,ith the French and >elgian resistance found in the rhetorical character of the first FLQ- than*s to the influence of Georges Schoeters' 2f eCual interest is the fact that 0braham GuillDn and >ernabe Garcia both fought for the 5epublicans during the Spanish Ci.il War and against General Franco after the ,ar before fleeing imprisonment to the 0mericas' 0gain ,hile it is not clear ,hat GarciaJs relationship ,ith the FLQ ,as- his presence in 3ontrDal and the fact that he undoubtedl+ ,as in some ,a+ in.ol.ed or associated ,ith the QuDbec so.ereignt+ mo.ement ma*es him notable' 0dditionall+ GuillDnJs ,ritings ,ere hea.il+ influenced b+ the tactics of a prominent Spanish anarchist' In man+ ,a+s- an+ ?alestinian political mo.ement ,ould be transnational b+ default' The ?alestinian people are a nation ,ithout a nation/state; besides those li.ing or tr+ing to li.e in the 2ccupied Territories- the ?alestinian diaspora ,as- and continues to be spread far be+ond the 3iddle Bast' In order to create an effecti.e resistance net,or*- the ?L2- and other groups had to

%&

be able to organize and operate ,ithout being fettered b+ the borders of nation/states' Earious 0rab states- notabl+ Bg+pt ha.e supported the ?alestinian resistance- using it as a pro4+ in the ongoing 0rab/Israeli conflict' These connections- ,hile significant are be+ond the scope of this paper and are not transnational in StohlJs formulation- ,hich is integral to m+ theoretical frame,or*' What is of more interest are the connections bet,een ?alestinian resistance groups and other urban insurgencies- particularl+ the ones e4amined in this paper' We ha.e alread+ seen ho, the FLA and the post/colonial 0lgerian state supported the QuDbDcois so.ereignt+ mo.ement- but their assistance to guerrilla mo.ements throughout the ,orld did not end there' 0fter gaining their independence in 1&%#- >en >ellaJs go.ernment ,asted little time in spreading anti/colonialism and 0rab nationalism throughout the region' >+ 1&%!- the 0lgerian state had helped to fund and train the Al&Assifa 8the Storm9 guerrillas- the militar+ ,ing of 7asser 0rafatJs Al&Fatah part+- ,hich ,ould soon begin its campaign of .iolence against Israel11(' Al&Assifa operated out of Fordan- ,here Salem and Selim had recei.ed training from an influential ?L2 member group' The use of 0lgeria and Fordan b+ multiple urban guerrilla groups re.eals ho, these t,o countries operated as hubs- or focal points of the transnational urban guerrilla mo.ement/ places ,here multiple guerrilla groups- enumerated throughout this paper recei.ed political and material support and often instruction in ma*ing e4plosi.e and other aspects of fighting an urban guerrilla insurgenc+' While the rest of the ,orld ,as being roc*ed b+ the bombs and *idnappings staged b+ urban guerrilla groups- the @nited States e4perienced e4treme social turmoil in the forms of race riots- mass demonstrations- protests- and other manifestations of political and social discontentin ,hich the >lac* ?anther ?art+ 8>??9 and other militant blac* po,er groups ,ere ma:or
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Fournier p'"1

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actors' 3ultiple radical leftist political groups identified ,ith the struggle of 0frican/0mericans in their rhetoric' The FLQ- Che Gue.ara- and the I50 all identified their respecti.e nations as the <negroes-= the underclass- the <sub/men= of Aorth 0merica- the Caribbean- and Burope respecti.el+' The merits of this comparison are debatable- but the fact that multiple resistance groups around the ,orld made it is important- as it further demonstrates that the struggle of 0frican 0mericans during the 1&%)Js and 1&")Js ,as a <barometer= against ,hich oppressed groups measured themsel.es' Certainl+ the *ind of .iolence directed to,ards the 0frican 0merican communities ,as not present in QuDbec during this time- but the t,o peoples shared the e4periences of police brutalit+ in response to peaceful protest and of institutionalized .iolence *ept them as the economic- political and cultural underclasses of their respecti.e societies' 3an+ groups that did not compare their struggle to that of 0frican/0mericansne.ertheless follo,ed the ci.il rights mo.ement- in particular the >??' For e4ample- in the film <2 Que [ Isso- CompanheiroI= 8 <Four Ha+s in September=9 members of the 3o.imento 5e.olucion\rio ( de 2utubro 8 5e.olutionar+ 3o.ement (th of 2ctober or 35Q9- as* the @S diplomat that the+ *idnapped about his .ie,s- not his go.ernments .ie,s on both the Eietnam War and the >??' In this scene- the mood is not that of interrogation- but of curiosit+- of t,o humans engaging in a friendl+ but insightful political discussion' The film follo,s the creation and de.elopment of an urban guerrilla unit that ,hich captured the attention of the ,orldincluding other urban guerrillas ,ith its successful use of the diplomatic *idnapping to secure the release of political prisoners' The members of the 35( are portra+ed as intellectuals ,ho too* up arms because the+ had to- not because the+ ,anted to; this portra+al must be :u4taposed to

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that idea of terrorism constructed b+ go.ernments- academics and other entities and institutions of counter/insurgenc+' The >?? had a distinctl+ internationalist nature to their rhetoric and e.en- as I hope to pro.e acted transnationall+ at times' >esides the relationship of mutual support that de.eloped bet,een the FLQ and the ?anthers- .arious high profile members of the >?? tra.eled to 0lgeria and Cuba to learn from their respecti.e liberation mo.ements or ,ent into e4ile in order to a.oid arrest and prosecution' 0ngela Ha.is and other >lac* ?anthers .isited Cuba- ,here man+ became disenchanted ,ith the Cuban re.olution after seeing the disparit+ bet,een the claims of racial eCualit+ made b+ the Cuban condition and the actual condition of 0fro/Cubans' Fust as their .isit to Cuba had a permanent impact on the >??- it also influenced the Cuban state' Huring her time on the island- Ha.is ,ore a dashi*i and *ept her hair in an afro' ?re.iousl+ such e4pressions of 0frican culture ,ere not allo,ed in Cuba- but because Ha.is ,as permitted to do so- the Cuban state ,as forced to ease up on these restrictions' This process of transmitting social and cultural ideas and norms bet,een groups li.ing in t,o or more nation/states is an important idea in the literature of transnationalism' 0dditionall+ ,hat the ?anthers learned and too* a,a+ from their respecti.e .isits to Cuba had a permanent impact on their mo.ement' The ?anthersJ .isits to Cuba had a lasting impact on both Cuba- especiall+ in regards to 0fro/Cubans and on the ?anthers themsel.es; this reciprocit+ of influence is integral to defining these actions as transnational because it suggests that a unified communit+ is situated in more than one nation/ state11&' 2f all of the areas of the ,orld e4amined here- South 0merica ma+ be the most internall+

11&

Sa,+er- 3ar* Q' <3atch 3ade in Gea.en or Strange >edfello,s'= 5acial ?olitics in ?ost/5e.olutionar+ Cuba' Cambridge: Cambridge @?- #))%'

"#

transnational- that is the most transnational relationships bet,een nations from countries ,ithin the region' 2f particular interest here are the countries of the Southern Cone- ,hich I ,ill define as @rugua+- 0rgentina- Chile- ?aragua+- and >razil' >esides their shared geographical pro4imit+all fi.e e4perienced repressi.e dictatorships during the post/,ar period of the #)th centur+ and all but ?aragua+ ,ere host to urban guerrillas- ,ith .ar+ing le.els of acti.it+' @rugua+ and ?aragua+ ,ere the onl+ t,o of these countries that did not participate in the @'S' counterinsurgenc+ program- 2peration Condor1#)' 2ne reason for the abundance of transnationalism in the region is precisel+ this shared e4perience of oppression and as a result- a shared e4perience of resistance' 2ther factors included Fose 3art] and Gue.araJs ideas of pan/ Latin 0mericanism- ,hich promote the construction of a common front against 7an*ee imperialism and hea.il+ influenced the ideolog+ of these mo.ements' The presence of *e+ transnational actors and guerrilla theorists helped to de.elop a model for the conduct of an urban guerrilla insurgenc+- through theor+ and pra4is- rather than e4clusi.el+ the former' GuillDn and 3arighella could be considered the grandfathers of urban guerrilla insurgenc+- although credit should also to be gi.en to 0lgeriaJs FLA for pro.iding the first e4ample for a successful urban insurgenc+' >ut GuillDn and 3arighella ,ere the first to tr+ to de.elop a urban guerrilla ,arfare doctrine and to attempt to produce an urban eCui.alent to Gue.araJs 0uerrilla 9arfare# Honald Godges argues that almost all urban guerrilla mo.ements can trace their influence bac* to GuillDn or a group that he influenced- including the 0rgentine 3ontoneros and Fuerzas Armada Peronista (?eronista 0rmed Forces or F0?91#1' 0s a corollar+both the Tupamaros 8and implicitl+ GuillDn9 and 3arighella ha.e been credited ,ith pro.iding
1#) 1#1

7et another e4ample of the a global counterinsurgenc+ campaign led and sponsored b+ the @nited States' Godges- Honald C' KThe Social and ?olitical ?hilosoph+ of 0braham'K ?hilosoph+ of the @rban Guerrilla: the 5e.olutionar+ Writings of 0braham GuillDn' Bd'- Trans' Honald C' Godges' Ae, 7or*: William 3orro, and Compan+- Inc'- 1&"$' p' 1$

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the 5ed 0rm+ faction ,ith a model for the formation- organization and e4ecution of urban insurgenc+' The lineage of modern da+ insurgencies- e.en rural ones- such as the Fuerzas 0rmadas (e-olucionarias de 4olumbia 85e.olutionar+ 0rmed Forces of Columbia or F05C9 can be traced bac* to GuillDn1##' 0part from his ,ritings ha.ing been read b+ urban guerrilla 8and counter/insurgenc+9 groups around the ,orld- GuillDn met ,ith .arious groups in @rugua+ as ,ell as tra.eling around the continent- pro.iding training in person' The e4tent of his transnational influence is significant to sa+ the least When GuillDn mo.ed to 0rgentina in 1&!(- he brought his e4perience fighting Franco- and *no,ledge of man+ tactics ,ere learned from Spanish anarchist resistance fighter>uena.entura Hurruti- tactics that ,ould later appear in GuillDnJs ,ritings' There he ad.ised the @turunco guerrillas- a mo.ement that had been also influenced b+ Fohn William Coo*e- a top aid to ?er^n ,ho met ,ith Gue.ara and 5a_l Castro to discuss the establishment of guerrilla training camps in @rugua+1#$' >ecause of this- GuillDn ,as +et again arrested for his in.ol.ement in clandestine acti.ities' Aot discouraged b+ his repeated imprisonment- GuillDn sought political as+lum in 3onte Eideo in 1&%#- ,here he began ,or*ing ,ith potential re.olutionaries ,ho- because of the topograph+ of @rugua+- could not emplo+ the Cuban model from ,hich the+ gained their ideological inspiration' These guerrillas ,ere the antecedents and soon to be founders of the Tupamaros' GuillDn ,as able to steer them a,a+ for the Gue.arist tendencies and continued to de.elop a model for an urban guerrilla insurgenc+' This same +ear he met ,ith Gue.ara secretl+attempting to reconcile their differences and con.ince him of the potential of urban guerrilla

1## 1#$

Godges p'1" Godges p'$/%

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,arfare' Bssentiall+- Gue.ara completel+ discounted the cit+ as a potential site of guerrilla ,arfare- focusing e4clusi.el+ on the po,er of rural operations supported b+ peasants' GuillDn maintained that in some industrialized societies- such as the countries of the Southern Cone- the geographic and social conditions ,ould ma*e the cit+ a more fa.orable theater of operations' @nfortunatel+- their meeting did the opposite of ,hat GuillDn had hoped and the t,o re.olutionaries became e.en more indifferent to each othersJ strategies and continued on their o,n- separate paths' GuillDn ,as later arrested in 1&%" along ,ith ?aragua+an resistance mo.ement leader- Carlos Cabellero Ferrriera in connection ,ith a ban* robber+' Ge ,as acCuitted but his son ,as imprisoned because he ,as a Tupamaro' In addition to the groups ,ho ph+sicall+ recei.ed instruction from GuillDn- man+ more did so from his ,ritings' 2f coursebecause of the clandestine nature of his life- it ,ould be impossible to e.er *no, the e4act dimensions of GuillDn influence on the urban guerrilla groups in the region1#!' >e+ond the diffusion of GuillDn ideas- ,e can- using the criteria outlined in the first chapter- trace the multiplicit+ of interactions that comprise part of a transnational urban guerrilla net,or*' 0 net,or* of mutual support began to de.elop from the .er+ inception of these urban insurgencies' >ecause of the large numbers of indi.iduals and organizations 8,ith acron+ms9 that constitute this net,or*- .isualizing or e.en conceptualizing its form can be a dizz+ing endea.or' Therefore I ,ill focus on the ,o-imiento de Liberacon Nacional 83LA9 and related @rugua+an urban guerrilla groups- specificall+ their interactions ,ith their comrades in arm throughout the continent' 0gain- as ,ith the FLQ- transnationalism ,as present in the earl+ 1&%)s- before the+ ,ere e.en called the Tupamaros- ,hen the+ ,ere still a nascent guerrilla mo.ement' <GuillDn participated in :oint discussions ,ith Sendic1s 8co/founder of the 3LA9 men and a nucleus of
1#!

Godges p'%/(

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0rgentine guerrillas residing in 3onte.ideo'1#6= These 0rgentine guerrillas ,ere mostl+ li*el+ members of the ,o-imiento Nacionalista (e-olucionario %acuara:;< 85e.olutionar+ Aationalist Tucuara 3o.ement or 3A5T9- +et another group ,ho had been influence b+ GuillDn- ,hose leaders ,ould later pro.ide <militar+ instruction to the Tupamaros and cooperated ,ith them in se.eral :oint actions1#"'= The Tucuaras had pre.iousl+ been a militant right ,ing organization but <Foe= >a4teranother *e+ transnational actor turned members of the group to,ards the left in the earl+ 1&%)1s after immigrating to 0rgentina from the >al*ans' 0fter robbing a ban*- >a4ter tra.eled to Spain to .isit ?er^n- and then to <0lgeria- 0ngola- the Congo- Bg+pt- Aorth Eietnam- ending up in 3onte.ideo- ,here he shared an apartment ,ith Eioleta Setelich- a top member of the Tupamaros1#('= >a4ter continued to be an acti.e insurgent in @rugua+ and- together ,ith three 0rgentine guerrillas he robbed se.eral ban*s in 3onte.ideo' The+ had plans for coordinated actions ,ith the Tupamaros- ,hich ,as ne.er realized because the group ,as forced to flee the countr+ in 1&%% to a.oid being arrested- e.entuall+ settling in Cuba- ,here he continued to support guerrillas in the Southern Cone1#&' The urban guerrilla mo.ements of South 0merica also follo,ed their contemporaries .er+ closel+- learning from each other1s mista*es and successes and ad:usting their respecti.e strategies and future actions accordingl+' Seen in this ,a+- be+ond the ,ritings of GuillDn and 3arighella- a real- pra4is/dri.en model of ho, to conduct an urban insurgenc+ in industrialized nations ,as de.eloped in a dialectal manner' GuillDn argues that the ideal model ,ould be to
1#6 1#% 1#" 1#( 1#&

Godges p'( 0lso spelled %ucara' Godges p'& Godges p'&/1) Godges p'1)-11

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combine the re.olutionar+ tactics emplo+ed b+ the Tupamaros- the political strateg+ of the 2?5/$$ ,hich in.ol.ed supporting the masses- i'e' unions and other labor mo.ements- and the organizational structure and internal politics of the ,o-imiento de la 8=quierda (e-olucionario 83o.ement of the 5e.olutionar+ Left or 3I59- the closest appro4imation to ,hich at the time ,as 0rgentina1s 2>ercito (e-olucionario Po)ular 85e.olutionar+ 0rm+ of the ?eople or B5?91$)' While most academic literature highlights GuillDn andRor the Tupamaros as pro.iding a model of urban insurgenc+- a more comprehensi.e e4amination re.eals that this model ,as in realit+ the result of dialectical- transnational collaboration bet,een numerous indi.idualspolitical mo.ements- and insurgent 8and inherentl+ counter/insurgent9 groups' 2ne must ma*e inferences based on e4istent data in order to disco.er ho, this dialog ,as manifested' 2ne of the best *no,n actions of 3LA ,as the *idnapping and e.entual e4ecution of CI0 operati.e Han 3itrione in the 0ugust of 1&")' Go,e.er- one month before- the 3ontoneros guerrillas of 0rgentina *idnapped and *illed the e4/president ?edro Bugenio 0ramburu- an action ,hich the members of 3LA surel+ *ne, about from ne,s reports and their intelligence net,or*' That said- it is nearl+ impossible to claim that it ,as not a factor in the planning of *idnapping 3itrione' GuillDn argues that the action ,as tactical success- but because the+ had unreasonable demands 8the release of one hundred detained guerrillas9 that the go.ernment ,ould ne.er accept- the+ e4ecuted the prisoner- ultimatel+ failing in their political goals and losing political support for their cause' Ge ma*es the argument that it ,ould ha.e been a more effecti.e tactic to ha.e taped the agentJs confession and release it to the press and @S politicians- re.ealing the true nature of the @S presence in the region to the international

1$)

GuillDn p'#""

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communit+1$1' >ut arguabl+ the most inno.ati.e and strategicall+ sound of all operations carried out b+ the Tupamaros ,as their temporar+ occupation of the to,n of ?ando- outside of 3onte.ideo in 1&%&' 3ultiple commando units con.erged on the cit+- occupied the police and fire station- as ,ell of other *e+ building for ten minutes- before ,ithdra,ing ,ith hardl+ a shot fired and nobod+ *illed' The purpose of the actions ,as to embarrass @rugua+an state b+ demonstrating their ,ea*ness and lac* of control and thus the relati.e strength of the Tupamaros' Hespite the series of arrests that follo,ed- the action ,as a strategic success for the mo.ement and the follo,ing emulated b+ the Fue=as Armadas (e-olucionarias 85e.olutionar+ 0rmed Forces or F059 in their occupation of the 0rgentine cit+ of Gar]n1$#' 3oss identifies the TupamarosJ use of <armed propaganda= 8e'g' the occupation ?ando9 and the successful use of diplomatic *idnappings to free political prisoners b+ >razilian guerrillas as t,o tactics used in 1&%& that ,ere later adopted b+ other urban guerrilla mo.ements'1$$ This transnational collaboration can be ta*en one step further' In The 5e.olution Script- >rian 3ooreJs semi/fictionalized account of the 2ctober Crisis FacCues LanctXt Cuotes the one of the TupamarosJ guiding principle<@nnecessar+ .iolence defeats the mo.ement1$!'= It is unclear ,hether or not LanctXt actuall+ said this- but it seems unli*el+ that this reference ,ould be included for no reason- especiall+ gi.en his affinit+ for the group' ' 0dditionall+- the use-of diplomatic *idnappings but South 0merican guerrilla groups ,as a ma:or factor in the FLQJs decision to adopt the tactic for their o,n use in 2ctober of 1&")- t,o months after the Tupamaros *idnapped and e4ecuted 3itrione 0s m+ anal+sis broadens its lens to include more urban guerrilla groups- it becomes
1$1 1$# 1$$ 1$!

GuillDn p' #") Godges p'1! 3oss p'& 3oore- >rian' The 5e.olution Script' Ae, 7or*: Golt- 5inehart and Winston- 1&"1' p'6/%

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increasingl+ apparent the creation and de.elopment on numerous transnational relationships ,as not a method of organization uniCue to the FLQ; in fact man+ argue that urban guerrillas are transnational a )riori# In his article published in Air +ni-ersit* (e-ie ' the :ournal of the @'S' 0ir Forces in 1&"%- Charles 0' 5ussell ma*es the compelling argument that <,ithin the past decade- and more precisel+ during the last si4 or se.en +ears- t,o significant changes ha.e ta*en place in man+ of those insurgent mo.ements acti.e ,ithin the non/Communist ,orld-= the+ became increasing urban and- as a result increasingl+ transnational1$6' This anal+sis is slightl+ m+opic as urban guerrilla ,arfare began to be used a .iable means of armed struggle as earl+ as the Second World War- as I ha.e sho,n in this paper' WhatJs more- e.idence suggests that members of these groups acted transnationall+ in the period immediatel+ follo,ing the ,ar' >+ e4tending m+ anal+sis further- I ha.e been able to find more e.idence that helps to .alidate m+ thesis' I ha.e demonstrated the e4istence of the t+pe of lin*s out lined as criteria for supporting m+ thesis present in e.er+ single organization e4plored in this paper' The incredible the number of groups ,ith ,hich the FLQ maintained relationships seems to ha.e been the rulenot the e4ception'

1$6

5ussell- Charles 0' <Transnational Terrorism'= 0ir @ni.ersit+ 5e.ie,' Fan'/Feb' 1&"%' #) 0pr' #))"' Shttp:RR,,,'airpo,er'ma4,ell'af'milRairchroniclesRaure.ie,R1&"%R:an/febRrussell'htmlT

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Conclusion Toda+- the ,orld seems to be at a critical :uncture in itJs histor+' >esides .arious en.ironmental threats- the ,orld1s onl+ superpo,er is fighting a global imperialist ,ar on terrorism- most clearl+ manifested in the ,ars in IraC and 0fghanistan that are destabilizing the 3iddle Bast and potentiall+ Burope .ia Tur*e+' In Somalia- the @nited States1 efforts to stop the establishment of an Islamic regime ha.e pre.ented a possible stabilization of a countr+ that has long been considered a failed state' In Latin 0merica- a series of electoral .ictories for left/of/ center candidates and the so/called <>oli.arian 5e.olution-= led b+ Eenezuelan ?resident Gugo Ch\.ez ha.e polarized the hemisphere and challenged @'S' political and economic interestsJ hegemon+ of the region' 5apid and massi.e emigration and internal migration in the region has helped to produce ne, social mo.ements that are distinctl+ urban in nature- ,hose clashes ,ith the go.ernment fill their streets ,ith blood- s,eat and tear gas' These t,o seemingl+ disparate phenomena are united b+ their position in the sphere of urban life that no, defines the nature of human e4istence for half the planet' This shift in societal organization patterns resulting from urbanization has caused a radical rethin*ing of man+ academic discourses' In m+ final chapter- I ,ill pro.ide a summar+ of the finding of m+ paper- constantl+ referencing the definitions and criteria that I de.eloped as part of m+ theoretical frame,or*' In addition- I ,ill postulate as to the greater significance and rele.ance of m+ findings in the greater academic discourse and to the practices of modern urban social mo.ements' First- the .ariet+ of phenomena that I describe in the bod+ of this paper ,ere certainl+ manifestations of transnationalism' The ideolog+ of internationalism- that the respecti.e struggles of the oppressed people of the ,orld are in fact all part of the same struggle of anti/

()

colonialism and anti/capitalism' Further more- m+ anal+sis re.ealed ho, a model of urban insurgenc+ ,as created through the transnational collaboration bet,een groups and indi.iduals in Burope and Latin 0merica' This collaboration ,as facilitated b+ the ,idespread use of common tactical manuals throughout the region' While he ne.er utilized it- Aormand 5o+ recei.ed training in selecti.e assassination at a ?alestinian guerrilla training camp in Fordan- a tactic ,hich he hoped to import for use in QuDbec' 0nother .ital component of this transnational net,or* ,as the mo.ement of people o.er oceans and across national borders' B.er+ group e4amined in this paper had members ,ho tra.eled to countries that ,ere home to groups ,ith ,hich the+ felt solidarit+- often to li.e for a period of time because the+ ,ere in e4ile or fleeing prosecution' When more than one indi.idual relocated to the same area- a communit+ of e4iles and e4/patriots ,ould sometimes be formed' The mo.ement of arms and other supplies bet,een guerrilla groups ,as not as common but did happen- such as ,hen FLQ members tra.eled to the @nited States to bu+ rifles for use in QuDbec' >+ doing so- the+ ,ere circum.enting Canadian gun la,s- effectuall+ rendering the border that separated the t,o countries meaningless' Second- ,hile undoubtedl+ urban guerrillas- these groups did not necessaril+ constitute a mo.ement' The struggles of all of the indi.idual mo.ements e4amined in this paper follo,ed the same pattern of escalation bet,een 1&%" and 1&") and often acted in the name of the same cause and against a common enem+- colonialism and imperialism' This alone pro.ides strong e.idence of a le.el of cohesion great enough for them to be considered part of a unified <mo.ement=' 0ll of the groups e4amined in the bod+ of m+ paper ,ere in.ol.ed in this mo.ement- either directl+ as participants or indirectl+ as facilitators' The transnational actions described in m+ paper are onl+ a fraction of those that occurred' Within the net,or*- each group e4pressed feelings of

(1

solidarit+- affinit+- and often fraternit+ to,ards other member groups' The+ sa, themsel.es as ans,ering Gue.araJs call for the people of the ,orld to create <man+ Eietnams= in order to confront imperialism on multiple fronts1$%' In other ,ords- the+ ,ere all fighting underneath the same <banner= of anti/imperialism and anti/colonialism' The so/called terrorist groups designated as the number one domestic terrorist threats b+ the F>I the 0nimal Liberation Front 80LF9 and the Barth Liberation Front 8BLF9 are amalgamations of unassociated groups and indi.iduals ,hose onl+ le.el of cohesion the adherence to the three basic tenets of their respecti.e groups' If these indi.iduals ,ho often donJt e.en *no, each other can be a considered a <terrorist organization-= then the numerous groups described in this paper- ,ho interacted ,ith each other ph+sicall+ as ,ell as discursi.el+ and ,ho fought in the name of the same common cause ,ere undoubtedl+ a mo.ement' In light of all the e.idence that I ha.e presented throughout this paper- I ,ould argue that there ,as in fact a strong transnational urban guerrilla mo.ements that de.eloped after the Cuban 5e.olution in 1&6&- a mo.ement ,hich pea*ed from 1&%(/1&"# and ,hose members could be found on all si4 inhabited continents' That said- ,hat is the broader significance of m+ findings ,ith respect to contemporar+ urban social mo.ements- the stud+ of social mo.ements- histor+- politics- Canadian studies- etc'I >et,een the time period e4amined herein and toda+- the ,orld has changed dramaticall+- and +et sta+ed the same dramaticall+' The process of urbanization continued to the point ,here one half of all humans no, li.e in cities' B.ol.ing concurrentl+ has been the urbanization of social discontent and resistance' This phenomena is manifested on a dail+ basis throughout the ,orld; some recent e4amples are the +outh riots in the suburbs of ?aris in #))6 and again in Ao.ember

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Gue.ara- Brnesto' <3essage to the Tricontinental'= Guerrilla Warfare' >ison >oo*s ed' Lincoln- Aebras*a: @ni.ersit+ of Aebras*a ?ress- 1&&(' p'1%1/1"6

(#

of #))"; the ongoing insurgencies in IraC and 0fghanistan; the .iolent demonstrations staged b+ both pro/ and anti/Ch\.ez forces; the chaos that ensued in Ae, 2rleans after Gurricane Natrina; etc' There is an ob.ious need ,ithin academia- politics and social mo.ements to understand the implications that urbanization has had on the social- political and economic relations ,hich constitute the ,orld in ,hich ,e li.e' This is precisel+ ho, I en.isioned the greater purpose of this paper; to de.elop the theoretical tools to better comprehend the historical tra:ectories of mo.ements not included in the realm of ci.il societ+- manifestations of so/called alternati.e ci.ilities' >e+ond transnationalism currentl+ being a rather en -ogue sub:ect of academic stud+- I ,ould argue that contemporar+ transnational mo.ement of resistance to the pro:ect of neo/ liberalism deepl+ rooted in the net,or* of resistance against the WestJs Cold/War/era st+le of :ingoistic foreign polic+ and economic- political and social sub:ugation of the Third World' 2ne legac+ of historical milieu of ,hich urban guerrillas ,ere a part is a more militant and radicall+ left st+le of legal electoral participation- found- for e4ample in the ?art] QuDbDcois and >loc QuDbDcois continued strength ,ithin Canadian ?olitics and ,hat has been called the <?in* Tide= that has s,ept Latin 0merica after the election of Ch\.ez the total of <left/of/center= regimes in Latin 0merica ha.ing reached a total of eight1$"' 3ost interesting here is the reelection of Sandinista Haniel 2rtega as president of Aicaragua in #))"- se.enteen +ears after losing the presidenc+ to a @'S' funded candidate- Eioleta >arrios de Chamorro' >ut the more interesting legac+ of the urban social mo.ements of the 1&%)Js and 1&")Js is the e.olution of ne, e4tra/legal socio/political mo.ements operating outside of the traditionall+
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0rgentina- >oli.ia- >razil- Chile- Bcuador- Aicaragua- @rugua+- and Eenezuela' It is important to ac*no,ledge these regimes represent different .arious degrees of progressi.eness- some being much more radical that others'

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boundaries of ci.il societ+' Ae, .ariations of old tactics are manifested in occupation of fallo, lands b+ landless peasants in >razil and 0rgentina- for e4ample' This ne, brand of acti.ism is often referred to as <direct action'= Hirect action is an+ t+pe of political participation in ,hich the participants do not petition another entit+ for assistance in achie.e change- the+ :ust do it themsel.es' 0nother e4ample is ,or*ers occup+ing an abandoned factor+ and operating it cooperati.el+- ,ithout the oppressi.e hierarchies under ,hich the+ had pre.iousl+ ,or*ed' 0cts such as these are clearl+ illegal but not logicall+ so- ,hich gi.es the participants some claim of legitimac+; ho, can the+ steal land or a factor+ from an o,ner ,ho does not ,ant or in an+ ,a+ ma*e use of the propert+I These ne, t+pes of social mo.ements often ha.e a transnational component to them as ,ell- creating massi.e net,or*s of groups unified under the banner of anti/neoliberalism' Go, does one e4plain the e4plosion of popular energ+ that characterized socio/political climate of .irtuall+ e.er+ countr+ in the ,orld during the 1&%)Js and 1&")JsI The urban guerrilla groups discussed in this paper ,ere the most radical and .isceral manifestations of this historical milieu' The social unrest to ,hich these groups contributed put a enormous amount of pressure on their respecti.e go.ernments to resol.e the situation' 0ttempts to restore order too* t,o forms: the first ,as the use of the state repressi.e apparatus- i'e' militar+- police and intelligence ser.ices; the second- often chosen ,hen brute force failed ,as to ma*e concessions and institutional reform to address the grie.ances of rebellious populous' This is the true legac+ of these urban guerrilla groups; the pressure the+ helped to appl+ resulted in social- political and economic change' The bombing campaigns and *idnappings of the FLQ forced the Canadian go.ernment to grant the ?ro.ince of QuDbec legal rights e4empting it from man+ federal

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regulations' The Canadian go.ernment ,anted to preser.e the unit+ of the Confederation at all costs- e.en it that meant ceding po,er to a pro.incial go.ernment' 0ll of the brutal authoritarian regimes of the Southern Cone ha.e been replaced b+ more democratic forms of participator+ go.ernment' 0frican 0mericans no, en:o+ full legal and political rights in a countr+ ,here fift+ +ears ago the+ couldnJt legall+ eat lunch ne4t to a ,hite person' I am not arguing that an+ of these people are completel+ liberated or that the goals of the FLQ- >lac* ?anthers- Tupamaros- and ?L2 ha.e been achie.ed' Toda+ QuDbec loo*s more li*e the social democracies of northern Burope than the socialist states li*e Cuba after ,hich the FLQ model their .ision for QuDbec' Gurricane Natrina and the #))) and #))! presidential elections- if nothing else demonstrated that 0frican 0mericans continued to be sociall+ and politicall+ disenfranchised b+ means of institutional racism' 0lthough the eight Latin 0merican countries pre.iousl+ mentioned ha.e left/of/center presidents- there is considerable opposition to these regimes domesticall+ and internationall+ that pre.ents them from instituting radical reforms' The onl+ nation of people e4amined in this paper ,hose situation has not onl+ failed to impro.e- but continues to deteriorate is the ?alestinians- no, the most impo.erished ethnic group in the ,orld' 0fter almost si4t+ +ears the+ are still ,ithout a state- paral+zed b+ the Israeli occupation of the Gaza Strip and the West >an* and becoming increasing di.ided among themsel.es' The future of the ,orld is- unfortunatel+ closel+ tied to the future of the ,orldJs onl+ superpo,er- the @nited States ,hich ,ill be decided in the #))( elections' Hepending on if and ho, the tra:ector+ of the @nited States- particularl+ its foreign polic+ changes- things might start to change for the better in a ,orld torn apart b+ eight +ears of rec*less imperialism on the part of the >ush administration' 5egardless of ,hich candidate ,ins the presidenc+ and ,hich part+

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controls the Congress- the @nited StatesJ pro:ect of neoliberalism under the guise of <free trade'= It remains to be seen if the transnational net,or* of resistance against the pro:ect of global capitalism ,ill continue to gro, as a mo.ement and build enough re.olutionar+ momentum to be able to liberate the oppressed peoples of the ,orld' @ndoubtedl+ cities ,ill continue to gro, rapidl+ in population and as loci of po,er' 0s a result the primac+ of the urban sphere as a site of confrontation bet,een the state and alternati.e sectors of ci.il societ+ ,ill become further solidified' @nderstanding of the roots of urbanization and urban social mo.ements leaders to a better a,areness of ,hat our urban future could loo* li*e- but more importantl+ ,hat our urban future should be li*e'

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Wor*s Cited 0hmad- BCbal' <The 3a*ing of %he Battle of Algiers'= The Selected Wor*s of BCbal 0hmad' Bd' Carollee >engelsdorf- 3argaret Cerullo- and 7ogesh Chandrani' Ae, 7or*: Columbia @?- #))%' Hion- LDon' Quebec: the @nfinished 5e.olution' 3ontreal: 3cGill/QueenJs @?- 1&"%' Farsoun- Samih N'- and Aaseer G' 0ruri' <The rise and fall of the ?alestinian Aational Liberation 3o.ement- 1&!(/1&&$= ?alestine and the ?alestinians: a Social and ?olitical Gistor+' #nd ed' >oulder- C2: West.ie, ?- #))%' Fen,ic*- 5ud+' KSocial Change and Bthnic Aationalism: a Gistorical 0nal+sis of the Separatist 3o.ement in Quebec'K Comparati.e Studies in Societ+ and Gistor+- Eol' #$- Ao' #81&(19: p'1&%/#1%' FST25' Gampshire College Librar+' " 3ar' #))"' KFidelJs Hisciple'K Time 1! Fune 1&%$' #) 0pr' #))"' Shttp:RR,,,'time'comRtimeRmagazineRarticleR)-&1"1-("!(#1-))'htmlT' Foucault- 3ichel' KChapter 11: 1" 3arch 1&"%'K Societ+ 3ust >e Hefended : Lectures at the CollLge de France- 1&"6/"%' Bd' 3auro >artani and 0lessandro Fontana' Trans' Ha.id 3ace+' Ae, 7or*: ?icador- #))$' Foucault- 3ichel' KGo.ernmentalit+'K The Foucault Bffect: Studies in Go.ernmentalit+' Bd' Graham >urchell- Colin Gordon- and ?eter 3iller' Chicago: The @ni.ersit+ of Chicago ?- 1&&1' ("/1)!' Foucault- 3ichel' The Gistor+ of Se4ualit+' Ae, 7or*: ?antheon >oo*s- 1&"(' Fournier- Louis' F'L'Q': the 0natom+ of an @nderground 3o.ement' Trans' Bd,ard >a4ter' Toronto: AC ? Limited- 1&(!' Gue.ara- Brnesto' <3essage to the Tricontinental'= Guerrilla Warfare' >ison >oo*s ed' LincolnAebras*a: @ni.ersit+ of Aebras*a ?ress- 1&&(' p'1%1/1"6 GuillDn- 0braham' K?roblems of 5e.olutionar+ Strateg+'K ?hilosoph+ of the @rban Guerrilla: the 5e.olutionar+ Writings of 0braham GuillDn' Bd'- Trans' Honald C' Godges' Ae, 7or*: William 3orro, and Compan+- Inc'- 1&"$' p'##&/#""' Godges- Honald C' KThe Social and ?olitical ?hilosoph+ of 0braham'K ?hilosoph+ of the @rban Guerrilla: the 5e.olutionar+ Writings of 0braham GuillDn' Bd'- Trans' Honald C' Godges' Ae, 7or*: William 3orro, and Compan+- Inc'- 1&"$' Fones- Charles C' and Feffries- Fudson L' KJHon1t belie.e the h+peK : debun*ing the ?anther ("

m+tholog+= The >lac* ?anther ?art+ P5econsideredQ' Bd' Charles B' Fones' >altimore: >lac* Classic ?- 1&&(' 3ic*olus- Bd,ard' <Transnational Terrorism'= The ?olitics of Terrorism' Bd' Stohl- 3ichael' #nd ed' Ae, 7or*: 3arcel He**er- Inc'- 1&($' p'1!"/1&)' KThe 3onumental ?lot'K Time #% Feb' 1&%6' #) 0pr' #))"' Shttp:RR,,,'time'comRtimeRmagazineRarticleR)-&1"1-($$!"#-))'htmlT' 3orf- Gusta.e' Terror in Quebec' Toronto: Clar*- Ir,in M Compan+ Limited- 1&")' 3oss- 5obert' @rban Guerrilla Warfare' London: The International Institute for Strategic Studies1&"1' 5oss- Feffer+ I'- and Ted 5' Gurr' KWh+ Terrorism Subsides: a Comparati.e Stud+ of Canada and the @nited States'K Comparati.e ?olitics- Eol' #1- Ao' !' 8Ful'-1&(&9: p'!)6/!#%' FST25' Gampshire College Librar+' " 3ar' #))"' 5ussell- Charles 0' <Transnational Terrorism'= 0ir @ni.ersit+ 5e.ie,' Fan'/Feb' 1&"%' #) 0pr #))"' Shttp:RR,,,'airpo,er'ma4,ell'af'milRairchroniclesRaure.ie,R1&"%R:an/ febRrussell'htmlT Sa,+er- 3ar* Q' <3atch 3ade in Gea.en or Strange >edfello,s'= 5acial ?olitics in ?ost/ 5e.olutionar+ Cuba' Cambridge: Cambridge @?- #))%' Simard- Francis' Tal*ing It 2ut' Trans' Ha.is Gomel' 3ontreal: Guernica- 1&("' The ?olitics of Terrorism' Bd' Stohl- 3ichael' #nd ed' Ae, 7or*: 3arcel He**er- Inc'- 1&($' T+son- Timoth+ >' 5adio Free Hi4ie : 5obert F' Williams M the 5oots of >lac* ?o,er' Chapel Gill: @ni.ersit+ of Aorth Carolina ?- 1&&&' EalliLres- ?ierre' The White Aiggers of 0merica' Ae, 7or*: 3onthl+ 5e.ie, ?- 1&"1' Eon Clause,itz- Carl' 2n War' Ae, 7or*: Nnopf- 1&&$' Wilson- Fran* L' <French/Canadian Separatism'= The Western ?olitical Quarterl+- Eol' #)- Ao 1 83ar'- 1&%"9- 11%/1$1' FST25' Gampshire College Librar+' " 3ar' #))"'

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