THE ZEN EXPERIENCE Library Journal called it, The best history of Zen ever written.

The truth of Zen has always resided in individual experience rather than in theoretical writings. To give the modern reader access to understanding of this truth, THE ZE E!"E#$E %E illumines Zen as it was created and shaped by the personalities, perceptions, and actions of its masters over the centuries. &eginning with the twin roots of Zen in $ndian &uddhism and %hinese Taoism, we follow it through its initial flowering in %hina under the 'irst "atriarch &odhidharma( its division into schools of )gradual* and )sudden* enlightenment under +hen,hsui and +hen,hui( the ushering in of its golden age by Hui,neng( the development of )shoc-* enlightenment by .a,tsu( its poetic greatness in the person of Han,shan( the perfection of the use of the -oan by Ta,hui( the migration of Zen to Japan and its extraordinary growth there under a succession of towering Japanese spiritual leaders. #ich in historical bac-ground, vivid in revealing anecdote and memorable /uotation, this long,needed wor- succeeds admirably in ta-ing Zen from the library shelves and restoring its living, human form.

BOOKS BY THOMAS HOOVER

Nonfiction Zen Culture The Zen Experience Fiction The Moghul Caribbee all !treet !a"urai #The +amurai !trategy$ %ro&ect 'aedalus %ro&ect Cyclops (ife )lood !yndro"e *ll free as e+boo,s at www.thoma hoo!"#.info

THE

ZEN EXPERIENCE
Thoma Hoo!"#

!-./ET, !-./ET C(*!!-C!, ME/T01, %(2ME, ME1-'-*/ */' /*( )003! are published in the 2nited !tates by The /ew *"erican (ibrary, -nc., 4566 )roadway, /ew 7or,, /ew 7or, 48849. :irst %rinting, March, 49;8 <6=>5?;9 %1-/TE' -/ T@E 2/-TE' !T*TE! 0: *ME1-C* (ibrary of Congress Cataloging in %ublication 'ata )ibliography Zen )uddhis"A@istory. %riests, ZenA )iography. -!)/ 8+=><+<><<;+; Copyright B49;8 by Tho"as @oover *ll rights reserved www.thoma hoo!"#.info K"$ wo#% & Author: Thomas Hoover

Title: The Zen Experience Zen History, Buddhism, Zen Buddhism, Zen History, SengChao, Tao-sheng, ao T!u, Chuang T!u, "uo Hsiang, #agar$una, Seng-chao, Tao-Sheng, Bodhidharma, Hui%&o, Seng-Ts%an, Tao-hsin, 'a-$ung, Hung-$en, Shen-hsiu, Huineng, (a-tsu, Huai-hai, #an%chuan, Chao-Chou, )%ang, Hanshan, Huang-po, in-Chi, *in!ai, Soto, Tung-shan, Ts%ao-shan, "uei-shan, +un-men, 'a-yen, Ta-hui, Eisai, ,ogen, Ha&uin

PERMISSIONS
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!elections fro" The .olden *ge of Zen by Eohn C. @. u #Taipei, TaiwanD @wa,ang )oo, !tore$, reprinted by per"ission of author. !elections fro" The Zen Teaching of the @ui @ai on !udden -llu"ination by Eohn )lofeld #/ew 7or,D !a"uel eiser, 49?<$, reprin&ted by per"ission of publisher. !elections fro" Zen Master 'ogen by 7oho 7u,oi #/ew 7or,D Eohn eatherhill$, reprinted by per"ission of publisher. !elections fro" 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis" by Chang Chung+yuan #/ew 7or,D Cintage, 4959$, reprinted by per"ission of publisher. !elections fro" !wa"pland :lowers by Christopher Cleary #/ew 7or,D .rove %ress, copyright B 49?? by Christopher Cleary$, reprinted by per"ission of publisher. !elections fro" The Zen Teaching of @uang %o on the Trans"ission of Mind by Eohn )lofeld #/ew 7or,D .rove %ress, copyright B 49>; by Eohn )lofeld$, reprinted by per"ission of publisher. !elections fro" Zen+Man -,,yu, a dissertation by Eohn !anford, 2niversity of /orth Carolina, Chapel @ill, reprinted by per"ission of author. !elections fro" Zen is Eternal (ife by 1oshi Eiyu+3ennett #'har"a %ublishing, copyright B 49?5 by 1oshi Eiyu+ 3ennett$, reprinted by per"ission of author$.

ACKNO'(E)*MENTS
@eartfelt than,s go to 'r. %hilip 7a"pols,y of Colu"bia 2niversity, who reviewed the "anuscript in draft and clarified "any points of fact and interpretation. - also a"

indebted to the wor,s of a nu"ber of Zen interpreters for the est, including '. T. !uGu,i, Eohn )lofeld, Chang Chung+yuan, and Charles (u,. -n cases where this finger pointing at the "oon "ista,enly ai"s astray, - alone a" responsible.

CONTENTS
P#"fac" to Z"n Taois"D The ay to Zen (ao TGu Chuang TGu 3uo @siangD * /eo+Taoist The !even !ages of the )a"boo .rove The )uddhist 1oots of Zen The )uddha /agar&una 3u"ara&iva !eng+chao Tao+sheng The !ynthesis PART I. THE EAR(Y MASTERS 4. )odhidhar"aD :irst %atriarch of Zen <. @ui+,HoD !econd %atriarch of Zen 6. !eng+TsHan, Tao+hsin, :a+&ung, and @ung+&enD :our Early Masters =. !hen+hsiu and !hen+huiD I.radualI and I!uddenI Masters >. @ui+nengD !ixth %atriarch and :ather of Modern Zen PART II. THE *O()EN A*E OF ZEN 5. Ma+tsuD 0riginator of I!hoc,I Enlighten"ent ?. @uai+haiD :ather of Monastic ChHan ;. /an+chHuan and Chao+chouD Masters of the -rrational 9. %Hang and @an+shanD (ay"an and %oet 48. @uang+poD Master of the 2niversal Mind

PART III. SECTARIANISM AN) THE KOAN 44. (in+chiD :ounder of 1inGai Zen 4<. Tung+shan and TsHao+shanD :ounders of !oto Zen 46. 3uei+shan, 7un+"en, and :a+yenD Three Minor @ouses 4=. Ta+huiD Master of the 3oan PART IV. ZEN IN +APAN 4>. EisaiD The :irst Eapanese Master 45. 'ogenD :ather of Eapanese !oto Zen 4?. -,,yuD Zen Eccentric 4;. @a,uinD Eapanese Master of the 3oan 49. 1eflections Not" Bi,-io.#a/h$

THE ZEN EXPERIENCE

The sole aim of Zen is to enable one to understand, reali0e, and perfect his own mind. .ar"a C. C. Chang

PREFACE TO ZEN

Lao T0u, &uddha, %onfucius

!o"e call it Iseeing,I so"e call it I,nowing,I and so"e describe it in religious ter"s. hatever the na"e, it is

our reach for a new level of consciousness. 0f the "any for"s this search has ta,en, perhaps the "ost intriguing is Zen. .rowing out of the wisdo" of China, -ndia, and Eapan, Zen beca"e a powerful "ove"ent to explore the lesser+,nown reaches of the hu"an "ind. Today Zen has co"e westward, where we are rediscovering "odern significance in its ancient insights. This boo, is an atte"pt to encounter Zen in its purest for", by returning to the greatest Zen "asters. Zen teachings often appear deceptively si"ple. This "isconception is co"pounded by the Zen clai" that explanations are "eaningless. They are, of course, but "erely because genuine Zen insights can arise only fro" individual experience. *nd although our experience can be described and even analyGed, it cannot be trans"itted or shared. *t "ost, the IteachingsI of Zen can only clear the way to our deeper consciousness. The rest is up to us. Zen is based on the recognition of two inco"patible types of thoughtD rational and intuitive. 1ationality e"ploys language, logic, reason. -ts precepts can be taught. -ntuitive ,nowledge, however, is different. -t lur,s e"bedded in our consciousness, beyond words. 2nli,e rational thought, intuition cannot be ItaughtI or even turned on. -n fact, it is i"possible to find or "anipulate this intuitive consciousness using our rational "indAany "ore than we can grasp our own hand or see our own eye. The Zen "asters devised ways to reach this repressed area of hu"an consciousness. !o"e of their techniJuesAli,e "editationAwere borrowed fro" -ndian )uddhis", and so"eAli,e their antirational paradoxesA "ay have been learned fro" Chinese Taoists. )ut other inventions, li,e their &arring shouts and blows, e"erged fro" their own experience. Throughout it all, however, their words and actions were only a "eans, never an end. That end is an intuitive realiGation of a single great insightAthat we and the world around are one, both part of a larger enco"passing absolute. 0ur rational intellect "erely obscures this truth, and conseJuently we "ust

shut it off, if only for a "o"ent. 1ationality constrains our "indK intuition releases it. The irony is that the person gli"psing this "o"ent of higher consciousness, this 0neness, encounters the ulti"ate realiGation that there is nothing to realiGe. The world is still there, unchanged. )ut the difference is that it is now an extension of our consciousness, seen directly and not analytically. *nd since it is redundant to be attached to so"ething already a part of you, there is a sudden sense of freedo" fro" our agoniGing bondage to things. *long with this also co"es release fro" the constraints of artificial values. Creating syste"s and categories is not unli,e counting the colors of a rainbowA both "erely detract fro" our experience of reality, while at the sa"e ti"e li"iting our appreciation of the worldHs richness. *nd to declare so"ething right or wrong is si"ilarly nearsighted. *s *lan atts once observed, IZen unveils behind the urgent real" of good and evil a vast region of oneself about which there need be no guilt or recri"ination, where at last the self is indistinguishable fro" .od.I *nd, we "ight add, where .od is also one with our consciousness, our self. -n Zen all dualities dissolve, absorbed in the larger reality that si"ply is. /one of these things is taught explicitly in Zen. -nstead they are discovered waiting in our consciousness after all else has been swept away. * scornful twelfth+ century Chinese scholar su""ariGed the Zen "ethod as followsD I!ince the Zen "asters never run the ris, of explaining anything in plain language, their followers "ust do their own pondering and puGGlingAfro" which a real threshing+out results.I -n these pages we will watch the threshing+out of Zen itselfAas its "asters unfold a new real" of consciousness, the Zen experience. TAOISM& THE 'AY TO ZEN Taois" is the original religion of ancient China. -t is founded on the idea that a funda"ental principle, the Tao, underlies all nature. (ong before the appearance of Zen, Taoists were teaching the superiority of intuitive

thought, using an anti+intellectualis" that often ridiculed the logic+bound li"itations of conventional Chinese life and letters. @owever, Taois" was always upbeat and positive in its acceptance of reality, a Juality that also rubbed off on Zen over the centuries. :urther"ore, "any Taoist philosophers left writings whose world view see"s al"ost Zen+li,e. The early Chinese teachers of "editation #called dhyana in !ans,rit and ChHan in Chinese$ absorbed the Taoist tradition of intuitive wisdo", and later Zen "asters often used Taoist expressions. -t is fitting, therefore, that we briefly "eet so"e of the "ost fa"ous teachers of Chinese Taois". (AO TZ0 0ne of the "ost influential figures in ancient Chinese lore is re"e"bered today "erely as (ao TGu #Cenerable Master$. Taoist legends report he once disputed #and bettered$ the scholarly Confucius, but that he finally despaired of the world and rode an oxcart off into the west, pausing at the @an+,u %assAon the insistence of its ,eeperAto set down his insights in a five+thousand+ character poe". This wor,, the Tao Te Ching #The ay and the %ower$, was an eloJuent, organiGed, and lyrical state"ent of an i"portant point of view in China of the sixth century ).C., an understanding later to beco"e an essential ele"ent of ChHan )uddhis". The word ITaoI "eans "any, "any thingsAincluding the elan vital or life force of the universe, the har"onious structuring of hu"an affairs, andAperhaps "ost i"portantAa reality transcending words. Taoists declared there is a ,nowledge not accessible by language. *s the Tao Te Ching announces in its opening line, IThe Tao that can be put into words is not the real Tao.I *lso funda"ental to the Tao is the unity of "ind and "atter, of the one who ,nows and the thing ,nown. The understanding of a truth and the truth itself cannot be separated. The Tao includes and unifies these into a larger IrealityI enco"passing both. The notion that our ,nowledge is distinguishable fro" that ,nown is an illusion.

*nother teaching of the Tao Te Ching is that intuitive insight surpasses rational analysis. hen we act on our spontaneous &udg"ent, we are al"ost always better off. Chapter 49 declares, I(et the people be free fro" discern"ent and relinJuish intellection . . . @old to oneHs original nature . . . Eli"inate artificial learning and one will be free fro" anxieties.I4 The wise defer to a real" of insight floating in our "ind beyond its conscious state. Taoists also Juestioned the value of social organiGation, holding that the best govern"ent is the one governing least and that Ithe wise deal with things through non+interference and teach through no+words.I< Taoists typically refused to draw value &udg"ents on othersH behavior. (ao TGu as,s, I hat is the difference between good and badLI6 and concludes, I.oodness often turns out to be evil.I= There is co"plete acceptance of what is, with no desire to "a,e things Ibetter.I (ao TGu believed IgoodI and IbadI were both part of Tao and therefore, IEven if a "an is unworthy, Tao will never exclude hi".I> -f all things are one, there can be no critical differentiation of any part. This concentration on inner perception, to the exclusion of practical concerns, evo,ed a criticis" fro" the third+century+).C. Confucian philosopher @sun TGu that has a curiously "odern ring of social consciousness. I(ao TGu understood loo,ing inward, but ,new nothing of loo,ing outward. . . . -f there is "erely inward+loo,ing and never outward+loo,ing, there can be no distinction between what has value and what has not, between what is precious and what is vile, between what is noble and what is vulgar.I5 )ut the refusal of (ao TGu to intellectualiGe what is natural or to sit in &udg"ent over the world was the perfect Chinese precedent for ChHan.

CH0AN* TZ0 The second i"portant figure in Taois" is the al"ost eJually legendary teacher re"e"bered as Chuang TGu,

who is usually placed in the fourth century ).C., so"e two centuries after (ao TGu. *n early historian tells that once Chuang TGu was invited to the court to serve as a "inister, an invitation he declined with a typical storyD *n ox is selected for a festival and fattened up for several years, living the life of wealth and indulgenceAuntil the day he is led away for sacrifice. *t that rec,oning what would he give to return to the si"ple life, where there was poverty but also freedo"L -n Chuang TGuHs own boo, of wisdo", he also derided the faith in rationality co""on to Chinese scholars. To e"phasiGe his point he devised a vehicle for assaulting the apparatus of logicAthat being a InonsenseI story whose point could only be understood intuitively., There has yet to be found a "ore deadly weapon against po"pous intellectualiGing, as the ChHan )uddhists later proved with the ,oan. Chuang TGu also ,new how Juic,ly co"edy could deflate, and he used it with consu""ate s,ill, again paving the way for the absurdist Zen "asters. -n fact, his dialogues often anticipate the Zen mondo, the exchanges between "aster and pupil that have co"icMstraight+"an overtones. -n this regard, Chuang TGu also so"eti"es anticipates twentieth+century writers for the Theater of the *bsurd, such as )ec,ett or -onesco. !ignificantly, the Colu"bia scholar )urton atson suggests that the "ost fruitful path to Chuang TGu Iis not to atte"pt to sub&ect his thoughts to rational and syste"atic analysis, but to read and reread his words until one has ceased to thin, of what he is saying and instead has developed an intuitive sense of the "ind "oving beyond the words, and of the world in which it "oves.I? This is undoubtedly true. The effect of co"ic parody on logic is so telling that the only way to really understand the "essage is to stop trying to IunderstandI it. Concerning the li"itations of verbal trans"ission, Chuang TGu tells a story of a wheel"a,er who once advised his du,e that the boo, of ancient thought the "an was reading was Inothing but the lees and scu" of bygone "en.I The du,e angrily de"anded an explanationAand received a classic defense of the

superiority of intuitive understanding over language and logic. $ loo- at the matter in this way( when $ am ma-ing a wheel, if my stro-e is too slow, then it bites deep but is not steady( if my stro-e is too fast, then it is steady, but does not go deep. The right pace, neither slow nor fast, cannot get into the hand unless it comes from the heart. $t is a thing that cannot be put into words( there is an art in it that $ cannot explain to my son. That is why it is impossible for me to let him ta-e over my wor-, and here $ am at the age of seventy, still ma-ing wheels. $n my opinion, it must have been the same with the men of old. 1ll that was worth handing on died with them( the rest, they put into their boo-s.2 Chuang TGuHs parable that perhaps best illustrates the Taoist ideal concerns a coo, who had discovered one lives best by following natureHs rhyth"s. The coo, explained that his naturalness was easy after he learned to let intuition guide his actions. This approach he called practicing the Tao, but it is in fact the ob&ective of Zen practice as well. "rince 3en Hui remar-ed, 4How wonderfully you have mastered your art.4 The coo- laid down his -nife and said, 43hat your servant really cares for is Tao, which goes beyond mere art. 3hen $ first began to cut up oxen, $ saw nothing but oxen. 1fter three years of practicing, $ no longer saw the ox as a whole. $ now wor- with my spirit, not with my eyes. .y senses stop functioning and my spirit ta-es over.45 hat he described is the eli"ination of the rational "ind, which he refers to as the senses, and the reliance upon the intuitive part of his "ind, here called the spirit. @e explained how this intuitive approach allowed hi" to wor, naturally. 1 good coo- changes his -nife once a year because he cuts, while a mediocre coo- has to change his every month because he hac-s. $6ve had this -nife of mine for

nineteen years and have cut up thousands of oxen with it, and yet the edge is as if it were fresh from the grindstone. There are spaces between the 7oints. The blade of the -nife has no thic-ness. That which has no thic-ness has plenty of room to pass through these spaces. Therefore, after nineteen years, my blade is as sharp as ever.89 (ao TGu and Chuang TGu did not see the"selves as founders of any for"al religion. They "erely described the obvious, encouraging others to be a part of nature and not its antagonist. Their "ove"ent, now called %hilosophical Taois", was eclipsed during the @an 'ynasty #<85 ).C.+*.'. <<8$ in official circles by various other syste"s of thought, "ost particularly Confucianis" #which stressed obedience to authorityAboth that of elders and of superiorsAand reverence for for"aliGed learning, not to "ention the acceptance of a structured hierarchy as part of oneHs larger social responsibility$. @owever, toward the end of the @an era there arose two new types of Taois"D an Esoteric Taois" that used physical disciplines to "anipulate consciousness, and a %opular Taois" that ca"e close to being a religion in the traditional "old. The first was "ystical Esoteric Taois", which pursued the prolonging of life and vigor, but this gave way during later ti"es to %opular Taois", a "etaphysical alternative to the co"fortless, arid Confucianis" of the scholarly establish"ent. The post+@an era saw the %hilosophical Taois" of (ao TGu and Chuang TGu e"erge anew a"ong Chinese intellectuals, actually co"ing to vie with Confucianis". This whole era witnessed a turning away fro" the accepted values of society, as the well+organiGed govern"ent of the @an era dissolved into political and intellectual confusion. .overn"ent was unstable and corrupt, and the Confucianis" which had been its philosophical underpinning was stilted and unsatisfying. henever a society brea,s down, the belief syste" supporting it naturally co"es under Juestion. This happened in China in the third and fourth centuries of the Christian era, and fro" it e"erged a natural opposition to

Confucianis". 0ne for" of this opposition was the i"ported religion of )uddhis", which provided a spiritual solace "issing in the teachings of Confucius, while the other was a revival a"ong intellectuals of %hilosophical Taois". K0O HSIAN*& A NEO1TAOIST -n this disruptive environ"ent, certain intellectuals returned again to the insights of (ao TGu and Chuang TGu, creating a "ove"ent today ,nown as /eo+Taois". 0ne of the thin,ers who tried to reinterpret original Taoist ideas for the new ti"es was 3uo @siang #d. ca. 64<$, who co+ authored a "a&or docu"ent of /eo+Taois" entitled Co""entary on the Chuang TGu. -t focused on the i"portant Taoist idea of wu,wei, once explained as followsD I . . .to the" the ,ey concept of Taois", wu #literally, nonexistence$, is not nothingness, but pure being, which transcends for"s and na"es, and precisely because it is absolute and co"plete, can acco"plish everything. The sage is not one who withdraws into the life of a her"it, but a "an of social and political achieve"ents, although these achieve"ents "ust be brought about through wu,wei, HnonactionH or Hta,ing no NunnaturalO action.H 4,44 This concept of wu,wei has also been described as abstaining fro" activity contrary to nature and acting in a spontaneous rather than calculated fashion. -n 3uo @siangHs wordsD &eing natural means to exist spontaneously without having to ta-e any action. . . . &y ta-ing no action is not meant folding one6s arms and closing one6s mouth. $f we simply let everything act by itself, it will be contented with its nature and destiny. :8;< 3uo @siangHs co""entary expanded on al"ost all the "a&or ideas of Chuang TGu, drawing out with logic what originally had been set in absurdis". CriticiGing this, a later ChHan "on, observed, I%eople say 3uo @siang wrote a co""entary on Chuang TGu. - would say it was Chuang

TGu who wrote a co""entary on 3uo @siang.I46 /onethe+ less, the idea of wu,wei, processed through )uddhis", e"erged in different guise in later ChHan, influencing the concept of Ino+"ind.I THE SEVEN SA*ES OF THE BAMBOO *ROVE 0ther Chinese were content "erely to live the ideas of /eo+Taois". *"ong these were the !even !ages of the )a"boo .rove, "en part of a larger "ove"ent ,nown as the !chool of %ure Conversation. Their favorite pasti"e was to gather north of (oyang on the estate of one of their "e"bers, where they engaged in refined conversation, wrote poetry and "usic, and #not incidentally$ dran, wine. To so"e extent they reflected the recluse ideal of old, except that they found the satisfaction of the senses no i"pedi"ent to introspection. hat they did forswear, however, was the world of getting and spending. *lthough "en of distinction, they re&ected fa"e, a"bition, and worldly station. There is a story that one of the !even !ages, a "an na"ed (iu (ing #ca. <<4+668$, habitually received guests while co"pletely na,ed. @is response to adverse co""ent was to declare, I- ta,e the whole universe as "y house and "y own roo" as "y clothing. hy, then, do you enter here into "y trousers.I4= -t is also told that two of the sages #Euan Chi, <48+56, and his nephew Euan @sien$ often sat drin,ing with their fa"ily in such conviviality that they s,ipped the nuisance of cups and &ust dran, directly fro" a wine bowl on the ground. hen pigs wandered by, these too were invited to sip fro" the sa"e chalice. -f one exe"pts all natureA including pigsAfro" distinction, discri"ination, and duality, why exclude the" as drin,ing co"panionsL )ut perhaps the "ost significant insight of the !even !ages of the )a"boo .rove was their recognition of the li"ited uses of language. e are told, IThey engaged in conversation Htil, as they put it, they reached the 2nna"eable, and Hstopped tal,ing and silently understood each other with a s"ile.H I4!

THE B0))HIST ROOTS OF ZEN There is a legend the )uddha was once handed a flower and as,ed to preach on the law. The story says he received the blosso" without a sound and silently wheeled it in his hand. Then a"id the hush his "ost perceptive follower, 3ashyapa, suddenly burst into a s"ile . . . and thus was born the wordless wisdo" of Zen. The understanding of this silent insight was passed down through the centuries, independent of the scriptures, finally e"erging as the Chinese school of ChHan, later called Zen by the Eapanese. -t is said the absence of early writings about the school is nothing "ore than would be expected of a teaching which was, by definition, beyond words. The "aster en+yu su""ed it up when he answered a de"and for the :irst %rinciple of ChHan with, I-f words could tell you, it would beco"e the !econd %rinciple.I This version of ZenHs origin is satisfying, and for all we ,now it "ay even be true. )ut there are other, considerably "ore substantive, sources for the ideas that ca"e to flower as ChHan. Taois", of course, had plowed away at the Confucianist clutter restraining the Chinese "ind, but it was )uddhis" that gave China the necessary new philosophical structureAthis being the "etaphysical speculations of -ndia. %ure Chinese naturalis" "et -ndian abstraction, and the result was ChHan. The school of ChHan was in part the grafting of fragile foreign ideas #)uddhis"$ onto a sturdy native species of understanding #Taois"$. )ut its si"plicity was in "any ways a re+ expression of the )uddhaHs original insights. THE B0))HA The historic )uddha was born to the high+caste fa"ily .auta"a during the sixth century ).C. in the region that is today northeast -ndia and /epal. *fter a childhood and youth of indulgence he turned to asceticis" and for over half a decade rigorously followed the traditional -ndian practices of fasting and "editation, only finally to re&ect

these in despair. @owever, an auspicious drea" and one final "editation at last brought total enlighten"ent. .auta"a the see,er had beco"e )uddha the Enlightened, and he set out to preach. -t was not gods that concerned hi", but the "ind of "an and its sorrowing. e are unhappy, he explained, because we are slaves to our desires. Extinguish desire and suffering goes with it. -f people could be taught that the physical or pheno"enal world is illusion, then they would cease their attach"ent to it, thereby finding release fro" their self+destructive "ental bondage. The )uddha neglected to set down these ideas in written for" however, perhaps unwisely leaving this tas, to later generations. @is teachings subseJuently were recreated in the for" of ser"ons or sutras. -n later years, the )uddhist "ove"ent split into two separate philosophical ca"ps, ,nown today as Theravada and Mahayana. The Theravada )uddhistsAfound pri"arily in southeast *sia, !ri (an,a, and )ur"aAvenerate the early writings of )uddhis" #,nown today as the %ali Canon$ and tend to content the"selves with practicing the philosophy of the )uddha rather than enlarging upon it with speculative co""entaries. )y contrast, the followers of MahayanaAwho include the bul, of all )uddhists in China, Eapan, and TibetAleft the si"ple prescriptions of the )uddha far behind in their creation of a vast new literature #in !ans,rit, Tibetan, and Chinese$ of co"plex theologies. Chinese ChHan grew out of Mahayana, as of course did Eapanese Zen. NA*AR+0NA *fter the )uddha, perhaps the "ost i"portant )uddhist figure is the second+century *.'. -ndian philosopher /agar&una. !o"e call hi" the "ost i"portant thin,er *sia has produced. *ccording to Tibetan legends his parents sent hi" away fro" ho"e at seven because an astrologer had predicted his early death and they wished to be spared the sight. )ut he bro,e the spell by entering )uddhist orders, and went on to beco"e the faithHs fore"ost philosopher.

Today /agar&una is fa"ous for his analysis of the so+ called isdo" )oo,s of Mahayana, a set of !ans,rit sutras co"posed between 488 ).C. and *.'. 488. #-ncluded in this category are The %erfection of isdo" in ;,888 (ines, as well as the 'ia"ond !utra and @eart !utra, both essential scriptures of Zen.$ /agar&una was the originator of the Middle %ath, so na"ed because it strove to define a "iddle ground between affir"ation of the world and co"plete negation of existence. 1eality, said /agar&una, cannot be realiGed through conceptual constructions, since concepts are contained inside reality, not vice versa. ConseJuently, only through the intuitive "ind can reality be approached. @is na"e for this IrealityI beyond the "indHs analysis was sunyata, usually translated as Ie"ptinessI but so"eti"es as Ithe Coid.I #+unyata is perhaps an unprovable concept, but so too are the ego and the unconscious, both hypothetical constructs useful in explaining reality but i"possible to locate on the operating table.$ /agar&unaHs "ost+Juoted "anifesto has the logic+defying ring of a Zen D I/othing co"es into existence nor does anything disappear. /othing is eternal, nor has anything any end. /othing is identical or differentiated. /othing "oves hither and thither.I *s the ChHan teachers interpreted the teaching of sunyata, the things of this world are all a "ental creation, since external pheno"ena are transient and only exist for us because of our perception. ConseJuently they are actually IcreatedI by our "ind #or, if you will, a "ore universal entity called Mind$. ConseJuently they do not exist outside our "ind and hence are a void. 7et the "ind itself, which is the only thing real, is also a void since its thoughts cannot be located by the five senses. The Coid is therefore everything, since it includes both the world and the "ind. @ence, sunyata. *s a "odern /agar&una scholar has described sunyata, or e"ptiness, it is a positive sense of freedo", not a deprivation 4This awareness of 6emptiness6 is not a blan- loss of consciousness, an inanimate space( rather it is the

cognition of daily life without the attachment to it. $t is an awareness of distinct entities, of the self, of 6good6 and 6bad6 and other practical determinations( but it is aware of these as empty structures.48= The Zen "asters found ways to achieve the cognition without attach"ent postulated by /agar&una, and they paid hi" ho"age by "a,ing hi" one of the legendary twenty+eight -ndian %atriarchs of Zen by posthu"ous decree. K0MARA+IVA The -ndian "issionary who trans"itted the idea of E"ptiness to China was 3u"ara&iva #6==+=46$, a swashbuc,ling guru who, "ore than any other individual, was responsible for planting sophisticated Mahayana )uddhist ideas in Chinese soil. )efore telling his story, however, it "ay be well to reflect briefly on how )uddhis" got to China in the first place. *lthough there are records of a )uddhist "issionary in China as early as *.'. 4=;, historians are hard pressed to find the na"e of an out+and+out native Chinese )uddhist before so"eti"e in the third century. )uddhis", which at first apparently was confused with Taois", see"s to have co"e into fashion after the /eo+ Taoists ran out of creative stea". !hortly thereafter, around *.'. <89, intelligible Chinese translations of -ndian Mahayana sutras finally began to beco"e available. There were "any things about )uddhis", however, that rubbed Chinese the wrong way. :irst there were the practical "attersD )uddhis" allowed, if not encouraged, begging, celibacy, and neglect of ancestorsAall practices to ran,le any traditional Chinese. Then there were funda"ental philosophical differencesD )uddhis" offered to brea, one out of the @indu cycle of rebirth, so"ething the Chinese had not realiGed they neededK and -ndian thought was naturally geared to cos"ic ti"e, with its endless cycles of eons, whereas the Chinese saw ti"e as a line leading bac, to identifiable ancestors. Early

"issionaries tried to gain acceptability for )uddhis" by explaining it in Taoist ter"s, including stretching the two enough to find I"atching conceptsI or ideas with superficial si"ilarity, and they also let out the "yth that the )uddha was actually (ao TGu, who had gone on to -ndia after leaving China. hen barbarians sac,ed the /orthern Chinese center of (oyang in the year 646 and too, over /orth ChinaHs govern"ent, "any of its influential Confucianist scholars fled to the south. These e"igres were disillusioned with the social ideas of Confucianis" and ready for a solace of the spirit. Thus they turned for co"fort to )uddhist ideas, but using /eo+Taoist ter"inology and often treating )uddhis" "ore as a sub&ect for salon speculations than as a religion. )y translating )uddhis" into a /eo+Taoist fra"ewor,, these southern intellectuals effectively avoided having to grapple with the new ideas in )uddhist "etaphysics. -n /orth China, the )uddhists too, advantage of the new absence of co"peting Confucianists to "ove into ruling circles and assu"e the role of the literate class. They preached a si"ple for" of )uddhis", often sha"elessly dwelling on "agic and incantations to arouse interest a"ong the greatest nu"ber of followers. The co""on people were drawn to )uddhis", since it provided for the first ti"e in China a religion that see"ed to care for peopleHs suffering, their personal growth, their salvation in an afterlife. Thus )uddhis" too, hold in /orth China "ainly because it provided hope and "agic for the "asses and a political firewall against Confucianis" for the new rulers. *s late as the beginning of the fifth century, therefore, )uddhis" was "isunderstood and encouraged for the wrong reasons in both north and south. 3u"ara&iva, who would change all this, was born in 3ucha to an -ndian father of the )rah"in caste and a "other of noble blood. hen he was seven he and his "other traveled to 3ash"ir to enter )uddhist orders together. *fter several years of studying the Theravada sutras, he "oved on to 3ashgar, where he turned his attention to Mahayana philosophy. *t age twenty we find

hi" bac, in 3ucha, being ordained in the ,ingHs palace and sharpening his understanding of the Mahayana scriptures. @e also, we are told, sharpened his non+ )uddhist a"orous s,ills, perhaps finding consolation in the illusory world of the senses for the hollow e"ptiness of sunyata. -n the year 6;< or 6;6, he was ta,en captive and re"oved to a re"ote area in northeastern China, where he was held prisoner for al"ost two decades, "uch to the dis"ay of the rulers in ChHang+an, who wanted nothing "ore than to have this teacher #who was by then a fa"ous )uddhist scholar$ for their own. *fter seventeen years their patience ran out and they sent an ar"y to defeat his recalcitrant captors and bring hi" bac,. @e arrived in ChHang+an in the year =84 and i""ediately began a pro&ect crucial to the future of Chinese )uddhis". * "odern scholar of Chinese religion tells what happened next. 4. . . %hinese mon-s were assembled from far and near to wor- with him in translating the sacred texts. This was a 6highly structured pro7ect,6 suggestive of the cooperative enterprises of scientists today. There were corps of specialists at all levels> those who discussed doctrinal /uestions with ?umara7iva, those who chec-ed the new translations against the old and imperfect ones, hundreds of editors, sub,editors, and copyists. The /uality and /uantity of the translations produced by these men in the space of eight years is truly astounding. Than-s to their efforts the ideas of .ahayana &uddhism were presented in %hinese with far greater clarity and precision than ever before. +unyata@ agar, 7una6s concept of the Aoid@was disentangled from the Taoist terminology that had obscured and distorted it, and this and other -ey doctrines of &uddhism were made comprehensible enough to lay the intellectual foundations of the great age of independent %hinese &uddhism that was to follow.48B The Chinese rulers contrived to put 3u"ara&ivaHs other devotion to use as well, installing a hare" of ten

beautiful young Chinese girls for hi", through who" he was encouraged to perpetuate a lineage of his own. This genetic experi"ent apparently ca"e to nothing, but two native Chinese studying under hi", !eng+chao #6;=+=4=$ and Tao+sheng #ca. 658+=6=$, would carry his contribution through the final steps needed to open the way for the develop"ent of ChHan. SEN*1CHAO The short+lived !eng+chao was born to a hu"ble fa"ily in the ChHang+an region, where he reportedly got his indispensable grounding in the Chinese classics by wor,ing as a copyist. @e originally was a confir"ed Taoist, but after reading the sutra of Ci"ala,irti #which described a pious noble"an who co"bined the secular life of a bon vivant business"an with an inner existence of )uddhist enlighten"ent, a co"bination instantly attractive to the practical Chinese$, !eng+chao turned )uddhist. -n the year 69;, at age fifteen, he traveled to the northwest to study personally under the fa"ous 3u"ara&iva, and he later returned to ChHang+an with the "aster. Conversant first in the Taoist and then in the )uddhist classics, !eng+chao began the real synthesis of the two that would eventually evolve into ChHan. The China scholar alter (iebenthal has written that the doctrine of /agar&unaHs Middle %ath, siniciGed by !eng+chao, e"erged in the later ChHan thin,ers cleansed of the traces of -ndian origin. @e declares, I!eng+chao interpreted Mahayana, Nthe ChHan foundersO @ui+neng and !hen+hui re+thought it.I4; Three of !eng+chaoHs treatises exist today as the )oo, of Chao #or Chao (un$, and they give an idea of how Chuang TGu "ight have written had he been a )uddhist. There is the distrust of words, the un"ista,able preference for i""ediate, intuitive ,nowledge, and the "asterful use of wordplay and paradox that leaves his "eaning a"biguous. Most i"portant of all, he believed that truth had to be experienced, not reasoned out. Truth

was what lay behind wordsK it should never be confused with the words the"selvesD )1 thing called up by a name may not appear as what it is expected to appear( a name calling up a thing may not lead to the real thing. Therefore the sphere of Truth is beyond the noise of verbal teaching. How then can it be made the sub7ect of discussionC +till $ cannot remain silent.*85 The dean of Zen scholars, @einrich 'u"oulin, declares, IThe relationship of !eng+chao to Zen is to be found in his orientation toward the i""ediate and experiential perception of absolute truth, and reveals itself in his preference for the paradox as the "eans of expressing the inexpressible.I<8 'u"oulin also notes that the )oo, of Chao regards the way to enlighten"ent as one of gradual progress. @owever, the idea that truth can be approached gradually was disputed by the other "a&or pupil of 3u"ara&iva, whose insistence that enlighten"ent "ust arrive instantaneously has caused so"e to declare hi" the ideological founder of Zen. TAO1SHEN* The fa"ous Tao+sheng was the first Chinese )uddhist to advance the idea of IsuddenI enlighten"ent, and as a result he earned the en"ity of his i""ediate colleagues Aand lasting fa"e as having anticipated one of the funda"ental innovations of Zen thought. @e first studied )uddhis" at (u+shan, but in =8> he "oved to ChHang+an, beco"ing for a while a part of the coterie surrounding 3u"ara&iva. /one of his writings survive, but the wor, of a colleague, @ui+yuan, is usually ta,en as representative of his ideas. Tao+sheng is ,nown today for two theories. The first was that good deeds do not auto"atically bring reward, a repudiation of the -ndian )uddhist concept of "erit. The other, and perhaps "ore i"portant, deviation he preached was that enlighten"ent was instantaneous. The reason, he said, was si"pleD since )uddhists say the

world is one, nothing is divisible, even truth, and therefore the sub&ective understanding of truth "ust co"e all at once or not at all. %reparatory wor, and progress toward the goal of enlighten"ent, including study and "editation, could proceed step+by+step and are wholeso"e and worthwhile, but to Ireach the other shore,I as the phrase in the @eart !utra describes enlighten"ent, reJuires a leap over a gulf, a realiGation that "ust hit you with all its force the first ti"e. hat exactly is it that you understand on the other shoreL :irst you co"e to realiGeAas you can only realiGe intuitively and directlyAthat enlighten"ent was within you all along. 7ou beco"e enlightened when you finally recogniGe that you already had it. The next realiGation is that there actually is no Iother shore,I since reaching it "eans realiGing that there was nothing to reach. *s his thoughts have been JuotedD I*s to reaching the other shore, if one reaches it, one is not reaching the other shore. )oth not+reaching and not+not+reaching are really reaching. . . . -f one sees )uddha, one is not seeing )uddha. hen one sees there is no )uddha, one is really seeing )uddha.I<4 (ittle wonder Tao+sheng is so"eti"es credited as the spiritual father of Zen. @e cha"pioned the idea of sudden enlighten"ent, so"ething ini"ical to "uch of the )uddhis" that had gone before, and he distrusted words #co"paring the" to a net which, after it has caught the fish of truth, should be discarded$. @e identified the Taoist idea of wu,wei or InonactionI with the intuitive, spontaneous apprehension of truth without logic, opening the door for the ChHan "ainstay of Ino+"indI as a way to ulti"ate truth. THE SYNTHESIS )uddhis" has always "aintained a s,eptical attitude toward reality and appearances, so"ething obviously at odds with the wholehearted celebration of nature that characteriGes Taois". hereas )uddhis" believes it would be best if we could si"ply ignore the world, the source of our psychic pain, the Taoists wanted nothing so

"uch as to have co"plete union with this sa"e world. )uddhis" teaches union with the Coid, while Taois" teaches union with the Tao. *t first they see" opposite directions. )ut the synthesis of these doctrines appeared in Zen, which taught that the oneness of the Coid, wherein all reality is subsu"ed, could be understood as an enco"passing whole or continuu", as in the Tao. )oth are "erely expressions of the *bsolute. The )uddhists unite with the CoidK the Taoists yearn to "erge with the Tao. -n Zen the two ideas reconcile. ith this philosophical prelude in place, we "ay now turn to the "asters who created the world of Zen.

PART I THE EAR(Y MASTERS

. . . in which a sixth+century -ndian teacher of "editation, )odhidhar"a, arrives in China to initiate what would beco"e a )uddhist school of "editation called ChHan. *fter several generations as wanderers, these ChHan teachers settle into a for" of "onastic life and gradually grow in pro"inence and recognition. 0ut of this prosperity e"erges a split in the eighth+century ChHan "ove"ent, between scholarly urban teachers who believe enlighten"ent is IgradualI and reJuires preparation in traditional )uddhis", and rural ChHanists who scorn society and insist enlighten"ent is experiential and Isudden,I owing little to the prosperous )uddhist establish"ent. Then a popular teacher of rural ChHan, capitaliGing on a civil disruption that "o"entarily wea,ens the urban elite, gains the upper hand and e"asculates urban ChHan through his preaching that the authentic line of teaching "ust be traced to an obscure teacher in the rural south, now re"e"bered as the !ixth %atriarch, @ui+neng.

CHAPTER ONE
BO)HI)HARMA& FIRST PATRIARCH OF ZEN

There is a Zen legend that a bearded -ndian "on, na"ed )odhidhar"a #ca. =?8+>6<$, son of a !outh -ndian )rah"in ,ing, appeared one day at the southern Chinese port city of Canton, so"eti"e around the year ><8. :ro" there he traveled northeast to /an,ing, near the "outh of the 7angtGe 1iver, to honor an invitation fro" ChinaHs "ost devout )uddhist, E"peror u of the (iang 'ynasty. *fter a fa"ous interview in which his irreverence left the e"peror dis"ayed, )odhidhar"a pressed onward to the

)uddhist centers of the north, finally settling in at the !hao+lin "onastery on Mt. !ung for nine years of "editation staring at a wall. @e then trans"itted his insights and a copy of the (an,avatara sutra to a successor and passed onAeither physically, spiritually, or both. @is devotion to "editation and to the afore"entioned sutra were his legacies to China. @e was later honored as father of the Chinese Dhyana, or IMeditation,I school of )uddhis", called ChHan. )odhidhar"a attracted little notice during his years in China, and the first historical account of his life is a brief "ention in a chronicle co"piled well over a hundred years after the fact, identifying hi" "erely as a practitioner of "editation. @owever, later stories of his life beca"e increasingly e"bellished, as he was slowly elevated to the office of :irst %atriarch of Chinese ChHan. @is life was "ade to fulfill ad"irably the reJuire"ents of a legend, as it was slowly enveloped in sy"bolic anecdotes illustrating the truth "ore richly than did "ere fact. @owever, "ost scholars do agree that there actually was a )odhidhar"a, that he was a !outh -ndian who ca"e to China, that he practiced an intensive for" of "editation, and that a short treatise ascribed to hi" is probably "ore or less authentic. *lthough the legend attached to this unshaven -ndian )uddhist tells us fully as "uch about early ChHan as it does about the "an hi"self, it is nonetheless the first page in the boo, of Zen. E&odhidharmaF, the Teacher of the Law, was the third son of a great &rahmin -ing in +outh $ndia, of the 3estern Lands. He was a man of wonderful intelligence, bright and far,reaching( he thoroughly understood everything that he had ever learned. 1s his ambition was to master the doctrine of the .ahayana, he abandoned the white dress of a layman and put on the blac- robe of mon-hood, wishing to cultivate the seeds of holiness. He practiced contemplation and tran/uilli0ation( he -new well what was the true significance of worldly affairs. $nside and outside he was transpicuous( his virtues were more than a model to the world. He was grieved very much over the decline of the orthodox teaching of the

&uddha in the remoter parts of the earth. He finally made up his mind to cross over land and sea and come to %hina and preach his doctrine in the -ingdom of 3ei.8 China at the ti"e of )odhidhar"aHs arrival was a politically divided land, with the new faith of )uddhis" often supplying a spiritual co""on deno"inator. )odhidhar"a happened to appear at a "o"ent when an e"peror in the northwest, the afore"entioned u #reigned >8<+=9$, had beco"e a fanatic )uddhist. !hortly after ta,ing power, u actually ordered his i"perial household and all associated with the court to ta,e up )uddhis" and abandon Taois". )uddhist "on,s beca"e court advisers, opening the i"perial coffers to build "any lavish and subseJuently fa"ous te"ples. E"peror u led )uddhist asse"blies, wrote learned co""entaries on various sutras, and actually donated "enial wor, at te"ples as a lay devotee. @e also arranged to have all the Chinese co""entaries on the sutras asse"bled and catalogued. Concerned about the sanctity of life, he banished "eat #and wine$ fro" the i"perial table and beca"e so lax about enforcing cri"inal statutes, particularly capital punish"ent, that critics credited his good nature with an increase in corruption and lawlessness. hile the Taoists understandably hated hi" and the Confucianists branded hi" a distracted ineffectual sovereign, the )uddhists saw in hi" a "odel e"peror. Puite si"ply, E"peror u was to southern Chinese )uddhis" what E"peror Constantine was to Christianity. The e"peror was ,nown for his hospitality to visiting -ndian "on,s, and it is entirely possible he did invite )odhidhar"a for an audience.< *ccording to the legend, E"peror u began al"ost i""ediately to regale his visiting dignitary with a chec,list of his own dedication to the faith, "entioning te"ples built, clergy invested, sutras pro"ulgated. The list was long, but at last he paused, no doubt puGGled by his guestHs indifference. %robing for a response, he as,ed, I.iven all - have done, what Merit have - earnedLI )odhidhar"a scowled, I/one whatsoever, your "a&esty.I The e"peror was stunned by

this reply, but he pressed on, trying another popular Juestion. I hat is the "ost i"portant principle of )uddhis"LI This second point )odhidhar"a reportedly answered with the abrupt ICast e"ptiness.I6 The e"peror was eJually puGGled by this answer and in desperation finally inJuired who, exactly, was the bearded visitor standing before hi"Ato which )odhidhar"a cheerfully ad"itted he had no idea. The interview ended as abruptly as it began, with )odhidhar"a excusing hi"self and pressing on. :or his first "iracle, he crossed the 7angtGe &ust outside /an,ing on a reed and headed north. The legend of )odhidhar"a pic,s up again in /orth China, near the city of (oyang. The stories differ, but the "ost enduring ones lin, his na"e with the fa"ous !hao+ lin "onastery on Mt. !ung. There, we are told, he "editated for nine years facing a wall #thereby inventing Iwall gaGingI$ until at last, a pious version reports, his legs fell off. *t one ti"e, relates another Zen story, he caught hi"self doGing and in a fit of rage tore off his eyelids and cast the" conte"ptuously to the ground, whereupon bushes of the tea plantAZenHs sacra"ental drin,Asprang forth. *nother story has hi" inventing a Chinese style of boxing as physical education for the wea,ling "on,s at !hao+lin, thereby founding a classic Chinese discipline. )ut the "ost fa"ous episode surrounding his stay at the !hao+lin concerns the "on, @ui+,Ho, who was to be his successor. The story tells that @ui+,Ho waited in the snows outside !hao+lin for days on end, hoping in vain to attract )odhidhar"aHs notice, until finally in desperation he cut off his own ar" to attract the "asterHs attention. )odhidhar"a advocated "editation, sutras, and the trappings of traditional )uddhis" as a way to see into oneHs own nature. @is legends represent Zen in its for"ative period, before the "ore unorthodox "ethods for sha,ing disciples into a new "ode of consciousness had been devised. @owever, one of the stories attributed to hi" by later writers sounds suspiciously li,e a Zen "ondo #the traditional consciousness+testing exchange

between "aster and "on,$. *ccording to this story, the disciple @ui+,Ho entreated )odhidhar"a, saying, IMaster, - have not found peace of "ind. - beg you to pacify "y "ind for "e.I )odhidhar"a replied, I)ring "e your "ind and - will pacify it for you.I @ui+,Ho was silent for a ti"e, finally conceding he could not actually find his "ind. IThere,I said )odhidhar"a, I- have pacified it for you.I This sy"bolic story illustrates eloJuently the concept of the "ind as a perceiver, so"ething that cannot itself be sub&ect to analysis. (ogical introspection is i"possible. The "ind cannot exa"ine itself any "ore than the eye can see itself. !ince the "ind cannot beco"e the ob&ect of its own perception, its existence can only be understood intuitively, as @ui+,Ho realiGed when he tried to plu"b its whereabouts ob&ectively. The actual teachings of )odhidhar"a are not fully ,nown. The first notice of the Iblue+eyed barbarianI #as later Chinese called hi"$ is in the Chinese )uddhist history entitled :urther )iographies of E"inent %riests, usually dated around the year 5=>, "ore than a century after he ca"e to China. This biography also contains the brief text of an essay attributed to )odhidhar"a. *t the ti"e it was co"piled, )odhidhar"a had not yet been anointed the :irst %atriarch of ZenD rather he was "erely one of a nu"ber of priests teaching "editation. *ccordingly there would have been no incentive to e"bellish his story with an apocryphal essay, and for this reason "ost authorities thin, it is authentic. = * later, "ore detailed version of the essay by )odhidhar"a is contained in the 1ecords of the Trans"ission of the (a"p #*.'. 488=$. This latter text is usually the one Juoted, and it is agreed to be the superior literary docu"ent. > e are in good co"pany if we accept this essay as a "ore or less accurate record of the thoughts of the :irst %atriarch. The text that )odhidhar"a left was "eant to show others the several ways to enlighten"ent. There are many ways to enter the "ath, but briefly spea-ing, they are two sorts only. The one is 4Entrance by #eason4 and the other 4Entrance by %onduct.I5

The first of these paths, the Entrance by 1eason, "ight "ore properly be called entrance by pure insight. The path advocated see"s a blending of )uddhis" and Taois", by which the sutras are used as a vehicle for leading the see,er first to "editation, and then to a nonliterary state of consciousness in which all dualities, all sense of oneself as apart fro" the world, are erased. This is an early and eloJuent su""ary of ZenHs ob&ectives. &y 4Entrance by #eason4 we mean the reali0ation of the spirit of &uddhism by the aid of scriptural teaching. 3e then come to have a deep faith in the True ature which is one and the same in all sentient beings. The reason that it does not manifest itself is due to the overwrapping of external ob7ects and false thoughts. 3hen one, abandoning the false and embracing the true, and in simpleness of thought, abides in pi+,uan Epure meditation or 4wall, ga0ing4F, one finds that there is neither selfhood nor otherness, that the masses and the worthies are of one essence, and firmly holds on to this belief and never moves away therefrom. He will not then be guided by any literary instructions, for he is in silent communication with the principle itself, free from conceptual discrimination, for he is serene and not,acting. B )odhidhar"a is given credit for inventing the ter" pi, -uan, whose literal translation is Iwall+gaGing,I but whose actual "eaning is anyoneHs guess. "i,-uan is so"eti"es called a "etaphor for the "indHs confrontation with the barrier of intellectAwhich "ust eventually be hurdled if one is to reach enlighten"ent. -n any case, this text is an un"ista,able endorse"ent of "editation as a "eans for tranJuiliGing the "ind while si"ultaneously dissolving our i"pulse to discri"inate between ourselves and the world around us. -t points out that literary instructions can go only so far, and at last they "ust be abandoned in favor of reliance on the intuitive "ind.;

The other %ath #or Tao$ he described was called the IEntrance by ConductI and invo,es his -ndian )uddhist origins. The description of IconductI was divided into four sections which, ta,en together, were intended to subsu"e or include all the possible types of )uddhist practice. &y 4Entrance by %onduct4 is meant the 'our 1cts in which all other acts are included. 3hat are the fourC 8. How to re/uite hatred( ;. To be obedient to ,ar"a( G. ot to see- after anything( and H. To be in accord with the 'har"a.5 The first *ct of Conduct counseled the believer to endure all hardships, since they are pay"ent for evil deeds co""itted in past existences. 3hat is meant by 4How to re/uite hatred4C Those who discipline themselves in the "ath should thin- thus when they have to struggle with adverse conditions> During the innumerable past ages $ have wandered through multiplicity of existences, all the while giving myself to unimportant details of life at the expense of essentials, and thus creating infinite occasions for hate, ill,will, and wrong,doing. 3hile no violations have been committed in this life, the fruits of evil deeds in the past are to be gathered now. either gods nor men can foretell what is coming upon me. $ will submit myself willingly and patiently to all the ills that befall me, and $ will never bemoan or complain. $n the +utra it is said not to worry over ills that may happen to you. 3hyC &ecause through intelligence one can survey Ethe whole chain of causationF. 3hen this thought arises, one is in concord with the principle because he ma-es the best use of hatred and turns it into the service of his advance towards the "ath. This is called the 4way to re/uite hatred.I48 The second 1ule of Conduct is to be reconciled to whatever co"es, good or evil. -t see"s to reflect the Taoist attitude that everything is what it is and

conseJuently value &udg"ents are irrelevant. -f good co"es, it is the result of "eritorious deeds in a past existence and will vanish when the store of causative ,ar"a is exhausted. The i"portant thing to realiGe is that none of it "atters anyway. 3e should -now that all sentient beings are produced by the interplay of -armic conditions, and as such there can be no real self in them. The mingled yarns of pleasure and pain are all woven of the threads of conditioning causes. . . . Therefore, let gains and losses run their natural courses according to the ever changing conditions and circumstances of life, for the .ind itself does not increase with the gains nor decrease with the losses. $n this way, no gales of self,complacency will arise, and your mind will remain in hidden harmony with the Tao. $t is in this sense that we must understand the rule of adaptation to the variable conditions and circumstances of life.88 The third 1ule of Conduct was the teaching of the )uddha that a cessation of see,ing and a turning toward nonattach"ent brings peace. .en of the world remain unawa-ened for life( everywhere we find them bound by their craving and clinging. This is called 4attachment.4 The wise, however, understand the truth, and their reason tells them to turn from the worldly ways. They en7oy peace of mind and perfect detachment. They ad7ust their bodily movements to the vicissitudes of fortune, always aware of the emptiness of the phenomenal world, in which they find nothing to covet, nothing to delight in. . . . Everyone who has a body is an heir to suffering and a stranger to peace. Having comprehended this point, the wise are detached from all things of the phenomenal world, with their minds free of desires and craving. 1s the scripture has it, 41ll sufferings spring from attachment( true 7oy arises from detachment.4 To -now clearly the bliss of detachment is truly to wal- on the path of the Tao.8;

The fourth 1ule of Conduct was to dissolve our perception of ob&ect+sub&ect dualities and view life as a unified whole. This "erging of self and exterior world )odhidhar"a calls pure "ind or pure reason. The Dharma is nothing else than #eason which is pure in its essence. This pure #eason is the formless 'orm of all 'orms( it is free of all defilements and attachments, and it -nows of neither 4self4 nor 4other.48G @aving set forth this rather elegant state"ent of Zen and )uddhist ideals, as ascribed to )odhidhar"a, it unfortunately is necessary to add that it appears to have been ta,en directly fro" the Ca&rasa"adhi !utra #attributing Juotations fro" the sutras to %atriarchs was co""on$, with the sole exception of the ter" pi,-uan.4= *t the very least, the legend at this ti"e does not portray )odhidhar"a as a despiser of the sutras. @e was, in fact, using a sutra as a vehicle to pro"ote his practice of intensive "editation. -t is not ,nown what role "editation played in )uddhis" at this ti"e. @owever, the scholar @u !hih Juestions how well it was understood. IN*n early )uddhist historianHsO )iographies, which covered the whole period of early )uddhis" in China fro" the first century to the year >49, contained only <4 na"es of Hpractitioners of dhyana #"editation$H out of a total of about =>8. *nd practically all of the <4dhyana "on,s were recorded because of their re"ar,able asceticis" and "iraculous powers. This shows that in spite of the nu"erous yoga "anuals in translation, and in spite of the high respect paid by intellectual )uddhists to the doctrine and practice of dhyana, there were, as late as >88, practically no Chinese )uddhists who really understood or seriously practiced dhyana or Zen.I4> %erhaps )odhidhar"a, arriving in ><8, felt his praise of "editation, using the words of an existing sutra, could rouse Chinese interest in this for" of )uddhis". *s it turned out, he was successful beyond anything he could have i"agined, although his success too, several centuries. *s '. T. !uGu,i su"s it up, I hile there was nothing specifically Zen in his doctrine of HTwo Entrances

and :our *cts,H the teaching of pi,-uan, wall+ conte"plation, was what "ade )odhidhar"a the first patriarch of Zen )uddhis" in China.I45 !uGu,i interprets pi,-uan as referring to the "ind in a thoughtless state, in which "editation has per"itted the rational "ind to be suppressed entirely. The use of "editation for this goal instead of for developing "agical powers, as had been the goal of earlier dhyana "asters, see"s to have been the profound new idea introduced to China by )odhidhar"a.4? The passage of )odhidhar"a is also swathed in legend. hat eventually happened to this traveling -ndian guruL 'id he die of poison, as one legend saysK or did he wander off to Central *sia, as another reportsK or did he go to Eapan, as still another story would have itL The story that has been the "ost enduring #recorded in a !ung wor,, %hing,te ch6uan,teng,lu$ tells that after nine years at the !hao+lin "onastery decided to return to -ndia and called together his disciples to test their attain"ent. The first disciple reportedly said, I*s - view it, to realiGe the truth we should neither rely entirely on words and letters nor dispense with the" entirely, but rather we should use the" as an instru"ent of the ay.I To this, )odhidhar"a replied, I7ou have got "y s,in.I /ext a nun ca"e forward and said, I*s - view it, the Truth is li,e an auspicious sighting of the )uddhist %aradiseK it is seen once and never again.I To this )odhidhar"a replied, I7ou have attained "y flesh.I The third disciple said, IThe four great ele"ents are e"pty and the five s-andhas Nconstituents of the personalityD body, feelings, perception, will, and consciousnessO are nonexistent. There is, in fact, nothing that can be grasped.I To this )odhidhar"a replied, I7ou have attained "y bones.I :inally, it was @ui+,HoHs turn. )ut he only bowed to the "aster and stood silent at his place. To hi" )odhidhar"a said, I7ou have attained "y "arrow.I4; *ccording to a co"peting story, )odhidhar"a died of poisoning at the age of 4>8 and was buried in the "ountains of @onan.49 /ot too long thereafter a lay )uddhist na"ed !ung 7un, who was returning to China

after a trip to -ndia to gather sutras, "et )odhidhar"a in the "ountains of Tur,estan. The :irst %atriarch, who was wal,ing barefoot carrying a single shoe, announced he was returning to -ndia and that a native Chinese would arise to continue his teaching. !ung 7un reported this to )odhidhar"aHs disciples on his return and they opened the "asterHs grave, only to find it e"pty save for the other shoe. @ow "uch of the story of )odhidhar"a is legendL The answer does not really "atter all that "uch. *s with Moses, if )odhidhar"a had not existed it would have been necessary to invent hi". *lthough his first full biography #ca. 5=>$ "a,es no particular fuss over hi", less than a century after this, he was declared the founder of Zen, provided with a lineage stretching directly bac, through /agar&una to the )uddha, and furnished an exciting anecdotal history. 7et as founders go, he was a worthy enough individual. @e does see" to have devised a strain of )uddhist thought that could successfully be grafted onto the hardy native Chinese Taoist organis". @e also left an active disciple, later to be ,nown as the !econd %atriarch, @ui+,Ho, so he "ust have had either a charis"atic personality or a philosophical position that distinguished hi" fro" the general run of "editation "asters. -t is i"portant to ,eep in "ind that )odhidhar"a, "an and "yth, was the product of an early for" of Zen. The later "asters needed a lineage, and he was tapped for the role of :irst %atriarch. The "a&or proble" with )odhidhar"a was that "any of his ideas were in direct contradiction to the position adopted by later Zen teachings. :or instance, recall that he pro"oted the reliance on a sutra #the (an,avatara$K and he heavily stressed "editation #so"ething later Zen "asters would partially circu"vent$. The Eesuit scholar @einrich 'u"oulin has declared that )odhidhar"aHs attributed teaching in no way deviates fro" the great Mahayana sutras.<8 -t is, in fact, a far cry fro" later Zen ideas, says Eohn u, the Chinese authority.<4 :inally, he left no clai" to patriarchy, nor did his first biographer offer to do this for hi".

%erhaps the evolution of Zen is best de"onstrated by the slow change in the paintings of )odhidhar"a, cul"inating in the latter+day portrayals of hi" as a scowling gru"p. @is i"age beca"e successively "ore "isanthropic through the centuries, perhaps as a way of underscoring the later Zen practice of establishing a rather dehu"aniGed relationship between the Zen "aster and pupil, as the "aster shouts, beats a "on,, and destroys his ego through "erciless Juestion+and+answer sessions. :or all we ,now, the Iwall+gaGing )rah"inI of ancient China "ay have had a wry s"ile to go along with his droll sense of hu"or. %erhaps it is fitting to close with the "ost lasting apocrypha associated with his na"e, to wit the stanGa that later "asters attributed to hi" as an alleged su""ary of his teaching, but which he, pro"ulgator of the (an,avatara !utra, would undoubtedly have disownedD 1 special transmission outside the sutras( o reliance upon words and letters( Direct pointing to the very mind( +eeing into one6s own nature.

Cha/t"# Two
H0I1K2O& SECON) PATRIARCH OF ZEN

@ui+,Ho #=;?+>96$ first enters the history of Zen as an eager Chinese scholar devoted to "editation. ishing to beco"e a disciple of the fa"ous -ndian "on, who had recently installed hi"self at the !hao+lin "onastery, @ui+ ,Ho set up a vigil outside the gate. Ti"e passed and the snows began to fall, but still )odhidhar"a ignored hi", declaring, IThe inco"parable doctrine of )uddhis" can only be co"prehended after a long hard discipline, by enduring what is "ost difficult to endure and by practicing what is "ost difficult to practice. Men of inferior virtue are not allowed to understand anything about it.I4 :inally @ui+,Ho despaired and resorted to an extre"e "easure to de"onstrate his sincerityD he cut off his own ar" and offered it to the "aster. #This act reportedly has been repeated since by an occasional overenthusiastic Zen novice.$ Even a single"inded "aster of "editation li,e )odhidhar"a could not ignore such a gesture, and he agreed to accept @ui+,Ho as his first Chinese disciple. 2nli,e )odhidhar"a, @ui+,Ho is not a "ysterious, legendary figure, but rather is re"e"bered by a detailed history that interacts periodically with ,nown events in Chinese history.< @e ca"e fro" the Chi fa"ily and was originally na"ed !eng+,Ho, only later beco"ing ,nown as @ui+,Ho. The "ost reliable report has hi" co"ing fro"

u+lao, with a reputation as a scholarly intellectual preceding hi". -ndeed he see"s to have been a Chinese scholar in the finest sense, with a deep appreciation of all three "a&or philosophiesD Confucianis", Taois", and )uddhis". -t was toward the last, however, that he slowly gravitated, finally abandoning his scholarly secular life and beco"ing a )uddhist "on,. @e was around age forty, in the pri"e of what was to be a very long life, when he first encountered )odhidhar"a at the !hao+lin "onastery. hether he lost his ar" by self+"utilation, as the later Zen chronicles say, or whether it was severed in a fight with bandits, as the earliest history reports, "ay never be deter"ined.6 The later story is certainly "ore pious, but the earlier would see" "ore plausible. :or six years he studied "editation with )odhidhar"a, gradually retreating fro" the life of the scholar as he turned away fro" intellectualis" and toward pure experience. hen )odhidhar"a finally decided to depart, he called in all his disciples for the fa"ous testing of their attain"ent recounted in Chapter l.= @ui+,Ho, by si"ply bowing in silence when as,ed what he had attained, proved that his understanding of the "asterHs wordless teaching was superior, and it was he who received the (an,avatara !utra. The event reportedly was sealed by a short refrain, now universally declared to be spurious, in which )odhidhar"a predicted the later division of ChHan into five schoolsD Iriginally $ came to this land To transmit the Dharma and to save all from error 1 flower with five petals opens( If itself the fruit will ripen.J *s the story goes, @ui+,Ho re"ained at the !hao+lin for a while longer and then went underground, supporting hi"self through "enial wor, and learning about Chinese peasant life firsthand. 1eportedly, he wanted to tranJuiliGe his "ind, to acJuire the hu"ility necessary in a great teacher, and not incidentally to absorb the (an,avatara !utra. hen as,ed why he, an enlightened teacher, chose to live a"ong "enial laborers, he would

reply tartly that this life was best for his "ind and in any case what he did was his own affair. -t was a hard existence, but one he believed proper. %erhaps it was in this for"ative period that the inner strength of ChHanHs first Chinese "aster was forged. @ui+,HoHs "a&or concern during this period "ust inevitably have been the study of the (an,avatara !utra entrusted hi" by )odhidhar"a. The (an,avatara was not written by a Zen "aster, nor did it co"e out of the Zen tradition, but it was the pri"ary scripture of the first two hundred years of ChHan. *s '. T. !uGu,i has noted, there were at least three Chinese translations of this !ans,rit sutra by the ti"e )odhidhar"a ca"e to China.5 @owever, he is usually given credit, at least in Zen records, for originating the "ove"ent later ,nown as the (an,avatara school. *s the sutra was described by a non+ChHan Chinese scholar in the year 5=>, IThe entire e"phasis of its teaching is placed on %ra&na #highest intuitive ,nowledge$, which transcends literary expression. )odhidhar"a, the Zen "aster, propagated this doctrine in the south as well as in the north, the gist of which teaching consists in attaining the unattainable, which is to have right insight into the truth itself by forgetting word and thought. (ater it grew and flourished in the "iddle part of the country. @ui+,Ho was the first who attained to the essential understanding of it. Those addicted to the literary teaching of )uddhis" in ei were averse to beco"ing associated with these spiritual seers.I? The (an,avatara purportedly relays the thoughts of the )uddha while ensconced on a "ountain pea, in !ri (an,a. *lthough the wor, is notoriously disorganiGed, vague, and obscure, it was to be the stone on which @ui+ ,Ho sharpened his penetrating enlighten"ent. The "a&or concept it advances is that of Mind, characteriGed by '. T. !uGu,i as Iabsolute "ind, to be distinguished fro" an e"pirical "ind which is the sub&ect of psychological study. hen it begins with a capital letter, it is the ulti"ate reality on which the entire world of individual ob&ects depends for its value.I; 0n the Juestion of Mind, the (an,avatara has the following to sayD

. . . the ignorant and the simple minded, not -nowing that the world is what is seen of .ind itself, cling to the multitudinousness of external ob7ects, cling to the notions of being and non,being, oneness and otherness, bothness and not,bothness, existence and non,existence, eternity and non,eternity. . . .5 *ccording to the (an,avatara, the world and our perception of it are both part of a larger conceptual entity. The teachings of the (an,avatara cast the gravest doubt on the actual existence of the things we thin, we see. 'iscri"ination between oneself and the rest of the world can only be false, since both are "erely "anifestations of the sa"e enco"passing essence, Mind. 0ur perception is too easily deceived, and this is the reason we "ust not i"plicitly trust the i"ages that reach our consciousness. . . . E$Ft is li-e those water bubbles in a rainfall which have the appearance of crystal gems, and the ignorant ta-ing them for real crystal gems run after them. . . . ETFhey are no more than water bubbles, they are not gems, nor are they not,gems, because of their being so comprehended Eby one partyF and not being so comprehended Eby anotherF.89 1eality lies beyond these petty discri"inations. The intellect, too, is powerless to distinguish the real fro" the illusory, since all things are both and neither at the sa"e ti"e. This conviction of the (an,avatara re"ained at the core of Zen, even after the sutra itself was supplanted by si"pler, "ore easily approached literary wor,s. *s @ui+,Ho studied the (an,avatara and preached, he gradually acJuired a reputation for insight that transcended his deliberately unpretentious appearance. Throughout it all, he led an itinerant life, traveling about /orth China. -t is reported that he found his way to the capital of the eastern half of the ei ,ingdo" after its division in the year >6=. @ere, in the city of 7eh+tu, he taught his version of dhyana and opened the way to

enlighten"ent for "any people. Though unassu"ing in "anner and dress, he nonetheless aroused antagonis" fro" established )uddhist circles because of his success, encountering particular opposition fro" a conventional dhyana teacher na"ed Tao+huan. *ccording to 'urther &iographies of the Eminent "riests :=HJ<, Tao+huan was a &ealous teacher who had his own following of as "any as a thousand, and who resented deeply the nonscriptural approach @ui+,Ho advocated. This spiteful priest sent various of his followers to "onitor @ui+,HoHs teaching, perhaps with an eye to accusing hi" of heresy, but all those sent were so i"pressed that none ever returned. Then one day the antagonistic dhyana "aster "et one of those for"er pupils who had been won over by @ui+,HoHs teachings. '. T. !uGu,i translates the encounter as followsD 3hen Tao,huan happened to meet his first messenger, he as-ed> 4How was it that $ had to send for you so many timesC Did $ not open your eye after ta-ing pains so much on my partC4 The former disciple, however, mystically answered> 4.y eye has been right from the first, and it was through you that it came to s/uint. I44 The "essage would see" to be that @ui+,Ho taught a return to oneHs original nature, to the pri"al "an without artificial learning or doctrinal pretense. 0ut of resent"ent the &ealous dhyana "aster reportedly caused @ui+,Ho to undergo official persecution. -n later years, beginning around >?=, there was a te"porary but thorough persecution of )uddhis" in the capital city of ChHang+an. !o"eti"e earlier, an a"bitious sorcerer and apostate )uddhist na"ed ei had decided to gain a bit of notoriety for hi"self by attac,ing )uddhis", then a powerful force in ChHang+an. -n the year >5? he presented a docu"ent to the e"peror clai"ing that )uddhis" had allowed unsavory social types to enter the "onasteries. @e also attac,ed worship of the )uddha i"age on the ground that it was un+Chinese idolatry. -nstead, he proposed a seculariGed church that would

include all citiGens, with the gullible e"peror suggested for the role of Ipope.I The e"peror was ta,en with the idea and after several years of co"plex political "aneuvering, he proscribed )uddhis" in /orth China. *s a result, @ui+,Ho was forced to flee to the south, where he too, up te"porary residence in the "ountainous regions of the 7angtGe 1iver. The persecution was short+lived, since the e"peror responsible died soon after his decree, whereupon @ui+,Ho returned to ChHang+an. @owever, these persecutions "ay have actually contributed to the spread of his teaching, by forcing hi" to travel into the countryside. The only authentic frag"ent of @ui+,HoHs thought that has survived records his answer to an inJuiry sent by a lay devotee na"ed @siang, who reportedly was see,ing spiritual attain"ent alone in the &ungle. The inJuiry, which see"s "ore a state"ent than a Juestion, went as followsD . . . he who aspires to &uddhahood thin-ing it to be independent of the nature of sentient beings is to be li-ened to one who tries to listen to an echo by deadening its original sound. Therefore the ignorant and the enlightened are wal-ing in one passageway( the vulgar and the wise are not to be differentiated from each other. 3here there are no names, we create names, and because of these names, 7udgments are formed. 3here there is no theori0ing, we theori0e, and because of this theori0ing, disputes arise. They are all phantom creations and not realities, and who -nows who is right and who is wrongC They are all empty, no substantialities have they, and who -nows what is and what is notC +o we reali0e that our gain is not real gain and our loss not real loss. This is my view and may $ be enlightened if $ am at faultC8; This IJuestion,I if such it is, sounds suspiciously li,e a ser"on and stands, in fact, as an eloJuent state"ent of Zen concerns. @ui+,Ho reportedly answered as follows, in a frag"ent of a letter that is his only ,nown extant wor,.

Kou have truly comprehended the Dharma as it is( the deepest truth lies in the principle of identity. $t is due to one6s ignorance that the mani,7ewel is ta-en for a piece of bric-, but loL when one is suddenly awa-ened to self, enlightenment it is reali0ed that one is in possession of the real 7ewel. The ignorant and the enlightened are of one essence, they are not really to be separated. 3e should -now that all things are such as they are. Those who entertain a dualistic view of the world are to be pitied, and $ write this letter for them. 3hen we -now that between this body and the &uddha, there is nothing to separate one from the other, what is the use of see-ing after irvana Eas something external to ourselvesFC8G @ui+,Ho insists that all things spring fro" the one Mind, and conseJuently the ideas of duality, of attach"ent to this or that pheno"enon, or even the possibility of choice, are eJually absurd. *lthough he ,new all too well that enlighten"ent could not be obtained fro" teaching, he still did not advocate a radical brea, with the traditional "ethods of the )uddhist dhyana "asters. @is style was unorthodox, but his teaching "ethods were still confined to lectures and "editation. This low+,ey approach was still closer to the tradition of the )uddha than to the &arring techniJues of Isudden enlighten"entI destined to erupt out of Chinese ChHan. Toward the end of his life, @ui+,Ho was bac, in ChHang+ an, living and teaching in the sa"e unassu"ing "anner. @is free+lance style see"s to have continued to outrage the "ore conventional teachers, and a later story records a "artyrHs death for hi".4= 0ne day, while a learned "aster was preaching inside the 3Huang+chou Te"ple, @ui+,Ho chanced by and started to chat with the passersby outside. .radually a crowd started to collect, until eventually the lecture hall of the revered priest was e"ptied. This fa"ous priest, re"e"bered as %ien+ho, accused the ragged @ui+,Ho to the "agistrate Che ChHung+&Han as a teacher of false doctrine. *s a result he

was arrested and subseJuently executed, an i"pious 485+year+old revolutionary.

Cha/t"# Th#""
SEN*1TS2AN3 TAO1HSIN3 FA1+0N*3 AN) H0N*1+EN& FO0R EAR(Y MASTERS

The Fifth Patriarch,Hung-jen (left) The "aster succeeding @ui+,Ho was !eng+tsHan #d. 585$, who then taught :a+&ung #>9=+5>?$ and Tao+hsin #>;8+ 5>4$, the latter in turn passing the robe of the patriarchy to @ung+&en #584+?=$. The "asters !eng+tsHan, Tao+hsin, and @ung+&en are honored today as the Third, :ourth, and :ifth %atriarchs, respectively, and revered as the torchbearers of ChHanHs for"ative years. 7et when we loo, for infor"ation about their lives, we find the sources thin and diffuse. 0ne reason probably is that before ?88 nobody realiGed that these "en would one day be elevated to founding fathers, and conseJuently no one bothered recording details of their lives. 'uring the seventh century the scattered teachers of dhyana see" to have gradually coalesced into a sort of ad hoc "ove"entAwith siGable followings growing up around the better+,nown figures. * certain a"ount of respectability also e"erged, if we can believe the references to i"perial notice that start appearing in the chronicles. -t would see" that the dhyana or ChHan "ove"ent beca"e a "ore or less coherent sect, a recogniGable if loosely defined school of )uddhis". @owever, what the "ove"ent apparently was striving to beco"e was not so "uch a branch of )uddhis" in China as a Chinese version of )uddhis". The "en later re"e"bered as the Third, :ourth, and :ifth %atriarchs have in co""on a struggle to bend )uddhist thought to

Chinese intellectual reJuire"ents, to siniciGe )uddhis". hereas they succeeded only in setting the stage for this transfor"ation #whose realiGation would await other hands$, they did establish a personality pattern that would set apart all later "astersD a blithe irreverence that owed as "uch to Chuang TGu as to )odhidhar"a. hen reading the biographies that follow, it is useful to ,eep in "ind that the explicit details "ay well have been coo,ed up in later years to satisfy a natural Chinese yearning for anecdotes, with or without supporting infor"ation. 7et the fact that the dhyana practitioners eventually beca"e a "ove"ent in need of a history is itself proof that these "en and their stories were not co"plete inventions. -n any case, they were re"e"bered, honored, and Juoted in later years as the legendary founders of ChHan. SEN*1TSAN3 THE THIR) PATRIARCH 4%. 5657 The Juestion of the !econd %atriarch @ui+,HoHs successor was troubleso"e even for the ancient ChHan historians. The earliest version of his biography #written in 5=>, before the sect of ChHan and its need for a history existed$ declares, I)efore N@ui+,HoO had established a lineage he died, leaving no worthy heirs.I hen it later beca"e necessary for ChHan to have an uninterrupted patriarchy, a revised history was prepared which supplied hi" an heir na"ed !eng+tsHan, to who" he is said to have trans"itted the doctrine.4 The story of their "eeting recalls @ui+,HoHs first exchange with )odhidhar"a, save that the roles are reversed. The text i"plies that !eng+ tsHan was suffering fro" leprosy when he first encountered @ui+,Ho, and that he i"plored the Master for relief in a "ost un+Zenli,e way, sayingD I- a" in great suffering fro" this diseaseK please ta,e away "y sins.I @ui+,Ho responded with, I)ring "e your sins, and - will ta,e the" away.I *fter a long silence, !eng+tsHan confessed, I-Hve loo,ed, but - cannot find the".I To which @ui+,Ho replied, echoing )odhidhar"aHs classic re&oinder, I)ehold, you have &ust been cleansed.I

*nother version of the story says @ui+,Ho greeted !eng+tsHan with the words, I7ou are suffering fro" leprosyK why should you want to see "eLI To this !eng+tsHan responded, I*lthough "y body is sic,, the "ind of a sic, "an and your own "ind are no different.I hatever actually happened, it was enough to convince @ui+,Ho that he had found an enlightened being, one who perceived the unity of all things, and he forthwith trans"itted to !eng+tsHan the sy"bols of the patriarchyAthe robe and begging bowl of )odhidhar"aA telling hi" that he should ta,e refuge in the )uddha, the 'har"a #the universal truth proclai"ed by )uddha$, and the !angha #the )uddhist organiGation or priesthood$. !eng+tsHan replied that he ,new of the !angha, but what was "eant by the )uddha and the 'har"aL The answer was that all three were expressions of Mind.< This exchange see"s to have ta,en place while @ui+ ,Ho was in the northern ei capital of 7eh+tu.6 -n later years !eng+tsHan found it necessary to feign "adness #to escape persecution during the anti+)uddhist "ove"ent of >?=$, and finally he went to hide on @uan+,ung "ountain for ten years, where his "ere presence reportedly was enough to ta"e the wild tigers who had terroriGed the people there. The only surviving wor, that purportedly relays his teaching is a poe", said to be one of the earliest ChHan treatises, which is called the Hsin, hsin,ming, or I0n the )elieving Mind.I= -t starts off in a lyrical, al"ost Taoist, voice worthy of Chuang TGu, as it celebrates "anHs original nature and the folly of striving. There is nothing difficult about the Mreat 3ay &ut, avoid choosingL Inly when you neither love nor hate, Does it appear in all clarity. Do not be anti, or pro, anything. The conflict of longing and loathing, This is the disease of the mind. ot -nowing the profound meaning of things, 3e disturb our :original< peace of mind to no purpose. J

/ext, the poe" turns to an ac,nowledg"ent of the Mahayanist concept of the all+enco"passing Mind, the greatest single truth of the universe, and of /agar&unaHs Coid, the cos"ic e"ptiness of sunyata. Things are things because of the .ind. The .ind is the .ind because of things. $f you wish to -now what these two are, They are originally one Emptiness. $n this Aoid both :.ind and things< are one, 1ll the myriad phenomena contained in both. = The poe" closes with an affir"ation of the ChHan credo of unity and the absence of duality as a sign of enlighten"ent. $n the 3orld of #eality There is no self, no other,than,self. ... 1ll that can be said is 4 o DualityL4 3hen there is no duality, all things are one, There is nothing that is not included. . . . The believing mind is not dual( 3hat is dual is not the believing mind. &eyond all language, 'or it there is no past, no present, no future. B !ince the earliest historical sources "aintain that !eng+tsHan left no writings, so"e have Juestioned the attribution of this lilting wor, to the Third %atriarch. hatever its authorship, the real i"portance of the poe" lies in its subtle "erging of Taois" and )uddhis". e can watch as the voices of ancient China and ancient -ndia are blended together into a perfect har"ony until the parts are inseparable. -t was a noble atte"pt to reconcile )uddhist "etaphysics with Chinese philosophical concepts, and it was successful in a li"ited way. *s for !eng+tsHan, the legends tell that he finally was overco"e by his longing for the south and, handing down

the sy"bols of the patriarchy to a priest na"ed Tao+hsin, he vanished. TAO1HSIN3 THE FO0RTH PATRIARCH 4896158:7 China, whose political tur"oil had sent the early %atriarchs scurrying fro" one s"all ,ingdo" to another, found unity and the beginnings of stability under a dynasty ,nown as the !ui #>;4+54;$, the first in three and a half centuries #since the end of the @an in <<8$ able to unify the land.; This brief dynasty #which soon was replaced by the resplendent THang$ ca"e to be do"inated by the E"peror 7ang, a crafty politician who "aneuvered the throne away fro" an elder brotherA partially, it is said, by de"onstrating to his parents his independence of "ind by abandoning all the children he begat in the ladiesH Juarters. hereas his father had underta,en the renovation of the /orth Chinese capital of ChHang+anAnot incidentally creating one of the glories of the ancient world and the site of the finest "o"ents of the later THang 'ynastyAE"peror 7ang decided to reconstruct the city of (oyang, so"e two hundred "iles to the east. The result was a I estern CapitalI at ChHang+ an and an IEastern CapitalI at (oyang, the latter city soon to be the location of so"e pivotal episodes in ChHan history. :or the construction of (oyang, a fairyland of palaces and gardens, "illions of citiGens were conscripted and tens of thousands died under forced labor. E"peror 7angHs other "onu"ent was a grand canal, lin,ing the 7ellow 1iver in the north with the rich agricultural deltas of the 7angtGe in the south, near /an,ing. The e"peror loved to be barged down this vast waterwayA&ourneys that unsy"pathetic historians have clai"ed were "erely excuses to see, sexual diversions away fro" the capital. -n any case, his extravagances ban,rupted the country and brought about his overthrow by the "an who would beco"e the founder of the THang 'ynasty, later to reign under the na"e of E"peror THai+tsung #ruled 5<5+=9$. The THang is universally regarded as one of the great ages of "an, and it is also considered the .olden *ge of

ChHan. The founding e"peror, THai+tsung, was a wise and beneficent I!on of @eaven,I as Chinese rulers were styled.9 2nder his influence, the capital city of ChHang+an beca"e the "ost cos"opolitan "etropolis in the ancient world, with such widespread influence that when the first visiting Eapanese ca"e upon it, they were so daGGled they returned ho"e and built a replica for their own capital city. The city was laid out as a grid, with lavish ver"ilion i"perial palaces and gardens clustered regally at one end. -ts inhabitants nu"bered upward of two "illion, while its international "ar,ets and fleshpots were crowded with traders fro" the farthest reaches of *sia and Europe, echoing with a truly astounding cacophony of tonguesD -ndian, Eapanese, Tur,ish, %ersian, 1o"an (atin, and *rabic, not to "ention the "any dialects of Chinese. Christians "oved a"ong the )uddhists, as did Musli"s and Eews. *rtisans wor,ed with silver, gold, &ewels, sil,s, and porcelains, even as poets gathered in wine shops to nibble fruits and relax with round+eyed foreign serving girls. !uch were the worldly attractions of ChHang+an during the early seventh century. This new sophistication and urbaniGation, as well as the political stability that "ade it all possible, was also reflected in the change in ChHanAfro" a concern chiefly of no"adic dhyana teachers hiding in the "ountains to the focus of settled agricultural co""unities centered in "onasteries. The growth in ChHan toward an established place in Chinese life began to consolidate under the :ourth %atriarch, Tao+hsin, the "an whose life spanned the !ui and the early THang dynasties. @e is best re"e"bered today for two thingsD :irst, he was particularly dedicated to "editation, practicing it "ore avidly than had any dhyana "aster since )odhidhar"aK and second, he is credited with beginning the true "onastic tradition for ChHan. @is for"ation of a self+supporting "onastic co""unity with its own agricultural base undoubtedly brought ChHan a long way toward respectability in Chinese eyes, since it reduced the dependence on begging. -tinerant "endicants, even if teachers of dhyana, had never elicited the ad"iration in China they traditionally en&oyed in the -ndian ho"eland of the

)uddha. )egging was believed to fashion character, however, and it never disappeared fro" ChHan discipline. -ndeed, ChHan is said to have encouraged begging "ore than did any of the other Chinese )uddhist sects, but as a closely regulated for" of "oral training. Tao+hsin, whose fa"ily na"e was !su+"a, ca"e fro" @onan, but he left ho"e at seven to study )uddhis" and "et the Third %atriarch, !eng+tsHan, while still in his teens. hen !eng+tsHan decided to drop out of sight, he as,ed this brilliant pupil to ta,e up the teaching of dhyana and )odhidhar"aHs (an,avatara !utra at a "onastery on Mt. (u. Tao+hsin agreed and re"ained for a nu"ber of years, attracting followers and reportedly perfor"ing at least one notable "iracle. The story says that he saved a walled city fro" being starved out by bandits by organiGing a progra" of public sutra chanting a"ong its people. e are told that the robbers retired of their own accord while, as though by "agic, previously dry wells in the city flowed again. 0ne day not too long thereafter Tao+hsin noticed an unusual purple cloud hanging over a nearby "ountain. Ta,ing this as a sign, he proceeded to settle there #the "ountain later beca"e ,nown as !huang+feng or ITwin %ea,sI$ and found the first ChHan co""unity, presiding over a virtual ar"y of so"e five hundred followers for the next thirty years. @e is re"e"bered today as a charis"atic teacher who finally stabiliGed dhyana teaching. -n an age of political tur"oil, "any intellectuals floc,ed to the new school of ChHan, with its pro"ise of tranJuil "editation in uneasy ti"es. Tao+hsin apparently encouraged his disciples to operate a for" of co""une, in which agriculture and its ad"inistration were "erged with the practice of "editation.48 -n so doing, he see"s not only to have revolutioniGed the respectability of dhyana practice, but also to have beco"e so"ething of a national figure hi"self. This, at any rate, is what we "ay sur"ise fro" one of the "ore durable legends, which has hi" defying an i"perial decree to appear before the e"peror, THai+ tsung. This legend concerns an episode which allegedly too, place around the year 5=>. *s the story goes, an i"perial

"essenger arrived one day at the "ountain retreat to su""on hi" to the palace, but Tao+hsin turned hi" down cold. hen the "essenger reported this to the e"peror, the response was to send bac, a renewed invitation. *gain the "essenger was "et with a refusal, along with a challenge. I-f you wish "y head, cut it off and ta,e it with you. -t "ay go but "y "ind will never go.I hen this reply reached the e"peror, he again dispatched the "essenger, this ti"e bearing a sealed sword and a su""ons for the "asterHs head. )ut he also included a contradictory decree reJuiring that Tao+hsin not be har"ed. hen the "aster refused a third ti"e to co"e to the palace, the "essenger read the decree that his head should be severed. Tao+hsin obligingly bent over, with the co""and ICut it off.I )ut the "essenger hesitated, ad"itting that the i"perial orders also forbade har"ing hi". 0n hearing this Tao+hsin reportedly roared with laughter, saying, I7ou "ust ,now that you possess hu"an Jualities.I44 The :ourth %atriarchHs teachings are not well ,nown, other than for the fact that he supposedly devised and pro"oted new techniJues to help novices achieve intensive "editation. The following excerpt of his teaching illustrates his fervor for dhyana. !it earnestly in "editationQ The sitting in "editation is basic to all else. )y the ti"e you have done this for three to five years, you will be able to ward off starvation with a bit of "eal. Close the door and sitQ 'o not read the sutras, and spea, to no "anQ -f you will so exercise yourself and persist in it for a long ti"e, the fruit will be sweet li,e the "eat which a "on,ey ta,es fro" the nutshell. )ut such people are very rare.4< The de+e"phasis on the sutras points the way to later ChHan. -nterestingly, however, the usefulness of sitting in "editation would also co"e under review in only a few short years, when the new style of ChHan appeared. The reports of Tao+hsin say that @ung+&en, who was to beco"e the :ifth %atriarch, was one of his followers and grasped the inner "eaning of his teaching. -t was @ung+ &en who" he as,ed to construct a "ausoleu" in the

"ountainside, the site of his final repose, and when it was finished he retired there for his last "editation. *fter he passed away, his body was wrapped in lacJuered cloth, presenting a vision so "agnificent that no one could bear to close the "ausoleu". *side fro" his historical place as the founder of the first real co""unity for ChHan, there is little that can be said with assurance about Tao+hsin. @owever, a "anuscript discovered early in this century in the )uddhist caves at Tun+huang purportedly contains a ser"on by the :ourth %atriarch entitled I*bandoning the )ody.I The method of abandoning the body consists first in meditating on Emptiness, whereby the EconsciousF mind is emptied. Let the mind together with its world be /uieted down to a perfect state of tran/uility( let thought be cast in the mystery of /uietude, so that the mind is -ept from wandering from one thing to another. 3hen the mind is tran/uili0ed in its deepest abode, its entanglements are cut asunder. . . . The mind in its absolute purity is li-e the Aoid itself.8G The text goes on to Juote both (ao TGu and Chuang TGu, as well as so"e of the older sutras, and there is a considerable reference to /agar&unaHs E"ptiness. This text, real or spurious, is one "ore ele"ent in the "erging of Taois" and )uddhis" that was early ChHan, even as its analysis of the "ind state achieved in "editation anticipates later ChHan teachings. FA1+0N*3 THE ST. FRANCIS OF ZEN 48;<158=7 -n the parade of %atriarchs, we should not overloo, the "averic, :a+&ung, a "aster who was never officially crowned a %atriarch, but whose hu"anity "ade hi" a legend.4= :a+&ung #>9=+5>?$, whose fa"ily na"e was ei, was born in a province on the south ban, of the 7angtGe 1iver and in his early years was a student of Confucian thought. )ut before long his yearning for spiritual challenge led hi" to )uddhis". @e finally settled in a

roc, cave in the side of a cliff near a fa"ous "onastery on Mt. /iu+tHou, where his sanctity reportedly caused birds to appear with offerings of flowers. *ccording to the Zen chronicle Transmission of the Lamp #488=$, so"eti"e between 5<? and 5=9 the :ourth %atriarch, Tao+hsin, sensed that a fa"ous )uddhist was living on Mt. /iu+tHou and went there to search out the "an. *fter "any days of see,ing, he finally ca"e upon a holy figure seated atop a roc,. *s the two "editation "asters were beco"ing acJuainted, there suddenly ca"e the roar of a tiger fro" the bra"ble farther up the "ountain. Tao+hsin was visibly startled, causing :a+&ungA friend of the ani"alsAto observe wryly, I- see it is still with you.I @is "eaning, of course, was that Tao+hsin was still enslaved by the pheno"enal world, was not yet wholly detached fro" his fears and perceptions. *fter they had chatted a while longer, :a+&ung found occasion to leave his seat and attend nature at a detached location. 'uring his absence Tao+hsin wrote the Chinese character for the )uddhaHs na"e on the very roc, where he had been sitting. hen :a+&ung returned to resu"e his place, he was "o"entarily brought up short by the prospect of sitting on the )uddhaHs na"e. Expecting this, Tao+hsin s"iled and said, I- see it is still with you.I @e had shown that :a+&ung was still inti"idated by the trappings of classical )uddhis" and had not yet beco"e a co"pletely detached "aster of the pure Mind. The story says that :a+&ung failed to understand his co""ent and i"plored Tao+hsin to teach hi" ChHan, which the :ourth %atriarch proceeded to do. Tao+hsinHs "essage, once again, was to counsel nondistinction, nonattach"ent, nondiscri"inationK he said to ab&ure e"otions, values, striving. Eust be natural and be what you are, for that is the part of you that is closest to the )uddhist ideal of "ental freedo". There is nothing lac-ing in you, and you yourself are no different from the &uddha. There is no way of achieving &uddhahood other than letting your mind be free to be itself. Kou should not contemplate nor should you purify

your mind. Let there be no craving and hatred, and have no anxiety or fear. &e boundless and absolutely free from all conditions. &e free to go in any direction you li-e. Do not act to do good, nor to pursue evil. 3hether you walor stay, sit or lie down, and whatever you see happen to you, all are the wonderful activity of the Mreat Enlightened Ine. $t is all 7oy, free from anxiety@it is called &uddha.8J *fter Tao+hsinHs visit, the birds offering flowers no longer appearedD evidence, said the later ChHan teachers, that :a+&ungHs physical being had entirely vanished. @is school on Mt. /iu+tHou flourished for a ti"e, teaching that the goals of ChHan practice could be realiGed by conte"plating the Coid of /agar&una. *s :a+&ung interpreted the teachings of the Middle %athD 1ll tal- has nothing to do with one6s Iriginal ature, which can only be reached through sunyata. o,thought is the 1bsolute #eality, in which the mind ceases to act. 3hen one6s mind is free from thoughts, one6s nature has reached the 1bsolute.8= *lthough :a+&ungHs teachings happened to be trans"itted to Eapan in later years, through the accident of a passing Eapanese pilgri", his school did not endure in either country beyond the eighth century. @is was the first splinter group of Zen, and perhaps it lac,ed the innovation necessary to survive, because it clung too "uch to traditional )uddhis". *s :a+&ungHs years advanced, he was encouraged to co"e down fro" his "ountain and live in a "onastery, which his better &udg"ent eventually co"pelled hi" to do. -t is reported that after his final farewell to his disciples he was followed down the "ountain by the la"ents of all its birds and ani"als. * "ore ordinary teacher would have been forgotten, but this beloved !t. :rancis of Zen beca"e the topic of lectures and a "aster re"e"bered with reverence ever after. H0N*1+EN3 THE FIFTH PATRIARCH 456:1=<7

The other well+,nown disciple of the :ourth %atriarch, Tao+hsin, was the "an history has given the title of :ifth %atriarch, @ung+&en #584+?=$. The chronicles say that he ca"e fro" Tao+hsinHs own province and i"pressed the "aster deeply when, at age fourteen, he held his own with the :ourth %atriarch in an introductory interview. *s the exchange has been described, Tao+hsin as,ed the young would+be disciple his fa"ily na"e, but since the word for Ifa"ily na"eI is pronounced the sa"e as that for Inature,I @ung+&en answered the Juestion as though it had been, I hat is your HnatureHLIAdeliberately "isinterpreting it in order to say, IMy HnatureH is not ordinaryK it is the )uddha+nature.I Tao+hsin reportedly inJuired, I)ut donHt you have a Hfa"ily na"eHLI To which @ung+&en cleverly replied, I/o, for the teachings say that our HnatureH is e"pty.I4? @ung+&en went on to beco"e the successor to the :ourth %atriarch, with an establish"ent where several hundred followers gathered. The chronicles have little to say about the actual life and teachings of the :ifth %atriarch, but no "atter. @is place in history is secured not so "uch for what he saidAthere is actually very little that can reliably be attributed to hi"Abut rather for his accidental appearance at the great crossroads of Zen. @ung+&en and his "onastery beca"e the sy"bol of a great philosophical debate that occupied the first half of the eighth century, a conflict to be exa"ined in detail in the two chapters to follow. !uffice it to say here that the chronicles at least agree that he was an e"inent priest and well respected, a "an to who" an early+eighth+ century docu"ent attributes eleven disciples of note.4; *"ong those listed who are particularly i"portant to the events that follow are a "on, na"ed !hen+hsiu and another na"ed @ui+neng, the "en whose na"es would one day be associated with a celebrated "idnight poetry contest in @ung+&enHs "onastery. This contest eventually ca"e to sy"boliGe the conflict between the teachings of gradual enlighten"ent and sudden enlighten"ent, between intellectual and intuitive

,nowledge, between sophisticated urban )uddhis" and unlettered rural teachers, and between pro"oters of the abstruse but challenging (an,avatara !utra sanctioned by )odhidhar"a and the cryptic 'ia"ond !utra. Puite si"ply, it was a battle between what would eventually be ,nown as the /orthern and !outhern schools of ChHan, and it concerned two funda"entally opposing views of the functions of the hu"an "ind. *s things turned out, the gradual, /orthern, (an,avatara !utra faction went on for years thin,ing it had wonAor perhaps not really aware that there was a battle in progressAwhile the anti+ intellectual, !outhern, 'ia"ond !utra faction was gathering its strength in the hinterlands for a final surge to victory. hen the !outhern school did stri,e, it won the war handily and then proceeded to recast the history of what had gone before, even going so far as to put posthu"ous words of praise for itself into the "ouths of the once+haughty /orthern "asters. Thus the "ighty were eventually brought low and the hu"ble lifted up in the annals of ChHan. -t is to the two "asters whose na"es are associated with this battle that we "ust turn next.

Cha/t"# Fo>#
SHEN1HSI0 AN) SHEN1H0I& ?*RA)0A(? AN) ?S0))EN? MASTERS hereas the ChHan %atriarchs of earlier ti"es had been, "ore often than not, fractious teachers ignored by e"perors and gentry ali,e, the THang 'ynasty saw ChHan "asters rise to official e"inence, receiving honors fro" the highest office in China. The first half of the eighth century witnessed what was to be the greatest battle within the school of ChHan, but it was also the ti"e when ChHan was finally recogniGed by Chinese ruling circles. The na"e "ost often associated with this i"perial recognition is the fa"ous, or perhaps infa"ous, E"press u.4 u was not born to royalty, but in the year 56;, when she was thirteen, she was placed in E"peror THai+tsungHs hare" as a concubine of relatively low ran,. 'isapproving historians clai" that one day she "anaged to catch the crown prince, the heir apparent to the aging e"peror, in what we today "ight euphe"istically call the bathroo", and seduced hi" at a "o"ent when he was without benefit of trousers. Thus she was already on fa"iliar ter"s with the next e"peror when her official husband,

E"peror THai+tsung, went to his ancestors in the su""er of 5=9. *lthough she was only twenty+four years old, custo" reJuired that she &oin all the deceased e"perorHs concubines in retire"ent at a "onasteryAwhich ordinarily would have been the last anyone heard of her. *s it happened, however, the new e"perorHs first wife was childless, with the effect that he began devoting increasing attention to a favorite concubine. 3nowing of the e"perorHs earlier acJuaintance and infatuation with u, the barren e"press recalled her fro" the convent, intending to divert the e"peror fro" his current favorite. The cure, however, turned out to be far "ore deadly than the ail"ent. Through an intrigue that apparently included "urdering her own child by the e"peror and then bla"ing the e"press, u soon had both the e"press and the co"peting concubine in prison. /ot content with "ere i"prison"ent for her rivals, she went on to have the" both boiled aliveAafter first a"putating their hands and feet, eliciting a dying curse fro" the concubine that she would return as a cat to haunt u. To escape this curse, u per"anently banned cats fro" the i"perial co"pound, and eventually persuaded the e"peror to "ove the govern"ent fro" ChHang+an to (oyang, where for the next half century she tried to exorcise the "e"ory of her deed. -n late 5;6 uHs husband, the e"peror, died, and for a ti"e she allowed his son, the true heir, to occupy the throneAuntil she could find a pretext to ta,e over the govern"ent co"pletely. * couple of years after the e"perorHs death, when u was aged sixty, she beca"e infatuated with a lusty peddler of cos"etics and aphrodisiacs, a "an whose virility had "ade hi" a favorite with various serving ladies around the palace. To give hi" a respectable post, she appointed hi" abbot of the "a&or )uddhist "onastery of (oyangAenabling hi" to satisfy, as it were, a double office in the service of the state. @is antics and those of his followers did the cause of )uddhis" little good over the next few years. hen in 59> his arrogance finally beca"e too "uch even for u, she had hi" strangled by the court ladies and his body sent bac, to

the "onastery in a cart. *lthough u is re"e"bered today as an ardent )uddhist, so"e have suggested that her devotions turned as "uch to the clai"s of fortune telling by )uddhist nuns #so"e of whose organiGations in (oyang reportedly ran brothels on the side$ as to a pious concern with -ndian philosophy. SHEN1HSI0 45681=6573 THE FIRST ?SIXTH PATRIARCH? -t is ,nown that around ?84 E"press u invited an aging ChHan "on, na"ed !hen+hsiu, follower of the (an,avatara school of )odhidhar"a, to co"e north to the i"perial capital fro" his "onastery in central China. < @e was over ninety at the ti"e and had a"assed a lifelong reputation for his rigorous practice of dhyana. !hen+hsiu agreed reluctantly, reportedly having to be carried on a pallet into the presence of the e"press. -t is said that u curtsied to hi", an unusual act for a head of state, and i""ediately "oved hi" into the palace, where he see"s to have beco"e the priest+in+residence. *s for why E"press u would have chosen to honor a lineage of ChHan )uddhis", it has been pointed out that she was at the ti"e atte"pting to supplant the established THang 'ynasty of her late husband with one of her own. *nd since the THang e"perors had honored a )uddhist lineage, it was essential that she do the sa"eAbut one of a different school. !hen+hsiu was both e"inent and unclai"ed, an ideal candidate to beco"e the court )uddhist for her fledgling dynastyAwhich, needless to say, was never established. /onetheless, !hen+hsiu was given the title of I(ord of the law of ChHang+an and (oyang,I and he preached to vast crowds drawn fro" the entire northern regions. To solidify his e"inence, u had "onasteries built in his honor at his birthplace, at his "ountain retreat, and in the capital. !hen+hsiu, who briefly reigned as the !ixth %atriarch of ChHan, was described in the early chronicles as a sensitive and bright child who, out of despair for the world, early on turned away fro" Confucianis" to beco"e a )uddhist "on,. *t age forty+six he finally found

his way to the East Mountain retreat of the :ifth %atriarch, @ung+&en, where he studied under the "aster until achieving enlighten"ent. *s noted previously he was a"ong the eleven "ost pro"inent individuals re"e"bered fro" the "onastery of the :ifth %atriarch. @e later left the "onastery and traveled for al"ost two decades, during which ti"e another of the students of @ung+&en, :a+&u, eclipsed hi" in fa"e and followers. @owever, !hen+hsiu see"s to have been the best ,nown Master, eventually beco"ing the titular head of the (an,avatara faction, also to be ,nown as the /orthern schoolApossibly because !hen+hsiu brought it to the urbaniGed, sophisticated capitals of /orth China, (oyang and ChHang+an. This was ChHanHs "ost i"perial "o"ent, and no less than a state "inister co"posed the "e"orial epitaph for !hen+hsiuHs gravestone. *lthough his specific teachings are not well ,nown, a verse survives fro" one of his ser"ons that see"s to suggest that the teachings of ChHan were really teachings of the "ind and owed little to traditional )uddhis". The teaching of all the &uddhas $n one6s own .ind originally exists> To see- the .ind without one6s +elf, $s li-e running away from the father.G *fter he died a pupil na"ed %Hu+chi #d. ?69$ carried on his organiGation in the capital. This was the high point of official ChHan, signifying the "o"ent of the (an,avatara schoolHs greatest prestige. %erhaps "ost i"portant, the success of !hen+hsiu was also the success of ChHan, or what appeared to be success. The sect had risen fro" being the passion of ho"eless teachers of dhyana to the ob&ect of i"perial honors in the "idst of ChinaHs finest "o"ent, the THang 'ynasty. The THang was an era to be re"e"bered forever for its poetry, its art, its architecture, its cultural brilliance.= 2nfortunately for /orthern ChHan, this cultural brilliance was beginning to be the province of groups other than the blueblooded gentry that traditionally had controlled ChinaHs culture. The glories of the THang were

to so"e degree the creation of the non+gentry, and an outcast warrior would before long bring the govern"ent to its ,nees, even as an obscure ChHan "aster fro" the rural south was soon to erase !hen+hsiuHs see"ingly per"anent place in history. SHEN1H0I 45=61=5@73 THE ?MARTIN (0THER? OF CH2AN The 'avid to !hen+hsiuHs .oliath was a "aster with a si"ilar+ sounding na"eD !hen+hui. This theological street fighter was a native of the province of @upeh, so"e distance south of the lavish twin THang captials of ChHang+ an and (oyang.> @e began as a Taoist scholar, but later turned to )uddhis", traveling even farther south around his fortieth year to beco"e the disciple of a priest na"ed @ui+neng, whose te"ple was TsHao+chHi, &ust north of the southern port city of Canton in 3uangtung province. -t will be re"e"bered that @ui+neng #whose legend we will explore in the next chapter$ had also been a disciple of the :ifth %atriarch, @ung+&en, studying alongside !hen+ hsiu. !hen+hui is thought to have studied under @ui+neng for around five years, until the latterHs death in ?46. *fter this he traveled about China, ending up at @ua+tHai, slightly northeast of the capital of (oyang. @e see"s to have been a "an of charis"atic presence, one who inspired followers easily. Then, in the year ?6<, at a convocation of ChHan worthies at the te"ple, he "ounted the platfor" and, in a historic "o"ent, declared that the great ChHan organiGations of China, heretofore beholden to !hen+hsiu as !ixth %atriarch, were following a false "aster.5 The historical significance of this convocation and !hen+huiHs attac, "ight be li,ened to the defiant act of Martin (uther, when he challenged church hierarchy in sixteenth+century .er"any. ith superb audacity, !hen+ hui went on to spell out a new history of ChHan that supported his clai"s. @is revised chronicle cul"inated with the na"e of his old teacher @ui+neng, theretofore an obscure follower of the :ifth %atriarch, @ung+&en, who" he declared !ixth %atriarch. @e insisted that !hen+hsiu,

the "an honored by E"press u, had posed falsely as the heir of @ung+&en. The /orthern school of !hen+hsiu and his heir, %Hu+chi, had perpetrated a historical deceit, said !hen+hui, robbing the true !ixth %atriarch, the southerner @ui+neng, of his due recognition. :or !hen+hui to have challenged the hand+pic,ed school of the ruling fa"ily was an incredibly courageous act, but perhaps one that was &ust audacious enough to win public sy"pathy. @e touted this new proposition "ore or less full+ti"e between the years ?6< and ?=>, as he traveled about /orth China and got to ,now the officials of the THang regi"e. @is political standing gradually i"proved and he was eventually invited #in ?=>, at age seventy+seven$ to (oyang to assu"e leadership of the great @o+tse te"ple. *lthough the particular ob&ect of his criticis", !hen+hsiuHs disciple %Hu+chi, had died in ?69, !hen+huiHs attac,s on the lineage continued undi"inished. %olitics finally caught up with hi", however, when a follower of !hen+ hsiuHs I/orthernI ChHan na"ed (u -, who &ust happened to be chief of i"perial censors, accused hi" of plotting against the govern"ent #citing as evidence the large crowds he routinely attracted$. :inally, E"peror @suan+ tsung #grandson of E"press u$ hi"self su""oned !hen+hui fro" (oyang to ChHang+an, where he Juestioned the "aster and finally sent hi" into exile in the deep south. This was about ?>6. -t was at this point that Chinese political history and ChHan collide, for the throne was soon to need !hen+huiHs help. E"peror @suan+tsung #reigned ?4<+?>5$ has been credited by "any with the wrec, of the THang 'ynasty. *t the beginning of his reign the capital had been in the east at (oyang #where E"press u had "oved it. to escape her "e"ories$, but the aristocracy in the west successfully pressured hi" to bring it bac, to ChHang+an. -n his declining years @suan+tsung beca"e infatuated with the wife of his son, a lady now infa"ous in Chinese history as 7ang 3uei+fei. !he subseJuently was divorced by her husband and beca"e a "e"ber of the e"perorHs hare" in ?6;, co"ing to en&oy enor"ous influence in affairs of state. !he had first been brought to the e"perorHs attention by one of her relatives, and in typical

Chinese style she procured govern"ent posts for all available "e"bers of her fa"ily. *s the poet Tu :u #?4<+ ??8$ described her "achinationsD +o many courtiers now throng around the court That honest men must tremble( 1nd it6s said that the gold plate from the treasury Has gone to the -insmen of Lady Kang.B *lthough none of these blood relatives ever rose to the rich opportunities the situation afforded, another of her favorites co"pensated abundantly for their political ineptitude. @is na"e was *n (u+shan, a IbarbarianI of Tur,ish extraction, born in ?86, who first entered China as a slave to an officer in a northern garrison of the e"pire. *fter distinguishing hi"self as a soldier, he ca"e to the attention of 7ang 3uei+fei, who was so char"ed by the "an that she adopted hi" as her son. )efore long he was a fa"iliar figure at the court, reportedly very fat and possessing a flair for entertaining the bored aristocracy by his flippancy. Eventually he was "ade governor of a frontier province, where under pretense of a foreign threat he proceeded to recruit an ar"y of alar"ing proportions and Juestionable allegiance. Meanwhile, bac, in the capital, (ady 7ang and her relatives had ta,en over the govern"ent, whereupon they unwisely decided that *n (u+shan should be brought under fir"er control. ith their hostility providing hi" &ust the pretext needed, he "arched his new ar"y toward ChHang+an, pausing only long enough to conJuer (oyang and proclai" hi"self e"peror. This was in Eanuary ?>5. )y Euly he had also ta,en ChHang+an, fro" which the royal fa"ily had already fled. Conditions deteriorated sufficiently that the troops supporting the throne de"anded, and got, the head of (ady 7ang 3uei+ fei as the price for continued support. #0n i"perial orders she was strangled by a eunuch.$ -n the "eanti"e, the i"perial THang forces found reinforce"ents, including so"e *rab "ercenaries. *fter a battle outside ChHang+an which left *n (u+shanHs forces in disarray, the rebel was

"urdered, so"e say by his own son. !oon thereafter the victorious "ercenaries sac,ed and looted (oyang, ending forever its pro"inence in Chinese history. The govern"ent of the THang survived, but it was penniless after the "any war years in which it could not enforce taxation.; The ti"e was now ?>?, so"e four years after !hen+ huiHs banish"ent. The destitute govern"ent, desperate for "oney, decided to set up ordination platfor"s in the "a&or cities across China and raise cash by selling certificates of investiture for )uddhist "on,s. #!ince entry into the priesthood re"oved an individual fro" the tax rolls, it was accepted practice for the Chinese govern"ent to reJuire an advance co"pensation.$ !hen+huiHs oratorical gifts were suddenly re"e"bered by so"e of his for"er followers, and the old heretic was recalled to assist in the fundraising. @e was such an effective fundraiser in the ruined city of (oyang that the govern"ent co""issioned special Juarters to be built for hi" on the grounds of his old te"ple, the @o+tse. #@e was later to be re"e"bered as the Master of @o+tse.$ The price for his cooperation see"s to have been the official acceptance of his version of ChHanHs history. -n his battle with the /orthern school of ChHan he had outlived his opponents and through a biGarre turn of events had finally won the day. !olely through his persistence, the obscure !outhern ChHan "on, @ui+neng was installed as !ixth %atriarch in ChHan histories #replacing !hen+hsiu$, and one history went so far as to declare !hen+hui hi"self the !eventh %atriarch. The philosophical significance of what !hen+huiHs I!outhernI doctrine brought to ChHan has been described as nothing less than a revolution. * "odern Zen scholar has clai"ed that !hen+huiHs revolution produced a co"plete replace"ent of -ndian )uddhis" with Chinese philosophy, ,eeping only the na"e. !hen+hui, he clai"s, swept aside all for"s of "editation or dhyana and replaced it with a concept called no+"indD the doctrines of Iabsence of thoughtI and Iseeing into oneHs original nature.I9

%erhaps this philosophical coup d6etat "ay best be understood by co"paring the /orthern and !outhern teachings. The discredited /orthern school of !hen+hsiu had preached that the road to enlighten"ent "ust be traversed Istep by step,I that there were in fact two stages of the "indAthe first being a Ifalse "indI which perceives the world erroneously in dualities, and the second a Itrue "indI which is pure and transcends all discri"inations and dualities, perceiving the world si"ply as a unity. 0ne proceeds fro" the Ifalse "indI to the Itrue "indI step by step, through the suppression of erroneous thought processes by the practice of dhyana or "editation, in which the "ind and the senses slowly reach a state of absolute Juietude. The !outhern school too, issue with this theory of the "ind on a nu"ber of points. To begin, they said that if there really is no duality in the world, then how can the "ind be divided into IfalseI and ItrueIL They argued that the answer Juite si"ply is that there is only one "ind, whose "any functions are all "erely expressions of single true reality. The unity of all things is the true realityK our "inds are also part of this realityK and upon realiGing this, you have achieved the sa"e enlighten"ent experience once realiGed by the )uddha. There is no Ifalse "indI and Itrue "ind,I nor is there any need for a long progra" of dhyana to slowly suppress false thoughts. *ll that is needed is to practice Iabsence of thoughtI and thereby intuitively to realiGe a si"ple truthD 0ne unity pervades everything. This realiGation they called )uddha+"ind, and it could only happen Iall at onceI #not Istep by stepI$, at any ti"e and without warning. This "o"ent of pri"al realiGation they called Iseeing into oneHs original nature.I *lthough !hen+hui is so"ewhat vague about exactly what practice should replace "editation, the scholar alter (iebenthal has inferred the following about !hen+ huiHs attitude toward Isudden enlighten"entI as a replace"ent for "editationD I@e see"s to have re&ected "editation in the technical sense of the word. -nstead of "ethodical endeavors designed to pro"ote religious progress he reco""ends a change of point of view

leading to non+attach"ent. . . . /on+attach"ent in this case "eans that external ob&ects are not allowed to catch our fancy.. . . E1F thing recollected is isolated, it is singled out of the whole, and is thus an illusion( for all short of the undifferentiated continuum is illusive. The senses wor- as usual . . . but 6no desire is aroused.6 . . . This change happens suddenly, that is, it is not dependent upon preceding exertions( it can be brought about without first passing through the stages of a career. That is why it is called 6sudden awa-ening.6 I48 (iebenthal interprets !hen+hui as saying that whereas the purpose of "editation should be "erely to erase our attach"ent to physical things, it also re"oves our cogniGance of the", which is not necessarily a reJuire"ent for nonattach"ent. -t should be possible for us to be aware of the world without being attached to it and enslaved by it. *ccording to !hen+huiHs ser"onD 3hen thus my friends are told to discard as useless all they have learned before, then those who have spent fifty or more, or only twenty years practicing meditation, hearing this, might be very much pu00led. . . . 'riends, listen attentively, $ spea- to you of self,deception. 3hat does self,deception meanC Kou, who have assembled in this place today, are craving for riches and pleasures of intercourse with males and females( you are thin-ing of gardens and houses. . . . The irvana +utra says, 4To get rid of your passions is not irvana( to loo- upon them as no matter of yours, that is irvana.I44 !o far so goodK but how do we reach this state of recognition without attach"entL *pparently the way is to so"ehow find our original state, in which we were naturally unattached to the surrounding world. The way is to "entally disassociate ourselves fro" the tur"oil of society that surrounds us and loo, inward, touching our original nature. -n this way, both pra7na and samadhi, awareness and noninvolve"ent, which have been

described as the active and passive sides of "editation, are achieved si"ultaneously. ow, let us penetrate to that state in which we are not attached. 3hat do we get to -nowC ot being attached we are tran/uil and guileless. This state underlying all motions and passions is called samadhi. "enetrating to this fundamental state we encounter a natural wisdom that is conscious of this original tran/uility and guilelessness. This wisdom is called pra&na. The intimate relation between sa"adhi and pra&na is thus defined. . . . $f now you penetrate to that state in which your mind is not attached, and yet remains open to impressions, and thus are conscious of the fact that your mind is not attached, then you have reached the state of original blan-ness and tran/uility. 'rom that state of blan-ness and tran/uility there arises an inner -nowledge through which blue, yellow, red, and white things in this world are well distinguished. That is pra&na. Ket no desires arise from these distinctions. That is sa"adhi. . . . $t follows that freedom from attachment :to external things, which replaces meditation in %h6an &uddhism<, enables you to loo- into the heart of all the &uddhas of the past, and yet it is nothing else than what you yourselves experience today.8; %erhaps the "ost revolutionary thing about this approach was that it see"ed to eli"inate the need for all the traditional apparatus of )uddhis". -t had little or nothing to do with organiGed religion, and even less connection with the "ountains of -ndian philosophy that had gone before. * thousand years of -ndian thought had been distilled down to a single truthD The realiGation of our original nature co"prises enlighten"ent. -f this were ta,en at face value, then there was no longer any need for the )uddhist co""unity, the sutras, the chanting, even "editation. There was, in fact, no longer any need for )uddhis". -t had been reduced, as the Chinese scholar ing+tsit Chan has observed, to a concern for the "ind alone.

)y redefining "editation, !hen+hui had Ilaid the foundations of Chinese Zen which was no Zen at all.I46 *s !hen+hui now described "editation or dhyanaD !itting "otionless is no dhyanaK introspection into your own "ind is no dhyanaK and loo,ing inward at your own cal"ness is no dhyana.4=. . . @ere in "y school, to have no thoughts is sitting, and to see oneHs original nature is dhyana #ChHan$.4> hat happened to -ndian "editationL /o wonder the scholar @u !hih has described this new teaching as a Chinese revolt against )uddhis". The political triu"ph of !hen+hui "ade !outhern ChHan the official sect, but it also "eant that he, now one of the leading religious figures in China, had necessarily beco"e a part of the ruling establish"ent. (ittle wonder that the actual future of ChHan soon reverted bac, to rural teachers, "en who could "ore convincingly clai" to despise the ways of the world, as they "editated in their secluded "ountain retreats far fro" i"perial patronage. !hen+huiHs school of I!outhernI ChHan of @o+tse te"ple, which had established do"inance in the north, was soon to be eclipsed by these new vigorous but unlettered rural ChHanists.45 -nterestingly, the official recognition of the court see"ed to Juic,ly extinguish any school of ChHan that received it. !hen+hsiu was honored by E"press u, and his school was then supplanted by that of !hen+hui, whose own i"perial recognition and honors were soon to be dust in the history of ChHan, as the new rural school burst on the scene and effectively too, over.4? The disorders surrounding and following the rebellion of *n (u+shan are co""only considered today as signaling the decline of the great age of the THang 'ynasty. They certainly signified the atrophy of the war+ torn /orth Chinese capitals as the political power in China. (oyang and ChHang+an ca"e to be replaced in econo"ic influence by the south, a region relatively untouched by the constant struggles /orth China had to "ount against barbarian invaders. /orthern scholars retired to the pastoral south, where they laGed in peaceful gardens and recalled the great poets of the

early THang. Thus /orthern urban ChHan followed the general de"ise of /orth Chinese political strength. as !hen+hui really the father of the new I"editationlessI ChHan of the "indL !o"e traditional scholars clai" it was not really !hen+hui who revolutioniGed ChHan, but rather his "aster, the !outhern teacher @ui+neng. :or exa"ple, '. T. !uGu,i believed that whereas !hen+hui was correct in eJuating "editation with the pri"al ,nowledge of self called pra7na, he actually taught that this ,nowledge ca"e about through rational understanding rather than intuition.4; -t was @ui+ neng, said !uGu,i, who correctly understood that pra7na was intuition and who ,new that it could be realiGed only through the IsuddenI path rather than through the Istep+ by+stepI path. This "ay well have been true. Eust as the *postle %aul interpreted the teachings of an obscure provincial teacher, Eesus of /aGareth, and populariGed the" a"ong the urban centers of the 1o"an E"pire, so !hen+hui dispensed the ideas of @ui+neng in northern cities, possibly te"pering the" where necessary to gain acceptance fro" the "ore rationally inclined urban ChHanists. To continue the analogy, !hen+hui #li,e %aul$ never Juotes his "entor directly in his writingsA so"ething he certainly would have done if there had been anything to JuoteAbut in a few decades there would be a full autobiography of @ui+neng co"plete with a Iser"on.I !hen+huiHs own contribution was to open the way for the anti+"editation rural school to ta,e over ChHan. e "ay now turn to the legendary @ui+neng, re"e"bered as the I!ixth %atriarch.I

Cha/t"# Fi!"
H0I1NEN*& THE SIXTH PATRIARCH AN) FATHER OF MO)ERN ZEN

The "aster honored today as the father of "odern Zen was an i"poverished country lad fro" !outh China, whose attributed autobiography, The %latfor" !utra of @ui+neng, is the only IsutraI of )uddhis" written by a Chinese.4 -n this wor,, @ui+neng #56;+?46$ told the story of his rise fro" obscurity to fa"e. @e described his father

as a high Chinese official who, un&ustly banished and reduced to a co""oner, died of sha"e while @ui+neng was still a s"all child. To survive, the fatherless boy and his "other sold wood in the "ar,etplace at @an+hai, near Canton in !outh China. Then one day he chanced to overhear a "an reciting a passage fro" the 'ia"ond !utra. @ui+neng stopped to listen, and when he heard the phrase I(et your "ind function freely, without abiding anywhere or in anything,I he was suddenly awa,ened. 2pon inJuiry, he discovered that the reciter was a follower of the :ifth %atriarch, @ung+&en. This teacher, the stranger said, taught that by reciting the 'ia"ond !utra it was possible to see into oneHs own nature and to directly experience enlighten"ent. The 'ia"ond !utra #so"eti"es called the Ca&racchedi,a !utra$ beca"e the passion of @ui+neng as well as the touchstone for the new Chinese ChHan. *n unusually brief wor,, it has been called the ulti"ate distillation of the )uddhist isdo" (iterature. The following excerpt is representative of its teaching. 1ll the mind6s arbitrary concepts of matter, phenomena, and of all conditioning factors and all conceptions and ideas relating thereto are li-e a dream, a phantasm, a bubble, a shadow, the evanescent dew, the lightning6s flash. Every true disciple should thus loo- upon all phenomena and upon all the activities of the mind, and -eep his mind empty and selfless and tran/uil. ; The 'ia"ond !utra does not search the philosophic heights of the (an,avatara !utra, the treatise revered by the early dhyana school of )odhidhar"a, and precisely for this reason it appealed to the !outhern schoolAwhose goal was the si"plification of ChHan. @ui+neng could not resist the call and i""ediately set out for the East Mountain "onastery of the :ifth %atriarch. hen he arrived, @ung+&en opened the interview by as,ing the newco"er his origin. @earing that he was fro" the Canton region, the old priest sighed, I-f youHre fro" the south you "ust be a barbarian. @ow do you expect to beco"e enlightenedLI To this @ui+neng shot bac,, IThe

people in the north and south "ay be different, but enlighten"ent is the sa"e in both regions.I *lthough this i"pertinence caused the "aster to i""ediately recogniGe @ui+nengHs "ental gifts, he said nothing and si"ply put hi" to wor, threshing and pounding rice. #This exchange, incidentally, will be recogniGed as the "e"orable first encounter between two generations of "asters, an obligatory ele"ent in all the legends of the early %atriarchs.$ :or the next eight "onths, the young novice toiled in obscurity, never so "uch as seeing the :ifth %atriarch. Then one day the old priest called an asse"bly and announced that he was ready to pass on the robe of the patriarchy to the one who could co"pose a verse showing an intuitive understanding of his own inner nature. The disciples tal,ed over this challenge a"ong the"selves and decided, IThe robe is certain to be handed down to !hen+hsiu, who is head "on, and the natural heir. @e will be a worthy successor to the "aster, so we will not bother co"posing a verse.I !hen+hsiu, the sa"e "aster later exalted by the E"press u in (oyang, ,new what was expected of hi" and began struggling to co"pose the verse. *fter several daysH effort, he found the courage to write an unsigned gatha on a corridor wall in the dar, of night. Iur body is the &odhi,tree 1nd our mind a mirror bright. %arefully we wipe them hour by hour, 1nd let no dust alight.G hen the :ifth %atriarch saw the verse, he convened an asse"bly in the corridor, burned incense, and declared that they all should recite the anony"ous passage. *fterward, however, he su""oned !hen+hsiu to his private Juarters and inJuired if he was author of the verse. 1eceiving an affir"ative reply, the "aster said, IThis verse does not de"onstrate that you have yet achieved true understanding of your original nature. 7ou have reached the front gate, but you have not yet entered into full understanding. %repare your "ind "ore

fully and when you are ready, sub"it another gatha.I -t is a ChHan co""onplace that !hen+hsiuHs verse stressed "ethodical practice and was perfectly logicalA&ust the opposite of the sudden, anti+logical leap of intuition that is true enlighten"ent. !hen+hsiu departed, but try as he "ight he could not produce the second gatha. -n the "eanti"e, @ui+neng overheard the "on,s reciting !hen+hsiuHs lines. *lthough he recogniGed that its author had yet to grasp his own original nature, @ui+neng as,ed to be shown the verse and allowed to do ho"age to it. *fter he was led to the hall, the illiterate lad fro" the barbarian south as,ed to have a gatha of his own inscribed next to the one on the wall. There is no &odhi,tree or stand of a mirror bright. +ince all is void, 3here can the dust alightC= *lthough the asse"bly was electrified by the insight contained in this gatha, the diplo"atic old :ifth %atriarch publicly declared that its author lac,ed full understanding. 'uring the night, however, he su""oned young @ui+neng to the dar,ened "editation hall, where he expounded the 'ia"ond !utra to hi" and then cere"onially passed to hi" the robe of )odhidhar"a, sy"bol of the patriarchy. @e also advised hi" to travel i""ediately to the south, to stay underground for a ti"e in the interest of safety, and then to preach the 'har"a to all who would listen. @ui+neng departed that very night, crossing the 7angtGe and heading southAthe anointed !ixth %atriarch at age twenty+four. hen the other "on,s realiGed what had happened, they hastily organiGed a party to retrieve @ui+neng and the ChHan relics. :inally one of the pursuers, a burly for"er soldier, reached the new !ixth %atriarch in his hideaway. !uddenly overco"e by the presence of @ui+ neng, he found hi"self as,ing not for the return of the robe but rather for instruction. @ui+neng obliged hi" with, I/ot thin,ing of good, not thin,ing of evil, tell "e what was your original face before your "other and father

were born.I This celebrated JuestionAwhich dra"atiGes the Zen concept of an original nature in every person that precedes and transcends artificial values such as good and evilAcaused the pursuer to be enlightened on the spot. :or the next several years @ui+neng sought seclusion, living a"ong hunters in the south and concealing his identity. The legends say his ,indly nature caused hi" so"eti"es to secretly release ani"als fro" the huntersH traps and that he would accept only vegetables fro" their stewpots. )ut this life as an anony"ous vagabond, a %atriarch while not even a priest, could not be his final calling. 0ne day when the ti"e felt right #in 5?5, as he neared forty$, he renounced the life of a refugee and ventured into Canton to visit the :a+hsing te"ple. 0ne afternoon as he lingered in the guise of an anony"ous guest, he overheard a group of "on,s arguing about a banner flapping in the breeGe. 0ne "on, declared, IThe banner is "oving.I *nother insisted, I/o, it is the wind that is "oving.I *lthough he was only a lay observer, @ui+neng could not contain hi"self, and he interrupted the" with his dra"atic "anifesto, I7ou are both wrong. -t is your "ind that "oves.I The abbot of the te"ple, standing nearby, was du"bstruc, by the profound insight of this stranger, and on the spot offered to beco"e his pupil. @ui+neng declined the honor, however, reJuesting instead that his head be shaved and he be allowed to enter )uddhist orders, a priest at last. @e was shortly acclai"ed by one and all as the !ixth %atriarch, and after a few "onths in Canton he decided to "ove to a te"ple of his own at TsHao+chHi, where he taught for the next four decades. :ro" this "onastery ca"e the teachings that would define the faith. The foregoing story, perhaps the "ost fa"ous in the Zen canon, is drawn "ainly fro" the afore"entioned %latfor" !utra of @ui+neng, purportedly an autobiography and ser"on presented to an asse"bly in his later years.> #The setting was a te"ple near his "onastery, where he was invited to lecture one day by the local abbot. -t was

transcribed by one of his disciples, ince @ui+neng traditionally was said to have been illiterate.$ The docu"ent has co"e down to us in three parts. The first part is the story &ust su""ariGedD a poetry contest at the "onastery of the :ifth %atriarch in which the "an later to lead /orthern ChHan is hu"iliated by a bu"p,in, who hi"self "ust then flee the wrath of the ChHan establish"ent and wait for recognition in the south. The second part is a lecture that scholars believe probably represents the general outline of @ui+nengHs views on "anHs original nature. The third part is a highly e"bellished account of his later years, usually dis"issed as the pious invention of a "ore recent date. The real life of @ui+neng is a historical puGGle that "ay well never be resolved. :or exa"ple, it is co""on to note that the later ChHan writers too, great pains to render @ui+neng as illiterate and unlettered as possible, the "ore to e"phasiGe his egalitarianis". #This in spite of the fact that the ser"on attributed to hi" refers to at least seven different sutras.$ The facts were ad&usted to "a,e a pointD -f a si"ple illiterate wood peddler could beco"e %atriarch, what better proof that the faith is open to all peopleL Many of the traditional anecdotes surrounding his early years are si"ilarly suspect, and in fact the "ost respected @ui+neng scholar has declared, I-f we consider all the available "aterial, and eli"inate patiently all the inconsistencies by pic,ing the "ost li,ely legends, we can arrive at a fairly credible biography of @ui+neng. -f, on the other hand, we eli"inate the legends and the undocu"ented references to the !ixth %atriarch, we "ay conclude that there is, in fact, al"ost nothing that we can really say about hi".I5 7et does it really "atter whether the legend is "eticulously faithful to the factsL @ui+neng is as "uch a sy"bol as a historical individual, and it was essential that his life have legendary Jualities. -n his case, art "ay have helped life along a bit, but it was for a larger purpose. The purpose was to for"aliGe the new philosophical ideas of !outhern ChHan. The second part of the %latfor" !utra, which details his philosophical position, has been characteriGed as a "asterpiece of Chinese thought, the

wor, not of a scholar but of a natural sage whose wisdo" flowed spontaneously fro" deep within. 7et it is co""only conceded that the uniJueness of his "essage lies not so "uch in its being original #which "ost agree it is not$ but in its rendering of the basic ideas of )uddhis" into Chinese ter"s.? )uddhis" itself see"s at ti"es to be in Juestion, as the !ixth %atriarch discounts traditional observances, even suggesting that the )uddhist estern %aradise, ,nown as the %ure (and, "ight be "erely a state of "ind. The deluded person concentrates on &uddha and wishes to be born in the other land( the awa-ened person ma-es pure his own mind. . . . $f only the mind has no impurity, the 3estern Land is not far. $f the mind gives rise to impurities, even though you invo-e the &uddha and seeto be reborn in the 3est, it will be difficult to reach . . . but if you practice straightforward mind, you will arrive there in an instant.2 @ui+neng also Juestioned the traditional ChHan practice of sitting in "editation, declaring it to be "ore a "ind+set than a physical act #if his !utra is authentic, then he predates his pupil !hen+hui on this point$. @e also bro,e it apart into two different categoriesD the sitting and the "editation. . . . what is this teaching that we call 4sitting in medita, tion4C $n this teaching 4sitting4 means without any obstruction anywhere, outwardly and under all circum, stances, not to activate thoughts. 4.editation4 is internal, ly to see the original nature and not become confused. 5 Elsewhere he is Juoted as declaring that protracted sitting only shac,les the body without profiting the "ind.48 *lthough @ui+neng severely too, to tas, those who depended on "editation, there is no evidence that he forbade it entirely. hat he did re&ect was a fixation on "editation, a confusionAto use a later Zen expression Aof the finger pointing at the "oon with the "oon itself. Even so, this was a radical "ove. @ui+neng presents us

with the startling prospect of a dhyana teacher Juestioning the function of dhyanaAuntil then the very basis of the school. 7et the sutra is far fro" being all negative. -t has a nu"ber of positive "essages, including the followingD *ll people are born in an enlightened state, a condition in which good and evil are not distinguished. /or are there distracting discri"inations, attach"ents, and perturbations of the spirit in this pri"al estate. #* very si"ilar view is found throughout the poetry of illia" ordsworth, to give only one exa"ple fro" estern thought.44$ )ut if "anHs original nature is pure and unstained, how then does evil enter into a personHs characterL @e faces this classic theological Juestion head+onD Mood friends, although the nature of people in this world is from the outset pure in itself, the ten thousand things are all within their own natures. $f people thin- of all the evil things, then they will practice evil( if they thin- of all the good things, then they will practice good. Thus it is clear that in this way all the dhar"as :aspects of humanity< are within your own natures, yet your own natures are always pure. The sun and moon are always bright, yet if they are covered by clouds, although they are bright, below they are dar-ened, and the sun, moon, stars, and planets cannot be seen clearly. &ut if suddenly the wind of wisdom should blow and roll away the clouds and mists, all forms in the universe appear at once. . . . E$Ff a single thought of good evolves, intuitive wisdom is born. 1s one lamp serves to dispel a thousand years of dar-ness, so one flash of wisdom destroys ten thousand years of ignorance.8; *s @ui+neng viewed it, there is latent within us all the condition of enlighten"ent, the state that precedes our concern with good and evil. -t can be reclai"ed through an intuitive acJuaintance with our own inner natures. This is well su""ariGed by the @ui+neng scholar %hilip 7a"pols,yD IThe %latfor" !utra "aintains that the nature of "an is fro" the outset pure, but that his purity has no

for". )ut by self+practice, by endeavoring for hi"self, "an can gain insight into this purity. Meditation, pra7na, true reality, purity, the original nature, self+nature, the )uddha nature, all these ter"s, which are used constantly throughout the ser"on, indicate the sa"e undefined *bsolute, which when seen and experienced by the individual hi"self, constitutes enlighten"ent.I 46 This condition of original innocence that is enlighten"ent can be reclai"ed through Ino+thought,I a state in which the "ind floats, unattached to what it encounters, "oving freely through pheno"ena, unperturbed by the incursions and attractions of the world, liberated because it is its own "aster, tranJuil because it is pure. This is the condition in which we were born and it is the condition to which we can return by practicing Ino+thought.I *lthough it happens to be si"ilar to the condition that can be realiGed through arduous "editation, @ui+neng apparently did not believe that "editation was reJuired. This pri"al condition of the "ind, this gli"pse into our original nature, could be realiGed instantaneously if our "ind were receptive. )ut what is this state called Ino+thoughtIL *ccording to @ui+ nengD To be unstained in all environments is called no,thought. $f on the basis of your own thoughts you separate from environment, then, in regard to things, thoughts are not produced. $f you stop thin-ing of the myriad things, and cast aside all thoughts, as soon as one instant of thought is cut off, you will be reborn in another realm. . . . &ecause man in his delusion has thoughts in relation to his environment, heterodox ideas stemming from these thoughts arise, and passions and false views are produced from them.8H 7a"pols,y characteriGes Ino+thoughtI as followsD IThoughts are conceived as advancing in progression fro" past to present to future, in an unending chain of successive thoughts. *ttach"ent to one instant of thought leads to attach"ent to a succession of thoughts, and thus to bondage. )y cutting off attach"ent to one

instant of thought, one "ay, by a process unexplained, cut off attach"ent to a succession of thoughts and thus attain to no+thought, which is the state of enlighten"ent.I4> %recisely how this condition of Ino+ thoughtI enlighten"ent is achieved is not explained in the %latfor" !utra and in fact has been the "a&or concern of Zen ever since. The one thing that all will agree is that the harder one tries to attain it, the "ore difficult it beco"es. -t is there inside, waiting to be released, but it can be reached only through the intuitive "ind. *nd it happens suddenly, when we least expect. The "aster @ui+neng stands at the watershed of Zen history. -ndeed he "ay be the watershed, in the e"bodied for" of a legend. There see"s reason to suspect that he was canoniGed well after the fact, as was )odhidhar"a. )ut whereas )odhidhar"a provided an anchor for the original for"ation of a separate Dhyana sect in Chinese )uddhis", @ui+neng beca"e the rallying sy"bol for a new type of ChHan, one wholly Chinese, and one that see"ed to discount )odhidhar"aHs old "ainstay, "editation. @e beca"e the Chinese answer to the -ndian )odhidhar"a. @ui+neng redefined the specific characteristics of the ChHan goal and described in nontheological ter"s the "ind state in which duality is banished. )ut he failed to go the next step and explain how to get there. *ll he did was point out #to use the ter"inology of logic$ that "editation not only was not a sufficient condition for enlighten"ent, it "ight not even be a necessary condition. hat then was reJuiredL The answer to this Juestion was to be wor,ed out during the next phase of ChHan, the so+called .olden *ge of Zen, when a new school of !outhern ChHan exploded #to use a co""on description$ in the south and went on to ta,e over all of ChHan. These new teachers see" to have accepted @ui+ neng as their patron, although the direct connection is not entirely clear. These "asters learned how to i"pose a torture cha"ber on the logical "ind, bringing to it such hu"iliations that it finally annihilated ego or self and surrendered to pra7na, intuitive wisdo". They devised

syste"atic ways to produce the state of Ino+thoughtI that @ui+neng and !hen+hui apparently could only invo,e.

PART II THE *O()EN A*E OF ZEN

. . . . in which teachers of rural, !outhern ChHan begin to experi"ent with new ways to precipitate the IsuddenI enlighten"ent experience, even bringing into Juestion the role of "editation. *long with the search for new techniJues goes the atte"pt to define precisely what enlighten"ent is and to for"aliGe the trans"ission process. 'uring this ti"e, ChHan "onasteries beco"e independent organiGations and ChHan a recogniGed, if

eccentric, )uddhist sect. The iconoclastic, self+supporting ChHan establish"ents ride out a persecution of )uddhis" in the "id+ninth century that effectively destroys all other )uddhist schools in China. This is the great creative era of ChHan, in which the sect secures its own identity and creates its own texts for use by later generations.

Cha/t"# SiA
MA1TS0& ORI*INATOR OF ?SHOCK? EN(I*HTENMENT

.a,tsu :right< and Layman "Nang -f @ui+neng was the !ixth %atriarch, then who was the seventhL *lthough several of his followers are "entioned in the %latfor" !utra, the only one who see"s to have "ade any difference in ChHan history was !hen+hui #5?8+ ?5<$, who successfully destroyed the /orthern school of !hen+hsiu #58>+?85$ and elevated @ui+neng. *lthough !hen+hui was given the accolade of !eventh %atriarch in so"e parts of the north, history was to be written elsewhere. !hen+huiHs school of I!outhernI ChHan was soon co"pro"ising with the re"aining /orthern ChHanistsAconceding that the study of the sutras could go along hand in hand with sudden enlighten"entAand he see"s to have en&oyed a little too "uch his role as i"perial socialite. The only "e"ber of !hen+huiHs school to realiGe any historical pro"inence was Tsung+"i #?;8+ ;=4$, whose fa"e attaches not to his original thought but rather to his scholarly writings describing the various

sects of ChHan.4 * litterateur and friend of the fa"ous poet %o Chu+i #??<+;=5$, he also tried unsuccessfully to "ediate between the followers of the step+by+step sutra+ reading )uddhists of the cities and the all+at+once, anti+ literary proponents of sudden enlighten"ent in the country, but he succeeded only in bringing the history of /orthern ChHan to a dignified close.< The Chinese scholar @u !hih s,illfully pinpoints why the social success of !hen+huiHs new I!outhernI school in the north actually contributed to its decline. *s he saw itD IThe explanation is si"ple. Zennis" could not flourish as an officially patroniGed religion, but only as an attitude of "ind, a "ethod of thin,ing and a "ode of living. *n officially patroniGed teacher of )uddhis" is obliged to perfor" all the traditional rituals and cere"onies which the true Zennist despises. !hen+hui succeeded in establishing Zennis" as a state religion, but by so doing he al"ost ,illed it. *ll further develop"ent of Chinese Zen had to co"e fro" those great teachers who valued si"ple life and intellectual freedo" and independence "ore than worldly recognition.I6 *nd in fact &ust such teachers had begun springing up li,e "ushroo"s. 0n lonely "ountaintops, teachers of sudden enlighten"ent were experi"enting with new ways to trans"it wordless insight. They see" to have despised traditional )uddhis", perhaps partly because )uddhis"Aby which is "eant the cultural elitists and aristocrats in the capitals of ChHang+an and (oyangAhad so long despised the". #1ecall the :ifth %atriarchHs greeting to @ui+nengD I-f youHre fro" the south, you "ust be a barbarian.I$ *lthough traditional )uddhis" #including teachers of dhyana$ continued to flourish, and the city of ChHang+an re"ained a "odel for *sian civiliGation, the political power of the THang govern"ent in the north gradually withered. *nd as it declined, so too did the fortunes of the traditional ChHan establish"ents that had flourished under i"perial patronage. The new ChHan teachers of the !outhern school "ay have felt s"ug in their new prestige and independence, but they still were sub&ect to the ingrained Chinese desire for a lineage. #%erhaps in the land of Confucius, spiritual

ancestors were essential to dignity.$ The triu"ph of the legend of @ui+neng in the north had not been lost on the ChHanists elsewhere, and it effectively "eant that for any ChHan school to have respectability nationwide, it had to be able to trace its lineage bac, to this illiterate southerner and his te"ple at TsHao+chHi. 2nfortunately this turned out to be difficult, since by the ti"e @ui+neng actually ca"e to be recogniGed as the !ixth %atriarch, he had been dead for half a century and there were few Chinese who even ,new firsthand of his existenceAand none besides !hen+hui who ever clai"ed to have studied under hi". @ow then could he be "ade the founder of the ChHan schools bloo"ing all over ChinaL The scholar @u !hih has speculated so"ewhat ,navishly on how @ui+nengHs IlineageI "ay have been created after the factD I)y the last Juarter of the eighth century, there began to be a great sta"pede of al"ost all the ChHan schools to get on the bandwagon of the school of @ui+neng. . . . @ui+neng died early in the eighth century, and his disciples were "ostly un,nown ascetics who lived and died in their hilly retreats. 0ne could easily have paid a visit to so"e of the". !o in the last decades of the century, so"e of those un,nown na"es were re"e"bered or discovered. Two of the na"es thus exhu"ed fro" obscurity were @uai+&ang of the @eng Mountains in @unan, and @sing+ssu of the ChHing+yuan Mountains of 3iangsi. /either of these na"es appeared in earlier versions of @ui+nengHs life story.I= These two "asters, /an+yueh @uai+&ang #5??+?==$ of @unan and ChHing+yuan @sing+ssu #d. ?=8$ of 3iangsi, were "ade the "issing lin,s between @ui+neng and the two schools of ChHan that would one day beco"e Eapanese 1inGai and !oto, respectively. !ince the lineage "ost i"portant for the early years of ChHanHs .olden *ge was that which would one day be the 1inGai school, the tradition of @uai+&ang will be exa"ined here first. *s noted above, although the legend says that @uai+&ang once studied under the !ixth %atriarch, @ui+neng, supporting historical evidence is not readily found. @owever, he is thought to have studied under another follower of the :ifth %atriarch @ung+&en and to have been

a part of the general scene of !outhern ChHan. > @is actual function "ay have been to supply a direct line of descent between @ui+neng and the "an who was to be the creator of 1inGai Zen as we ,now it today. That "an is the fa"ous Ma+tsu Tao+i #?89+?;;$, who even if not a direct spiritual descendant of @ui+neng was certainly a product of the sa"e exciting period of intellectual fer"ent. *ccording to the "ore or less conte"porary record left by the northern historian Tsung+ "i, Ma+tsu #which "eans I%atriarch MaI$ was a native of !Gechuan who was ordained a "on, at an early age by a 3orean "aster in his ho"e province.5 7oung Ma traveled on, as was co""on with beginning ChHan "on,s, and #so say the later legends$ finally ca"e to the "onastery of @uai+&ang, located on Mt. /an+yueh. The story of their first encounter beca"e a standard a"ong later ChHan "asters, for it is a particularly effective discrediting of that oneti"e ChHan "ainstay, "editation, which beca"e anathe"a to the "ore revolutionary !outhern school. *s the story goes, @uai+&ang one day ca"e upon Ma+ tsu absorbed in "editation and proceeded to Juestion the purpose of his long bouts of dhyana. Ma+tsu i""ediately replied, I- want to beco"e a )uddha, an enlightened being.I !aying nothing, @uai+&ang Juietly pic,ed up a bric, and started rubbing it on a stone. *fter a ti"e Ma+tsuHs curiosity bested hi" and he inJuired, I hy are you rubbing that bric, on a stoneLI @uai+&ang replied, I- a" polishing it into a "irror.I Ma+tsu probably ,new by this ti"e that he had been set up, but he had to follow throughD I)ut how can you "a,e a "irror by polishing a bric, on a stoneLI The celebrated answer wasD I@ow can you beco"e enlightened by sitting in "editationLI The point, driven ho"e ti"e and again throughout the eighth century, was that enlighten"ent is an active, not a passive, condition. *nd Ma+tsu hi"self was to beco"e the fore"ost exponent of enlighten"ent as a natural part of life. Ma+tsu always "ade a profound i"pression on his conte"poraries, and no s"all part "ay be attributable to

his peculiar physical traits. *s The Transmission of the Lamp describes hi"D $n appearance and bearing he was most stri-ing. He glared as a tiger does and he ambled li-e a cow. He could touch his nose with his tongue, and on the soles of his feet were wheel,shaped mar-s Ephysical /ualities also attributed to the &uddhaF. During the period Eof B8G,H8F he studied the dhyana . . . under .aster Huai,7ang, who then had nine disciples. If these only E.a,tsuF received the sacred mind seal.B @owever, his real i""ortality derives fro" his contribution to the arsenal of "ethods for shoc,ing novices into enlighten"ent. -t will be recalled that the legendary !ixth %atriarch, @ui+neng, neglected to explain exactly what a person should do to Isee into oneHs own nature.I Ma+tsu apparently was the first "aster who developed non+"editative tric,s for nudging a disciple into the state of Ino+thought.I @e was an experi"enter, and he pioneered a nu"ber of "ethods that later were perfected by his followers and the descendants of his followers. @e was the first "aster to as, a novice an unanswerable Juestion, and then while the person struggled for an answer, to shout in his ear #he li,ed the syllable I@oQI$Ahoping to &olt the pupil into a non+ dualistic "ind state. *nother si"ilar techniJue was to call out so"eoneHs na"e &ust as the person was leaving the roo", a surprise that see"ed to bring the person up short and cause hi" to suddenly experience his original nature. * si"ilar device was to deliver the student a sharp blow as he pondered a point, using violence to focus his attention co"pletely on reality and abort ratiocination. 0ther tric,s included responding to a Juestion with a see"ingly irrelevant answer, causing the student to sense the irrelevancy of his Juestion. @e would also so"eti"es send a pupil on a Igoose chaseI between hi"self and so"e other enlightened individual at the "onastery, perhaps in the hope that bouncing the novice fro" one personality to another would so"ehow sha,e his co"placency. hatever the techniJue, his goal was

always to force a novice to uncover his original nature for hi"self. @e did this by never giving a straight answer or a predictable response and therefore never allowing a disciple to lapse into a passive "ental "ode. Ma+tsu also see"s to have si"plified the idea of what constitutes enlighten"ent. *s he defined it, Iseeing into oneHs own natureI si"ply "eant understanding #intuitively, not rationally$ who you are and what you are. This truth could be taught with whatever "ethod see"ed appropriate at a given "o"ent. *s @u !hih so eloJuently describes his teaching, 4. . . any gesture or motion, or even silence, might be used to communicate a truth. E#ecall the &uddha once enlightened a follower by holding up a flower.F .a,tsu developed this idea into a pedagogical method for the new Zen. There is no need to see- any special faculty in the mind for the enlightenment. Every behavior is the mind, the manifestation of the &uddha,nature. +napping a finger, frowning or stretching the brow, coughing, smiling, anger, sorrow, or desire . . . is the functioning of the &uddhahead> it is the Tao, the 3ay. There is no need to perform any special act, be it dhyana or worship, in order to achieve the Tao. To be natural is the 3ay. 3alnaturally, sit naturally, sleep naturally, live naturally@ that is the 3ay. Let the mind be free> do not purposely do evil( nor purposely do good. There is no Law to abide, no &uddhahood to attain. .aintain a free mind and cling to nothing> that is Tao.I; Thus it see"s that the "ost pree"inent ChHan "aster of the eighth century not only repudiated all the apparatus of traditional )uddhis", he also si"plified enlighten"ent down to a Juite secular condition of acceptance of the natural state of hu"an affairs. :or instance, although he was fa"iliar with the great Mahayana sutras, Ma+tsu never "entions @ui+neng or the 'ia"ond !utra. @is ChHan, expressed in si"ple everyday language, see"s "erely so "any ways of finding out who you are and what you are. :urther"ore, there see"s to be nothing specifically that you can do to accelerate the

occurrence of sudden enlighten"ent, other than use traditional practices to "a,e your psyche as unco"plicated as possible and then wait for the "o"ent to stri,e #he, of course, experi"ented to find ways to accelerate the arrival of that "o"ent$. )ut he has nothing encouraging to say about the effectiveness of "editation as an aid to finding the desired non+rational insight, which he so"eti"es described using the borrowed ter" ITaoID %ultivation is of no use for the attainment of Tao. The only thing that one can do is to be free of defilement. 3hen one6s mind is stained with thoughts of life and death, or deliberate action, that is defilement. The grasping of the Truth is the function of everyday,mindedness. Everyday, mindedness is free from intentional action, free from concepts of right and wrong, ta-ing and giving, the finite or the infinite. . . . 1ll our daily activities@wal-ing, standing, sitting, lying down@all response to situations, our dealings with circumstances as they arise> all this is Tao.5 Ma+tsu eventually left @uai+&ang #if, in fact, he ever "et hi" in the first place$ and presided over a co""unity of ChHan disciples at 3Hai+yuan te"ple in 3iangsi. This was to be the incubator for the greatest thin,ers of the eighth century, and the setting for so"e of the finest ChHan anecdotes. The anecdote, incidentally, is the perfect ChHan teaching device, since it forces the listener to find its "eaning in his own inner experience. The ser"on provided the theoretical basis for an idea, but the anecdote showed the theory in action and "ade the listener share in a real experience, if only vicariously. )ut first we will begin with a ser"on credited to hi", in which he su""ariGes the philosophical position he held. There was nothing particularly new about his understandingK it was his "ethod that was novel. @is ser"on said, in essence, that reality is "erely our "ind, and that enlighten"ent co"prised the nonrational recognition of this.

1ll of you should reali0e that your own mind is &uddha, that is, this mind is &uddha6s .ind. . . . Those who seefor the Truth should reali0e that there is nothing to see-. There is no &uddha but .ind( there is no .ind but &uddha.89 *gain there is the counsel against discri"inations between good and evil, since the original Mind transcends theseD Do not choose what is good, nor re7ect what is evil, but rather be free from purity and defilement. Then you will reali0e the emptiness of sin.88 This is not a preach"ent of valuesK rather it is the insight that there is a reality beyond our puny discri"inations. -f you can achieve this larger perspective, then good and evil beco"e an inconseJuential part of the larger flow of life. @is ser"on then returns to the the"e of the "ind as the arbiter of reality, recalling the Coid of /agar&una and pointing out that even the wor,ings of the "ind are ephe"eral and possess no self+nature. Thoughts perpetually change and cannot be grasped because they possess no self,nature. The Triple 3orld Eof desire, form, and beyond,formF is nothing more than one6s mind. The multitudinous universe is nothing but the testimony of one Dharma EtruthF. 3hat are seen as forms are the reflections of the mind. The mind does not exist by itself( its existence is manifested through forms. . . . $f you are aware of this mind, you will dress, eat, and act spontaneously in life as it transpires, and thereby cultivate your spiritual nature. There is nothing more that $ can teach you.8; The essence of this teaching is that reality is, for us, "erely what our "ind says it is, and Ienlighten"entI or Ibeco"ing a )uddhaI is "erely co"ing to ter"s with

ourselves and with this tric,y "ind that constantly devises our reality for us. This credo is re"e"bered "ost vividly in two anecdotes that were later enshrined in a fa"ous collection of ,oans called the u+"en 3uan #or Mu"on,an in Eapanese$. -n both of these anecdotes, Ma+ tsu is as,ed, I hat is )uddhaLIA"eaning what is the spirituality that all see,. -n one he replied, IMind is )uddhaI #Mu"on,an, Case 68$, and in the other anecdote he said, I/o "ind, no )uddhaI #Mu"on,an, Case 66$, which "erely affir"s that spirituality is in the "ind, and for its realiGation one "ust realiGe the "ind. 46 -n either instance he is "erely following the earlier idea that there is no reality and thus no enlighten"ent outside the "ind. These two exchanges are part of a single anecdote of Ma+tsu recorded in the chronicles. 1 mon- as-ed why the .aster maintained, 4The .ind is the &uddha.4 The .aster answered, 4&ecause $ want to stop the crying of a baby.4 The mon- persisted, 43hen the crying has stopped, what is it thenC4 4 ot .ind, not &uddha,4 was the answer. 4How do you teach a man who does not uphold either of theseC4 The .aster said, 4$ would tell him, 6 ot things.6 4 The mon- again /uestioned, 4$f you met a man free from attachment to all things, what would you tell himC4 The .aster replied, 4$ would let him experience the Mreat Tao.I4= *s the scholar Eohn u has pointed out, IThis dialogue reveals an i"portant secret about Ma+tsuHs art of teaching. !o"eti"es he used a positive for"ula, so"eti"es he used a negative for"ula. 0n the surface they are contradictory to each other. )ut when we re"e"ber that he was using the" in answering persons of different grades of attain"ents and intelligence, the contradiction disappears at once in the light of a higher unity of purpose, which was in all cases to lead the Juestioner to transcend his present state.I4> *nother exa"ple of a see"ingly contradictory position is recorded as a ,oan in another fa"ous collection, the )lue Cliff

1ecord #Case 6$. -n this anecdote, Ma+tsu is as,ed one day about his health, and he responded with, I!un+faced )uddhas, Moon+faced )uddhas.I45 *ccording to a )uddhist tradition, a !un+faced )uddha lives for eighteen hundred years, a Moon+faced )uddha lives only a day and a night. %erhaps he was proposing these two contradictory cases to de"onstrate the irrelevance of an inJuiry after his physical state. -t would have been far better if the Juestion had concerned his "ind. * story describing how Ma+tsu handled other teachers who wandered by depicts very well the way that he could under"ine logic and categoriGation. -n a particularly fa"ous anecdote, a visiting teacher proposed a condition of duality, a condition eJuivalent to that of a switch that can be either off or on. @aving per"itted the teacher to adopt this very un+Zen position, Ma+tsu proceeds to de"olish hi". The story goes as followsD 1 mon- who lectured on &uddhism came to the .aster and as-ed, 43hat is the teaching advocated by the %h6an mastersC4 .a,tsu posed a counter/uestion> 43hat teachings do you maintainC4 The mon- replied that he had lectured on more than twenty sutras and sastras. The .aster exclaimed, 41re you not a lionC4 The monsaid, 4$ do not venture to say that.4 The .aster puffed twice and the mon- commented, 4This is the way to teach %h6an.4 .a,tsu retorted, 43hat way do you meanC4 and the mon- said, 4The way the lion leaves the den.4 The .aster became silent. $mmediately the monremar-ed, 4This is also the way of %h6an teaching.4 1t this the .aster again as-ed, 43hat way do you meanC4 4The lion remains in his den.4 43hen there is neither going out nor remaining in, what way would you say this wasC4 The mon- made no answer. . . .8B Ma+tsu had posed a see"ingly unanswerable Juestion, at least a Juestion that logic could not answer. This provocative exchange, later to be ,nown as a "ondo, was a new teaching techniJue that departed significantly fro" the earlier "ethods of @ui+neng and !hen+hui, who

"ounted a platfor", gave a ser"on, and then politely received Juestions fro" the audience. )ut how did Ma+tsu handle this Juestion when it was presented to hi"L @e fell bac, on the fact that reality is what we "a,e it, and all things return to the "ind. @e once handled essentially the sa"e Juestion that he put to the visiting "on,, showing how it can be done. @is response is the essence of Zen. 1 mon- once drew four lines in front of .a,tsu. The top line was long and the remaining three were short. He then demanded of the .aster, 4&esides saying that one line is long and the other three are short, what else could you sayC4 .a,tsu drew one line on the ground and said, 4This could be called either long or short. That is my answer.I4; (anguage is deceptive. )ut if it is used to construct an anti+logical Juestion, it can eJually be used to construct an anti+logical reply. Ma+tsu discovered and refined what see"s to have eluded the earlier teachers such as @ui+neng and @uai+ &angD na"ely, the trigger "echanis" for sudden enlighten"ent. *s noted earlier, he originated the use of shouting and blows to precipitate enlighten"ent, techniJues to beco"e celebrated in later decades in the hands of "en such as @uang+po and (in+chi, "asters who shaped the 1inGai sect. *s a typical exa"ple, there is the story of a "on, co"ing to hi" to as,, I hat was the purpose of )odhidhar"aHs co"ing fro" the estLI which is ChHan parlance for I hat is the basic principle of ZenLI *s the "on, bowed reverently before the old "aster waiting for the reply that would bring it all together, Ma+ tsu ,noc,ed hi" to the ground, saying, I-f - do not stri,e you, people all over the country will laugh at "e.I The hapless "on, pic,ed hi"self up off the ground andA suddenly realiGing he had &ust tasted the only reality there isAwas enlightened on the spot.49 0bviously, every boxer does not experience enlighten"ent when he receives a ,noc,out punch. The blow of enlighten"ent is "eant to rattle the Juestioning "ind and to disrupt, if

only for an instant, its clinging to abstractions and logic. -t see"s al"ost as though enlighten"ent were a physical pheno"enon that so"eti"es can best be achieved by a physical processAsuch as a blow or a shout. The violence see"ed to wor, both ways, for the "on,s often gave hi" a dose of his own "edicine. *n exa"ple is reported in the following storyD $t happened once that his disciple Kin,feng was pushing along a cart, while .a,tsu was sitting on the road with his feet stretched out. Kin,feng re/uested him to draw bachis feet, but .a,tsu said, 43hat is stretched out is not to be drawn bac- againL4 Kin,feng retorted, 4Ince advanced, there is no turning bac-wardL66 Disregarding the master, he -ept pushing the cart until it ran over and in7ured his feet. .a,tsu returned to the hall with an axe in his hand, saying, 4Let the one who a few moments ago in7ured my feet with his cart come forwardL4 Kin,feng, not to be daunted, came forward stretching his nec- in front of the master. The master EpeacefullyF put down his axe.;9 The significance of this story, if it has any significance, is that it conveys the at"osphere of ChHan "onasteries around ?>8. -t de"onstrates that the leader of a "onastery had to win his spurs. @e had to be tougher, "ore audacious, and faster than anybody else. 'uring the THang it was co""on to use the ox as a "etaphor for all that is uncontrollable in hu"an nature. The ox was not necessarily badK it &ust had to be governed. The rigor with which this control was applied at Ma+tsuHs "onastery is illustrated in the story concerning one of the disciples, a for"er hunter who Ma+tsu encountered one day wor,ing in the "onastery ,itchen. I hat are you doingLI as,ed the "asterAa Juestion that never got a straight answer fro" an enlightened ChHan "on,. I- a" herding an ox,I the "an replied, a "etaphorical way of saying he was trying to discipline hi"self. I*nd how,I shot bac, Ma+tsu, Ido you go about tending itLI The "on, replied, I henever it starts to go to grass Ni.e.,

self+indulgenceO, - yan, it bac, by the nostrils Nthe tender part of the great ani"alO.I To which Ma+tsu ad"iringly replied, I-f you really can do that by yourself, then - "ay as well retire.I<4 This story illustrates the e"phasis on self+control that was a part of the ChHan "onasteries. 7et self+control was only to be practiced for what it gave in return. There were no value &udg"ents or rules that had to be followed. The point was to do what see"ed the "ost rewarding. :or exa"ple, there is a story that a local governor as,ed Ma+ tsu, IMaster, should - eat "eat and drin, wineLI The "aster did not give hi" a reply that i"plied a value &udg"ent, but rather outlined the rewards of the two possible pathsD ITo eat and drin, is your natural right, to abstain fro" "eat and wine is your chance for greater blessedness.I<< Ma+tsu often used the structure of language, with its natural capacity for parallels, as a teaching tool in itself. 1nother time a mon- as-ed, what is the meaning of &odhidharma coming from the 3estC4 43hat is the meaning Eof your as-ingF at this momentC4 replied the .aster.;G The "on, was interested in abstract issues #using the ChHan "etaphor for enlighten"entHs "eaning$K Ma+tsu re"inded hi" that the only reality that "attered was his own being, his own needs. *nd he did it using al"ost identical language. Ma+tsu was constantly testing his disciples, ,eeping the" on their toes and reinforcing their enlighten"ent. There is the story that one evening while en&oying the "oonlight with three of his disciples #including the two "ost fa"ous, @uai+hai and /an+ chHuan$, he as,ed the" the Juestion Iwhat should we do right now, this very "o"entLIAa typical Zen challenge. 0ne of the "on,s said, I-t would be best to be studying the sutras of the ancients who have achieved enlighten"ent.I The "on, @uai+hai, who was later to receive Ma+tsuHs "antle, countered, I-t would be good to practice "editation.I

*t that point /an+chHuan, the third "on,, si"ply rose, shoo, the sleeves of his robe, and silently wal,ed away. Ma+tsu ac,nowledged this as the right answer and declared, IThe sutra scriptures are returnable to the )uddhist canon, and "editation to the undifferentiated ocean, but /an+chHuan alone leaps over and transcends these.I<= /an+chHuanHs response was a triu"ph of physical action and si"plicity over religiosity and abstraction. Ma+tsu is reported in the chronicles to have had 469 enlightened disciples, "any of who" went on to beco"e ChHan leaders in their own districts. The "ost outstanding were the "on,s @uai+hai and /an+chHuan and a lay"an na"ed %HangAall three of who" are today re"e"bered in anecdotes that have beco"e ChHan scriptures. )ut others were probably &ust as active and enlightened. !outhern ChHan was expanding, with "ountaintop retreats blosso"ing everywhere. Many teachers probably have been forgotten only because they had no disciples who too, the pains to transcribe and preserve their teachings. Ma+tsu hi"self also apparently wrote nothing, but he was "ore fortunate in his disciples. -n any case, he reportedly died in the typical ChHan way. @e predicted his death a "onth in advance, and when the ti"e ca"e, he bathed, assu"ed the "editation posture, and silently passed on.

Cha/t"# S"!"n
H0AI1HAI& FATHER OF MONASTIC CH2AN

*"ong the "any celebrated disciples of Ma+tsu, the "an whose influence has been "ost pervasive throughout the succeeding centuries was %o+chang @uai+hai #?<8+;4=$. @e is the "aster credited with founding the first wholly ChHan "onastery, with devising a special set of rules for ChHan discipline, and with writing a closely argued treatise on sudden enlighten"ent. hereas Ma+tsu and others of his disciples such as /an+chHuan experi"ented with ways to help novices brea, through the barrier of reason, @uai+hai exa"ined the pheno"enon of enlighten"ent itself and described the "ental state of preparedness necessary to reach the 0ther !hore. @uai+ hai has been so"ewhat un&ustifiably neglected by the "odern Zen "ove"ent, perhaps because his expository

style did not lend itself to "e"orable anecdotes or ,oan cases. The accounts of @uai+haiHs origin are contradictory, but he see"s to have begun his )uddhist studies early, beco"ing the pupil of a "aster na"ed Tao+chih in a s"all town in the present+day province of Che,iang. 4 #-t was this "aster who gave hi" the religious na"e @uai+ hai, or I0cean of isdo".I$ *fter he ca"e to "aturity, the story goes, he heard of the great "aster Ma+tsu in the province of 3iangsi, and he traveled there to study. *"ong the "any anecdotes surrounding @uai+haiHs stay with Ma+tsu, perhaps the finest is that of the auspicious first encounter. The story says that when @uai+ hai arrived, the old "aster i""ediately as,ed what previous te"ple he had traveled fro", followed byD I hat do you co"e here to findLI @uai+hai replied, I- have co"e to discover the truth of )uddha.I To this Ma+tsu replied, I hat can you expect to learn fro" "eL hy do you ignore the treasure in your own house and wander so far abroadLI 2nderstandably puGGled, @uai+hai as,ed, I hat is this treasure that - have been ignoringLI To which ca"e the celebrated replyD IThe one who Juestions "e at this "o"ent is your treasure. Everything is co"plete in it. -t is lac,ing in nothing, and further"ore the things it possesses are inexhaustible. Considering that you can use this treasure freely, why then do you persist in wandering abroadLI -t is said that with these words @uai+hai suddenly had an intuitive, non+rational acJuaintance with his own "ind.< *"ong the other classic tales of @uai+haiHs apprenticeship under Ma+tsu is the often repeated account of the day the two of the" were wal,ing together along a path when suddenly a floc, of "igratory geese was heard passing overhead. Ma+tsu turned to his pupil and as,ed, I hat was that soundLI @uai+hai innocently replied, I-t was the cry of wild geese.I Ma+tsu paused and then de"anded of his pupil, I here have they goneLI @uai+hai said, IThey have flown away.I

This was an unacceptably drab, straightforward answer for a Zen "an, and in disgust Ma+tsu whirled, grabbed @uai+haiHs nose, and twisted it until his disciple cried out in panic, causing Ma+tsu to observe, I!o you thought they had flown away. 7et they were here all the ti"e.I6 The legends say that this exchange, in the typical harsh style of Ma+tsu, caused @uai+hai to confront his original nature. hat Ma+tsu had done was to give his pupil a vivid lesson in the concept of an indivisible unity which pervades the worldK things do not co"e and goA they are there always, part of a per"anent fabric. @uai+ hai was being invited to stop viewing the world as a frag"ented collection of ele"ents and see it rather as a unified whole. The interactions of "aster and novice were always dyna"ic. :or exa"ple, another story says that one day Ma+tsu as,ed @uai+hai how he would teach ChHan. @uai+ hai responded by holding up a dust whis, vertically. Ma+ tsu continued by as,ing hi", I-s this all there isL -s there nothing "oreLI @uai+hai replied by throwing down the whis,. #0ne interpreter has said that raising the dust whis, revealed the "indHs function, whereas throwing it down returned function to the "indHs substance.$= *ccording to so"e versions of this episode, Ma+tsu responded by shouting at the top of his lungs, rendering @uai+hai deaf for three days. This shout is said to have been the occasion of @uai+haiHs final enlighten"ent. @uai+hai see"s to have been a ,indly "an, war" and personable, not given to the roughhouse "ethods of so"e of his conte"poraries. -nstead of fla"boyance, we find a friendly type who concentrated on guiding a co""unity of disciples #so"eti"es called a IZen forestI$ and giving a helping hand to all. e will pass over the "any other anecdotes involving his stay with Ma+tsu and turn instead to his "ore significant contributions to the growth of ChHan.> These fall into two "a&or categoriesD :irst, he founded the first wholly ChHan "onastery and for it for"ulated a set of "onastic rules that are today still respected in Zen "onasteriesK and second, he was one of the first !outhern ChHan "asters to explore the

psychology of Isudden enlighten"entI and to write a lucid analysis of the "ental preparation it reJuired. )efore detailing @uai+haiHs contribution to "onastic ChHan, perhaps it would be well to recall briefly the character of the traditional )uddhist "onastery in China during the THang #54;+98?$ era. )uddhist "onasteries had long been governed by a set of rules ,nown as the vinaya. These rules prescribed everything fro" the color of the robes for the priesthood to the penalties attached to eating onions or garlic #forbidden pri"arily because they were thought to be sti"ulants, not necessarily because of their social liabilities in close Juarters$. There were also so"e specific and Juite sole"n co""and+ "entsAfor exa"ple, "on,s or nuns could be expelled fro" the co""unity for stealing, ,illing, lying, or sexual congress. 0riginating in -ndia, these rules had been subseJuently transplanted to China, where they gradually were "ade even "ore strict, although their enforce"ent apparently was not always rigorous. %erhaps because of this laxity the THang regi"e established penalties even "ore severe than those i"posed by the )uddhist authorities. :or exa"ple, whereas the vinaya indirectly countenanced the eating of "eat #through the loophole that all charitable gifts "ust be accepted since they give the laity "erit, and if a gift happened to be "eat it still had to be consu"ed for the sa,e of the donor$, the THang govern"ent prescribed thirty days of hard labor for "on,s caught parta,ing. !ince citiGens entering )uddhist orders were ta,en off the tax rolls, the govern"ent too, pains to ensure that "onastic life was rigorous enough to discourage si"ple tax dodgers.? *lthough the Chinese )uddhist schools were al"ost all "e"bers of the side of )uddhis" ,nown as Mahayana, they apparently followed the rules of Theravada )uddhis", since the latter were clearer and "ore easily understood.; @uai+hai decided to "erge the two sets of rules and fro" the" to devise a new set of guidelines specifically for ChHan, thereby creating a code of "onastic discipline that eventually would rule Zen behavior throughout the world. The record concerning how the ChHan "onastic syste" initially was established is less detailed than we

"ight wish. The legendary :ourth %atriarch, Tao+hsin, was said to have been the first dhyana "aster to settle down in one place and nurture a band of disciples. Dhyana teachers see" to have allied the"selves with the conventional )uddhists in the decades that followed, living in their "onasteries "uch as the her"it crab finds a ho"e in the shells of other species. -f their nu"bers were large they "ight have their own separate Juarters, but they still had to respect the rules of their host sect, which "ore often than not was the Cinaya school.9 .radually, however, a transfor"ation occurred, as ChHan "asters beca"e increasingly distinguishable fro" the leaders of other sects and ChHan itself grew to increasing proportions, particularly in the south. -t is not surprising that the "an who "ade "onastic ChHan a reality was Ma+tsuHs pupil %o+chang @uai+hai. -n the recorded anecdotes @uai+hai is characteriGed as a level+headed, prag"atic "an who" one can easily i"agine having superior ad"inistrative ability. *s Eohn u characteriGes his rules, I-t was this rule Nof @uai+haiO that instituted for the first ti"e the Zen "onastic syste". -n its e"phasis on "oral discipline and its "atter of factness, it is co"parable to the @oly 1ule of !t. )enedict. The duties of the *bbot and various functionaries under hi" are "eticulously defined. The daily life of the "on,s is regulated in detail. 0f particular interest are the rites of ta,ing vows and the universal duty of wor,ing in the fields.I48 -t is difficult to say exactly what was the nature of the rules @uai+hai for"ulated, since his original precepts have been recast a nu"ber of ti"es down through the years, with the earliest surviving version being that preserved in a 4<;< Chinese 7uan 'ynasty docu"ent called Ithe @oly 1ule of %o+chang N@uai+haiO.I -f we loo, beyond the details, however, we see that his e"phasis on the creation of a self+supporting "onastic establish"ent was in a sense a further siniciGation of -ndian )uddhis", through the re&ection of begging as the pri"ary "eans of support. #)egging was not abandoned entirely, since it is valuable for teaching hu"ilityK instead it was retained in a regulated, sy"bolic for", but "ade a second line of

econo"ic defense.$ The "onasteries were intended to survive on their own, since @uai+hai insisted that "editation and worship be integrated with physical labor. hereas the ideal -ndian holy "an was one who relied on begging, @uai+hai believed that in China it was holier to wor, for a living. This was the core of his teachings, as sy"boliGed in his fa"ous "anifestoD I* day without wor, is a day without food.I /othing could have been "ore sy"pathetically received a"ong the Chinese, and @uai+ hai is probably rightly credited with inoculating ChHan against the govern"ental persecution of ;=> that destroyed so "any other )uddhist sects. @e practiced what he preached, and even when he reached old age he continued to toil in the fields. -n fact, his disciples finally beca"e so concerned for his health that they too, the unprecedented step of hiding his gardening hoe. )ut true to his rule, he refused to eat until it was returned. %erhaps we can infer so"ething of @uai+haiHs regulations fro" the routine in conte"porary Zen "onasteries #of the 1inGai sect$.44 Mon,s rise well before light #before they can see the lines in the pal" of their hand$, and after their "orning toilet they gather in the "ain hall for sunrise devotionsAin this case rapid chanting of scriptures, a device "ore for developing powers of concentration than for piety. They then return to the "editation hall, where chanting resu"es. /ext co"es brea,fast, usually plain rice with a "odest vegetable garnish, and then bac, to the "editation hall for cere"onial tea and announce"ents of the dayHs schedule. *fterward each "on, "eets individually with the "aster in his Juarters, where the "on,Hs enlighten"ent is tested and a ,oan "ay be assigned. #The "aster, incidentally, en&oys a private roo"K the "on,s sleep together in a co""on hall, arranged according to ran,.$ *fter this, the "on,s attend to the garden and grounds of the "onastery, and later in the "orning there "ay be begging or visits to lay patrons for donations. *fter lunch #the "ain "ealK its leftovers are supper$ there is "ore wor, in the garden of the "onastery, planting and harvesting, as well as repairing the buildings or other "aintenance chores. (ater on there

"ay be "ore chanting, as well as cleaning and up,eep of the interior of the buildings. *nd in between there "ay be "editation. Then as nightfall descends the evening bell rings out to signify the wor, dayHs ending. 'uring the evening the "on, "ay "editate "ore or receive further instruction fro" the "aster or his brothers. :inally, late in the evening, to bedAat the end of a long day. -t should be noted that there are also "any special days on which "eals, cere"onies, or activities "ay assu"e a different character. -t is significant that the "onasteries of early ChHan are said not to have had a )uddha hall or a place for worshipK rather they had only a 'har"a or lecture hall, in which the "aster gave a tal,, followed by sharp exchanges with his disciples, who often were rowdy and so"eti"es left at will to de"onstrate their independence of "ind. These were places of irreverence and unfettered intellectual inJuiryK and apparently there was no enforced study of the traditional )uddhist literature. ith "onasteries of their own where they could do as they pleased, the ChHan "asters found their rebellion co"plete. Theirs now was an unha"pered search for the perennial philosophy. ith this in "ind we "ay now turn to the psychological teachings of the lawgiver @uai+hai. 2nli,e the piece"eal story of his contribution to "onastic life, which is preserved in spirit "ore than in letter, the writings on enlighten"ent that bear his na"e are rather fir"ly attributed. This is, in fact, a significant new aspect of ChHan history, since his wor, represents one of the oldest docu"ents actually co"posed by a "asterAas co"pared to a ser"on transcribed and edited by so"e follower. *ccording to the extant writings, after @uai+hai had studied with Ma+tsu for several years, he returned to his ho"e te"ple to care for his first "aster, Tao+chih, who was by then aged and illAan act of duty any Chinese would i""ediately understand. -t was during this return visit with his old "aster that he co"posed a treatise setting forth the theoretical basis of sudden enlighten"ent. -t is said that when this docu"ent was shown to Ma+tsu, he co"pared @uai+hai to a great pearl whose luster penetrated all ti"e and space. #Curiously,

Ma+tsu hi"self appears not to have "ade a great fuss about the "eaning of sudden enlighten"ent, see"ingly ta,ing the ItheoryI for granted and "oving along to the Ipractice.I$ IThe Zen Teaching of @uai+hai on !udden -llu"inationI was co"posed in the for" of an i"aginary Juestion+and+ answer session, in which @uai+hai effectively interviewed hi"self on the Juestion of sudden enlighten"ent and the specific proble"s a person "ight encounter in trying to prepare for it. @e stressed that one of the "ost i"portant things to do was to suspend "a,ing value &udg"ents about things, since this leads al"ost directly to splitting things into ca"ps of good and bad, li,es and disli,es. This opens one to the world of categories and dualities, &ust the opposite fro" oneness. *ccording to @uai+hai, the first thing to do is strive forD . . . total relin/uishment of ideas as to the dual nature of good and bad, being and non,being, love and aversion, void and non,void, concentration and distraction, pure and impure. &y giving all of them up, we attain to a state in which all opposites are seen as void. . . . Ince we attain that state, not a single form can be discerned. 3hyC &ecause our self,nature is immaterial and does not catch a single thing foreign to itself. That which contains no single thing is true #eality. . . .8; The desire to avoid love and aversion is inextricably tied with the freedo" fro" distinctions, duality, &udg"ents, or pre&udicesD isdo" "eans the ability to distinguish every sort of good and evilK dhyana "eans that, though "a,ing these distinctions, you re"ain wholly unaffected by love or aversion for the".46 Elsewhere he describes this goal asD &eing able to behold men, women and all the various sorts of appearances while remaining as free from love and aversion as if they were actually not seen at all. . . .8H

-n this "anner we can operate on the principle of unity, even in a world where appearances have "ultiplicity. )ut how exactly can we say that all things are oneL -t is not so"ething that can be fully understood with the rational "ind, and initially it "ust be ta,en partly on faith, as a holding action until we can understand it intuitively. @is translator Eohn )lofeld uses the traditional )uddhist analogy of the sea, which is both constantly changing and yet eternally changelessD IConte"plation of the "ove"ent and shifting co"position of sea+waves is a useful sy"bolical approachK for, not only are the waves and the sea identical in substance, but also a given wave does not preserve its individual identity for a single "o"ent as the water co"posing it is never for an instant entirely the sa"eK thus, by the ti"e it reaches us fro" a distance, every drop it contains will be other than the drops co"posing it when we saw it first. 0n the other hand, sea+water is sea+water and the wave is entirely co"posed of that. Each wave is voidAa "ere fluctuating appearance identical in substance with every other wave and with the entire ocean. . . .I4> aves are a perfect "etaphor for the idea of everything and nothing at once, since they are both ephe"eral and part of a larger reality, the sea, out of which they e"erge, assu"e a physical appearance, and then dissolve. They see" to exist, yet you cannot grasp and hold the". They are both existing and nonexistent. Thus they rese"ble the Coid, a ,ind of energy that "anifests itself through diverse illusory ob&ects of the senses, but which is itself ungraspable, changeless unity. ith this in "ind, perhaps it is easier to understand @uai+hai when he declaresD The nature of the 1bsolute is void and yet not void. How soC The marvellous 4substance4 of the 1bsolute, having neither form nor shape, is therefore undiscoverable( hence it is void. evertheless, that immaterial, formless 4substance4 contains functions as numerous as the sands of the Manges, functions which respond unfailingly to circumstances, so it is also described as not void.8=

)y focusing on this idea of unity in an *bsolute, we also interact with our own perception of ti"e. !ince it is i"portant that the "ind not dwell on anything, naturally enough this applies to ti"e as well as space. $f you want to understand the non,dwelling mind very clearly, while you are actually sitting in meditation, you must be cogni0ant only of the mind. . . . 3hatever is past is past, so do not sit in 7udgment upon it( for when minding about the past ceases of itself, it can be said that there is no longer any past. 3hatever is in the future is not here yet, so do not direct your hopes and longings towards it( for, when minding about the future ceases of itself, it can be said that there is no future. 3hatever is present is now at hand( 7ust be conscious of your non, attachment to everything@non,attachment in the sense of not allowing any love or aversion for anything to enter your mind( for, when minding the present ceases of itself, we may say that there is no present.8B @e has ta,en the idea of the InowI to an interesting new di"ension. )y cutting off thoughts of past and future, you not only save yourself "ental anguish, you also no longer need distinguish the idea of the IpresentI . . . and you have &ust eli"inated a "a&or aspect of attach"ent. @uai+hai is not blind to the difficulty of such rigorous "ind control, and he offers so"e of the first practical advice fro" a ChHan "aster for controlling the "ind. /ot surprisingly, it is an ad"onition to stop trying so hard, to &ust focus on goals rather than forcing the "indHs behavior. :or exa"ple, if you are "editating and your "ind wants to "eander and loo, for so"ething to dwell on, what should you doL +hould your mind wander away, do not follow it, whereupon your wandering mind will stop wandering of its own accord. +hould your mind desire to linger somewhere, do not follow it and do not dwell there, whereupon your mind6s /uesting for a dwelling place will cease of its own accord. Thereby, you will come to

possess a non,dwelling mind@a mind which remains in the state of non,dwelling. $f you are fully aware in yourself of a non,dwelling mind, you will discover that there is 7ust the fact of dwelling, with nothing to dwell upon or not to dwell upon. This full awareness in yourself of a mind dwelling upon nothing is -nown as having a clear perception of your own mind or, in other words, as having a clear perception of your own nature.82 )y way of wrapping up his treatise, he su""ariGes his techniJue for sudden illu"ination in a bold "anifestoD Kou should -now that setting forth the principle of deliverance in its entirety amounts only to this@3HE TH$ M+ H1""E , .1?E I #E+"I +E> ?EE" KIO# .$ D+ '#I. D3ELL$ M I 1 K TH$ M 3H1T+IEAE#> ?EE" THE. 'I#EAE# +T$LL 1+ THE AI$D 1 D OTTE#LK "O#E.85 %erhaps it is ti"e we as,ed what exactly is the point of all this. hen we have achieved his goal, we have effectively cut off all attach"ents, rationality, discern"ent, values, sensations. )ut why would we want to do this in the first placeL @uai+hai answers that by releasing ourselves fro" this enslaving bondage to our ego and its attach"ents, we beco"e the "asters of our own being, free to experience the world but no longer at its "ercy. *nd further"ore we no longer have even to thin, about being in the state of Ino+thought.I -t is this natural state of wisdo" that is our goal. %oncentration :dhyana< involves the stilling of your mind . . . so that you remain wholly unmoved by surrounding phenomena. 3isdom means that your stillness of mind is not disturbed by your giving any thought to that stillness, that your purity is unmarred by your entertaining any thought of purity and that, in the midst of such pairs of opposites as good and evil, you are able to distinguish between them without being stained by them and, in this way, to reach the state of being perfectly at ease and free of all dependence.;9

This is the state called enlighten"ent, a new way of experiencing reality that relies entirely upon intuition. Then we realiGe that all this ti"e our rational "ind has been leading us along, telling us that appearances are real and yet ,eeping us fro" really experiencing things firsthand, since the rational "ind believes in na"es, categories, duality. ConseJuently, before this sudden "o"ent of intuitive understanding, we saw the world as through a glass dar,ly, with ourselves as sub&ect and the falsely perceived exterior world as ob&ect. *fter this experience we see things clearly, but we perceive the" for what they really areAcreations of "ind as devoid of genuine substance as the world we create in our drea"s or the oceanHs waves that we can see but cannot hold. 3nowing this, we can regard the world dispassionately, no longer caught in the web of ego involve"ent that enslaves those not yet enlightened. !ince this whole world view only can be understood intuitively, it is not surprising that it "ust one day Idawn on youI when you least expect, li,e a sudden inspiration that hits you after logic has failed. @uai+haiHs instructions are intended to be preparations for this "o"ent, attributes to adopt that will "a,e you ready and receptive when your IsuddenI enlighten"ent hits. @uai+haiHs concept of sudden enlighten"ent was Juite straightforward, and it apparently was not absolutely necessary that "editation be e"ployed. #-n fact, he has defined dhyana as a state of "ind, not an action.$ Enlighten"ent is release fro" the ego, the pri"ary thing standing in the way of "ental peace in a world of getting and spending, of conflict and co"petition. The ancient ChHan "asters ,new well the griefs and "ental distress that haunt the heart of "an, and thin,ers such as @uai+hai explored its cure "ore fully than we realiGe today.

Cha/t"# Ei.ht
NAN1CHB0AN AN) CHAO1CHO0& MASTERS OF THE IRRATIONA(

Nan1chB>an PB>1$>an The best+re"e"bered disciple of Ma+tsu was /an+chHuan %Hu+yuan #?=;+;6>$, founder of a fa"ous "onastery and a brilliant if short+lived lineage whose finest exa"ple was his pupil Chao+chou TsHung+shen #??;+;9?$. The Transmission of the Lamp reports that /an+chHuan was born in the /orth China province of @onan. 4 @e began study of "editation at age ten, and according to the &iographies of Eminent .on-s co"piled in the !ung #+ung -ao,seng chuan$ he went to study )uddhis" on Mt. !ung, near (oyang, when he was thirty and beca"e a priest of traditional )uddhis", apparently of the Cinaya

school.< *fter his ordination, he traveled to various of the better+,nown "onasteries, perfected his ,nowledge of )uddhist scriptures, and landed finally at the "ountain establish"ent of the ChHan "aster Ma+tsu. The legend says that although there were eight hundred followers of Ma+tsu, the precocious /an+chHuan was i""ediately elevated to the position of the fore"ost disciple, and none of the others ventured to debate with hi".6 @e finally achieved his co"plete enlighten"ent under the old "aster. -t is not clear when he arrived or how long he stayed with Ma+tsu, but he reportedly left the "onastery in ?9>Aas he neared fiftyAand founded his own co""unity on Mt. /an+chHuan, a location in *nhwei province north of 3iangsi, building the original lodging with his own hands and attracting several hundred disciples. @is "ost fa"ous follower, aside fro" the later "aster Chao+chou, was the lay"an (u @suan, the provincial governor of the @suan district. The story says that after residing in his "ountain retreat for thirty years, without once venturing out, he finally acceded to the reJuests of the governor to co"e down and teach ChHan to the people on the plain. @e thus en&oyed a great fa"e as a teacher of ChHan, although today he is re"e"bered by anecdotes rather than by any attributed writings. The governor see"s to have been puGGled by so"e of the teachings of !eng+chao #6;=+=4=$, the early, pre+ ChHan )uddhist. @e specifically as,ed /an+chHuan the "eaning of a state"ent in The )oo, of Chao that all things co"e fro" the sa"e source and accordingly there can be no difference between right and wrong, which are the"selves the sa"e, by virtue of a co""on origin. The story says that /an+chHuan pointed to a patch of peonies in the garden and said, I.overnor, when people of the present day see these blosso"s, it is as if they see the" in a drea".I= The point seerns to be that the unenlightened cannot fully perceive the flower as it really is, cannot experience it directly and purely. -nstead it is approached as an ob&ect apart fro" the viewer, the sub&ect. -t is not seen as an extension of his or her own reality. The ordinary "ind

per"its this dichoto"y of nature, but in the Zen "ind, "an and flower beco"e one, "erged into a sea"less fabric of life. This is the ,ind of state"ent that in later years would be isolated fro" the chronicles and "ade into a Ipublic caseI or ,oan, a teaching device for novices. -ts "eaning is not "eant to be discerned through the logical processes, and even less through the "ediu" of language. hen a later "aster was as,ed what /an+chHuan had "eant, he answered with the eJually enig"atic I%ass "e a bric,.I> The other celebrated story about the governor is perhaps easier to understand. The story says that one day (u @suan posed the following proble" to /an+chHuanD I hat if - told you that a "an had raised a goose in a bottle, watching it grow until one day he realiGed that it had grown too large to pass through the bottleHs nec,L !ince he did not want to brea, the bottle or ,ill the goose, how would he get it outLI /an+chHuan began Juietly, IMy estee"ed governor,I and then he shouted, IT@E .00!E -! 02TQI The story says that (u @suan suddenly was enlightened on the spot.5 /an+chHuan had shown that one who posed a hypothetical Juestion could be answered by an eJually hypothetical response. There is a co""on ChHan #and Taoist$ reference to a truth being caught in the net of words. @ere /an+chHuan shows how to extract truth fro" verbal encu"brances. *nother anecdote recounts a si"ilar incidentD 1 mon- said to an,ch6uan, 4There is a 7ewel in the s-y( how can we get hold of itC4 an,ch6uan said, 4%ut down bamboos and ma-e a ladder, put it up in the s-y, and get hold of itL66 The mon- said, 4How can the ladder be put up in the s-yC4 an,ch6uan said, 4How can you doubt your getting hold of the 7ewelCI? Many of his finest exchanges with pupils are preserved in The Transmission of the Lamp. :or "axi"u" i"pact it is perhaps best to lean bac, and let his wordplay wash over the rational "ind li,e a cool, cleansing surf. *s with the Taoist Chuang TGu, the best way to co"prehend this

antilogical pheno"enon is to forget about trying to grasp it intellectually, for only then can we understand. The Movernor said, 4There is a piece of stone in my house. +ometimes it stands up and sometimes it lies down. ow, can it be carved into the image of &uddhaC4 4Kes, it is possible,4 answered the .aster. 4&ut it is impossible to do soC4 countered the Movernor.4$t is impossibleL $t is impossibleL4 exclaimed the .aster.2 This dialogue sounds al"ost as though it were fro" an undiscovered scene fro" aiting for .odot, as Cladi"ir and Estragon test the "eaninglessness of language. *nd for pure -onesco, it is hard to top the following incidentD Ince .aster an,ch6uan told ?uei,tsung and .a,yu that he was going to ta-e them with him to visit an,yang Hui,chung, the ational Teacher. &efore they began their 7ourney, an,ch6uan drew a circle on the road and said, 41s soon as you give a right answer we will be on our way.4 Thereupon ?uei,tsung sat down inside the circle and .a,yu bowed in woman6s fashion. The .aster said to them, 4Judging by this answer, it will not be necessary to go.I9 The attitude of /an+chHuan toward conventional pieties, as well as toward the societal, rationalistic concerns of Confucianis", are perhaps best illustrated by the farewell he gave to his distinguished followerD 3hen Movernor Lu was about to return to his office in Hsuan,cheng, he came to bid the .aster good,bye. The latter as-ed him, 4Movernor, you are going bac- to the capital. How will you govern the peopleC4 The Movernor replied, 4$ will govern them through wisdom.4 The .aster remar-ed, 4$f this is true, the people will suffer for it. I48 /an+chHuan had a refreshing lac, of po"posity that would have well served a good "any other Zen "asters, ancient and "odern.

3hen the .aster was washing his clothes, a mon- said, 4.asterL Kou still are not free from 6this6C4 .aster an, ch6uan replied, lifting the clothes, 43hat can you do about 6this6CI44 This calls to "ind the anecdote concerning *lexander the .reat, who when as,ed if he was a god as had been widely reported, responded by suggesting that the Juestion be directed to the "an who carried out his cha"ber pot. @is attitude toward the great ChHan teachers of the past see"s si"ilarly lac,ing in awe. 1 mon- in/uired, 4'rom patriarch to patriarch there is a transmission. 3hat is it that they transmit to one anotherC4 The .aster said, 4Ine, two, three, four, five.4 The mon- as-ed, 43hat is that which was possessed by the ancientsC4 The .aster said, 43hen it can be possessed, $ will tell you.4 The mon- said dubiously, 4.aster, why should you lieC4 The .aster replied, 4$ do not lie. EThe +ixth "atriarch Hui,nengF lied.I4< /an+chHuan was accusto"ed to the rough+and+tu"ble of Ma+tsuHs "onastery, a place of shouting, beating, harangues, insults, I"indlessI interviews, "isleading clues, and "ind+fatiguing Iirrelevancies.I 7et it was all done with a high intensity and intended for the Juite noble purpose of forcing a disciple to find his own first nature, his own enlighten"ent. The "onastery as it developed under these wild "en of !outhern ChHan was nothing less than a high+pressure cell for those who chose to enter. *lthough these new techniJues for sha,ing nonintellectual insights into ChHan novices were essentially the invention of Ma+tsu, they were transplanted, refined, and expanded by "en li,e /an+ chHuan, whose new "onastery see"s to have had the sa"e deadly+serious Ganiness as Ma+tsuHs. Chao1cho> T B>n.1 h"n

!o"e of the "ost instructive anecdotes associated with /an+chHuan are those involving his star pupil, Chao+ chou TsHung+shen #??;+;9?$, who ca"e to be one of the "a&or figures of the .olden *ge of ChHan and one of the best+re"e"bered of the wild !outhern "asters. *lthough his real na"e was TsHung+shen, he is re"e"bered in history #as are "any ChHan "asters$ by the na"e of the "ountain where he held forth during his "ature years. @e was born in TsHao+chou in !hantung and early on beca"e a novice "on, at a local "onastery. @owever, the urge to travel was irresistible and he left before being ordained, arriving at /an+chHuanHs "onastery while still a lad. The traditional first exchange typifies their long and fruitful relationship. /an+chHuan opened with the standard JuestionD 43here have you 7ust come fromC4 4$ have 7ust left +hui,hsiang Enamed for a famous state of &uddhaF.4 4Have you seen the standing image of &uddhaC4 43hat $ see is not a standing image of &uddha but a supine Enlightened IneL4 41re you your own master or notC4 4Kes, $ am. Ei.e., $ already have a master.F4 43here is this master of yoursC4 4$n the middle of the winter the weather becomes bitterly cold. $ wish all blessings on you, sir.4 1t this, an,ch6uan decided that this visitor was promising and permitted him to become his disciple.8G Chao+chouHs strange answer see"s to have been his own way of signifying he had chosen /an+chHuan as his future "aster. /an+chHuan, for his own part, see"s to have recogniGed in this JuiGGical repartee all the "a,ings of a great ChHan worthy. The exploits of /an+chHuan and Chao+chou for" the core of the great anecdotal literature of ChHanHs .olden *ge. /either was a great innovator, a great writer, or a great organiGer, but together they were able to explore the highest li"its of the dialogue as a vehicle for

enlighten"ent. *nd their dialogues, incidentally, did not always necessarily reJuire words. Ine day, in the monastery of an,chu6an, the mon-s of the east and west wing had a dispute over the possession of a cat. They all came to an,ch6uan for arbitration. Holding a -nife in one hand and the cat in the other, an, ch6uan said, 4$f any one of you can say the right thing, this cat will be saved( otherwise it will be cut into two pieces.4 one of the mon-s could say anything. an, ch6uan then -illed the cat. $n the evening, when %hao, chou returned to the monastery, an,ch6uan as-ed him what he would have said had he been there at the time. %hao,chou too- off his straw sandals, put them upon his head, and wal-ed out. 3hereupon an,ch6uan commented, 4Ih, if only you had been here, the cat would have been saved.I4= Chao+chouHs response used no language and was devoid of distinctions, being neither positive nor negative. This is one of the "ost celebrated stories in The Transmission of the Lamp, and one that is probably richer if we avoid sub&ecting it to too "uch co""entary. The point was specifically intended to be as si"ple as possible, but this very si"plicity is disturbing to the co"plicated intellectual "ind. There is a particularly telling story of the exchange Chao+chou held with /an+ chHuan concerning the Tao, "eaning the way to enlighten"entD 3hen %hao,chou as-ed his master, 43hat is the TaoC4 the latter replied, 4Tao is nothing else than the ordinary mind.4 4$s there any way to approach itC4 pursued %hao, chou further. 4Ince you intend to approach it,4 said an, ch6uan, 4you are on the wrong trac-.4 4&arring conscious intention,4 the disciple continued to in/uire, 4how can we attain to a -nowledge of the TaoC4 To this the master replied, 4Tao belongs neither to -nowledge nor to no, -nowledge. 'or -nowledge is but illusive perception, while no,-nowledge is mere confusion. $f you really attain true comprehension of the Tao, unshadowed by the

slightest doubt, your vision will be li-e the infinite space, free of all limits and obstacles. $ts truth or falsehood cannot be established artificially by external proofs.4 1t these words %hao,chou came to an enlightenment. Inly after this did he ta-e his vows and become a professed mon-.8J /an+chHuanHs assertion that Tao is nothing else than the ordinary "ind, but that it cannot be reached by deliberate searching, is the longstanding co""onplace of ChHan. @owever, he here adds an interesting new assertionD @e clai"s here that although the person finding this enlighten"ent has no doubt of its reality, it cannot be proved or disproved by any ob&ective tests. There is no way that the enlightened person can be shown ob&ectively to have achieved his goal. The ChHan "asters could test enlighten"ent by "atching the clai"antHs illogic against their ownK if his IcraGinessI "atched, then the disciple passed. )ut there is, by definition, no ob&ective test of enlighten"ent. )ut then, how do you test the ulti"ate realiGation that there is nothing to realiGe other than what you ,new all alongL Puite si"ply, the "asterHs intuition is the final authority. Their dialogues freJuently were full of electricity, as witness another exchange that ended Juite differentlyD %hao,chou as-ed, 4Tao is not external to things( the externality of things is not Tao. Then what is the Tao that is beyond thingsC4 The master struc- him. Thereupon %hao, chou too- hold of the stic- and said, 4'rom now on, do not stri-e a man by mista-e.4 The .aster said, 43e can easily differentiate between a dragon and a sna-e, but nobody can fool a %h6an mon-.I48 Chao+chou here see"s to be declaring to /an+chHuan that his enlighten"ent is genuine. *nd /an+chHuan, for his part, is asserting that the MasterHs &udg"ent, not the "on,Hs, is the final criterion. -n another incident Chao+ chou actually has the last word.

Ince an,ch6uan said to %hao,chou, 4 owadays it is best to live and wor- among members of a different species from us.4 :This recalls the &uddhist proverb> $t is easier to save the beasts than to save man-ind.< %hao,chou, however, thought otherwise. He said, 4Leaving alone the /uestion of 6different,6 let me as- you what is 6species6 anywayC4 an,ch6uan put both of his hands on the ground, to indicate the species of the /uadrupeds. %hao, chou, approaching him from behind, trampled him to the ground, and then ran into the irvana Hall crying, 4$ repent, $ repent.4 an,ch6uan, who appreciated his act of trampling, did not understand the reason of his repentance. +o he sent his attendant to as- the disciple what was he repenting for. %hao,chou replied, 4$ repent that $ did not trample him twice over.I4? -n spite of such occasional bursts of exuberance, Chao+chou see"s overall to have been co"paratively "ild+"annered for a ChHan "aster. @e rarely chose to berate or beat his disciples, as did Ma+tsu or his own "aster, /an+chHuan. -n "any ways, Chao+chou was the finest hope for the lineage of /an+chHuan, but he see"s not to have been overly concerned with its continuation. -n fact, it is so"ewhat ironic that @uai+hai, who was "ore an organiGer than a creator, ended up with a lineage perpetuating his line down to the present day, whereas /an+chHuanHs lineage effectively ended with his disciple Chao+chou, although both "en were re"ar,able teachers. -n fact, Chao+chou al"ost never did settle down to run a "onastery. *fter /an+chHuan died he resu"ed his travels and for "any years roa"ed across China, visiting with other ChHan "asters. @e see"s to have gradually wor,ed his way bac, north, for it was in the north that he realiGed his "ost lasting fa"e and influence. )ut his reputation was gained before he had a "onastery of his own and without the aid of per"anent disciples. The real acclai" see"s to have been associated with a &ourney to a fa"ous )uddhist pilgri"age site, Mt. utHai, in the northeastern edge of !hensi province, where he preached a ser"on that brought hi" wide recognition. *lthough he loved nothing

"ore than wandering the craggy "ountains of China, friends tried to convince hi" to settle downAas related in an incident when he was near eighty, after "any years of wanderingD Ince, as he was visiting %hu,yu, the latter said, 41 man of your age should try to find a place to settle down and teach.4 43here is my abiding placeC4 %hao,chou as-ed bac-. 43hatC4 said his host, 43ith so many years on your head, you have not even come to -now where your permanent home isL4 %hao,chou said, 4'or thirty years $ have roamed freely on horsebac-. Today, for the first time $ am -ic-ed by an assLI4; @e finally did settle down, at eighty, accepting an invitation to co"e and live at the 3uan+yin "onastery in Chao+chou in northeastern China, where he stayed until his death so"e forty years later. @is lac, of interest in worldly, ad"inistrative details is illustrated by the story that during his forty years as abbot of the "onastery he installed no new furnishings and "ade no atte"pt to collect al"s. %erhaps this tells us why @uai+haiHs line won the day. 7et Chao+chou was the popular favorite. @is preference for colloJuial language endeared hi" to the people. @e tried to de"onstrate that enlighten"ent can be found and subseJuently heightened through ordinary everyday activities. The following anecdote suggests his idea of )uddhis" had little to do with the )uddhaD .aster %hao,chou was as-ed by a mon-, 43ho is the &uddhaC4 4The one in the shrine,4 was the answer. 4$sn6t it a clay statue that sits in the shrineC4 the mon- went on. 4Kes, that is right.4 4Then who is the &uddhaC4 the mon- repeated. 4The one in the shrine,4 replied the .aster. 1 mon- as-ed, 43hat is my own selfC4 4Have you finished your rice gruelC4 as-ed the .aster. 4Kes, $ have finished it,4 replied the mon-. 4Then go and wash your dishes,4 said the .aster. 3hen the mon- heard this, he was suddenly awa-ened.85

The thrust of this anecdote is that through the everyday doing of what needs to be done, we can find authentic values and our original nature. *s the "odern scholar Chang Chung+yuan points out, IThis si"ple activity of the ChHan "on,, washing the dishes after eating gruel, is the "ost ordinary thing, the sort of activity that is co"pletely spontaneous and reJuires no "ental effort. hile engaged in it, a "an is free fro" assertion and negation.I<8 hen we are doing "anual tas,s we experience the" directlyK we do not have to intellectualiGe about the". This acting without thought, without &udg"ents of good or bad, is in fact a parable of enlighten"ent. !o it was that Chao+chou could so effectively use rote tas,s as a teaching device, for they showed a novice how he could free his "ind fro" its enslave"ent to opinions and values. This stress on the "eaningfulness of daily "anual activities, as distinct fro" philosophical speculation, see"s to have been the "a&or position of Chao+chou. This attitude is particularly borne out in another celebrated Chao+chou anecdote. Ine morning, as %hao,chou was receiving new arrivals, he as-ed one of them, 4Have you been here beforeC4 4Kes,4 the latter replied. 4Help yourself to a cup of tea,4 he said. Then he as-ed another, 4Have you been here beforeC4 4 o, Kour #everence, this is my first visit here.4 %hao,chou again said, 4Help yourself to a cup of tea.4 The "rior of the monastery too- %hao,chou to tas-, saying, 4The one had been here before, and you gave him a cup of tea. The other had not been here, and you gave him li-ewise a cup of tea. 3hat is the meaning of thisC4 %hao, chou called out, 4"riorL4 4Kes,4 responded the "rior. 4Help yourself to a cup of teaLI<4 )ehind this possibly deceptive si"plicity, however, there "ust have been a penetrating intelligence, for a very large nu"ber of his anecdotes were i"portant enough to beco"e enshrined in those fa"ous collections

of ,oans the Mu"on,an and the )lue Cliff 1ecord. 0ne of the best ,nown is the followingD 1 mon- as-ed, 4+ince all things return to Ine, where does this Ine return toC4 43hen $ was in Tsing,chou, $ had a robe made which weighed seven chin EpoundsF4 replied the .aster.;; The answer is a perfect exa"ple of Ino+thought,I the anti+logic condition in which rationality is disengaged. To atte"pt to sub&ect it to analysis would be to "iss the entire point. *n even "ore fa"ous ,oan, and one that has beco"e the traditional starting point for beginners, is the followingD 1 mon- as-ed %hao,chou, 4Has a dog the &uddha atureC4 %hao,chou answered, 4.u.I<6 @ere the word mu, "eaning InothingnessI or Iun,I is an elegant resolution of a perplexing Zen dile""a. @ad Chao+chou answered in the affir"ative, he would have been tacitly instigating a dualistic view of the universe, in which a dog and a "an are allowed to be discussed as separate ob&ects. )ut to have responded negatively would have been to even "ore strongly betray the Zen teaching of the 0neness per"eating all things. *n answer was called for, but not an explanation. !o the "aster responded with a nonwordAa sound that has been adopted in later Zen practice as sy"bolic of the unity of all things. This wisdo" "ade Chao+chou such a legend in his own lifeti"e that "any "on,s fro" the south ca"e north to try to test hi", but he always outwitted the", even when he was well past a hundred. %erhaps it would be well to round out his story with a garland of so"e of the exchanges he had with new "on,sD 1 new arrival said apologetically to the master, 4$ have come here empty,handedL4 4Lay it down thenL4 said the master. 4+ince $ have brought nothing with me, what can

$ lay downC4 as-ed the visitor. 4Then go on carrying itL4 said the master.;H Ine day %hao,chou fell down in the snow, and called out, 4Help me upL Help me upL4 1 mon- came and lay down beside him. %hao,chou got up and went away. ;J 1 mon- as-ed, 43hen a beggar comes, what shall we give himC4 The master answered, 4He is lac-ing in nothing.4;= 3hen a mon- as-ed him, 43hat is the real significance of &odhidharma6s coming from the westC4 his answer was, 4The cypress tree in the courtyard.4 3hen the monprotested that %hao,chou was only referring to a mere ob7ect, the 1bbot said, 4 o, $ am not referring you to an ob7ect.4 The mon- then repeated again the /uestion. 4The cypress tree in the courtyardL4 said the 1bbot once more.;B 1 mon- besought him to tell him the most vitally important principle of %h6an. The master excused himself by saying, 4$ must now go to ma-e water. Thin- even such a trifling thing $ have to do in person.4 ;2 Chao+chou was of a uniJue breed of I.olden *geI "asters, who created ChHanHs finest "o"ent. Even Chao+ chou ,new this, for he is Juoted as recogniGing that ChHan had already passed through its "ost dyna"ic epoch. 4 inety years ago,4 he said, 4$ saw more than eighty enlightened masters in the lineage of .a,tsu( all of them were creative spirits. If late years, the pursuit of %h6an has become more and more triviali0ed and ramified. #emoved ever farther from the original spirit of men of supreme wisdom, the process of degeneration will go on from generation to generation.I<9 Chao+chou died in his one hundred and twentieth year, surely one of the "ost venerable ChHan "asters. :ortunately his pessi"istic assess"ent of ChHanHs future

was only partly correct. *lthough he hi"self had no illustrious heirs, there were other !outhern ChHan "asters who would extend the lineage of Ma+tsu into what would one day be the 1inGai school, a"ong these a lay"an na"ed %Hang and the "aster @uang+po.

Cha/t"# Nin"
P2AN* AN) HAN1SHAN& (AYMAN AN) POET

Han,shan Each of the better+,nown disciples of Ma+tsu exe"plified so"e particular aspect of ChHanD hereas %o+chang @uai+ hai advanced ChHanHs organiGational and analytical side, /an+chHuan e"bodied the illogical, psychologically &olting approach to the teaching. )ut what about the ChHan outside the "onasteriesL 'id Ma+tsuHs influence extend to the lay co""unityL *lthough little has been preserved to help answer these Juestions, we do have the stories of two ChHan poets who operated outside the "onastic syste"D (ay"an %Hang #?=8L+;44$ and @an+shan #?58L+ ;=8L$. They were part of a "ove"ent called chu,shih, lay

believers who were drawn to )uddhis" but re&ected the for"al practices, preferring to re"ain outside the establish"ent and see, enlighten"ent on their own.4 @owever, %Hang studied under Ma+tsu hi"self, and @an+ shan so"eti"es echoed the "asterHs teachings in his verse. (a$man PBan. The "an ,nown to history as (ay"an %Hang was born in the "id+eighth century.< @e grew to "anhood in the city of @eng+yang, where his Confucianist father served as a "iddle+level official. *lthough he was educated in all the classics, he beca"e a practicing )uddhist early and never faltered in his devotion. !o"eti"e after "arrying he beca"e so obsessed with the classic Chinese ideal of a spiritual+poetic her"itage that he actually had a thatched cottage built ad&acent to his house. @ere he spent ti"e with his wifeAand now a daughter and sonA "editating, co"posing poetry, and engaging in characteristically Chinese "usings. * story relates that he was sitting in his thatched cottage one day when he beca"e exasperated with the difficulties of his path and declared, I@ow difficult it isQ @ow difficult it isQ My studies are li,e drying the fibers of ten thousand pounds of flax by hanging the" in the sun.I @is wife overheard this outburst and contradicted hi", IEasy, easy, easy. -tHs li,e touching your feet to the ground when you get out of bed. - have found the teaching right in the tops of flowering plants.I @is daughter, (ing+chao, heard both outbursts and showed the" the truth with her assertion, IMy study is neither difficult nor easy. hen - a" hungry - eat. hen - a" tired - rest.I6 Then one day, thought to have been so"eti"e between the years ?;> and ?98, %Hang decided to go the final step and sever his ties with the "aterialis" that weighed hi" down. *fter donating his house for a te"ple, he loaded his re"aining possessions into a boatAwhich he proceeded to "aneuver into the "iddle of a river and sin,.

e do not ,now if his wife and son welco"ed this final freedo" fro" "aterial enslave"ent, but his daughter see"s to have approved, for she helped hi" wend his now+penurious way through the world by assisting hi" in "a,ing and selling ba"boo household articles. :ree at last, %Hang traveled about fro" place to place with no fixed abode, living, so the legends say, Ili,e a leaf.I The i"age of %Hang and his daughter as itinerant peddlers, wandering fro" place to place, "ade a searing i"pression on the Chinese "ind, and for centuries he has been ad"ired in ChinaAad"ired, but not necessarily e"ulated. ho" did %Hang go to visitL @e see"s to have ,nown personally every "a&or ChHan figure in China. The first "aster visited was the fa"ous !hih+tHou #?88+?98$, so"eti"e rival of Ma+tsu. #-t will be recalled that the !ixth %atriarch, @ui+neng, had a"ong his disciples a "aster called @uai+&ang #5??+?==$, teacher of Ma+tsu and head of the lineage of now Eapanese 1inGai. *nother of the !ixth %atriarchHs legendary followers was @sing+ssu Nd. ?=8O, whose pupil !hih+tHou is connected to the line that beca"e Eapanese !oto. Ma+tsu and !hih+tHou headed the two "a&or "ove"ents of !outhern ChHan in the eighth century.$= -n ?;5 %Hang appeared at the retreat of !hih+ tHou on the "ountain called /an+yueh. @e greeted !hih+ tHou by as,ing hi" one of the standard ChHan Juestions, which !hih+tHou answered by Juietly placing a hand over %HangHs "outhAcausing the (ay"anHs first enlighten"ent experience. %Hang studied under !hih+tHouAalthough probably in a non"onastic capacityAfor so"e ti"e, until one day !hih+tHou decided to test hi". ITell "e,I began !hih+tHou, Ihow have you practiced ChHan after co"ing here to this "ountainLI %Hang shot bac, in a characteristic "anner, saying, IThere is really nothing words can reveal about "y daily life.I !hih+tHou continued, I-t is &ust because - ,now words cannot that - as, you now.I *t this, %Hang was "oved to offer a verseD .y daily activities are not unusual,

$6m 7ust naturally in harmony with them. Mrasping nothing, discarding nothing, $n every place there6s no hindrance, no conflict. E.yF supernatural power and marvelous activity> Drawing water and carrying firewood.:J< The declaration that drawing water and carrying firewood were "iraculous acts de"onstrated %HangHs understanding of Ieveryday+"indednessIAthe teaching of no+teaching, the approach of no+approach.5 The story says that !hih+tHou ac,nowledged the (ay"anHs enlighten"ent, and went on to inJuire whether %Hang wished to exchange his pauperHs robe of white for a "on,Hs rai"ent of blac,. %Hang reputedly answered hi" with an abrupt I- will do what - li,e.I *pparently concluding that he had absorbed all of !hih+tHouHs teaching, %Hang arose and absented hi"self, heading for 3iangsi and the "aster Ma+tsu. %HangHs adventures with Ma+tsu are not particularly well recorded, given the two years he reportedly studied under the "aster. @owever, the account of their "eeting has beco"e a ChHan standard. *ccording to the story, %Hang as,ed Ma+tsu, I hat ,ind of "an is he who has no co"panion a"ong all thingsLI Ma+tsu answered, I*fter you swallow all the water in the est 1iver in one gulp, - will tell you.I -t is said that when %Hang heard this, he was suddenly aware of the essence of ChHan.? -f this exchange see"s puGGling, with its subtle wordplay that weaves in and out between realis" and sy"bolis", what about another recorded exchange between the twoD Ine day the Layman addressed .a,tsu, saying> 41 man of unobscured original nature as-s you please to loo- upward.4 .a,tsu loo-ed straight down. The Layman said> 4Kou alone play marvelously on the stringless ch6in EluteF.4 .a,tsu loo-ed straight up. The Layman bowed low. .a,tsu returned to his /uarters.

4Just now bungled it trying to be smart,4 then said the Layman.2 The "odern "aster Charles (u, speculates that %HangHs reJuest to Ma+tsu to loo, up at an enlightened "an was intended to trap the old "asterD I-n reply Ma+tsu loo,ed down to reveal the functioning of the enlightened "ind. %Hang then praised the "aster for playing so well on the stringless lute. Thereat Ma+tsu loo,ed up to return functioning to the enlightened "ind. . . . -n ChHan parlance, loo,ing down is Hfunction,H which "eans the "ind wandering outside to deliver living beings, and loo,ing up is returning function to HsubstanceH #the "ind$ after the wor, of salvation has been done. %HangHs act of prostrating is HfunctionH and Ma+tsuHs return to the abbotHs roo" "eans returning function to HsubstanceH to end the dialogue, for nothing further can be added to reveal substance and function.I9 *lthough the (ay"an declined "onastic orders, he apparently could hold his own with the best of Ma+tsuHs followers, as well as with other ChHan "on,s he encountered in his travels. 0ften "on,s sought hi" out "erely to "atch wits. * typical exchange is reported with a follower of !hih+tHou na"ed %Hu+chi, who once ca"e to test %HangD Ine day "6u,chi visited the Layman. 4$ recall that when $ was in my mother6s womb $ had a certain word,4 said the Layman. 4$6ll show it to you, but you mustn6t hold it as a principle.4 4Kou6re still separated from life,4 said "6u,chi. 4$ 7ust said you mustn6t hold it as a principle,4 re7oined the Layman. 4How can $ not be awed by a word that astounds peopleC4 said "6u,chi. 4Onderstanding such as yours is enough to astonish people,4 replied the Layman. 4The very statement 6don6t hold it as a principle6 has become a principle,4 said "6u,chi. 4Kou6re separated not only by one or two lives,4 said the Layman.

4$t6s all right for you to reprove a rice,gruel E,eatingF mon- Eli-e meF,4 returned "6u,chi. The Layman snapped his fingers three times.89 The precise "eaning of this exchange will not be tac,led here, but %Hang apparently ca"e off on top. /ow and then, however, %Hang see"s to have been eJualed or bested. There is a story of an exchange he had with one of the "on,s at Ma+tsuHs "onastery, na"ed !hih+lin. Ine day +hih,lin said to the Layman> 4$ have a /uestion $6d li-e to as-. Don6t spare your words.4 4"lease go on,4 said the Layman. 4How you do spare wordsL4 exclaimed +hih,lin. 4Onwittingly by this discussion we6ve fallen into a snare Eof wordsF,4 said the Layman. +hih,lin covered his ears. 4Kou adept, you adeptL4 cried the Layman. 88 *nother ti"e %Hang is re"iniscent of Chao+chou in de"onstrating that it is possible to hold oneHs own without the use of words. The Layman was once lying on his couch reading a sutra. 1 mon- saw him and said> 4LaymanL Kou must maintain dignity when reading a sutra.4 The Layman raised up one leg. The mon- had nothing to say.8; (ay"an %Hang studied under Ma+tsu for two years, but he finally decided to resu"e his life as a wandering student of ChHan. @e left Ma+tsu declaring the fa"ily his source of strength, or so it would see" fro" his parting verse presented to the "aster. $6ve a boy who has no bride, $6ve a girl who has no groom( 'orming a happy family circle, 3e spea- about &irthless.8G

*nd off he went to travel, a co"pletely enlightened "an after his stay in 3iangsi. @e turned increasingly to poetry during these years of wandering across the central part of China, co"posing so"e of his "ost sensitive verse. 0ne poe" in particular see"s to capture the carefree spirit of these years of wanderingsD The wise man, perceiving wealth and lust, ?nows them to be empty illusion( 'ood and clothes sustain body and life@ $ advise you to learn being as is. 3hen it6s time, $ move my hermitage and go, 1nd there6s nothing to be left behind.8H 0ne of (ay"an %HangHs "ost enduring co"panions was the "on, Tan+hsia THien+&an, ,nown for his irreverence. The following is typical of the exchanges recorded between the twoD 3hen the Layman was wal-ing with Tan,hsia one day he saw a deep pool of clear water. "ointing to it with his hand, he said> 4&eing as it is we can6t differentiate it.4 4If course we can6t,4 replied Tan,hsia. The Layman scooped up and threw two handfuls of water on Tan,hsia. 4Don6t do that, don6t do thatL4 cried Tan,hsia. 4$ have to, $ have toL4 exclaimed the Layman. 3hereupon Tan,hsia scooped up and threw three handfuls of water on the Layman, saying> 43hat can you do nowC4 4 othing else,4 replied the Layman. 4Ine seldom wins by a flu-e,4 said Tan,hsia. 43ho lost by a flu-eC4 returned the Layman. 8J To atte"pt to explicate this exchange would be to ride the wind. They are in a co"pletely different reality fro" that in which "ere boo,s are written and read. hat occupied Mada" %Hang during the (ay"anHs wanderings is not ,nown. @owever, she see"s well on the way to enlighten"ent herself. * story says that one day she went to a )uddhist te"ple to "a,e an offering of

food. The priest as,ed her the purpose of the offering so that he could post the custo"ary notice identifying the na"e of a donor and the date and purpose of the gift. This was called Itransferring "erit,I since the ,nowledge of her good deed would be ItransferredI fro" herself to others. -t is reported that Mrs. %Hang too, her co"b, stuc, it in the bac, of her hair, and announced to the stunned priest, ITransference of "erit is acco"plished.I 45 !he see"ed a part of %HangHs enlighten"ent, even if not a co"panion in his travels. Eventually %Hang and his daughter, (ing+chao, ended up bac, in the north, near @siang+yang, the city of his birth, which he had left when a very s"all child. )ut instead of "oving into the town, they lived in a cave about twenty "iles to the south. *nd to this cave often &ourneyed a distinguished visitorA%refect 7u Ti of @siang province, an i"portant official who had learned of %HangHs verse and his reputation for ChHan teaching. 0riginally a vicious and arrogant dictator who delighted in persecuting )uddhists, he had been converted by a ChHan "on, and had beco"e a strong supporter of the faith. -n fact, it is 7u Ti who" we "ust than, for our ,nowledge of %Hang, for it was he who collected the poetry and stories of the (ay"an after his death. %Hang lived in his cave with (ing+chao for two years, and then he suddenly declared that it was ti"e to die. -n a dra"atic gesture, he assu"ed a "editating posture and as,ed (ing+chao to go outside and tell hi" when the sun reached high noon, at which ti"e he would pass on. !he went out, but Juic,ly returned to announce that it was already noon but that there was an eclipse. %Hang &u"ped up and ran out to see this event, but while he was gone (ing+chao seated herself in his place, folded her hands, and died herself. %Hang returned fro" her diversionary announce"ent, saw what had happened, and declared, I@er way was always swift. /ow she has gone ahead of "e.I -n respect he postponed his own death for a wee,.4? @earing of this episode, %refect 7u Ti rushed to the scene. The (ay"an addressed hi" with, I- pray you to hold all that is thought to be real as e"pty, and never

ta,e that which is e"pty as being real. :arewell. The world is "erely a shadow, an echo.I4; @e then laid his head on the prefectHs ,nee and died. @e left a reJuest that his body be cre"ated and his ashes scattered across the waters of nearby la,es and rivers. hen %HangHs wife heard of the death of her husband and daughter, she said, IThat stupid girl and ignorant old "an have gone away without telling "e. @ow unbearable.I49 !he then relayed the news to her son, who was in the fields hoeing. @e too subseJuently died "iraculously, while still standing up. :or her own part, Mada" %Hang &ourneyed about the countryside bidding her friends farewell, and then secluded herself, where it was never ,nown. *nd with her passing ends the saga of (ay"an %Hang. This real+life individual was honored as ChinaHs answer to the "ythical -ndian business"an Ci"ala,irti, who co"bined enlighten"ent with the life of the "ar,et. Han Shan *n even "ore elusive figure is the her"it @an+shan, whose na"e "eans ICold Mountain,I the site where he supposedly resided. @e is an al"ost totally lengendary character, for we actually ,now nothing for sure about when he lived #the current best guess is late eighth to early ninth century$. *l"ost everything ,nown about hi" has been gleaned fro" his poe"s and fro" a presu"ably conte"poraneous preface to these poe"s co"posed by a "ysterious hand untraceable to any historical Chinese individual. @is was so"e of the "ost confessional, yet &oyous, verse penned in THang China, and he has been clai"ed by the ChHanists as one of theirsAalthough he "ight &ust as easily have been a Taoist conversant in )uddhist &argon. @an+shan e"bodied the archetypal hero of the Chinese i"aginationD a "e"ber of the rural gentry who gave up his staid fa"ily life and so"e sort of scholarly career to beco"e a wandering poet. *s he describes his own early life in the years before his wanderingsD

'rom my father and mother $ inherited land enough 1nd need not envy others6 orchards and fields %rea-, crea- goes the sound of my wife6s loom( &ac- and forth my children prattle at their play. P P P The mountain fruits child in hand $ pluc-( .y paddy field along with my wife $ hoe. 1nd what have $ got inside my houseC othing at all but one stand of boo-s.;9 !o we have a gentle"an scholar, co"fortably well off, with wife and children and an idyllic life undisturbed by the incursions of the world. -t is all too perfect by half, and sure enough so"eti"e before his thirtieth year his life was disrupted by an #undescribed$ event so catastrophic that his wife and fa"ily turned hi" outD $ too- along boo-s when $ hoed the fields, $n my youth, when $ lived with my older brother. Then people began to tal-( Even my wife turned against me. ow $6ve bro-en my ties with the world of red dust( $ spend my time wandering and read all $ want. 3ho will lend a dipper of water To save a fish in a carriage rut.;8 Eust when this sad event too, place we do not ,now. @owever, by the ti"e @an+shan was thirty he found hi"self on Cold Mountain, part of the THien+tai "ountain range and near the town of THang+hsing. Thirty years ago $ was born into the world. 1 thousand, ten thousand miles $6ve roamed, &y rivers where the green grass lies thic-, &eyond the border where the red sands fly. $ brewed potions in a vain search for life everlasting. $ read boo-s, $ sang songs of history, 1nd today $6ve come home to %old .ountain To pillow my head on the stream and wash my ears.;;

@e described his life in the "ountains in a nu"ber of verses that often see" "ore Taoist than )uddhist. 0ne of the "ost lyrical followsD Ever since the time when $ hid in the %old .ountain $ have -ept alive by eating the mountain fruits. 'rom day to day what is there to trouble meC This my life follows a destined course. The days and months flow ceaseless as a stream( Iur time is brief as the flash struc- on a stone. $f Heaven and Earth shift, then let them shift( $ shall still be sitting happy among the roc-s.;G @e was a contradictory individual, one "inute sole"n in his search for Mind, and the next "inute a buoyant bon vivant, writing verses that see" al"ost a THang version of our own carpe die"D If course there are some people who are careful of money, &ut not $ among them. &ecause $ dance too much, my garment of thin cloth is worn. .y bottle is empty, for $ spurt out the wine when we sing. Eat a full meal. Don6t tire your feet. The day when weeds are sprouting through your s-ull, Kou will regret what you have been.;H The life he describes for hi"self is one i""ersed in poetry. @e is the co"pleat poet, whose only concern is writing #not publishing$ verse. Ince at %old .ountain, troubles cease@ o more tangled, hung,up mind, $ idly scribble poems on the roc- cliff, Ta-ing whatever comes, li-e a drifting boat. ;J )ut if his poe"s were written on a roc, cliff, how then were they preservedL Thereon hangs a tale, or "ore li,ely a legend. *t so"e un,nown ti"e, @an+shanHs

verses #so"e three hundred$ were collected and supplied with a Ipreface.I<5 The person who ta,es credit for saving @an+shan fro" a country poetHs oblivion identifies hi"self as (u+chHiu 7in, a high official. *s it happens, the THang Chinese were very fussy about ,eeping records on such things as high officials, and a (u+chHiu 7in is not re"e"bered a"ong their ran,s. ConseJuently, so"e have speculated that the author of the preface was in fact a )uddhist priest who wished to re"ain anony"ous. *t any rate, according to the story, our official first heard of @an+shan upon beco"ing ill &ust before a planned trip to a new prefecture and, after failing to be helped by a doctor, was cured by a wandering priest, who then told hi" that in the prefecture of his destination he would need further protection fro" bodily ills. (u+chHiu 7in as,ed hi" for the na"e of a "aster, and the priest told hi" to be on the loo,out for two eccentric+appearing ,itchen servants at the 3uo+chHing "onastery dining hall, na"ed @an+shan and !hih+te. hen he arrived at his new post, he i""ediately sought out this "onastery and was a"aGed to learn the story was true. %eople around the te"ple said, I7es, there is a @an+shan. @e lives alone in the hills at a place called Cold Mountain, but he often co"es down to the te"ple to visit his friend, !hih+te. The coo,, !hih+te, it turned out, saved leftovers for his friend @an+shan, who would co"e and ta,e the" away in a ba"boo tube, "errily laughing and &o,ing along the length of the te"ple veranda as he carted away his booty. 0nce the "on,s caught hi" and exposed his syste", but he only laughed all the "ore. @is appearance was that of a starving beggar, but his wisdo" was that of a "an of enlighten"ent. (u+chHiu 7in anxiously pressed on to the ,itchen, where sure enough he found @an+shan and !hih+te, tending the stoves and war"ing the"selves over the fire. hen he bowed low to the", they bro,e into gales of laughter and shouted I@0I bac, at hi". The other "on,s were scandaliGed and wondered aloud why a distinguished official would bow to a pair of neHer+do+ wells. )ut before he could explain, the pair clasped hands

and bolted out of the te"ple. #The giggling @an+shan and !hih+te beca"e a staple of Zen art for a "illenniu" thereafter.$ 'eter"ined to retrieve the", he arranged for the "onastery to provide the" per"anent acco""odations and left a pac,age of clothes and incense for the". hen they failed to reappear, he had a bearer carry his gifts and acco"pany hi" up into the "ountains. :inally they gli"psed @an+shan, who yelled, IThiefQ ThiefQI at the" and retreated to the opening of a cave. @e then bade the" farewell with, IEach of you "en should strive to your ut"ostQI hereupon he disappeared into the cave, which itself then closed upon hi", leaving no trace. The preface says @an+shan was never seen again. -n ho"age the disappointed (u+chHiu 7in had his poe"s collected fro" where they had been co"posedAon scraps of ba"boo, wood, stones, cliffs, and on the walls of houses. Thus there ca"e to be the collected oeuvre of @an+shan. @an+shanHs poe"s support at least part of this so"ewhat fanciful story. @e does see" to have been )uddhist in outloo,, and as one of his translators, )urton atson, has declared, I. . . to &udge fro" his poetry, @an+ shan was a follower of the ChHan sect, which placed great e"phasis on individual effort and was less wary of e"otionalis" than earlier )uddhis" had been. . . . Though he writes at ti"es in a "ood of serenity, at other ti"es he appears despondent, angry, arrogant, or wildly elated. . . ,I<? *s did (ay"an %Hang, @an+shan see"s to have believed that the ay is found in everyday+"indedness, a point of view "ost forcefully expounded by Ma+tsu. *s @an+shan declares in one of his poe"sD 1s for me, $ delight in the everyday 3ay, 1mong mist,wrapped vines and roc-y caves. Here in the wilderness $ am completely free, 3ith my friends, the white clouds, idling forever. There are roads, but they do not reach the world( +ince $ am mindless, who can rouse my thoughtsC In a bed of stone $ sit, alone in the night, 3hile the round moon climbs up %old .ountain. ;2

Many of his verses reinforce the belief that he was indeed a follower of !outhern ChHan. :or exa"ple, he see"ed to believe that the "ind itself is the )uddha that all see,. Tal-ing about food won6t ma-e you full, &abbling of clothes won6t -eep out the cold. 1 bowl of rice is what fills the belly( $t ta-es a suit of clothing to ma-e you warm. 1nd yet, without stopping to consider this, Kou complain that &uddha is hard to find. Turn your mind withinL There he isL 3hy loo- for him abroadC;5 -nterestingly enough, for all his rather traditional ChHan senti"ents and ad"onitions, he was "uch "ore in touch with hu"an concerns than were "ost followers of ChHan. :or one thing, he lived alone in the "ountains, an isolated ascetic cut off fro" hu"an contact, and the resulting loneliness was so"ething those caught up in the riotous give+and+ta,e of a ChHan "onastery never ,new. @e gives voice to this loneliness in a touching poe". $ loo- far off at T6ien,t6ai6s summit, 1lone and high above the crowding pea-s. "ines and bamboos sing in the wind that sways them +ea tides wash beneath the shining moon. $ ga0e at the mountain6s green borders below 1nd discuss philosophy with the white clouds. $n the wilderness, mountains and seas are all right, &ut $ wish $ had a companion in my search for the 3ay.G9 The ad"ission of loneliness and near+despair in "any of his verses has always been a troubleso"e point for Zen co""entators. The enlightened "an is supposed to be i""une to the "isgivings of the heart, focused as he is on oneness and nondistinction. )ut @an+shan worried a good bit about old age, and he also "issed his fa"ily, as he ad"its, albeit through the "ediu" of a drea"D

Last night in a dream $ returned to my old home 1nd saw my wife weaving at her loom. +he held her shuttle poised, as though lost in thought, 1s though she had no strength to lift it further. $ called. +he turned her head to loo-, &ut her eyes were blan-@she didn6t -now me. +o many years we6ve been parted The hair at my temples has lost its old color.G8 )ut perhaps it is this non+ChHan Juality, this "ortal touch, that elevates @an+shan to the ran, of a great lyrical poet. @e actually "anages to be both a plausible )uddhist and a vulnerable hu"an being. :ew other poets in Chinese letters "anaged to co"bine genuine )uddhis" with such "e"orable verse. *s )urton atson has observed, I-n the wor,s of "ost first+rate Chinese poets, )uddhis" figures very slightly, usually as little "ore than a vague "ood of resignation or a picturesJue e"bellish"ent in the landscapeAthe "ountain te"ple falling into "elancholy ruin, the old "on, one visits on an outing in the hills. @an+shan, however, is a stri,ing exception to this rule. The collection of poetry attributed to hi" . . . is per"eated with deep and co"pelling religious feeling. :or this reason he holds a place of special i"portance in Chinese literature. @e proved that it was possible to write great poetry on )uddhist, as well as Confucian and Taoist, the"esK that the cold abstractions of Mahayana philosophy could be transfor"ed into personal and i"passioned literature. . . . The language of his poe"s is si"ple, often colloJuial or even slangy . . . NbutO "any of his i"ages and ter"s are drawn fro" the )uddhist sutras or the sayings of the !outhern !chool of Zen, whose doctrine of the )uddha as present in the "inds of all "enAof )uddha as the "ind itselfAhe so often refers to. *t the sa"e ti"e he is solidly within the Chinese poetic tradition, his language again and again echoing the wor,s of earlier poets. . . .I6< ith @an+shan we return repeatedly to the world of Cold Mountain, which wasAas another of his translators, *rthur aley, has pointed outAas "uch a state of "ind

as a locality. -t was this, together with his advice to loo, within, that finally gives @an+shan his haunting voice of ChHan. @e see"s not to have cared for the supercilious I"astersI who do"inated the co"petitive world of the "onasteries. @e invited the" to &oin hi" in the rigorous but rewarding world of ICold Mountain,I where the "ind was )uddha and the heart was ho"e. 3hen men see Han,shan They all say he6s cra0y 1nd not much to loo- at@ Dressed in rags and hides. They don6t get what $ say Q $ don6t tal- their language. 1ll $ can say to those $ meet> 4Try and ma-e it to %old .ountain. I66

Cha/t"# T"n
H0AN*1PO& MASTER OF THE 0NIVERSA( MIN)

%erhaps the "ost thoughtful Zen philosopher of the" all was @uang+po #d. ;>8L$, who pic,ed up where the earlier teachers had left off and brought to a close the great creative era of ChHan. @e also stood at the very edge of the tu"ultuous watershed in Chinese )uddhis", barely living past the ;=> .reat %ersecution that s"ashed the power of all the )uddhist schools except that of the reclusive !outhern ChHanists. 0riginally na"ed @si+yun, the "aster "oved at a young age fro" his birthplace in present+day :u,ien to Mt. @uang+po in the sa"e province, the locale that gave hi" his ChHan title. @is biography declares that his voice was articulate and "ellifluous, his character open and si"ple.4 @e later decided to "a,e a pilgri"age to see the fa"ous Ma+tsu, but when he arrived in 3iangsi he was told that the "aster had died.< %o+chang @uai+hai was still there, however, and conseJuently @uang+po settled down to study with hi" instead. @uang+po is ,nown to us today pri"arily through the accident of having a follower obsessed by the written word. This "an, %ei @siu, was also a high Chinese official who served as governor in two of the provinces where

@uang+po at various ti"es resided. @e studied under @uang+po both ti"es #all day and night, so he clai"ed$ and later produced an anecdotal su""ary of the "asterHs teachings now ,nown as In the Transmission of .ind.6 This docu"ent was extensive, representing one of the "ost detailed descriptions of an early "asterHs thoughts. %ei @siu also reports in his preface #dated ;>;$ that he sent his wor, bac, to 3uang THang "onastery on Mt. @uang+po to have it authenticated by the old "on,s there who still re"e"bered the sayings of the "aster.= )y the ti"e of @uang+po the issue of IgradualI versus IsuddenI enlighten"ent was decisively resolved in favor of the latter. @e therefore turned instead to two "a&or re"aining JuestionsD 4$ how enlighten"ent fits into the "ental world, and <$ how this intuitive insight can be trans"itted. )efore he was through he had advanced these issues significantly and had laid the philosophical basis for the next phase of ChHan in ChinaAto be do"inated by the school of his pupil (in+chi. @uang+po struggled with a funda"ental dile""a of ChHanD how the wordless wisdo" of intuition can be passed fro" generation to generation. Enlighten"ent necessarily has to be intuitive, and that "eans traditional teaching "ethods are useless. There are no conceptual for"ulations or Iconcepts.I -t is by definition wordless. -t has to be realiGed intuitively by the novice, by hi"self. The "asters had isolated a type of ,nowledge that words could not trans"it. -t was this trans"ission of wordless insight, of Mind, that obsessed @uang+po. @is teachings are well su""ariGed by his biographer %ei @siu, who declaredD I@olding in estee" only the intuitive "ethod of the @ighest Cehicle, which cannot be co""unicated in words, he taught nothing but the doctrine of the 0ne MindK holding that there is nothing else to teach, in that both "ind and substance are void. . . . To those who have realiGed the nature of 1eality, there is nothing old or new, and conceptions of shallowness and depth are "eaningless. Those who spea, of it do not atte"pt to explain it, establish no sects, and open no doors or windows. That which is

before you is it. )egin to reason about it and you will at once fall into error.I> @e see"s to have been preoccupied with the issue of trans"ission even during the early days of studying under @uai+hai. @is very first Juestion to the older "aster reportedly was I@ow did the early ChHan "asters guide their followersLI @uai+hai answered this very un+ChHan Juestion with silence, an i"plied rebu,e. hen @uang+po pressed the point, @uai+hai called hi" a disappointing disciple and said he had best beware or he #@uang+po$ would be the "an who lost ChHan.5 -n a later episode, however, @uai+hai designates @uang+po as a successor in 'har"a, via a fa"ous trans"ission exchange in which @uang+po finally de"onstrates wordless co""unication. Ine day Huai,hai as-ed Huang,po, 43here have you beenC4 The answer was that he had been at the foot of the Ta, hsiung .ountain pic-ing mushrooms. Huai,hai continued, 4Have you seen any tigersC4 Huang,po immediately roared li-e a tiger. Huai,hai pic-ed up an ax as if to chop the tiger. Huang,po suddenly slapped Huai,hai6s face. Huai,hai laughed heartily, and then returned to his temple and said to the assembly, 41t the foot of the Ta,hsiung .ountain there is a tiger. Kou people should watch out. $ have already been bitten today.I? This enig"atic utterance by @uai+hai has been ta,en by "any to signify that @uang+po was being ac,nowledged as a worthy being, perhaps even a successor. The scholar Chang Chung+yuan has observed that the genius of this response was its freedo" fro" the trap of logical assertion or negation.; The act signified freedo" fro" the alternatives of words or silence. Could it be that with this incident we have finally captured a wordless trans"issionL @uang+po also had a nu"ber of exchanges in later years with /an+chHuan #?6;+;<=$, another of his seniors

who had studied at the feet of old Ma+tsu. *s the story is reported in The Transmission of the LampD +ome time later Huang,po was with an,ch6uan. 1ll the mon-s in an,ch6uan6s monastery were going out to harvest cabbage. an,ch6uan as-ed Huang,po, 43here are you goingC4 Huang,po answered, 4$ am going to piccabbage.4 an,ch6uan went on, 43hat do you use to piccabbageC4 Huang,po lifted his sic-le. an,ch6uan remar-ed, 4Kou ta-e the ob7ective position as a guest, but you do not -now how to preside as a host in the sub7ective position.4 Huang,po thereupon -noc-ed on the ground three times with his sic-le.5 hen )lofeld translates this puGGling episode fro" In the Transmission of .ind, he co""ents that he has been unable to find a "odern Zen "aster who could explain its "eaning.48 @owever, /an+chHuanHs final re"ar, Juestions the degree of @uang+poHs enlighten"ent, and so"e assu"e the latter ,noc,ed on the ground to signify defeat.44 *s did other "asters, @uang+po also e"ployed silence as a teaching device, using it to teach wordless insight by exa"ple. 0ne particularly pointed story involves none other than his biographer, the official %ei @siu. -n %ei @siuHs introduction to his transcript of @uang+poHs teachings he says that they first "et in ;=6 when he invited the "aster to lecture at (ung+hsing Te"ple in Chung+ling, the district which he governed. !ix years later, in ;=9, the governor was in charge of an+ling, and he again invited the "aster to co"e and teach, this ti"e at the local 3Hai+yan te"ple.4< hen @uang+po arrived in an+ling, for what was to be the second teaching session with %ei @siu, the story says that the governor "ade the "ista,e of presenting the "aster with a written exposition of the teachings of ChHan. @uang+po greeted this with silence, his IexpositionI of ChHan. The "rime .inister invited the .aster to the city and presented his own written interpretation of %h6an to him.

The .aster too- it and put it on the table. He did not read it. 1fter a short silence, he as-ed the "rime .inister, 4Do you understandC4 The minister answered, 4$ do not understand.4 The .aster said, 4$t would be better if you could understand immediately through inner experience. $f it is expressed in words, it won6t be our teaching. I46 The Transmission of the Lamp reports that after this episode at an+ling, the spirit of @uang+poHs school beca"e widespread south of the 7angtGe 1iver.4= This exchange brings out the essence of @uang+poHs concerns. @is "ost insistent conviction was that ChHan cannot be taught, that it "ust be so"ehow gained intuitively. @e was conte"ptuous of conceptual thought, believing it to be the greatest hindrance to achieving intuitive insight. The proble" is the "ista,en belief that Zen can so"ehow be taught and understood if only one grasps the concepts. )ut concepts only serve to obstruct intuitionK Zen intuition can wor, only outside concepts. *s @uang+po phrased itD +ince Zen was first transmitted, it has never taught that men should see- for learning or form concepts. 4+tudying the 3ay4 is 7ust a figure of speech. $t is a method of arousing people6s interest in the early stages of their development. $n fact, the 3ay is not something which can be studied. +tudy leads to the retention of concepts and so the 3ay is entirely misunderstood.8J The use of the rational "ind in the study of ChHan is only "eaningful at the beginning. )ut once the fish of intuitive insight has been snared in the net of the rational "indHs ,en, the net "ust be discarded. Elsewhere he li,ens the extended use of analytical thought to the shoveling of dung.45 Concepts, it turns out, are only one of the "indHs "any constructs. The "ind also provides our perception of concrete ob&ects, thereby IcreatingI the" to suit its needs. Hills are hills. 3ater is water. .on-s are mon-s. Laymen are laymen. &ut these mountains, these rivers, the whole

world itself, together with the sun, moon, and stars@not one of them exists outside your mindsL . . . "henomena do not arise independently, but rely upon :the mental< environment :we create<.8B !ince reality is created by the "ind, we will never ,now what is IrealI and what is illusion. Exa"ples of this are co""onplace. The electron is both a wave and a particle, depending upon our point of view. hich is IrealityIL :urther"ore, concepts li"it. )y treating the world using rational constructs, we force it into a li"ited cage. )ut when we deal with it directly, it is "uch "ore co"plex and authentic. To continue the exa"ple, the electron "ay be so"ething "uch "ore co"plex than either a wave or a particle, since it behaves at ti"es li,e either or both. -t "ay in fact be so"ething for which our rationality+bound "ind has no Iconcept.I The illusory world we thin, we see around us, deceptively brought to us by our untrustworthy senses, leads us to conceptual thought and to logical categories as a "eans to atte"pt its Iunderstanding.I The resulting intellectual tur"oil is &ust the opposite of the tranJuility that is ChHan. )ut avoidance of conceptual thought leads to a serene, direct, and "eaningful understanding of the world around us, without unsettling "ental involve"ent. Irdinary people all indulge in conceptual thought based on environmental phenomena, hence they feel desire and hatred. To eliminate environmental phenomena, 7ust put an end to your conceptual thin-ing. 3hen this ceases, environmental phenomena are void( and when these are void, thought ceases. &ut if you try to eliminate environment without first putting a stop to conceptual thought, you will not succeed, but merely increase its power to disturb you.82 hat is worse, reliance on "isleading perception bloc,s out our experience of our own pure "ind. "eople in the world cannot identify their own mind. They believe that what they see, or hear, or feel, or -now, is

mind. They are bloc-ed by the visual, the auditory, the tactile, and the mental, so they cannot see the brilliant spirit of their original mind.85 hen he was as,ed why Zen students should not for" concepts as other people do, he replied, IConcepts are related to the senses, and when feeling ta,es place, wisdo" is shut out.I<8 @uang+po is so ada"ant against the deceiving world of the senses he even co"es down hard on the pleasures of the gour"et. Thus, there is sensual eating and wise eating. 3hen the body suffers the pangs of hunger and accordingly you provide it with food, but without greed, that is called wise eating. In the other hand, if you gluttonously delight in purity and flavour, you are permitting the distinctions which arise from wrong thin-ing. .erely see-ing to gratify the organ of taste without reali0ing when you have ta-en enough is called sensual eating.;8 The point here see"s to be that the use of the senses for pleasure is an abuse and distracts one fro" the illusion of the world, which itself obscures our "ind fro" us. The ideal "an he describes in ter"s of one who can re"ain passive even when confronted by a "anifestation of good or of evil. @e co""ends the person who has the character to re"ain aloof, even when in the )uddhist heaven or the )uddhist hellD $f he should behold the glorious sight of all the &uddhas coming to welcome him, surrounded by every -ind of gorgeous manifestation, he would feel no desire to approach them. $f he should behold all sorts of horrific forms surrounding him, he would experience no terror. He would 7ust be himself, oblivious of conceptual thought and one with the 1bsolute. He would have attained the state of unconditioned being.;; Truth is elusive. -t is i"possible to find it by loo,ing for it. *nd the world of the senses and the conceptual thought it engenders are actually i"pedi"ents to

discovering real truth. @e provides an analogy in the story of a "an who searches abroad for so"ething that he had all along. +uppose a warrior, forgetting that he was already wearing his pearl on his forehead, were to see- for it elsewhere, he could travel the whole world without finding it. &ut if someone who -new what was wrong were to point it out to him, the warrior would immediately reali0e that the pearl had been there all the time.;G @e concludes that the warriorHs finding his pearl had nothing to do with his searching for it, &ust as the final realiGation of intuitive wisdo" has nothing to do with the graduated practice of the traditional )uddhists. +o, if you students of the 3ay are mista-en about your own real .ind . . . you will indulge in various achievements and practices and expect to attain reali0ation by such graduated practices. &ut, even after aeons of diligent searching, you will not be able to attain to the 3ay. These methods cannot be compared to the sudden elimination of conceptual thought, the certain -nowledge that there is nothing at all which has absolute existence, nothing on which to lay hold, nothing on which to rely, nothing in which to abide, nothing sub7ective or ob7ective. $t is by preventing the rise of conceptual thought that you will reali0e &odhi :enlightenment<( and, when you do, you will 7ust be reali0ing the &uddha who has always existed in your own .indL;H The traditional practices neither help nor hinder finding the way, since they are unrelated to the final flash of sudden enlighten"entAwhich is in your "ind fro" the beginning, ready to be released. hat then did he teach, if there is nothing to be taughtL The answer see"s to be to stop see,ing, for only then does wisdo" co"e. :urther"ore, to study a doctrine of nonattach"ent puts you in the co"pro"ising position of beco"ing attached to nonattach"ent itself.

$f you students of the 3ay wish to become &uddhas, you need study no doctrines whatever, but learn only how to avoid see-ing for and attaching yourselves to anything. . . . #elin/uishment of everything is the Dharma, and he who understands this is a &uddha, but the relin/uishment of 1LL delusions leaves no Dharma on which to lay hold.;J )ut &ust how does @uang+po "anage to practice what he preachesL . . . E.Fost students of Zen cling to all sorts of sounds and forms. 3hy do they not copy me by letting each thought go as though it were nothing, or as though it were a piece of rotten wood, a stone, or the cold ashes of a dead fireC Ir else, by 7ust ma-ing whatever slight response is suited to each occasionC;= @is final ad"onitions were organiGed by %ei @siu and su""ariGed in the following list, reported as @uang+poHs answer to the Juestion of what guidance he had to offer those who found his teaching difficult. $ have ITH$ M to offer. . . . 1ll you need to remember are the following> 'irst, learn how to be entirely unreceptive to sensations arising from external forms, thereby purging your bodies of receptivity to externals. +econd, learn not to pay attention to any distinctions between this and that arising from your sensations, thereby purging your bodies of useless discernments between one phenomenon and another. Third, ta-e great care to avoid discriminating in terms of pleasant and unpleasant sensations, thereby purging your bodies of vain discriminations. 'ourth, avoid pondering things in your mind, thereby purging your bodies of discriminatory cognition. ;B @uang+po struggled "ightily with the proble" of trans"ission. !ince the doctrine was passed I"ind+to+ "ind,I he was obliged to find a trans"ission that

so"ehow circu"vented the need for words, so"ething to bring a novice up against his own original nature. @is contribution here was not revolutionaryD @e "ainly advocated the techniJues perfected by Ma+tsu, including roars and shouts, beatings, calling out a discipleHs na"e unexpectedly, or &ust re"aining silent at a critical "o"ent to underscore the inability of words to assist. @e also used the techniJue of continually contradicting a pupil, until the pupil finally realiGed that all his tal,ing had been &ust so "any obscuring concepts. )ut &ust what was this "ind that was being trans"ittedL @is answer was that nothing was trans"itted, since the whole point was &ust to &ar loose the intuition of the person being Itaught.I Ince Huang,po was as-ed, 4$f you say that mind can be transmitted, then how can you say it is nothingC4 He answered, 4To achieve nothing is to have the mind transmitted to you.4 The /uestioner pressed, 4$f there is nothing and no mind, then how can it be transmittedC4 Huang,po answered, 4Kou have heard the expression 6transmission of the mind6 and so you thin- there must be something transmitted. Kou are wrong. Thus &odhidharma said that when the nature of the mind is reali0ed, it is not possible to express it verbally. %learly, then, nothing is obtained in the transmission of the mind, or if anything is obtained, it is certainly not -nowledge .I<; @e finally concludes that the sub&ect cannot really even be discussed, since there are no ter"s for the process that transpires. Eust as sunyataAthat Ie"ptinessI or Coid whose existence "eans that conceptual thought is e"pty and rational constructs inadeJuateAis not so"ething that can be trans"itted as a concept, so too is the 'har"a or teaching, as well as Mind, that essence we share with a larger reality. Even state"ents that concepts are pointless "ust fall bac, on language and conseJuently are actually the"selves "erely "a,e+do approxi"ations, as are all descriptions of the process of trans"ission. @e finally gives up on words entirely,

declaring that none of the ter"s he has used has any "eaning. 1 transmission of Aoid cannot be made through words. 1 transmission in concrete terms cannot be the Dharma. . . $n fact, however, .ind is not .ind and transmission is not really transmission.;5 @e was wor,ing on the very real proble" of the trans"ission of understanding that operates in a part of the "ind where speech and logic cannot enter. *s Eohn u has pointed out, in a sense @uang+po had co"e bac, full circle to the insights of Chuang TGuD good and evil are "eaninglessK intuitive ,nowledge is "ore profound than speech+bound logicK there is an underlying unity #for Chuang TGu it was the Tao or ayK for @uang+po, the 2niversal Mind$ that represents the ineffable absolute. 68 -n effect, @uang+po laid it all out, cleared the way, and defined ChHan once and for all. The %erennial %hilosophy was never "ore strongly stated. The experi"ental age of ChHan thus drew to a close, its &ob finished. ith his death at the "idpoint of the ninth century, there was little "ore to be invented.64 -t was ti"e now for ChHan to for"aliGe its dialectic, as well as to "eet society and "a,e its "ar, in the world. The first was ta,en care of by @uang+poHs star pupil, (in+chi, and the second was precipitated by the forces of destiny. The death of @uang+po coincided with a critical instant in Chinese history whose conseJuences for future generations were enor"ous. 0nce before Chinese politics had affected ChHan, producing a situation in which !outhern ChHan would steal the "arch on /orthern ChHan. *nd now another trau"atic episode in Chinese affairs would effectively destroy all )uddhist sects except !outhern ChHan, leaving the way clear for this pursuit of intuitive wisdo"Aonce relegated to wandering teachers of dhyanaAto beco"e the only vital )uddhist sect left in China. *s noted previously, resent"ent toward )uddhis" had always s"oldered in Chinese society. %eriodically the conservative Chinese tried to drive this foreign belief

syste" fro" their soil, or failing that, at least to bring it under control. The usual co"plaints revolved around the "onasteriesH holdings of tax+free lands, their re"oval of able+bodied "en and wo"en fro" society into nonproductive "onastic life, and the "onastic vows of celibacy so antithetical to the Chinese ideals of the fa"ily. The ChHan "onasteries, deliberately or not, wor,ed hard to defuse "any of these co"plaints. -ndeed, so"e would say that ChHan "anaged to change )uddhis" into so"ething the Chinese could partially sto"ach. ChHanists were &ust the opposite of parasitical on society, since they practiced %o+chang @uai+haiHs in&unction of a day without wor, being a day without food. *lso, the unthin,ing piety of traditional )uddhists was reviled by ChHanists. :urther"ore, ChHan dispensed with "uch of the rig"arole and paraphernalia favored by the )uddhist sects that stuc, to its -ndian origins "ore closely. The resent"ent felt toward )uddhists was su""ariGed in a docu"ent issued in ;49 by a scholar+ bureaucrat na"ed @an 7u.6< @is recital of )uddhis"Hs failings ca"e down particularly hard on the fact that the )uddha had not been Chinese. @an 7u advocated a co"plete suppression of this pernicious establish"entD I1estore its people to hu"an livingQ )urn its boo,sQ *nd convert its buildings to hu"an dwellingsQI66 *s resent"ent toward the worldly influence of )uddhis" grew during the ninth century, there ca"e to power an e"peror who decided to act. The E"peror u+tsang #r. ;=4+=5$ is now thought to have gone "ad as a prelude to his persecution of the )uddhists. )ut his edicts were effective nonetheless. The state had begun tightening its grip on )uddhis" when he ca"e into power in ;=4, but in *ugust ;=> he issued the edict that ulti"ately had the effect of destroying traditional )uddhis" and urbaniGed /orthern ChHan in China. 0ver a period of two years he destroyed =,588 big te"ples and "onasteries and over =8,888 s"aller te"ples and retreats. @e freed 4>8,888 "ale and fe"ale slaves or te"ple attendants and evicted so"e <5>,888 "on,s and nuns, forcing the" bac, into secular life. #This

was out of a total Chinese population esti"ated to be around <? "illion.$ *nd not incidentally, the state reclai"ed several "illion acres of property that had belonged to the "onasteries. The effect of this was to obliterate virtually all the great )uddhist establish"ents, including the )uddhist strongholds in the capitals of Chang+an and (oyang, which were reduced to only two te"ples and thirty "on,s in each of the two cities.6= The irony of the .reat %ersecution was that it actually see"ed to invigorate !outhern ChHan. :or one thing, these rural ChHan teachers had long been iconoclasts and outcasts the"selves, as they disowned ostentatious te"ples and even the scriptures. *l"ost as "uch a philosophy as a religion, !outhern ChHan had long ,nown how to do without i"perial favor and largess. *nd when a further edict ca"e down de"anding that all )uddhist paraphernalia, including statues and paintings, be burned, the outcast ChHan "onasteries had the least to lose, since they had even done a bit of burning the"selvesAif we are to believe the story of Tan+hsia #?6;+;<=$, a fa"ous ChHan "on, who once burned a )uddhist statue for war"th. !outhern ChHan teachers &ust "elted for a ti"e bac, into secular life, fro" which they had never been far in any case.6> The result of all this was that after ;=5 the only sect of )uddhis" with any strength at all was rural ChHan. Chinese )uddhis" literally beca"e synony"ous with !outhern ChHanAa far cry fro" the al"ost fugitive existence of the sect in earlier years. *nd when )uddhis" beca"e fashionable again during the !ung, !outhern ChHan beca"e a house religion, as /orthern had once been. The result was that ChHan gradually lost its iconoclastic character. )ut out of this last phase of ChHan developed one of the "ost powerful tools ever for enlighten"ent, the fa"ous Zen ,oan, whose creation preserved so"ething out of the dyna"is" of ChHanHs early centuries.

PART III SECTARIANISM AN) THE KOAN

. . . in which the ChHan "ove"ent diversifies into a variety of schools, each beholden to a "aster or "asters advocating an individualiGed path to enlighten"ent. :ro" this period of personality and experi"entation gradually e"erge two "ain ChHan paths, the (in+chi and the TsHao+ tung #later called 1inGai and !oto in Eapan$. The (in+chi school concludes that enlighten"ent can be precipitated in a prepared novice through shouts, &olts, and "ental paradoxes. The TsHao+tung relies "ore heavily on the traditional practice of "editation to gradually release enlighten"ent. The faith grows in nu"bers, but Juality declines. To "aintain ChHanHs intellectual vigor, there e"erges a new techniJue, called the ,oan, which uses episodes fro" ChHanHs .olden *ge to challenge novicesH "ental co"placency. This invention beco"es the hall"ar, of the later (in+chi sect, and through the refine"ent of the ,oan techniJue ChHan en&oys a renaissance of creativity in China.

Cha/t"# E-"!"n
(IN1CHI& FO0N)ER OF RINZAI ZEN

The .reat %ersecution of ;=> brought to a close the creative .olden *ge of ChHan, while also leaving ChHan as the do"inant for" of Chinese )uddhis". -n the absence of an establish"ent )uddhis" for ChHan to distinguish itself against, the sect proceeded to evolve its own internal sectarianis". There arose what are today ,nown as the Ifive houses,I regional versions of ChHan that differed in "inor but significant ways.4 7et there was no ani"osity a"ong the schools, "erely a friendly rivalry. -n fact, the teachers the"selves referred bac, to the prophecy attributed to )odhidhar"a that the flower of dhyana )uddhis" would one day have five petals.

The "asters who founded the five schools were all individualists of idiosyncratic character. 7et the ti"es were such that for the "ost part their flowers bloo"ed gloriously only a few decades before slowly fading. @owever, two of the sects did prosper and eventually went on to ta,e over the garden. These two houses, the (in+chi and the TsHao+tung, both were concerned with dialectics and beca"e the forerunners of the two Zen sects #1inGai and !oto$ eventually to flourish in Eapan. 0f the two, the (in+chi is "ost directly traceable bac, to the earlier "asters, since its founder actually studied under the "aster @uang+po. The "aster ,nown today as (in+chi #d. ;55L$ was born in the prefecture of /an+hua, in what today is !hantung province.< @e reportedly was brilliant, well behaved, and filled with the filial devotion expected of good Chinese boys. 'rawn early to )uddhis", although not necessarily to ChHan, he shaved his head and beca"e a "on, while still young. @is early studies were of the sutras, as well as the vinaya or )uddhist rules and the sastra or co""entaries. )ut in his early twenties he decided that he was "ore interested in intuitive wisdo" than orthodoxy and conseJuently too, the road in search of a "aster. Thus he arrived at the "onastery of @uang+po already a fully ordained "on,. )ut his learning was traditional and his personality that of a ti"orous fledgling "on,. :or three years he dutifully attended the "asterHs ser"ons and practiced all the observances of the "ountain co""unity, but his advance"ent was "ini"al. :inally the head disciple suggested that he visit @uang+po for an interview to try to gain insight. The young "an obligingly went in to see the "aster and as,ed hi" the standard openerD I hat is the real "eaning of )odhidhar"aHs co"ing fro" the estLI @uang+poHs wordless response was to lay hi" low with a blow of his stic,. (in+chi scurried away in perplexity and related the story to the head disciple, who encouraged hi" to return, which he did twice "ore. )ut each ti"e he received the sa"e harsh reception. @e was finally so de"oraliGed that he announced plans to leave the "onastery and see,

enlighten"ent elsewhere. The head "on, related this to @uang+po together with the opinion that this young novice showed significant pro"ise. !o when (in+chi ca"e to bid @uang+po farewell, the "aster sy"pathetically directed hi" to the "onastery of a ,indly nearby teacher, the "aster Ta+yu. %erhaps it was all planned, but when (in+chi arrived at the second "onastery and related his unhappy treat"ent at the hands of @uang+po the "aster Ta+yu listened patiently and then declared, I@uang+po treated you with great co"passion. @e "erely wanted to relieve your distress.I 2pon hearing this (in+chi suddenly understood that @uang+po was trans"itting the wordless insight to hi", the understanding that ChHan lies not in the words produced in the abbotHs roo" but rather in the realiGation of his intuitive "ind. -t suddenly was all so obvious that the young "on, could not contain his &oy and declared, I!o @uang+poHs )uddhis" is actually very si"pleK thereHs nothing to it after allQI This struc, the "aster Ta+yu as either i"pertinent or a significant brea,through, so he grabbed (in+chi and yelled, I7ou sca"pQ * "inute ago you co"plained that @uang+poHs teaching was i"possible to understand and now you say there is nothing to it. hat is it you &ust realiGedL !pea, Juic,lyQI #0nly in a spontaneous utterance is there real, uncalculated evidence of enlighten"ent.$ (in+chiHs answer was to pu""el Ta+yu in the ribs three ti"es with his fist. The older "aster then discharged hi" #or perhaps ,ic,ed hi" out$ with the observation, I7our teacher is @uang+po, and therefore you do not concern "e.I Thus the enlightened young novice trudged bac, up the "ountain to @uang+poHs "onastery. The "aster greeted hi" with the puGGled observationD I@avenHt you co"e bac, a bit too soonL 7ou only &ust left.I -n response (in+chi bowed and said, I-tHs because youHve been so ,ind to "e that - ca"e bac, so Juic,ly,I and he proceeded to relate the story of his sudden enlighten"ent. To which @uang+po declared, I hat a big "outh that old "an has. The next ti"e - see hi" -Hll give hi" a taste of "y staff.I To this (in+chi yelled, I hy waitQ - can give it to you now,I and proceeded to

slap the "asterHs face. The startled @uang+po declared, IThis craGy "on, is pluc,ing the tigerHs whis,ers.I hereupon (in+chi e"itted the first of what was to be a lifeti"e of shouts, affir"ing his wordless insight. The satisfied @uang+po called an attendant and said, ITa,e this craGy fellow to the asse"bly hall.I This is a perfect exa"ple of IsuddenI enlighten"ent that too, "any years to achieve. (in+chi had been a plodding, earnest young "an until the "o"ent of his IsuddenI enlighten"ent, which occurred over a see"ingly uncalculated re"ar, by a teacher not even his own "aster. -n fact, all @uang+po had done was to assail hi" with a staff. )ut (in+chi was transfor"ed suddenly fro" a "il,sop to the founder of a school, probably the greatest radicaliGation since the *postle %aul was struc, down on the road to 'a"ascus.6 !till, (in+chiHs IsuddenI enlighten"ent had co"e about at the end of a highly disciplined period of preparation. *s he later described itD $n bygone days $ devoted myself to the vinaya and also delved into the sutras and sastras. Later, when $ reali0ed that they were medicines for salvation and displays of doctrines in written words, $ once and for all threw them away, and searching for the 3ay, $ practiced meditation. +till later $ met great teachers. Then it was, with my Dharma Eye becoming clear, that $ could discern all the old teachers under Heaven and tell the false ones from the true. $t is not that $ understood from the moment $ was born of my mother, but that, after exhaustive investigation and grinding discipline, in an instant $ -new of myself.H (i,e a refor"ed addict, he railed "ost against his own recent practices. @e proceeded to denounce all the trappings of )uddhis", even the ChHan %atriarchs the"selves, as he shattered the chains of his for"er beliefsD 'ollowers of the 3ay, if you want insight into Dharma as is, 7ust don6t be ta-en in by the deluded views of others. 3hatever you encounter, either within or without, slay it

at once> on meeting a buddha slay the buddha, on meeting a patriarch slay the patriarch, on meeting an arhat slay the arhat, on meeting your parents slay your parents, on meeting your -insman slay your -insman, and you attain emancipation. &y not cleaving to things, you freely pass through.J *fter his enlighten"ent, he had "any exchanges with @uang+po in which he ca"e off ahead as often as not. -t is also interesting that "any of the interactions involved the "anual labor of the "onastery, an indication of the significance of wor, in ChHan life. 0ne fa"ous &oust between (in+chi and @uang+po went as followsD Ine day .aster Lin,chi went with Huang,po to do some wor- in which all the mon-s participated. Lin,chi followed his master who, turning his head, noticed that Lin,chi was carrying nothing in his hand. 43here is your hoeC4 4+omebody too- it away.4 4%ome here> let us discuss something,4 commanded Huang,po and as Lin,chi drew nearer, he thrust his hoe into the ground and continued, 4There is no one in the world who can pic- up my hoe.4 However, Lin,chi sei0ed the tool, lifted it up, and exclaimed, 4How then could it be in my handsC4 4Today we have another hand with us( it is not necessary for me to 7oin in.4 1nd Huang,po returned to the temple.= This story can be interpreted "any ways. Eohn u says, I0bviously he was using the hoe as a pointer to the great function of teaching and trans"itting the la"p of ChHan. . . . NThis wasO a sy"bolic way of saying that in a "ysterious "anner the charge was now in his hands.I ? @owever, as :reud once re"ar,ed concerning the celebrated phallic sy"bolis" of his stogie, I!o"eti"es, "ada", itHs &ust a cigar,I and one suspects that in this little slapstic, episode, the hoe "ight possibly be &ust a hoe.

*nother exchange between @uang+po and (in+chi "ay have "ore dialectical significance. *ccording to the storyD Ine day Huang,po ordered all the mon-s of the temple to wor- in the tea garden. He himself was the last to arrive. Lin,chi greeted him, but stood there with his hands resting on the hoe. 41re you tiredC4 as-ed Huang,po 4$ 7ust started wor-ing( how can you say that $ am tiredC4 Huang,po immediately lifted his stic- and struc- Lin, chi, who then sei0ed the stic-, and with a push, made his master fall to the ground. Huang,po called the supervisor to help him up. 1fter doing so, the supervisor as-ed, 4.aster, how can you let such a madman insult you li-e thatC4 Huang,po pic-ed up the stic- and struc- the supervisor. Lin,chi, digging the ground by himself, made this remar-> 4Let all other places use cremation( here $ will bury you alive.I; 0f (in+chiHs final Juip, which tends to ta,e the edge off a really first+rate absurdist anecdote, Eohn u "a,es the following observation, IThis was a tre"endous utterance, the first authentic roaring, as it were, of a young lion. -t was tanta"ount to declaring that his old conventional self was now dead and buried, with only the True !elf living in hi"K that this death "ay and should ta,e place long before oneHs physical deceaseK that it is when this death has ta,en place that one beco"es oneHs True !elf which, being unborn, cannot die. :ro" that ti"e on, there could no longer be any doubt in @uang+poHs "ind that his disciple was thoroughly enlightened, destined to carry on and brighten the torch of ChHan.I 9 hether this is true or not, it does see" clear that (in+ chiHs pronounced personality appealed to old @uang+po, who loved to "atch wits with hi" as he ca"e and went around the "onastery. @e even allowed the young "aster liberties he denied others. :or exa"ple, (in+chi once showed up during the "iddle of a su""er "editation retreat, so"ething strictly forbidden. @e then

decided to leave before it was over, so"ething eJually unprecedentedD Ine day after half the summer session had already passed, Lin,chi went up the mountain to visit his master Huang,po whom he found reading a sutra. Lin,chi said to him> 4$ thought you were the perfect man, but here you are apparently a dull old mon-, swallowing blac- beans E%hinese charactersF.4 Lin,chi stayed only a few days and then bid farewell to Huang,po, who said> 4Kou came here after the summer session had started, and now you are leaving before the summer session is over.4 4$ came here simply to visit you, .asterL4 3ithout ado, Huang,po struc- him and chased him away. 1fter having wal-ed a few li, Lin,chi began to doubt his enlightenment in %h6an, so he returned to Huang,po for the rest of the summer.89 !o"e ti"e after (in+chi received the seal of enlighten"ent fro" @uang+po, he decided to go his own way and departed for the province of @opei, where he beca"e the priest of a s"all te"ple on the ban,s of a river. This little te"ple was called I0verloo,ing the :ord,I or lin,chi in Chinese, and it was fro" this locale that he too, his na"e. *fter he was there for a ti"e, however, so"e local fighting bro,e out, forcing hi" to abandon his pastoral riverban, location. #This disturbance "ay well have been connected with the disruptions of the ;=> persecution of )uddhis".$ )ut even when in the "iddle of a war he see"s to have always been a "an of ChHan. There is an episode that strongly rese"bles the eighteenth+century essayist 'r. !a"uel EohnsonHs ,ic,ing a stone to refute )er,eleyHs proposition that "atter is nonexistentD Ine day the .aster entered an army camp to attend a feast. 1t the gate he saw a staff officer. "ointing to an open,air pillar, he as-ed> 4$s this secular or sacredC4

The officer had no reply. +tri-ing the pillar, the .aster said> 4Even if you could spea-, this is still only a wooden post.4 Then he went in. 88 :ortunately, ChHan was not a sect that reJuired a lot of paraphernalia, and (in+chi "erely "oved into the nearby town, where the grand "arshal donated his house for a te"ple. @e even hung up a plaJue with the na"e I(in+chi,I &ust to "a,e the "aster feel at ho"e. )ut things "ay have heated up too "uch, for (in+chi later traveled south to the prefecture of @o, where the governor, Counselor ang, honored hi" as a "aster. There is a telling conversation between the two that reveals "uch about the teaching of ChHan at the ti"e. *pparently the ChHanists had co"pletely abandoned even any pretense of traditional )uddhis"Aagain a fortuitous develop"ent, considering traditional )uddhis"Hs i"+ "inent destruction. Ine day the %ounselor 3ang visited the .aster. 3hen he met the .aster in front of the .on-s6 Hall, he as-ed> 4Do the mon-s of this monastery read the sutrasC4 4 o, they don6t read sutras,4 said the .aster. 4Then do they learn meditationC4 as-ed the %ounselor. 4 o, they don6t learn meditation,4 answered the .aster. 4$f they neither read sutras nor learn meditation, what in the world are they doingC4 as-ed the %ounselor. 41ll $ do is ma-e them become buddhas and patriarchs,4 said the .aster.8; (in+chi eventually traveled on, finally settling at the @sing+hua te"ple in Ta"ing prefecture, where he too, up his final residence. -t was here that a record of his ser"ons was transcribed by a Ihu"ble heirI na"ed TsHun+chiang. The result was The #ecord of Lin,chi, one of the purest exercises in the dialectics of the nondialectical understanding. )ut, as @einrich 'u"oulin observed, IZen has never existed in pure experience only, without ad"ixture of theoretical teachings or "ethodical

practice, as it has so"eti"es been idealiGed. -t could not exist in that fashion, for "ysticis", li,e all other hu"an experience, is dependent on the actual conditions of hu"an life.I46 -ndeed, (in+chi was one of the first to develop what "ight be called a dialectic of irrationality. @e loved categories and analysis in the service of nonconceptual inJuiry, and what he created were guides to the uncharted seas of the intuitive "ind. (in+chi is best ,nown for his use of the shout. @e shared the concern of @uang+po and Ma+tsu with the proble" of wordless trans"ission and to their repertory of beatings and silences he added the yell, another way to affir" insights that cannot be reasoned. e "ay speculate that the shout was rather li,e a watered+down version of the beating, reJuiring less effort but still able to startle at a critical instant.4= @e see"s to have been particularly fond of classifying things into groups of four, and one of his "ost fa"ous classifications was of the shout itself. @e once de"onstrated the shout to a hapless "on, as followsD The .aster as-ed a mon-> 4+ometimes a shout is li-e the 7eweled sword of a spirit ?ing Ei.e., extremely hard and durableF( sometimes a shout is li-e the golden,haired lion crouching on the ground Ei.e., strong, taut, and powerfulF( sometimes a shout is li-e a weed,tipped fishing pole Ei.e., probing and attracting the unwaryF( and sometimes a shout doesn6t function as a shout. How do you understand thisC4 1s the mon- fumbled for an answer, Lin,chi gave a shout.8J @is philosophy of the shout as a device for cutting off seJuential reasoning was thus de"onstrated by exa"ple. )ut the Juestion those who relate this story never resolve isD hich of the four shouts was the shout he used on the studentL NEohn u in The Molden 1ge of Zen speculates that this shout was of the first category, since it was "eant to Icut offI the "on,Hs seJuential thought, but that see"s a rather si"plistic "ixing of the "etaphorical with the concrete.45$

(in+chi also was not averse to the use of the stic, in the pursuit of reality, as the following exa"ple illustrates. The story also shows that the use of the stic, was "eaningful only if it was unexpected. Ince the .aster addressed the assembly. 4Listen, all of youL He who wants to learn Dharma must never worry about the loss of his own life. 3hen $ was with .aster Huang,po $ as-ed three times for the real meaning of &uddhism, and three times $ was strucas if tall reeds whipped me in the wind. $ want those blows again, but who can give them to me nowC4 1 mon- came forth from the crowd, answering> 4$ can give them to youL4 .aster Lin,chi pic-ed up a stic- and handed it to him. 3hen the mon- tried to grab it, the .aster struc- him instead.8B There also is a story indicating that (in+chi believed that when the shout failed to wor,, the stic, "ight be reJuired. The .aster too- the high seat in the Hall. 1 monas-ed, 43hat about the cardinal principle of the &uddha, dharmaC4 The .aster raised his whis-. The mon- shouted. The .aster struc- him. 1nother mon- as-ed> 43hat about the cardinal principle of the &uddha,dharmaC4 1gain the .aster raised his whis-. The mon- shouted. The .aster also shouted. The mon- faltered( the .aster struc- him.82 7et another series of exchanges sounds a si"ilar the"e. The .aster as-ed a mon-, 43here do you come fromC4 The mon- shouted. The master saluted him and motioned him to sit down. The mon- hestitated. The .aster hit him.

+eeing another mon- coming, the .aster raised his whis-. The mon- bowed low. The .aster hit him. +eeing still another mon- coming, the .aster again raised his whis-. The mon- paid no attention. The .aster hit him too.85 @e was also challenged by a nun, one of the few recorded instances of a "aster actually "atching wits with a wo"an who had ta,en ChHan orders. The .aster as-ed a nun> 43ell,come or ill,comeC4 The nun shouted. 4Mo on, go on, spea-L4 cried the .aster, ta-ing up his stic-. 1gain the nun shouted. The .aster hit her.;9 hat (in+chi also brought to ChHan was a dialectical inJuiry into the relationship between "aster and pupil, together with a si"ilar analysis of the "ind states that lead to enlighten"ent. @e see"s re"ar,ably sophisticated for the ninth century, and indeed we would be hard pressed to find this ,ind of psychological analysis anywhere in the est that early. The puGGling, contradictory Juality about all this is that (in+chi believed fervently in intuitive intelligence, and in the uselessness of wordsAeven warning that Juestions were irrelevantD Does anyone have a /uestionC $f so, let him as- it now. &ut the instant you open your mouth you are already way off.;8 *"ong his dialectical creations were various fourfold categoriGations of the intangible. e have already seen his four categories of the shout. @e also created the four categories of relationship between sub&ect and ob&ect, also so"eti"es called the :our %rocesses of (iberation fro" !ub&ectivity and 0b&ectivity. !o"e believe this served to structure the Ifour standpoints or points of view which (in+chi used in instructing his students.I << (in+chiHs

original proposition, the basis of all the later co""entary, is provided in The #ecord of Lin,chi as followsD 1t the evening gathering the .aster addressed the assembly, saying> 4+ometimes $ ta-e away man and do not ta-e away the surroundings( sometimes $ ta-e away the surroundings and do not ta-e away man( sometimes $ ta-e away both man and the surroundings( sometimes $ ta-e away neither man nor the surroundings. I<6 *s Chang Chung+yuan describes these four arrange"ents, the first is to Ita,e away the "an but not his ob&ective situation,I i.e., to ta,e away all interpretation and &ust experience the world without sub&ective associations.<= #This is Juite si"ilar to the approach of the Eapanese hai,u poe", in which a description of so"ething is provided co"pletely devoid of interpretation or explicit e"otional response.$ The second arrange"ent is to let the "an re"ain but ta,e away ob&ectivity. *s Eohn u interprets this, I-n the second stage, people of nor"al vision, who see "ountains as "ountains and rivers as rivers, "ust be re"inded of the part that their own "ind contributes to the appearance of things, and that what they naively ta,e for ob&ectivity is inextricably "ixed with sub&ectivity. 0nce aware of sub&ectivity, one is initiated into the first stages of ChHan, when one no longer sees "ountains as "ountains and rivers as rivers.I<> This is "erely the ChHan co""onplace that Inon+attach"ent or ob&ectivity liberates oneHs self fro" bondage to the outside and thus leads to enlighten"ent.I<5 *s 'u"oulin describes these, I-n the first and second stages, illusion departs first fro" the sub&ect and then fro" the ob&ectK clinging to sub&ective intellectual perception and to the ob&ective world is overco"e.I<? (in+chiHs third stage is to Ita,e away both the "an and his ob&ective situation. -n other words, it is liberation fro" . . . the attach"ents of both sub&ectivity and ob&ectivity. (in+chiHs fa"ous H@oQH . . . often served this purpose.I<; -n a blow of a "asterHs staff or a shout there is nothing one can grasp, either ob&ectively or

sub&ectively. This is the next+to+last stage in the progression toward liberation fro" the "indHs tyranny. -n the fourth stage we find the final condition, in which ob&ectivity and sub&ectivity cease to be distinguishable. hat this "eans is that there is no intellectuation at all, that the world si"ply is. *s 'u"oulin declares, Ireality is co"prehended in its final oneness.I<9 0r as the story saysD )efore enlighten"ent, "ountains are "ountains and rivers are riversK during the study of Zen, "ountains are not "ountains and rivers are not riversK but when there finally is enlighten"ent, "ountains are again "ountains and rivers are rivers. -n this final state the distinction and confrontation of sub&ect and ob&ect dissolve, as we are finally at one with the na"eless world. *nother of (in+chiHs fa"ous dialectical categories is his I:ourfold 1elationship possible )etween Puestioner and *nswerer or )etween .uest and @ost.I The point of the structure he sets up is to elucidate the interaction of "aster and novice, but he does so using "etaphor of host and guestAwhere the host represents the universal !elf and the guest the ego+for" self.68 (in+chiHs ser"on on the sub&ect went as followsD 1 true student gives a shout, and to start with holds out a stic-y lac/uer tray. The teacher, not discerning that this is an ob7ective circumstance, goes after it and performs a lot of antics with it. The student again shouts but still the teacher is unwilling to let go. This is . . . called 4the guest examines the host.4 +ometimes a teacher will proffer nothing, but the instant a student as-s a /uestion, robs him of it. The student, having been robbed, resists to the death and will not let go( this is called 4the host examines the guest.4 +ometimes a student comes forth before a teacher in conformity with a state of purity. The teacher, discerning that this is an ob7ective circumstance, sei0es it and flings it into a pit. 43hat an excellent teacherL4 exclaims the student, and the teacher replies, 4&ahL Kou can6t tell

good from badL4 Thereupon the student ma-es a deep bow( this is called 4the host examines the host.4 Ir again, a student will appear before a teacher wearing a cangue and bound with chains. The teacher fastens on still more chains and cangues for him. The student is so delighted that he can6t tell what is what> this is called 4the guest examines the guest.I64 -n the first category, according to Chang Chung+yuan, the ego "eets the universal !elf.6< -n the second category the universal !elf encounters the ego+for" self. -n the third category, the universal !elf of one "eets the universal !elf of another, and in the fourth category the ego of one encounters the ego of another. 0r if we are to interpret this in the concrete, in the first encounter, an enlightened "aster "eets an unenlightened noviceK in the second an enlightened novice "eets an unenlightened "aster #which did happen$K in the third an enlightened "aster "eets an enlightened noviceK and in the fourth category an unenlightened "aster "eets an unenlightened novice, to the "utual delusion of both. 66 (in+chi has been called the "ost powerful "aster in the entire history of ChHan, and not without reason. @is "ind was capable of operating at several levels si"ultaneously, enabling hi" to overlay very practical instruction with a co"prehensive dialectic. @e believed in co"plete spontaneity, total freedo" of thought and deed, and a teaching approach that has been called the IlightningI "ethodAbecause it was swift and unpredictable. @e was unco"pro"ising in his approach, and he was also extre"ely critical of the state of ChHan in his ti"eAa criticis" probably &ustified. @e found both "on,s and "asters wanting. -t see"s that ChH an had beco"e fashionable, with the result that there were "any "asters who were "ore followers of the trend than followers of the ay. !o whereas @uang+po often railed against other sects of )uddhis", (in+chi reserved his ire for other followers of ChHan #there being few other )uddhist sects left to criticiGe$. @e even denounced his own students, who often "i"ic,ed his shouting without perceiving his

discern"ent in its use. @e finally had to set standards for this, announcing to the asse"bly one day that henceforth only those who could tell the enlightened fro" the unenlightened would have the right to shout. 4Kou all imitate my shouting,4 he said, 4but let me give you a test now. Ine person comes out from the eastern hall. 1nother person comes out from the western hall. 1t their meeting, they simultaneously shout. Do you possess enough discernment to distinguish the guest from the host Ei.e., the unenlightened from the enlightenedFC $f you have no such discernment, you are forbidden hereafter to imitate my shouting.GH @is "a&or concern see"s to have been that his students resist intellection. (in+chi hi"self was able to speculate philosophically while still a natural "an, using conceptual thought only when it served his purpose. )ut perhaps his students could not, for he constantly had to re"ind the" that striving and learning were counterproductive. 4'ollowers of TaoL4 Lin,chi said, 4the way of &uddhism admits of no artificial effort( it only consists in doing the ordinary things without any fuss@going to the stool, ma-ing water, putting on clothes, ta-ing a meal, sleeping when tired. Let the fools laugh at me. Inly the wise -now what $ mean.I6> 0r as he said at another ti"eD The moment a student blin-s his eyes, he6s already way off. The moment he tries to thin-, he6s already differed. The moment he arouses a thought, he6s already deviated. &ut for the man who understands, it6s always right here before his eyes.G= The proble", he believed, was that too "any teachers had started IteachingI and explaining rather than forcing students to experience truth for the"selves. Thus these teachers had no right

to criticiGe their "on,s, since they the"selves had failed in their responsibility. There are teachers all around who can6t distinguish the false from the true. 3hen students come as-ing about . . . the Eob7ectiveF surroundings and the Esub7ectiveF mind, the blind old teachers immediately start explaining to them. 3hen they6re railed at by the students they grab their stic-s and hit them, EshoutingF, 43hat insolent tal-L4 Ibviously you teachers yourselves are without an eye so you6ve no right to get angry with them.GB *nd finally, in his old age, (in+chi beca"e so"ething of a "onu"ent hi"self, a testing point for enlighten"ent in a world where true teachers were rare. @e even co"plained about it. Hearing everywhere of old man Lin,chi, you come here intending to bait me with difficult /uestions and ma-e it impossible for me to answer. 'aced with a demonstration of the activity of my whole body, you students 7ust stare blan-ly and can6t move your mouths at all( you6re at such a loss you don6t -now how to answer me. Kou go around everywhere thumping your own chests and whac-ing your own ribs, saying, 4$ understand %h6anL $ understand the 3ayL4 &ut let two or three of you come here and you can6t do a thing. &ahL %arrying that body and mind of yours, you go around everywhere flapping your lips li-e winnowing fans and deceiving villagers.G2 @is school prospered, beco"ing the leading expression of ChHan in China as well as a vital force in the Zen that later arose a"ong EapanHs sa"urai. *nd his dialectical teachings beca"e the philosophical basis for later Zen, so"ething he hi"self probably would have deplored. #(ater teachers see" to have given (in+chiHs categories "ore i"portance than he actually intended, for he professed to loathe syste"s and was in fact "uch "ore concerned with enlighten"ent as pure experience.$ -n any case, when he decided that his days were through

he put on his finest robes, seated hi"self in the "editation posture, "ade a brief state"ent, and passed on. The year is said to have been ;55 or ;5?.

Cha/t"# Tw"-!"
T0N*1SHAN AN) TSBAO1SHAN&

FO0N)ERS OF SOTO ZEN

Tung-shan Cirtually all the "asters encountered up to this point have been traceable to Ma+tsu, descendant in 'har"a of the legendary @uai+&ang and his "aster, the !ixth %atriarch, @ui+neng. This was the line that beca"e Eapanese 1inGai Zen, "any centuries later. @owever, @ui+ neng had another follower, a shadowy figure re"e"bered as ChHing+yuan @sing+ssu #d. ?=8$ whose line also was perpetuated to present+day Eapan.4 @is fore"ost pupil was !hih+tHou #?88+98$, and a co""on description of the eighth+cen+ tury ChHan establish"ent wasD I-n 3iangsi the "aster was Ma+tsuK in @unan the "aster was !hih+tHou. %eople went bac, and forth between the" all the ti"e, and those who never "et these two great "asters were co"pletely ignorant.I < !hih+tHou &ousted with Ma+tsu, and they often swapped students. Ma+tsu sent his pupils on their way with a win, and the advice that !hih+tHou was Islippery.I6 This legendary "aster was forebear of three of the five IhousesI of ChHan arising after the .reat %ersecution of ;=>, although the only one of the three surviving is the

TsHao+tung, which arose during the later THang #54;+98?$ and early :ive 'ynasties #98?+958$ period and re"ains today as Eapanese !oto. 0ne of the cofounders of the TsHao+tung house was ,nown as Tung+shan (iang+chieh #;8?+;59$, who was born in present day Che,iang but eventually found his way to what is now northern 3iangsi province.= *s did "ost great "asters, he too, )uddhist orders early, and one of the "ost enduring stories of his life has hi" confounding his eldersAan event co""on to "any spiritual biographies. @e began as a novice in the Cinaya sect, an organiGation often "ore concerned with the letter of the law than its spirit. 0ne day he was as,ed to recite the @eart !utra, but when he ca"e to the phrase IThere is no eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or "ind,I he wonderingly touched his own face and then inJuired of his "aster, Ihave eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and so forthK how, then, can the sutra say there are no such thingsLI> The Cinaya "aster was du"bfounded by his iconoclas" and suggested that his bent of "ind would be "ore readily cultivated in the ChHan sect. !o off he went to Mt. !ung, where he subseJuently was ordained at the precocious age of twenty+one. *fterward he traveled across China, typical for young "on,s of the age. -ronically enough, considering that his line eventually rivaled Ma+tsuHs, his first stop was the "onastery of /an+chHuan, one of the fore"ost disciples of Ma+tsu. *s he arrived, /an+chHuan was announcing a "e"orial service to be conducted the next day on the anniversary of his "asterHs death, a standard Chinese custo". an,ch6uan remar-ed, 43hen we serve food for .aster .a,tsu tomorrow, $ do wonder whether he will come for it.4 one of the mon-s made a reply but ETung,shanF came forth out of the crowd and said, 41s soon as he has companions he will come.4 Hearing this, an,ch6uan praised him> 41lthough this man is young, he is worthy of being trained.66 ETung,shanF said to him, 4.aster, you should not ma-e a slave out of an honorable person. I5

Tung+shan studied briefly with /an+chHuan "a,ing a na"e for hi"self in the process and then traveled on. @e later landed at the "onastery of a teacher na"ed 7un+ yen, but after a successful period of study he announced his intention to again continue down the road. 7un+yen, however, protested losing his star pupil. 41fter you leave here, it will be very hard for us to see each other again,4 said .aster Kun,yen. 4$t will be very hard for us not to see each other again,4 answered ETung,shanF. . . . Then Kun,yen said to him, 4Kou must be very careful, as you are carrying this great thing.4 ETung,shanF was pu00led. Later when he was crossing the water and saw his image reflected, he suddenly understood the teaching of Kun,yen.B )y the year ;58 Tung+shan had a "onastery of his own and was besieged by disciples. @e subseJuently "oved to Tung+shan #Mt. Tung$ in what is today 3iangsi province, the locale that provided his historic na"e. @is respect for 7un+yenHs enig"atic wisdo" was explained years later. Ine day, when the .aster was conducting the annual memorial service for .aster Kun,yen, a mon- as-ed him> 43hat instruction did you receive from the late .aster Kun,yenC4 41lthough $ was there with him, he gave me no instruction,4 answered the .aster. 4Then why should you conduct the memorial service for him, if he did not instruct youC4 persisted the mon-. . . . 4$t is neither for his moral character nor his teaching of Dharma that $ respect him. 3hat $ consider important is that he never told me anything openly.I; 7et Tung+shan does not see" co"pletely against the cultivation of enlighten"ent, as were so"e of the other,

"ore radical ChHanists. Ta,e, for exa"ple, the following reported encounterD 1 government officer wanted to -now whether there was anyone approaching %h6an through cultivation. The .aster answered> 43hen you become a laborer, then there will be someone to do cultivation.I9 The officerHs Juestion would have elicited a shout fro" (in+chi, a blow fro" @uang+po, and advice fro" Chao+ chou to go wash his rice bowl. *lthough Tung+shan "ay have avoided the deliberate absurdities of the (in+chi "asters, his utterances are often puGGling nonetheless. %art of the reason is that he preferred the "etaphor to the concrete exa"ple. 2nli,e the repartee of the absurdist (in+chi "asters, his exchanges are not deliberately illogical. -nstead we find a si"ple reluctance to say anything straight. )ut if you follow the sy"bolic language, you realiGe it is "erely another clever way of never teaching with words, while still using language. @is freJuent spea,ing in "etaphors can be appreciated by the following exchange, which uses language e"eshed in sy"bols. .on-> 43ith what man of Tao should one associate, so that one will hear constantly what one has never heardC4 The .aster> 4That which is under the same coverlet with you.4 .on-> 4This is still what you, .aster, can hear yourself. 3hat is it that one will hear constantly which one has never heardC4 The .aster> 4$t is not the same as wood and stone.4 . . . .on-> 43ho is he in our country that holds a sword in his handC4 The .aster> 4$t is Ts6ao,shan.4 .on-> 43hom do you want to -illC4 The .aster> 41ll those who are alive will die.4 .on-> 43hen you happen to meet your parents, what should you doC4 The .aster> 43hy should you have any choiceC4

.on-> 4How about yourselfC4 The .aster> 43ho can do anything to meC4 .on-> 43hy should you not -ill yourself, tooC4 The .aster> 4There is no place on which $ can lay my hands.I48 The ChHan teachers deliberately avoided specifics, since these "ight cause students to start worrying about the precise definition of words and end up bogged down in conceptual Juandries, neglecting their real natureA which cannot be reached using words.44 )ut further than this, the "on, thin,s he will trap the "aster by as,ing hi" if his in&unction to ,ill includes his own parents. #1e"e"ber (in+chiHs I0n "eeting your parents, slay your parents.I$ )ut Tung+shan answered by accusing the "on, AindirectlyAof "a,ing discri"inations. *s for self+ "urder, Tung+ shan "aintains his i""aterial self+nature is indestructible.4< The dialectic of Tung+shan, subseJuently elaborated by his star pupil, TsHao+shan, represents one of the last great expressions of Chinese "etaphysical thought. @e defined a syste" of five positions or relations between the %articular or 1elative and the 2niversal or *bsolute, defined as follows.46 -n the first state, called the 2niversal within the %articular, the *bsolute is hidden and obscured by our preoccupation with the world of appearances. @owever, the world of appearances is in fact a part of the larger world of *bsolute reality. hen we have achieved a true understanding of the ob&ective world we realiGe that it is no "ore real than our senses "a,e it, and conseJuently it represents not absolute reality but "erely our perception. This realiGation leads to the second phase. -n the second state, called the %articular within the 2niversal, we recogniGe that ob&ective reality "ust always be perceived through our sub&ective apparatus, &ust as the *bsolute "ust be approached through the relative, since all particularities "erely exe"plify the *bsolute. Even good and bad are part of this sa"e 2niversality. -t is all real, but si"ply thatAno values are

attached, since it is all part of existence. This, says the scholar Eohn u, is the state of enlighten"ent. 4= -n dialectical ter"s, this rounds out the co"parison of the %articular and the 2niversal, with each shown to be part of the other. )ut they "ust ulti"ately be resolved bac, into sunyata, the Coid that enco"passes everything. /either the 2niversal or *bsolute, nor the particulars that give it physical for", are the ulti"ate reality. They both are "erely syste"s in the all+enco"+ passing Coid. The third and fourth stages he defines exe"plify achieving enlighten"ent by 2niversality alone and achieving enlighten"ent by %articularity alone. The third stage, enlighten"ent through 2niversality, leads one to "editate on the *bsolute, upon the single wordless truth that defines the particular around us as part of itself. #-t sounds re"ar,ably si"ilar to the Tao.$ This "editation is done without props, language, or any of the physical world #the particular$ surrounding us. Enlighten"ent through the %articular, through experience with the pheno"enal world, was the fourth stage. This received the "ost attention fro" the (in+chi sectAwhose "asters would answer the Juestion I hat is the "eaning of ChHanLI with IThe cypress tree in the courtyardI or IThree pounds of flax.I4> *t the fifth stage, enlighten"ent reaches the Coid, the state that cannot be contained in a concept, since all concepts are inside it. hen you finally reach this state of wordless insight, you realiGe that both words and wordlessness are "erely part of this larger reality. *ction and nonaction are eJually legiti"ate responses to the world. Tung+shan de"onstrated this when he was as,ed, I hen a sna,e is swallowing a frog, should you save the frogHs lifeLI To this he answered, ITo save the frog is to be blind Ni.e., to ulti"ate oneness and therefore to discri"inate between frog and sna,eOK not to save the frog is not to let for" and shadow appear Ni.e., to ignore the pheno"enaO.45 %erhaps Tung+shan was de"onstrating that he was free of discri"ination between either option.4?

The Juestion of the sub&ective and the ob&ective, the 2niversal and the %articular, per"eated Tung+shanHs teachings. Ince the .aster as-ed a mon- what his name was. The mon- answered that his name was so,and,so. The .aster then as-ed> 43hat one is your real selfC4 4The one who is 7ust facing you.4 43hat a pityL 3hat a pityL The men of the present day are all li-e this. They ta-e what is in the front of an ass or at the bac- of a horse and call it themselves. This illustrates the downfall of &uddhism. $f you cannot recogni0e your real self ob7ectively, how can you see your real self sub7ectivelyC4 4How do you see your real self sub7ectivelyC4 the mon- immediately as-ed. 4Kou have to tell me that yourself.4 4$f $ were to tell you myself, it would be seeing myself ob7ectively. 3hat is the self that is -nown sub7ectivelyC4 4To tal- about it in such a way is easy to do, but to continue our tal-ing ma-es it impossible to reach the truth.I4; There also is a poe", ,nown as the %ao+ching !an+ "ei, traditionally attributed to Tung+shan.49 0ne Juatrain will give the flavor of the verseD The man of wood sings, The woman of stone gets up and dances, This cannot be done by passion or learning, $t cannot be done by reasoning.<8 This has been interpreted as the idea of 2niversality penetrating into %articularity. The wooden "an singing and the stone "aiden dancing are explained as evidence of the power of 2niversality.<4 Tung+shan had a nu"ber of distinguishing Jualities. @e often used Taoist language in his teachings, Juoting Chuang TGu to "a,e a point. 1eportedly he never used the shout or the stic, to shoc, a novice into self+awareness. *nd whereas his dialogues often used "etaphors that at first appear obscure, there

are never the deliberate absurdities of the (in+chi "asters, who freJuently answered a perfectly reasonable Juestion with a deliberate inanity "erely to de"onstrate the absurdity of words. 2nli,e the (in+chi "asters, he see"s less concerned with the process of trans"ission than with what exactly is trans"itted. Tung+shan viewed words as did Chuang TGu, na"ely as the net in which to catch the fish. hereas the (in+chi "asters viewed enlighten"ent as a totality, Tung+shan teachers believed that enlighten"ent arrived in stages, and they were concerned with identifying what these stages were. This was, in fact, the purpose of his five categories of %articularity and 2niversality, which beca"e a part of the historic dialectic of Zen enlighten"ent. -ronically, with the e"ergence of the idea of stages, we see" bac, to a concept of IgradualI enlighten"entAarrived at because the Chinese "ind could not resist theoretical speculations. Tung+shanHs deathbed scene was al"ost worthy of co"ic opera. 0ne day in the third "onth of ;59 he "ade ,nown his resolve to die and, shaving his head and donning his for"al robes, ordered the gong to be struc, as he seated hi"self in "editation. )ut his disciples began sobbing so disturbingly that he finally despaired of dying in peace and, opening his eyes, chided the". Those who are &uddhists should not attach themselves to externalities. This is the real self,cultivation. $n living they wor- hard( in death they are at rest. 3hy should there be any griefC<< @e then instructed the head "on, to prepare Iofferings of food to ignoranceI for everyone at the "onastery, intending to sha"e all those who still clung to the e"otions of the flesh. The "on,s too, a full wee, to prepare the "eal, ,nowing it was to be his last supper. *nd sure enough, upon dining he bade the" farewell and, after a cere"onial bath, passed on. The "ost fa"ous disciple of Tung+shan, Master TsHao+ shan #;=8+984$, was born as %en+chi on the :u,ien coast. %assing through an early interest in Confucianis", he left

ho"e at nineteen and beca"e a )uddhist. @e was ordained at age twenty+five and see"s to have found freJuent occasion to Cisit Tung+shan. Then one day they had an encounter that catapulted TsHao+shan into the position of favored pupil. The exchange began with a Juestion by Tung+shanD 43hat is your nameC4 4.y name is ETs6ao,shanF.4 4+ay something toward Oltimate #eality.4 4$ will not say anything.4 43hy don6t you spea- of itC4 4$t is not called ETs6ao,shanF.I<6 -t is said that Tung+shan gave TsHao+shan private instruction after this and regarded his capability highly. The anecdote, if we "ay venture a guess, see"s to assert that the 2niversal cannot be reached through language, and hence he could only converse about his ob&ective, physical for". *fter several years of study, TsHao+shan decided to stri,e out on his own, and he announced this intention to Tung+shan. The older "aster then inJuiredD 43here are you goingC4 4$ go where it is changeless.4 4How can you go where it is changelessC4 4.y going is no change.<= TsHao+shan subseJuently left his "aster and went wandering and teaching. :inally, in late su""er of 984, the story says that TsHao+shan one evening inJuired about the date, and early the next "orning he died. *lthough the recorded exchanges between Tung+shan and TsHao+shan are li"ited to the two rather brief encounters given, the younger "aster actually see"s to have been the "oving force behind the dialectical constructions of the TsHao+tung school. The ancient records, such as The Transmission of the Lamp, all declare that TsHao+shan was inspired by the :ive !tates of 2niversality and %articularity to beco"e a great )uddhist.

*s 'u"oulin &udges, I-t was NTsHao+shanO who first, in the spirit of and in accordance with the "asterHs teachings, arranged the five ran,s in their trans"uted for" and explained the" in "any ways. . . . The funda"ental principles, however, ste" fro" NTung+shanO, who for that reason "ust be considered to be their originator.I <> The ulti"ate concern of both the TsHao+tung and (in+ chi doctrines was enlighten"ent. The difference was that TsHao+tung "asters believed Juiet "editation was the way, rather than the "ind+shattering techniJues of (in+ chi. TsHao+tung #!oto Zen$ strives to soothe the spirit rather than deliberately instigate psychic tur"oil, as so"eti"es does the (in+chi #1inGai$. The ai" is to be in the world but not of itK to occupy the physical world but transcend it "entally, aloof and serene. * further difference has been identified by the )ritish scholar !ir Charles Eliot, who concludes that whereas (in+ chi Iregards the ,nowledge of the )uddha nature ... as an end in itself, all+satisfying and all+engrossing, the NTsHao+ tungO . . . held that it is necessary to have enlighten"ent after Enlighten"ent, that is to say that the inner illu"ination "ust display itself in a good life.I<5 Thus Eliot suggests the TsHao+tung too, so"ething of an interest in what you do, in distinction to the (in+chi school, which preferred to focus on inner wisdo". The TsHao+tung sect, at least in its early for"s, was fully as dialectical in outloo, as was the (in+chi. -n this it was "erely carrying on, to so"e extent, the exa"ple of its forebear !hih+tHou, who was hi"self re"e"bered as deeply interested in theoretical and intellectual speculations. Today the TsHao+tung sect is differentiated fro" the (in+chi pri"arily by its "ethods for teaching novices. There is no disagree"ent about the goal, "erely about the path. -t is interesting that the whole business of the :ive 1an,s see"s not to have survived the !ung 'ynasty. TsHao+tungHs real contribution was essentially to revive the approach of /orthern ChHan, with its stress on "editation, intellectual inJuiry, stages of enlighten"ent, and the idea that ChHan is not entirely inner+ directed but "ay also have so"e place in the world at large. This is

the real achieve"ent of TsHao+tung, and the Juality that enabled it to survive and beco"e !oto.

Cha/t"# Thi#t""n
K0EI1SHAN3 Y0N1MEN3 AN) FA1YEN& THREE MINOR HO0SES

Kun,men :left<

The Ifive housesI or sects of ChHan that arose after the .reat %ersecution of ;=> did not all appear si"ultaneously, nor did they en&oy eJual influence. hereas the (in+chi and the TsHao+tung were destined to survive and find their way to Eapan, the three other houses were treated less ,indly by history. /onetheless, in the search for enlighten"ent, each of the three other houses contributed techniJues, insights, and original ideas that enriched the Zen tradition. -t is with the stories of the "asters who founded the three extinct houses that we close out the era preceding the !ung 'ynasty and the rise of the ,oan.

K0EI1SHAN3 FO0N)ER OF THE K0EI1YAN* SECT This earliest of the five houses was founded by a conte"porary of @uang+po and follower of the Ma+tsu tradition ,nown by the na"e 3uei+shan #??4+;>6$. 2nder his original na"e, (ing+yu, he left ho"e at fifteen to beco"e a "on,, studying under a local Cinaya "aster in present+day :u,ien province. @e later was ordained at @angchow, where he assiduously absorbed the vinaya and sutras of both Theravada and Mahayana.4 Then at age twenty+three he traveled to 3iangsi and beca"e a pupil of the fa"ous ChHan lawgiver %o+chang @uai+hai. The "o"ent of 3uei+shanHs enlighten"ent at the hands of @uai+hai is a Zen classic. *s the story goesD Ine day as he was waiting upon EHuai,haiF, the latter as-ed him to po-e the stove, to see whether there was any fire left in it. ?uei,shan po-ed but found no fire. EHuai,haiF rose to po-e it himself, and succeeded in discovering a little spar-. +howing it to his disciple, he as-ed, 4$s this not fireC4 Thereupon ?uei,shan became enlightened.; Eust why this see"ingly trivial incident should trigger enlighten"ent is clearly a "atter that "ust be approached intuitively.6

3uei+shan received his na"e fro" Mt. 3uei, where he was sent to found a "onastery by %o+chang @uai+hai. The circu"stances of his selection reveal al"ost "ore than we would wish to ,now about the ChHan "onastic world at the beginning of the ninth century. -t happened that @uai+ hai was considering the idea of founding a new "onastery on Mt. 3uei in @unan province. @owever, he was uncertain whether the venture would flourish, and conseJuently he turned for advice to a wandering fortuneteller na"ed !su+"a.= This seer responded that Mt. 3uei was an ideal location and would support fifteen hundred "on,s. @owever, @uai+hai hi"self would not prosper there, since I7ou are a bony, ascetic "an and it is a fleshy, sensuous "ountain.I The advice was to find so"ebody else. @uai+hai consented and began calling in his candidates for !su+"a to exa"ine. The first to be su""oned was the head "on,Awho" !su+"a as,ed to produce a deep cough and then wal, several steps. The wiGened old "ystic watched carefully and then whispered to @uai+hai that this was not the "an. /ext to be called in was 3uei+shan, currently ad"inistrator of the "onastery. !su+"a too, one loo, and nodded his approval to @uai+ hai. That night @uai+hai su""oned 3uei+shan and assigned his new "issionD I.o to Mt. 3uei and found the "onastery that will perpetuate "y teachings.I hen the head "on, discovered he had been passed over he was outraged and at the next "orningHs convocation de"anded that @uai+hai &ustify this slight. The "aster repliedD 4$f you can ma-e an outstanding response in front of the assembly, you shall receive the appointment.4 EHuai,haiF then pointed to a pitcher and said to him, 4Do not call this a pitcher. 3hat, instead, should you call itC4 EThe head mon-F answered, 4$t cannot be called a wooden wedge.4 .aster EHuai,haiF did not accept this, and turned to E?uei,shanF, demanding his answer. E?uei,shanF -ic-ed the pitcher and -noc-ed it over. .aster EHuai,haiF laughed and said, 4Iur head mon- has lost his bid for .ount ?uei.I>

The head "on,Hs reply had been intellectualiGing wordplay, caught up in the world of na"es and categories. 3uei+shanHs reply was spontaneous, wordless, and devoid of distinctions. @is was a "ind that could transcend rationality. 3uei+shan did establish the "onastery and fro" it a short+lived school. @owever, 3uei+shanHs "e"ory was perpetuated largely through a brilliant pupil later ,nown as 7ang+shan #;8?+;;6$ owing to his founding a "onastery on Mt. 7ang in 3iangsi province. Together their teachings beca"e ,nown as the 3uei+yang school, the first of the Ifive houses.I The exchanges between 3uei+shan and 7ang+shan reported in The Transmission of the Lamp are a"ong the "ost electric in all ChHan. -n the following they &oust over the distinction between function of wisdo" #which is revealed through action$ and substance or self+nature #which is revealed through nonaction$. Ince when all the mon-s were out pic-ing tea leaves the .aster said to Kang,shan, 41ll day as we were pic-ing tea leaves $ have heard your voice, but $ have not seen you yourself. +how me your original self.4 Kang,shan thereupon shoo- the tea tree. The .aster said, 4Kou have attained only the function, not the substance.4 Kang,shan remar-ed, 4$ do not -now how you yourself would answer the /uestion.4 The .aster was silent for a time. Kang,shan commented, 4Kou, .aster, have attained only the substance, not the function.4 .aster ?uei,shan responded, 4$ absolve you from twenty blowsLI5 Co""entators differ on who won this exchange and whether 3uei+shan was really satisfied. *nother story relates si"ilar fast+witted but serious repartee. Two %h6an mon-s came from Ea rivalF community and said, 4There is not a man here who can understand %h6an.4 Later, when all the mon-s went out to gather firewood, Kang,shan saw the two, who were resting( he

too- a piece of firewood and as-ed them, 4%an you tal:about it<C4 1s both remained silent, Kang,shan said to them, 4Do not say that there is no one here who can understand %h6an.4 3hen he returned to the monastery, Kang,shan reported to the master, 4Today, two %h6an mon-s were exposed by me.4 The master as-ed, 4How did you expose themC4 Kang,shan related the incident and the master said, 4$ have now exposed you as well.I? The translator Charles (u, suggests that 3uei+shan had IexposedI 7ang+shan by showing that he still distinguished between hi"self and the other "on,s. 7et another story, re"iniscent of /an+chHuan, further dra"atiGes the schoolHs teaching of nondiscri"ination. The report recounts a present that 3uei+shan sent to 7ang+shan, now also a "aster and co+founder of their schoolD ?uei,shan sent EKang,shanF a parcel containing a mirror. 3hen he went to the hall, EKang,shanF held up the mirror and said to the assembly, 4"lease say whether this is ?uei,shan6s or Kang,shan6s mirror. $f someone can give a correct reply, $ will not smash it.4 1s no one answered, the master smashed the mirror.2 3uei+shanHs answer to one pupil who reJuested that he IexplainI ChHan to hi" was to declareD $f $ should expound it explicitly for you, in the future you will reproach me for it. 1nyway, whatever $ spea- still belongs to me and has nothing to do with you. 5 This "on,, who later beca"e the fa"ous "aster @siang+ yen, subseJuently burned his sutras and wandered the countryside in despair. Then one day while cutting grass he nic,ed a piece of bro,en tile against so"e ba"boo, producing a sharp snap that suddenly triggered his enlighten"ent. -n elation he hurried bac, to his cell in the abandoned "onastery where he was living and burned incense to 3uei+shan, declaring, I-f you had bro,en the

secret to "e then, how could - have experienced the wonderful event of today.I48 The real contribution of the 3uei+yang sect is agreed to be the final distinction 7ang+shan "ade between the ChHan of "editation #based on the (an,avatara !utra$ and instantaneous ChHan #that co"pletely divorced fro" the sutras$. -n this final revision of ChHan history, ItraditionalI or I%atriarchalI ChHan was redefined as the anti+sutra establish"ent of the !outhern school, while the teaching of the (an,avatara, which actually had been the basis of the faith until the "iddle of the eighth century, was scorned as an aberration. @e e"phasiGed, in a sense, ChHanHs ulti"ate disowning of )uddhis"Athrough a new, "anufactured Ihistory.I 3uei+shan died in the prescribed "annerD *fter a ritual ablution he seated hi"self in the "editation posture and passed on with a s"ile. @e was buried on Mt. 3uei, ho"e of his "onastery. @is followers and those of his pupil 7ang+shan co"posed the 3uei+yang school, an early atte"pt to for"aliGe the anti+sutra position of Ma+tsu.44 @owever, they were supplanted by other "uch "ore successful followers of @uai+hai, such as @uang+po and (in+chi, whose school beca"e the real perpetuator of Ma+ tsuHs iconoclas". THE Y0N1MEN SECT The Master 7un+"en #;5<M=+9=9$ was born in 3iangsu province #so"e say Che,iang$ to a fa"ily whose circu"stances forced the" to place hi" in a Cinaya te"ple as a novice. )ut his inJuiring "ind eventually turned to ChHan, and off he went to a "aster, with his first target being the fa"ous Mu+chou, disciple of @uang+po. #Mu+chou is re"e"bered as the "on, who sent (in+chi in for his first three withering interviews with @uang+po.$ :or two days running, 7un+"en tried to gain entry to see the "aster, but each ti"e he was e&ected. The third day he succeeded in reaching Mu+chou, who grabbed hi" and de"anded, I!pea,Q !pea,QI )ut before 7un+"en could open his "outh, the "aster shoved hi" out of the roo" and sla""ed the door, catching his leg and brea,ing it in

the process. The unexpected bolt of pain shooting through 7un+"enHs body suddenly brought his first enlighten"ent.4< @e &ourneyed on, studying with several fa"ous "asters, until finally he inherited a "onastery fro" a retiring "aster who sensed his genius. 7un+"en was one of the best+,nown figures fro" ChHanHs waning .olden *ge, and stories of his exchanges with "on,s beca"e a "a&or source of ,oans.46 @e loathed words and forbade his followers to ta,e notes or write down his ser"ons. #@owever, his tal,s were secretly recorded by a follower who attended in a paper robe and ,ept notes on the gar"ent.$ *s did the earlier "asters, he struggled "ightily with the proble" of how to prevent novices fro" beco"ing attached to his words and phrases. EKun,menF came to the assembly again and said> 4.y wor- here is something that $ cannot help. 3hen $ tell you to penetrate directly into all things and to be non, attached to them, $ have already concealed what is within you. Ket you all continue loo-ing for %h6an among my words, so that you may achieve enlightenment. 3ith myriad deviations and artificialities, you raise endless /uestions and arguments. Thus, you merely gain temporary satisfactions from verbal contests, repeatedly /uarrel with words, and deviate even further from %h6an. 3hen will you obtain it, and restCI4= @e fir"ly believed that all teaching was uselessK that all explanations do "ore har" than goodK and that, in fact, nothing worthwhile can ever be taught. The .aster said, 4$f $ should give you a statement that would teach you how to achieve %h6an immediately, dirt would already be spread on top of your head. . . . To grasp %h6an, you must experience it. $f you have not experienced it, do not pretend to -now. Kou should withdraw inwardly and search for the ground upon which you stand( thereby you will find out what Truth is.I4>

0ne of 7un+"enHs ser"ons reveals "uch about the growing pains of ChHan. The seriousness of the novices see"s to have been steadily deteriorating, and his characteriGation of the run+of+the+ "ill novices of his ti"e presents a picture of waning dyna"is". !uccess was clearly bringing a "ore frivolous student to the "onasteries, and we sense here the warning of a "an who rightly feared for the future Juality of ChHan. 'urthermore, some mon-s, idle and not serious in their studies, gather together trying to learn the sayings of the ancients, and attempt to reveal their own nature through memori0ing, imagining, prophesying. These people often claim that they understand what Dharma is. 3hat they actually do is simply tal- themselves into endless entanglements and use meditation to pass the time.8= @e also felt the traditional pilgri"ages fro" "aster to "aster had beco"e hardly "ore than a glorified version of sightseeing. Do not waste your time wandering thousands of EmilesF, through this town and that, with your staff on your shoulder, wintering in one place and spending the summer in another. Do not see- out beautiful mountains and rivers to contemplate. . . . ETFhe fundamental thing for you to do is to obtain the essence of %h6an. Then your travels will not have been in vain. $f you find a way to guide your understanding under a severe master . . . wa-e up, hang up your bowl,bag, and brea- your staff. +pend ten or twenty years of study under him until you are thoroughly enlightened.8B @e also advised that they try to si"plify their search, that they try to realiGe how unco"plicated ChHan really is. Let me tell you that anything you can directly point at will not lead you to the right trail. . . . &esides dressing, eating, moving bowels, releasing water, what else is there to doC82

7un+"en was one of the "ost dyna"ic "asters of the late ninth and early tenth century, providing new twists to the historic proble" of nonlanguage trans"ission. @is celebrated solution was the so+called one+word answer. !everal of these are preserved in the two "a&or ,oan collections of later years. Two of the better+,nown followD 1 mon- as-ed Kun,men, 43hat is the teaching that transcends the &uddha and patriarchsC4 Kun,men said, 41 sesame bun.I49 1 mon- as-ed Kun,men, 43hat is &uddhaC4 Kun,men replied, 41 dried piece of shit.I<8 The Ione+wordI was his version of the blow and the shout. 1. @. )lyth is particularly fond of 7un+"en and suggests he "ay have had the ,eenest intellect of any ChHan "asterAand even goes so far as to declare hi" the greatest "an China has produced. <4 *t the very least 7un+"en was in the great tradition of the iconoclastic THang "asters, with a touch that bears co"parison to @uang+po. *nd he probably was wise in atte"pting to stop copyists, for his teachings eventually were reduced to yet another abo"inable syste", as see"ed irresistible to the Chinese followers of the five houses. * later disciple produced what is ,nown as the IThree propositions of the house of 7un+"en.I -t is not difficult to i"agine the barnyard response 7un+"en would have had to this Isyste"atiGationI of his thought.<< The school of this I"ost eloJuent of ChHan "astersI lasted through the !ung dynasty, but its failure to find a transplant in Eapan eventually "eant that history would pass it by. /onetheless, the cutting intellect of 7un+"en was one of the bright stars in the constellation of ChHan, providing what is possibly its purest antirational state"ent. THE FA1YEN SECT The "aster ,nown as :a+yen #;;>+9>;$, founder of the third short+lived house of ChHan, need not detain us long.

:a+yenHs novel "ethod for triggering enlighten"ent was to repeat bac, the JuestionerHs own Juery, thereby isolating the words and draining the" of their "eaning. -t was his version of the shout, the silence, the single word. *nd whereas the (in+ chi school was concerned with the :our %rocesses of (iberation fro" !ub&ectivity and 0b&ectivity and the TsHao+tung school constructed the five relations between %articularity and 2niversality, the :a+yen school invented the !ix *ttributes of )eing.<6 The !ix *ttributes of )eing #totality and differentiation, sa"eness and difference, beco"ing and disappearing$ were adapted fro" the doctrine of another )uddhist sect, and in fact later atte"pts by one of :a+yenHs disciples to co"bine ChHan and %ure (and )uddhis" have been credited with accelerating the disappearance of his school. *ccording to The Transmission of the Lamp, the "aster re"e"bered as :a+yen was born as en+i, near @angchow. @e beca"e a ChHan novice at age seven and was ordained at twenty. (earned in both )uddhist and Confucianist literature #though not, significantly enough, in the Taoist classics$, he then got the wanderlust, as was co""on, and headed south to see, out "ore ChHan teachers. @e ended up in 3iangsi province in the city of :uchou, where to escape the floodings of a rainstor" he found hi"self one evening in a local "onastery. @e struc, up a conversation with the "aster there, who suddenly as,ed hi"D 43here are you going, sirC4 4$ shall continue my foot travels along the road.4 43hat is that which is called foot travelC4 4$ do not -now.4 4 ot,-nowing most closely approaches the Truth. I<= The Transmission of the Lamp states that he was enlightened on the spot and decided to settle down for a period of study. @e eventually beca"e a fa"ous teacher hi"self, shepherding as "any as a thousand students at one ti"e.

0ne of his "ost often repeated exchanges concerned the Juestion of the difference between the I"oonI #i.e., enlighten"ent$ and the Ifinger pointing at the "oon,I #i.e., the teaching leading to enlighten"ent$. -t was a co""on observation that students confused the finger pointing at the "oon with the "oon itself, which is to say they confused tal, about enlighten"ent with the state. 0ne day a "on, ca"e along who thought he was s"art enough to get around the dile""a. 1 mon- as-ed, 41s for the finger, $ will not as- you about it. &ut what is the moonC4 The .aster said, 43here is the finger that you do not as- aboutC4 +o the mon- as-ed, 41s for the moon, $ will not asyou about it. &ut what is the fingerC4 The .aster said, 4The moonL4 The mon- challenged him, 4$ as-ed about the finger( why should you answer me, 6the moon6C4 The .aster replied, 4&ecause you as-ed about the finger.I<> *t age seventy+four :a+yen died in the "anner of other great "asters, cal"ly and seated in the "editation posture. %art of the lineage of !hih+tHou and an offshoot of the branch of ChHan that would beco"e !oto, he was a ,indly individual with none of the violence and histrionics of the livelier "asters. @owever, his school lasted only briefly before passing into history. /onetheless, a nu"ber of disciples initially perpetuated his "e"ory, and his wisdo" is preserved in various !ung+period co"pilations of ChHan ser"ons.

Cha/t"# Fo>#t""n
TA1H0I& MASTER OF THE KOAN

To confront the ,oanAthe "ost discussed, least understood teaching concept of the EastAis to address the very essence of Zen itself. -n si"ple ter"s the ,oan is "erely a brief storyAall the encounters between two "on,s related here could be ,oans. 'uring the !ung 'ynasty #958+4<?9$ these stories were organiGed into collections, co""ented upon, and structured into a syste" of studyAwhich involved "editating on a ,oan and arriving at an intuitive IanswerI acceptable to a Zen "aster. :aced with the threatening intellectualis" of the !ung scholars, ChHanists created the ,oan out of the experience of the older "asters, "uch the way a liferaft "ight be constructed fro" the ti"bers of a stor"+torn ship. )ut before we exa"ine this raft, it would be well to loo, again at the ship. -t will be recalled that ChHan grew out of both )uddhis" and Taois", extracting fro" the" the belief that a funda"ental unifying Juality transcends all the

diversity of the world, including things that appear to be opposite. @owever, ChHan taught that this cannot be understood using intellectualis", which rationally "a,es distinctions and relates to the world by reducing it to concepts and syste"s. 0ne reason is that all rationality and concepts are "erely part of a larger, enco"passing 1ealityK and trying to reach this 1eality intellectually is li,e trying to describe the outside of a building while trapped inside. There is, however, a ,ind of thoughtAnot beholden to concepts, syste"s, discri"inations, or rationalityAthat can reach this new understanding. -t is intuition, which operates in a "ode entirely different fro" rationality. -t is holistic, not linearK it is unself+conscious and noncriticalK and it doesnHt bother with any of the rational syste"s of analysis we have invented for ourselves. )ut since we canHt call on it at our pleasure, the next best thing we can do is clear the way for it to operateAby shutting off the rational part of the "ind. Then intuition starts hesitantly co"ing out of the shadows. /ow, if we carefully wait for the right "o"ent and then suddenly create a disturbance that "o"entarily short+circuits the rational "indAthe way shoc, suppresses our sense of pain in the first "o"ents of a serious accidentAwe "ay get a gli"pse of the intuitive "ind in full flower. -n that instant we intuitively understand the oneness of the world, the Coid, the greater 1eality that words and rationality have never allowed us to experience. The Zen teachers have a very efficient techniJue for "a,ing all this happen. They first discredit rationality for a novice by "a,ing hi" feel foolish for using it. Each ti"e the novice sub"its a rational solution to a ,oan, he receives a hu"iliating rebuff. *fter a while the strain begins to tell. -n the sa"e way that a "ilitary boot ca"p destroys the ego and self+identity of a recruit, the Zen "aster slowly erodes the noviceHs confidence in his own logical powers. *t this point his intuitive "ind begins overco"ing its previous repression. 'istinctions slowly start to see" absurd, because every ti"e he "a,es one he is ridiculed. (ittle by little he dissolves his sense of ob&ect and sub&ect,

,nower and ,nown. The fruit now is al"ost ready to fall fro" the tree. #*lthough enlighten"ent cannot be "ade to happen, it can be "ade possible.$ Enter at this point the unexpected blow, the shout, the clic, of ba"boo, the bro,en leg. -f the student is caught unawares, rationality "ay be "o"entarily short+circuited and suddenly he gli"psesA1eality. The irony is that what he gli"pses is no different fro" what he saw before, only now he understands it intuitively and realiGes how si"plistic and confining are rational categories and distinctions. Mountains are once again "ountainsK rivers are once again rivers. )ut with one vital differenceD /ow he is not attached to the". @e travels through the world &ust as always, but now he is at one with itD no distinctions, no critical &udg"ents, no tension. *fter all that preparatory "ental anguish there is no apparent external change. )ut internally he is enlightenedD @e thin,s differently, he understands differently, and ulti"ately he lives differently. ChHan began by wor,ing out the Juestion of what this enlighten"ent really is. %rior to Ma+tsu the search was "ore for the nature of enlighten"ent than for its trans"ission. This was the doctrinal phase of ChHan. *s ti"e went by, however, the concern shifted "ore and "ore fro" defining enlighten"entAwhich the ChHan "asters believed had been done sufficientlyAto struggling with the process. *fter Ma+tsu, ChHan turned its attention to Iauxiliary "eansI for helping along trans"issionD paradoxical words and actions, shouts, beatings, and eventually the ,oan.4 The ,oan, then, is the final step in the Iauxiliary "eans.I * succinct analysis of the ,oan techniJue is provided by 1uth :. !asa,i in Zen DustD I)riefly, N,oansO consisted of Juestions the early "asters had as,ed individual students, together with the answers given by the studentsK Juestions put to the "asters by students in personal tal,s or in the course of the "astersH lectures, together with the "astersH answersK state"ents of for"ulas in which the "asters had pointed to the profound %rincipleK anecdotes fro" the daily life of the "asters in which their attitudes or actions illustrated the

functioning of the %rincipleK and occasionally a phrase fro" a sutra in which the %rinciple or so"e aspect of it was crystalliGed in words. )y presenting a student with one or another of these ,oans and observing his reaction to it, the degree or depth of his realiGation could be &udged. The ,oans were the criteria of attain"ent.I < Called -ung,an in Chinese #"eaning a IcaseI or a proble"$, the ,oan was a response to two "a&or challenges that beset ChHan in the !ung eraD :irst, the large nu"ber of students that appeared at ChHan "onasteries as a result of the de"ise of other sects "eant that so"e new "eans was needed to preserve personaliGed attention #so"e "asters reportedly had one thousand or even two thousand followers at a "onastery$K and second, there was a noticeable decline in the spontaneity of both novices and "asters. The "asters had lost "uch of the creative fire of ChHanHs .olden *ge, and the novices were caught up in the intellectual, literary world of the !ung, to the point that intellectualis" actually threatened the vitality of the sect. The ,oan, then, was the answer to this dile""a. -t syste"atiGed instruction such that large nu"bers of students could be treated to the finest antirational tradition of the ChHan sect, and it rescued the dyna"is" of the earlier centuries. *lthough "ention of ,ung+an occurs in the ChHan literature before the end of the THang era #54;+98?$, the reference was to a "asterHs use of a particularly effectual Juestion on "ore than one student. This was still an instance of a "aster using his own Juestions or paradoxes. The ,oan in its true for"Athat is, the use of a classic incident fro" the literature, posed as a conundru"Ais said to have been created when a descendant of (in+chi, in the third generation, interviewed a novice about so"e of (in+chiHs sayings.6 This syste"atic use of the existing literature was found effective, and soon a new teaching techniJue was in the "a,ing. Exa"ples of classic ,oans already have been seen throughout this boo,, since "any of the exchanges of the early "asters were later isolated for use as ,ung+an. )ut there are "any, "any others, %erhaps the best+,nown

,oan of all ti"e is the exchange between Chao+chou #??;+;9?$ and a "on,D 1 mon- as-ed %hao,chou. 4Does a dog have &uddha nature Ei.e., is a dog capable of being enlightenedFC4 %hao,chou answered, Mu Ea word whose strict meaning is 4nothingness4F.I= Puic,, what does it "eanL !pea,Q !pea,Q -f you were a ChHan novice, a "aster would be glaring at you de"anding an i""ediate, intuitive answer. #* favored resolution of this, incidentally, is si"ply IMu,I but bellowed with all the force of the universeHs inherent 0neness behind it. *nd if you try to fa,e it, the "aster will ,now.$ 0r ta,e another ,oan, drawn co"pletely at rando". 3hen the mon-s assembled before the noon meal to hear his lecture, the .aster 'a,yen E22J,5J2F pointed at the bamboo blinds. Two mon-s simultaneously went and rolled them up. 'a,yen said, 4Ine gain, one loss.I> 'onHt thin,Q 1espond instantlyQ 'onHt say a word unless itHs right, 'onHt "a,e a "ove that isnHt intuitive. *nd above all, donHt analyGe. Kun,men E2=;RH,5H5F as-ed a mon-, 43here have you come here fromC4 The mon- said, 4'rom Hsi,ch6an.4 Kun, men said, 43hat words are being offered at Hsi,ch6an these daysC4 The mon- stretched out his hands. Kun,men struc- him. The mon- said, 4$ haven6t finished tal-ing.4 Kun,men then extended his own hands. The mon- was silent, so Kun,men struc- him.5 7ou werenHt there. 7ouHre not the "on,. )ut now youHve got to do so"ething to show the "aster you grasp what went on in that exchange. hat was spontaneous to the older "asters you "ust grasp in a secondhand, syste"atiGed situation. *nd if you canHt answer the ,oan right #it should be stressed, incidentally, there is not necessarily a fixed answer$, you had best go and

"editate, try to grasp it nonintellectually, and return to"orrow to try again. 0ff you go to "editate on IMuI or I0ne gain, one loss,I and the "ental tension starts building. Even though you ,now you arenHt supposed to, you analyGe it intellectually fro" every angle. )ut that &ust heightens your exasperation. Then suddenly one day so"ething dawns on you. Elated, you go to the "aster. 7ou yell at hi", or bar, li,e a dog, or ,ic, his staff, or stand on your hands, or recite a poe", or declare, IThe cypress tree in the courtyard,I or perhaps you &ust re"ain silent. @e will ,now #intuitively$ if you have bro,en through the bonds of reason, if you have transcended the intellect. ThereHs nothing Juite li,e the ,oan in the literature of the worldD historical episodes that have to be relived intuitively and responded to. *s 1uth :. !asa,i notes, ICollections of Hold cases,H as the ,oans were so"eti"es called, as well as atte"pts to put the ,oans into a fixed for" and to syste"atiGe the" to so"e extent, were already being "ade by the "iddle of the tenth century. e also find a few "asters giving their own alternate answers to so"e of the old ,oans and occasionally appending verses to the". -n "any cases these alternate answers and verses ulti"ately beca"e attached to the original ,oans and were handled as ,oans supple"entary to the".I? -ronically, ,oans beca"e so useful, indeed essential, in the perpetuation of ChHan that they soon were revered as texts. Collections of the better ,oans appeared, and next ca"e accretions of supporting co""entariesAwhen the whole point was supposed to be circu"venting reliance on wordsQ )ut co""entaries always see"ed to develop spontaneously out of ChHan. Today two "a&or collections of ,oans are generally used by students of Zen. These are the Mu"on,an #to use the "ore fa"iliar Eapanese na"e$ and the @e,iganro,u #again the Eapanese na"e$ or &lue %liff #ecord.; Masters "ay wor, a student through both these collections as he travels the road to enlighten"ent, with a new ,oan being assigned after each previous one has been successfully resolved.

The &lue %liff #ecord was the first of the two collections. -t began as a grouping of one hundred ,ung+ an by a "aster na"ed @sueh+tou ChHung+hsien #9;8+ 48><$ of the school of 7un+"en. This "aster also attached a s"all poe" to each ,oan, intended to direct the student toward its "eaning. The boo, en&oyed siGable circulation throughout the latter part of the eleventh century, and so"eti"e thereafter a (in+chi "aster na"ed 7uan+wu 3Ho+chHin #4856+446>$ decided to e"bellish it by adding an introduction to each ,oan and a long+winded co""entary on both the ,oan and the poe" supplied by the previous collector. #-n the case of the poe" we now have co""entary on co""entaryAthe ulti"ate achieve"ent of the theologianHs artQ @owever, "asters today often o"it 7uan+wuHs co""entaries, giving their own interpretation instead.9$ The co""entator, 7uan+wu, was the teacher of Ta+hui, the dyna"ic "aster of the (in+ chi lineage who" we will "eet here. The Mu"on,an, a shorter wor,, was asse"bled in 4<<; by the ChHan "on, u+"en @ui+,Hai #44;6+4<58$ and consists of forty+eight ,oans, together with an explanatory co""ent and a verse. !o"e of the ,oans in the Mu"on,an also appear in the &lue %liff #ecord. The Mu"on,an is usually preferred in the Eapanese su""er, since its ,oans are briefer and less fatiguing. 48 The ,oan was an invention of the !ung 'ynasty #958+ 4<?9$, an era of consolidation in the Chinese e"pire after the de"ise of the THang and passage of a war+torn interlude ,nown as the :ive 'ynasties #98?+58$. *lthough !ung ChHan see"ed to be boo"ing, )uddhis" in general continued the decline that began with the .reat %ersecution of ;=>. :or exa"ple, the nu"ber of registered "on,s dropped fro" around =88,888 in 48<4 to approxi"ately half that nu"ber a scant half+century later.44 )ut the "on,s who did co"e probably had higher education than previously, for the !ung educational syste" was the worldHs best at the ti"e. Colleges were established nationwide, not &ust in the sophisticated "etropolitan areas, and scholarship flourished. hether this was good for ChHan is not a si"ple Juestion. The hardy rural "on,s who had passed beyond the )uddhist

scriptures "ade ChHan what it was. Could the powers of the antirational be preserved in an at"osphere where the greatest respect was reserved for those who spent years "e"oriGing the Chinese classicsL The answer to this was to rest with the ,oan. The ChHan "aster Ta+hui #48;9+4456$, who perfected the ,oan techniJue, was ru"ored to be a reincarnation of (in+chi. )orn in *nhwei province, located about halfway between the older capitals of the north and the ChHan centers in the south, he was said to be both pious and precocious, beco"ing a devoted "on, at age seventeen while assiduously reading and absorbing the teachings of the five houses.4< *t age nineteen, he began his obligatory travels, roa"ing fro" "aster to "aster. 0ne of his first teachers reportedly interviewed hi" on the ,oans in the collection now ,nown as the &lue %liff #ecord, but he did so by not spea,ing a word and thereby forcing Ta+hui to wor, the" out for hi"self. Ta+hui also experi"ented with the TsHao+tung teachings, but early on began to Juestion the straitlaced, Juietistic approach of that house. @e finally was directed to the !Gechuan teacher 7uan+wu 3Ho+chHin of the (in+chi school, beginning the association that would "ove hi" to the forefront of the struggle to save ChHan via the ,oan. Ta+hui experienced his first enlighten"ent under 7uan+wu, in the "asterHs te"ple in the /orthern !ung capital of %ien+liang. *s the story is reportedD Ine day when Kuan,wu had ta-en the high seat in the lecture hall, he said> 41 mon- as-ed Kun,men> 6'rom whence come all the buddhasC6 Kun,men answered> 6The East .ountain wal-s over the water.6 &ut if $ were as-ed, $ would not answer that way. 6'rom whence come all the buddhasC6 1 fragrant bree0e comes of itself from the south, and in the palace pavilion a refreshing coolness stirs.4 1t these words ETa,huiF suddenly attained enlightenment.8G *fter this he grew in experience and wisdo", eventually ta,ing over "any te"ple duties fro" 7uan+wu. @e soon beca"e a part of the ChHan establish"ent in the north

and in 44<5 was even presented with an official robe and title fro" a "inister. Then suddenly, in the "idst of this tranJuillity, outside forces intervened to change dra"atically the course of Chinese history. :or "any years previous, China had been threatened by no"adic peoples fro" the north and west, peoples who" the Chinese haughtily identified as Ibarbarians.I The !ung e"perors, cloistered gentle"en in the worst sense of the ter", had "aintained peace in their slowly shrin,ing do"ain by buying off belligerent neighbors and occasionally even ceding border territories. They thought their troubles finally "ight be easing so"ewhat when their hostile neighbors were overwhel"ed by a new warring tribe fro" Manchuria. )ut after a series of hu"iliating incidents, the Chinese found the"selves with "erely a new ene"y, this ti"e "ore powerful than any before. China was at last on the verge of being overwhel"ed, so"ething it had forestalled for "any centuries. Even the invention of gunpowder, which the Chinese now used to fire roc,et+ propelled arrows, could not save the". )efore long the barbarians "arched on the capital, and after so"e years of Chinese atte"pts at appease"ent, the invaders carried off the e"peror and his entire court to Manchuria. The year was 44<?, which "ar,ed the end of the Chinese dynasty now ,nown as the /orthern !ung #958+44<?$. *fter this disheartening setbac, a son of the for"er e"peror "oved south and set up a new capital in the coastal city of @angchow, whose char"s the Chinese were fond of co"paring favorably with heaven #in the refrain, I@eaven aboveK @angchow belowI$. This new regi"e, ,nown as the !outhern !ung #44<?+4<?9$, witnessed yet another transfor"ation of ChHan. *"ong other things, !outhern ChHan ca"e to rese"ble eighth+century /orthern ChHan, in its close association with the court and the intelligentsia. hen political discord forced the /orthern !ung govern"ent to flee south, the "aster 7uan+wu was assigned a "onastery in the southern province of 3iangsi by the e"peror, and Ta+hui acco"panied hi" there,

again as head "on,. *fter four years, Ta+hui again decided to "igrateAthis ti"e aloneAto !Gechuan and there to build a secluded her"itage. *fter another "ove he was su""oned in 446? by the pri"e "inister, hi"self also a for"er pupil of 7uan+wu, to co"e and establish a te"ple near the new southern capital of @angchow. )efore long he had collected al"ost two thousand disciples and was beco"ing ,nown as the reincarnation of (in+chi, possibly because he was giving new life to the (in+chi sect. )ut then his politics got hi" in trouble and he was banished for al"ost fifteen years to various re"ote outposts, during which ti"e he began to write extensively.4= :inally, in 44>;, he was ordered bac, to @angchow to ta,e over his old te"ple. !ince by then old age was encroaching, he was per"itted to retire at this te"ple and live off i"perial patronage. -t is said that his pupils swelled to seventeen hundred when he returned and that when he died in 4456 he left ninety+four enlightened heirs.4> Ta+hui is regarded today as the great cha"pion of the ,oan "ethod, and he was celebrated during his life for a running disagree"ent he had with the TsHao+tung #later !oto$ school. -n a sense, this dispute drew the distinctions that still divide Zen into two ca"ps. The issue see"s to have boiled down to the "atter of what one does with oneHs "ind while "editating. The TsHao+tung "asters advocated what they called !ilent -llu"ination #mo,chao$ ChHan, which Ta+hui preferred to call !ilent -llu"ination @eterodox #mo,chao,hsieh$ ChHan. The TsHao+tung "aster Cheng+chueh, with who" he argued, believed that enlighten"ent could be achieved through sitting "otionless and slowly bringing tranJuillity and e"pty nonattach"ent to the "ind. The ,oans were recogniGed to be useful in preserving the original spirit of ChHan, but their brain+fatiguing convolutions were not per"itted to disturb the "ental repose of "editation. Ta+hui, in contrast, believed that this silent "editation lac,ed the dyna"is" so essential to the sudden experience of enlighten"ent. @is own approach to enlighten"ent ca"e to be called -ntrospecting+the+3oan #-6an,hua$ ChHan, in which "editation focused on a ,oan.45

*nother of Ta+huiHs ob&ections to the !ilent -llu"ination school see"s to have been its natural drift toward Juietis", toward the divorcing of "en fro" the world of affairs. This he believed led nowhere and was "erely renouncing hu"anity rather than illu"inating it. These days there6s a breed of shaven,headed outsiders Ei.e., rival mastersF whose own eyes are not clear, who 7ust teach people to stop and rest and play dead. . . . They teach people to 4-eep the mind still,4 to 4forget feelings4 according to circumstances, to practice 4silent illumination.4 . . . To say that when one has put things to rest to the point that he is unawares and un-nowing, li-e earth, wood, tile, or stone, this is not un-nowing silence@ this is a view of wrongly ta-ing too literally words that were :only< expedient means to free bonds. 8B @e see"ed to be counseling never to forget that "editation is only a "eans, not an end. -nstead Ta+hui advocated "editating deeper and ever deeper into a ,oan, focusing on the words until they Ilose their flavor.I Then finally the botto" falls out of the buc,et and enlighten"ent hits you. This I-ntrospecting the 3oanI for" of ChHan #called 3anna Zen by the Eapanese$ beca"e the standard for the 1inGai sect, whose students were encouraged to "editate on a ,oan until it gradually infiltrated the "ind. *s one co""entator has explained, IThe essential is to i""erse oneself patiently and wholeheartedly in the ,oan, with unwavering attention. 0ne "ust not be loo,ing for an answer but loo,ing at the ,oan. The Hanswer,H if it co"es, will co"e of its own accord.I4; *s described by Ta+huiD Just steadily go on with your -oan every moment of your life. . . . 3hether wal-ing or sitting, let your attention be fixed upon it without interruption. 3hen you begin to find it entirely devoid of flavor, the final moment is approaching> do not let it slip out of your grasp. 3hen all of a sudden something flashes out in your mind, its light will illumine the entire universe, and you will see the spiritual land of the Enlightened Ines. . . .85

The i"portant thing is to concentrate totally on a ,oan. This concentration need not necessarily be confined to "editation, as Ta+hui illustrates using one of the "ore celebrated one+word state"ents of 7un+"en. 1 mon- as-ed Kun,.en, 43hat is &uddhaC4 Kun,.en said, 41 dry piece of shit.4 Just bring up this saying. . . .Don6t as- to draw reali0ation from the words or try in your confusion to assess and explain. . . . Just ta-e your confused unhappy mind and shift it onto 41 dry piece of shit.4 Ince you hold it there, then the mind . . . will naturally no longer operate. 3hen you become aware that it6s not operating, don6t be afraid of falling into emptiness. . . . $n the conduct of your daily activities, 7ust always let go and ma-e yourself vast and expansive. 3hether you6re in /uiet or noisy places, constantly arouse yourself with the saying 41 dry piece of shit.4 1s the days and months come and go, of itself your potential will be purified and ripen. 1bove all you must not arouse any external doubts besides> when your doubts about 41 dry piece of shit4 are smashed, then at once doubts numerous as the sands of the Manges are all smashed.;9 *lthough Ta+hui was a strong advocate of the ,oan, he was staunchly against its being used in a literary sense. henever a student starts analyGing ,oans intellectually, co"paring one against another, trying to understand rationally how they affect his nonrational intelligence, he "isses the whole point. The only way it can wor, is if it is fresh. 0nly then does it elicit a response fro" our spontaneous intelligence, our intuitive "ind. )ut the !ung trend toward intellectualis" was al"ost irresistible. The prestige of the Chinese Igentle"anIA who could Juote the ancient poets, co"pose verse hi"self, and analyGe enlighten"entAwas the great ne"esis of ChHan.

Mentlemen of affairs who study the path often understand rationally without getting to the reality. 3ithout discussion and thought they are at a loss, with no place to put their hands and feet@they won6t believe that where there is no place to put one6s hands and feet is really a good situation. They 7ust want to get there in their minds by thin-ing and in their mouths to understand by tal-ing@they scarcely reali0e they6ve already gone wrong.;8 EJually bad was the ChHan student who "e"oriGed ,oans rather than trying to understand the" intuitively. 1 gentleman reads widely in many boo-s basically in order to augment his innate -nowledge. $nstead, you have ta-en to memori0ing the words of the ancients, accumulating them in your breast, ma-ing this your tas-, depending on them for something to ta-e hold of in conversation. Kou are far from -nowing the intent of the sages in expounding the teachings. This is what is called counting the treasure of others all day long without having half a cent of your own.;; Ta+hui rightly recogniGed in such scholarship an i"pending destruction of ChHanHs innate vigor. *t one point, in desperation, he even destroyed the original printing bloc,s for the best+,nown ,oan collection of the ti"e, the &lue %liff #ecord co"piled by his "aster, 7uan+ wu.<6 )ut the trend continued nonetheless. ChHan was not over yet, however. -t turns out that the sect did not continue to fly apart and diversify as "ight be suspected, but rather it actually consolidated. *lthough the 3uei+yang and :a+yen houses fiGGled co"paratively Juic,ly, the 7un+"en lasted considerably longer, with an identifiable line of trans"ission lasting virtually throughout the !ung 'ynasty. The TsHao+tung house languished for a while, but with !ilent -llu"ination ChHan it ca"e bac, strongly during the !ung 'ynasty. (in+chi split into two factions in the early eleventh century, when two pupils of the "aster ChHu+yuan #9;5+

4865$ decided to go their own way, 0ne of these "asters, ,nown as @uang+lung @ui+nan #488<+4859$, started a school which subseJuently was trans"itted to Eapan by the Eapanese "aster Eisai, where it beca"e ,nown as 0ryo Zen. @owever, this school did not last long in China or Eapan, beco"ing "oribund after a few generations. The other disciple of ChHu+yuan was a "aster na"ed 7ang+chHi :ang+hui #99<+48=9$, whose school #,nown in Eapanese as 7ogi Zen$ eventually beca"e the only school of Chinese ChHan, absorbing all other sects when the faith went into its final decline after the !ung. Ta+hui was part of this school, and it was the branch of the (in+chi sect that eventually too, hold in Eapan. -n closing our &ourney through Chinese ChHan we "ust note that the faith continued on strongly through the !ung largely because the govern"ent began selling ordinations for its own profit. ChHan also continued to flourish during the Mongol+do"inated 7uan 'ynasty #4<?9+4689$, with "any priests fro" Eapan co"ing to China for study. 'uring the Ming 'ynasty #465;+45==$, it "erged with another school of )uddhis", the %ure (and !alvationist sect, and changed drastically. *lthough Ming+ style Chinese ChHan still persists today, "ainly outside China, its practice bears scant rese"blance to the original teachings. :or the practice of the classical ChHan described here we "ust now turn to Eapan.

PART IV ZEN IN +APAN

. . . in which ChHan is i"ported to Eapan by traditional )uddhists disillusioned with the spiritual decadence of existing Eapanese sects. Through a fortuitous association with the rising "ilitary class, ChHan is eventually elevated to the "ost influential religion of Eapan. )efore long, however, it evolves into a political and cultural rather than a spiritual force. *lthough so"e Eapanese atte"pt to restore ChHanHs original vigor by deliberately attac,ing its I@igh ChurchI institutions, few Eapanese Zen teachers respect its original teachings and practice. Eapanese teachers contribute little to the ChHan #Zen$ experience until finally, in the eighteenth century, a spiritual leader appears who not only restores the original vitality of the faith, but goes on to refine the ,oan practice and revolutioniGe the relationship of Zen to the co""on people. This inspired teacher, @a,uin, creates "odern Zen.

Cha/t"# Fift""n
EISAI& THE FIRST +APANESE MASTER

There is a twelfth+century story that the first Eapanese "on, who &ourneyed to China to study ChHan returned ho"e to find a su""ons fro" the Eapanese court. There, in a "eeting re"iniscent of the Chinese sovereign u and the -ndian )odhidhar"a so"e seven hundred years before, EapanHs e"peror co""anded hi" to describe the teachings of this strange new cult. The be"used "on, #re"e"bered by the na"e 3a,ua$ replied with nothing "ore than a "elody on his flute, leaving the court flabbergasted.4 )ut what "ore ideal expression of ChinaHs wordless doctrineL *s in the China entered by )odhidhar"a, "edieval Eapan already ,new the teachings of )uddhis". -n fact, the Eapanese ruling classes had been )uddhist for half a

"illenniu" before ChHan officially ca"e to their attention. @owever, contacts with China were suspended "idway during this ti"e, leaving Eapanese )uddhists out of touch with the "any changes in ChinaAthe "ost significant being ChHanHs rise to the do"inant )uddhist sect.< ConseJuently the Eapanese had heard al"ost nothing about this sect when contacts resu"ed in the twelfth century. To their a"aGe"ent they discovered that Chinese )uddhis" had beco"e ChHan. The story of ChHanHs transplant in Eapan is also the story of its preservation, since it was destined to wither away in China. %erhaps we should review briefly how traditional )uddhis" got to Eapan in the first place. 'uring the sixth century, about the ti"e of )odhidhar"a, a statue of the )uddha and so"e sutras were trans"itted to Eapan as a giftMbribe fro" a 3orean "onarch see,ing "ilitary aid. @e clai"ed )uddhis" was very powerful although difficult to understand. /ot all Eapanese, however, were over&oyed with the appearance of a new faith. The least pleased were those e"ployed by the existing religion, the Eapanese cult of !hinto, and they successfully discredited )uddhis" for several decades. )ut a nu"ber of court intrigues were underway at the ti"e, and one faction got the idea that )uddhis" would be helpful in under"ining the !hinto+based ruling cliJue. Eventually this new faction triu"phed, and by the "iddle of the seventh century, the Eapanese were constructing )uddhist te"ples and pagodas.6 0ther i"ports connected with these early "ainland contacts were Chinese writing and the Chinese style of govern"ent. The Eapanese even recreated the THang capital of ChHang+an, consecrated at the beginning of the eighth century as /ara, their first real city. The growing )uddhist establish"ent soon overwhel"ed /ara with a host of sects and te"ples, cul"inating in ?>< with the unveiling of a bronGe "editating )uddha larger than any statue in the world. Eapan was now awash in thirdhand )uddhis", as Chinese "issionaries patroniGingly expounded !ans,rit scriptures they the"selves only vaguely understood.

)uddhis"Hs reputation for powerful "agic soon de"oraliGed the si"ple religion of !hinto, with its un+ pretentious shrines and rites, and this benign nature reverence was increasingly pushed into the bac,ground. The i"pact of )uddhis" beca"e so overwhel"ing that the alar"ed e"peror finally abandoned /ara entirely to the )uddhists, and at the close of the eighth century set up a new capital in central Eapan, ,nown today as 3yoto. The e"peror also decided to discredit the /ara )uddhists on their own ter"s, sending to China for new, co"peting sects. )ac, ca"e e"issaries with two new schools, which soon assu"ed do"inance of Eapanese )uddhis". The first of these was Tendai, na"ed after the Chinese THien+tHai school. -ts teachings centered on the (otus !utra, which taught that the hu"an )uddha personified a universal spirit, evidence of the oneness per"eating all things. The Tendai school was installed on Mt. @iei, in the outs,irts of 3yoto, giving birth to an establish"ent eventually to nu"ber several thousand buildings. The "on,s on Mt. @iei beca"e the authority on )uddhist "atters in Eapan for several centuries thereafter, and later they also began "eddling in affairs of state, so"eti"es even resorting to ar"s. Tendai was, and perhaps to so"e degree still is, a faith for the fortunate few. -t did not stress an idealiGed hereafter, since it served a classAthe idle aristocracyAperfectly co"fortable in the present world. -n any case, it beca"e the "a&or Eapanese )uddhist sect during the @eian era #?9=+44;>$, a ti"e of aristocratic rule. The other i"portant, and also aristocratic, version of )uddhis" preceding Zen was called !hingon, fro" the Chinese school Chen+yen, a "agical+"ystery sect thriving on secrecy and esoteric sy"bolis". -t appealed less to the intellect than did Tendai and "ore to the taste for entertain"ent a"ong the bored aristocrats. *lthough !hingon "onasteries often were situated in re"ote "ountainous areas, the intrigue of their engaging cere"onies #featuring efflorescent iconography, chants, and co"plex liturgies$ and their evocative "andalas #geo"etrical paintings full of sy"bolis"$ "ade this sect a theatrical success. This so+called Esoteric )uddhis" of

!hingon grew so popular that the sober Tendai sect was obliged to start adding ritualistic co"plexity into its own practices.= The Eapanese govern"ent bro,e off relations with China less than a hundred years after the founding of 3yoto, around the "iddle of the ninth century. :ro" then until the "id+twelfth century "ainland contacts virtually ceased, and conseJuently both Eapanese culture and Eapanese )uddhis" gradually evolved away fro" their Chinese "odels. The Eapanese aristocracy beca"e obsessed with aesthetics, finery, and refined love"a,ing acco"panied by poetry, perfu"es, and flowers.> They distilled the vigorous THang culture to a refined essence, rather li,e extracting a delicate liJueur fro" a stout potion. The )uddhist church also grew decadent, even as it grew ever "ore powerful and o"inous. The priesthood beca"e the appoint"ent of last resort for otherwise une"ployable courtiers, and indeed )uddhis" finally degenerated largely into an entertain"ent for the ruling class, whose "e"bers were a"used and diverted by its rites. This carefree aristocracy also allowed increasing a"ounts of wealth and land to slip into the hands of corrupt religious establish"ents. :or their own part, the )uddhists began for"ing ar"ies of "on,s to protect their new wealth, and they eventually went on to engage in inter+te"ple wars and threaten the civil govern"ent. 'uring this ti"e, the Eapanese aristocracy preserved its privileged position through the unwise policy of using an e"erging "ilitary class to "aintain order. These professional soldiers see" to have arisen fro" the aristocacy itself. Eapanese e"perors had a large nu"ber of wo"en at their disposal, through who" they scattered a host of progeny, not all of which could be "aintained idle in 3yoto. * nu"ber of these were sent to the provinces, where they were to govern unta"ed outlying areas. This continued until one day the court in 3yoto awo,e to find that Eapan was in fact controlled by these rural clans and their "ounted warriors, the sa"urai. 5 -n the "iddle of the twelfth century, the sa"urai effectively seiGed Eapan, and their strong"an invented for

hi"self the title of shogun, proceeding to institute what beca"e al"ost eight centuries of unbro,en warrior rule. The age of the co""on "an had arrived, and one of the shogun6s first acts was to transfer the govern"ent away fro" aristocratic 3yoto, whose sophisticated society "ade hi" unco"fortable, to a warrior ca"p called 3a"a,ura, near the site of "odern To,yo. The rule of Eapan passed fro" perfu"ed, poetry+writing aesthetes to fierce, often illiterate swords"en. Coincident with this coup, the decadence and irrelevance of traditional )uddhis" had begun to weigh heavily upon a new group of spiritual refor"ers. )efore long Tendai and !hingon were challenged by new faiths recogniGing the existence and spiritual needs of the co""on people. 0ne for" this refor"ation too, was the appearance of new sects providing spiritual co"fort to the "asses and the possibility of eternal salvation through so"e si"ple act, usually the repetition of a sacred chant. 0ne, and later two, such sects #Eodo and Eodo !hin$ focused on the )uddhist figure *"ida, whose %aradise or I%ure (andI in the hereafter was open to all those calling upon his na"e #by chanting a sort of )uddhist I@ail MaryI called the nembutsu, I%raise to *"ida )uddhaI$. *nother si"plified sect preached a funda"entalist return to the (otus !utra and was led by a firebrand na"ed /ichiren, who also created a chant for his largely illiterate followers. * for"ula guaranteeing %aradise had particular appeal to the sa"urai, whose day+to+day existence was dangerous and uncertain. The scandaliGed Tendai "on,s vigorously opposed this ho"e+ grown populist "ove"ent, occasionally even burning down te"ples to discourage its growth. )ut the %ure (and and /ichiren sects continued to flourish, since the co""on people finally had a )uddhis" all their own. There were others, however, who believed that the aristocratic sects could be refor"ed fro" withinAby i"porting the" afresh fro" China, fro" the source. These refor"ers hoped that )uddhis" in China had "aintained its integrity and discipline during the several centuries of separation. *nd by fortunate coincidence, Eapanese contacts with the "ainland were being

reopened, "a,ing it again allowable to underta,e the perilous sea voyage to China. )ut when the first twelfth+ century Eapanese pilgri"s reached the "ainland, they were stunned to find that traditional )uddhis" had been al"ost co"pletely supplanted by ChHan. ConseJuently, the Eapanese pilgri"s returning fro" China perforce returned with Zen, since little else re"ained. @owever, Zen was not originally brought bac, to replace traditional )uddhis", but rather as a sti"ulant to restore the rigor that had drained out of "onastic life, including for"al "editation and respect or discipline.? Credit for the introduction of (in+chi Zen #called 1inGai$ in Eapan is traditionally given to the aristocratic priest and traveler Myoan Eisai #44=4+4<4>$.; @e began his career as a young "on, in the Tendai co"plex near 3yoto, but in the su""er of 445; he acco"panied a !hingon priest on a trip to China, largely to sightsee and to visit the ho"e of the THien+tHai sect as a pilgri". @owever, the THien+tHai school "ust have been a "ere shadow of its for"er self by this ti"e, and naturally enough Eisai beca"e fa"iliar with ChHan. )ut he was hardly a firebrand for Zen, for when he returned to Eapan he continued practice of traditional )uddhis". !o"e twenty years later, in 44;?, Eisai again &ourneyed to China, this ti"e planning a pilgri"age on to -ndia and the )uddhist holy places. )ut the Chinese refused hi" per"ission to travel beyond their borders, leaving Eisai no choice but to study there. @e finally attached hi"self to an aging ChHan "on, on Mt. THien+tHai and "anaged to receive the seal of enlighten"ent before returning to Eapan in 4494, Juite probably the first Eapanese ever certified by a Chinese ChHan "aster. @e was not, however, totally co""itted to Zen. @is ChHan teacher was also occupied with other )uddhist schools, and what Eisai brought bac, was a )uddhist coc,tail blended fro" several different traditions. 9 )ut he did proceed to build a te"ple to the @uang+lung #Eapanese 0ryo$ branch of the (in+chi sect on the southern"ost Eapanese island, 3yushu #the location nearest China$, in the provincial town of @a,ata. *l"ost as i"portant, he also brought bac, the tea plant #whose brew was used in

China to ,eep drowsy "on,s awa,e during "editation$, thereby instituting the long "arriage of Zen and tea. *lthough his provincial te"ple went unchallenged, later atte"pts to introduce this new sect into 3yoto, the stronghold of traditional )uddhis", "et fierce resistance fro" the establish"ent, particularly Tendai. )ut Eisai contended that Zen was a useful sect and that the govern"ent would reap practical benefits fro" its protection. @is spirited defense of Zen, entitled I%ropagation of Zen for the %rotection of the Country,I argued that its encourage"ent would be good for Eapanese )uddhis" and therefore good for Eapan.48 1s in $ndia, so in %hina its teaching has attracted followers and disciples in great numbers. $t propagates the Truth as the ancient &uddha did, with the robe of authentic transmission passing from one man to the next. $n the matter of religious discipline, it practices the genuine method of the sages of old. Thus the Truth it teaches, both in substance and appearance, perfects the relationships of master and disciple. $n its rules of action and discipline, there is no confusion of right and wrong. . . . +tudying it, one discovers the -ey to all forms of &uddhism( practicing it, one6s life is brought to fulfillment in the attainment of enlightenment. Iutwardly it favors discipline over doctrine, inwardly it brings the Highest $nner 3isdom. This is what the Zen sect stands for.88 @e also pointed out how un+Eapanese it would be to deny Zen a hearingD Eapan has been open+"inded in the past, why should she re&ect a new faith nowL $n our country the EemperorF shines in splendor and the influence of his virtuous wisdom spreads far and wide. Emissaries from the distant lands of +outh and %entral 1sia pay their respects to his court. Lay ministers conduct the affairs of government( priests and mon-s spread abroad religious truth. Even the truths of the 'our Hindu Aedas are not neglected. 3hy then re7ect the five schools of Zen &uddhismC8;

Eisai was the classic tactician, ,nowing well when to fight and when to retire, and he decided in 4499 on a diversionary retreat to 3a"a,ura, leaving behind the hostile, co"petitive at"osphere of aristocratic 3yoto. Through his political connections, he "anaged to get installed as head of a new te"ple in 3a"a,ura, beginning ZenHs long association with the Eapanese warrior class. Eisai see"s to have done well in 3a"a,ura, for not long after he arrived, the current strong"an gave hi" financing for a Zen te"ple in 3yoto, na"ed 3ennin+&i and co"pleted in 4<8>. Eisai returned the favor by assisting in the repair of te"ples ravaged by the recent wars. -t was reportedly for a later, hard+drin,ing ruler that Eisai co"posed his second classic wor,, I'rin, Tea and %rolong (ife,I which cha"pioned the "edicinal properties of this exotic Chinese beverage, declaring it a restorative that tuned up the body and strengthened the heart. $n the great country of %hina they drin- tea, as a result of which there is no heart trouble and people live long lives. Iur country is full of sic-ly,loo-ing, s-inny persons, and this is simply because we do not drin- tea. 3henever one is in poor spirits, one should drin- tea. This will put the heart in order and dispel all illness. 3hen the heart is vigorous, then even if the other organs are ailing, no great pain will be felt. . . . The heart is the sovereign of the five organs, tea is the chief of the bitter foods, and bitter is the chief of the tastes. 'or this reason the heart loves bitter things, and when it is doing well all the other organs are properly regulated. . . . 3hen, however, the whole body feels wea-, devitali0ed, and depressed, it is a sign that the heart is ailing. Drin- lots of tea, and one6s energy and spirits will be restored to full strength. 8G This first Zen teacher was certainly no (in+chi. @e was "erely a Tendai priest who i"ported (in+chiHs sect fro" China hoping to bring discipline to his schoolK he established an ecu"enical "onastery at which both Zen and esoteric Tendai practices were taughtK he consorted with leaders whose place was owed to a "ilitary coup

dHetatK and he appeared to advocate Zen on transparently practical, so"eti"es al"ost political, grounds. @e co"pro"ised with the existing cults to the end, even refusing to lend aid to other, "ore pure+ "inded advocates of ChHan who had risen in 3yoto in the "eanti"e.4= )ut Eisai was a colorful figure who" history has chosen to re"e"ber as the founder of Zen in Eapan, as well as #perhaps eJually i"portant$ the father of the cult of tea. Eisai ended his days as abbot of the 3yoto te"ple of 3ennin+&i and leader of a s"all Zen co""unity that was careful not to Juarrel with the powers of Tendai and !hingon, which also had altars in the te"ple. EisaiHs IZenI began in Eapan as a "inor infusion of )uddhis"Hs original discipline, but through an acco""odation with the warrior establish"ent, he accidentally planted the seeds of ChHan in fertile soil. .radually the nu"ber of Zen practitioners grew, as "ore and "ore of the sa"urai recogniGed in Zen a practical philosophy that accorded well with their needs. *s %aul Carley has explainedD IZen . . . stresses cultivation of the intuitive faculties and places a high pre"iu" on discipline and self+control. -t re&ects rational decision+"a,ing as artificial and delusory, and insists that action "ust co"e fro" e"otion. *s such, Zen proved particularly congenial to the "edieval sa"urai, who lived with violence and i""inent death and who sought to develop such things as Hspontaneity of conductH and a HtranJuility of heartH to "eet the rigours of his profession. 2nder the influence of Zen, later sa"urai theorists especially asserted that the true warrior "ust be constantly prepared to "a,e the ulti"ate sacrifice of his life in the service of his lordAwithout a "o"entHs reflection or conscious consideration.I 4> -t can only be ironic that what began in China as a school of "editation, then beca"e an iconoclastic "ove"ent using ,oans to beat down the analytical faculties finally e"erged #in an a"alga" with other teachings$ in Eapan as a psychological "ainstay for the soldiers of a "ilitary dictatorship. There was, however, another Eapanese school of Zen that introduced its practice in a for" "ore closely rese"bling original ChHan.

This was the "ove"ent started by 'ogen, whose life we "ay now exa"ine.

Cha/t"# SiAt""n
)O*EN& FATHER OF +APANESE SOTO ZEN

The !oto "aster 'ogen #4<88+>6$ is probably the "ost revered figure in all Eapanese Zen. 7et until recently he has been co"paratively un,nown abroad, perhaps because that great populariGer of Zen in the est, '. T. !uGu,i, followed the 1inGai school and "anaged to essentially ignore 'ogen throughout his volu"inous writings. )ut it was 'ogen who first insisted on intensive "editation, who produced the first Eapanese writings explaining Zen practice, and who constructed the first real Zen "onastery in Eapan, establishing a set of "onastic rules still observed. Moreover, the strength of

his character has inspired "any Zen "asters to follow. -ndeed, it is hard to contradict the scholar 'u"oulin, who declared hi" Ithe strongest and "ost original thin,er that Eapan has so far produced.I4 )orn Eanuary < of the year 4<88 an illegiti"ate son of a noble :u&iwara "other and a princely father, 'ogenHs circu"stances fro" the start were aristocratic. < *round hi" swirled the literary life of the court, the powerful centuries+old position of the :u&iwara, and the refined decadence of ancient 3yoto. *lthough his father died when he was two, his privileged education continued at the hands of his "other and half+brother. @e "ost certainly learned to read and write classical Chinese, as well as to versify and debateAall s,ills that he would one day put to extensive use. @is poetic sensitivity #so"ething traditionally priGed by the Eapanese above logic and precision of thought$ was encouraged by all he "et in the hothouse at"osphere of ancient 3yoto. This idyllic, protected life was shattered at age seven with the sudden death of his "other. )ut she set the course of his life when, at the last, she bade hi" beco"e a "on, and reach out to suffering "an,ind. * popular tradition has it that at his "otherHs funeral 'ogen sensed in the rising incense the i"per"anence of all things. *fter the shoc, of his "otherHs death he was adopted by an uncle as fa"ily heir and set on the way to a reluctant career in statecraft. )ut as he approached age twelve, the ti"e when a for"al cere"ony would signify his entry into the "ale circle of aristocracy, his reservations overwhel"ed hi" and he slipped away to visit another uncle, a priest living in the foothills of Mt. @iei. hen 'ogen begged to be allowed to turn his bac, on the aristocratic world of 3yoto and fulfill his "otherHs dying wish by beco"ing a "on, the fa"ily was dis"ayed. )ut finally they relented, and he was ordained the following year as a Tendai brother on Mt. @iei. *lready a scholar of the Chinese classics, he now turned to the literature of Tendai )uddhis". )ut soon he was snagged on a proble" that has haunted theologians East and est for "any centuries. -n Christian ter"s it is the Calvinist Juestion of whether "an is already saved by

predestination or whether he "ust earn his salvation. 'ogen for"ulated this in a )uddhist context as followsD 1s $ study both the exoteric and the esoteric schools of &uddhism, they maintain that man is endowed with the Dharma,nature by birth. $f this is the case, why had the &uddhas of all ages@undoubtedly in possession of enlightenment@to see- enlightenment and engage in spiritual practiceL6 -n other words, if "an already has the )uddha nature, why "ust he struggle to realiGe it by arduous disciplinesL Conversely, if the )uddha nature "ust be acJuired, how can it be inherent in all things, as was taughtL This perplexing paradox, which no one in EapanHs Tendai ICaticanI on Mt. @iei could resolve, finally drove 'ogen wandering in search of other teachers. @e initially stopped at EisaiHs te"ple, 3ennin+&i, long enough to be taught the basics of 1inGai Zen practice, but then he traveled on. Eventually, though, he returned to 3ennin+&i, and in 4<4?, began Zen study under EisaiHs disciple, MyoGen #44;=+4<<>$. 0f his relationship with this 1inGai "aster he later declaredD Ever since $ awa-ened to the &odhi,mind and sought the supreme Truth $ made many visits to &uddhist masters throughout the country. $t was thus that $ happened to meet the Aenerable .yo0en at ?ennin,7i. ine years /uic-ly passed as $ studied the 3ay under him. During that period $ had the opportunity to learn from him, to some extent, the training methods of the #in0ai Zen sect. To the Aenerable .yo0en, leading disciple of my late master Eisai, was rightly transmitted the highest supreme Law and he was unparalleled among his fellow disciples in learning and virtue.H 'ogen "ay have been i"pressed as "uch by the legend of Eisai as by the shouting and beating of the 1inGai sect, for he often sprin,led stories about Eisai through his writings and ser"ons thereafter.

)ut 'ogen still could not find content"ent, even with the 1inGai he received at 3ennin+&i, and at age twenty+ three he resolved to go to China and experience ChHan teachings firsthand. !o in the spring of 4<<6 he and MyoGen shipped out for China, intending to visit )uddhist establish"ents there. #*nother reason for his hasty decision to go to China for study "ay have been a series of political upheavals involving ar"ed "on,s, which resulted in so"e of his high+placed relations being banishedAwhile a series of executions too, place.$> *fter a rough but speedy voyage across the East China !ea, they arrived at Ming+chou, down the coast fro" the !ung capital of @angchow. MyoGen could not wait and headed straight for the ChHan co"plex on Mt. THien+tHung. @owever, the "ore cautious 'ogen chose to stay aboard ship until "idsu""er, easing hi"self into Chinese life slowly. )ut even there he experienced an exa"ple of ChHan fervor and devotion that i"pressed hi" deeply, if only because it was so different fro" what he had seen in Eapan. This lesson was at the hands of a sixty+year+old Chinese coo, fro" a ChHan "onastery who visited the ship to purchase so"e Eapanese "ushroo"s. 'ogen beca"e involved in an ani"ated conversation with the old "on, and, since his "onastery was over ten "iles away, out of courtesy invited hi" to stay the night on board ship. @owever, the old tenGo "on, #one in charge of "onastery "eals$ insisted on returning, saying duty called. )ut, 'ogen pressed, surely there "ust be others who could coo, in such a large "onastery, and besides coo,ing was hardly the point of Zen. *s 'ogen later recalled his own wordsD 4Aenerable sirL 3hy don6t you do GaGen EZen meditationF or study the -oan of ancient mastersC 3hat is the use of wor-ing so hard as a ten0o mon-C4 In hearing my remar-s, he bro-e into laughter and said, 4Mood foreignerL Kou seem to be ignorant of the true training and meaning of &uddhism.4 $n a moment, ashamed and surprised at his remar-, $ said to him, 43hat are theyC4

4$f you understand the true meaning of your /uestion, you will have already reali0ed the true meaning of &uddhism,4 he answered. 1t that time, however, $ was unable to understand what he meant.= !uch were the exchanges between Eapanese )uddhist scholars and ChHan "onastery coo,s in the early thirteenth century. -n "idsu""er of 4<<6, 'ogen finally "oved ashore and entered the te"ple on Mt. THien+tHung called Ching+ te+ssu. @is intense study brought no seal of enlighten"ent, but it did engender severe disappoint"ent with the standards of ChHan "onasteries in China. *lthough the school that 'ogen found was a branch of (in+chi traceable bac, to the ,oan "aster Ta+ hui, different fro" the fading school Eisai had encountered, 'ogen later would denounce i"partially the general run of all ChHan "asters he "et in China. 1lthough there are in %hina a great number of those who profess themselves to be the descendants of the &uddhas and patriarchs, there are few who study truth and accordingly there are few who teach truth. . . . Thus those people who have not the slightest idea of what the great 3ay of the &uddhas and patriarchs is now become the masters of mon-s. . . . #eciting a few words of Lin,chi and Kun,men they ta-e them for the whole truth of &uddhism. $f &uddhism had been exhausted by a few words of Lin,chi and Kun,men, it could not have survived till today.B *fter studying for two years while si"ultaneously nosing about other nearby "onasteries, 'ogen finally decided to travel, hoping others of the Ifive housesI had "aintained discipline. #@e also see"s to have experienced so"e discri"ination as a foreigner in China.$ )ut the farther he went, the "ore despondent he beca"eK nowhere in China could he find a teacher worthy to succeed the ancient "asters. @e finally resolved to abandon China and return to Eapan.

)ut at this "o"ent fate too, a turn thatAin retrospectAhad enor"ous i"portance for the future of Eapanese )uddhis". * "on, he "et on the road told hi" that THien+tHung now had a new abbot, a truly enlightened "aster na"d Eu+ching #4456+ 4<<;$. 'ogen returned to see and was received war"ly, being invited by Eu+ching to ignore cere"ony and approach hi" as an eJual. The twenty+five+year+old Eapanese "on, was elated, and settled down at last to underta,e the study he had co"e to China for. The "aster Eu+ching beca"e 'ogenHs ideal of what a Zen teacher should be, and the habitsAperhaps even the eccentricitiesAof this aging teacher were translated by 'ogen into the "odel for "on,s in Eapan. Eu+ching was, above all things, unco"pro"ising in his advocacy of "editation or 0a0en. @e "ight even have challenged )odhidhar"a for the title of its all+ti"e practitioner, and it was fro" Eu+chingHs ChHan #which "ay also have included ,oan study$ that 'ogen too, his cue. *lthough ChHan was still widespread, Eu+ching see"s to have been the only re"aining advocate of intensive "editation in China, and a chance intersection of history brought this teaching to Eapan. !ignificantly, he was one of the few TsHao+tung "asters ever to lead the i"portant THien+tHung "onastery, traditionally headed by a "e"ber of the (in+chi school. Eu+ching was a "odel "asterD strict but ,indlyK si"ple in habits, diet, dressK i""une to the attractions of court recognitionK and an unco"pro"ising advocate of virtually round+the+cloc, "editation. )ut he never as,ed anything of his "on,s he did not also de"and of hi"self, even when advanced in years. @e would stri,e nodding "on,s to refresh their attention, while la"enting that age had so di"inished the strength in his ar" it was eroding his ability to create good "on,s. Eu+ching would "editate until eleven in the evening and then be up again by two+thirty or three the next "orning, bac, at 0a0en. @e freJuently developed sores on his bac,side fro" such perpetual sitting, but nothing deterred hi". @e even declared the pain "ade hi" love 0a0en all the "ore.

The story of 'ogenHs final enlighten"ent at the hands of Eu+ching is a classic of Eapanese Zen. -n the "editation hall one early "orning all the "on,s were sitting in "editation when the "an next to 'ogen doGed offAa co""on enough occurrence in early+"orning sessions. )ut when Eu+ching ca"e by on a routine inspection and saw the sleeping "on,, he was for so"e reason particularly ran,led and roared out, IZa0en "eans the dropping away of "ind and bodyQ hat will you get by sleepingLI 'ogen, sitting nearby, was at first startled, but then an indescribable cal", an ecstatic &oy washed over hi". Could it be that this was the "o"ent he had been hoping forL Could it be that the fruit had been ready to fall fro" the tree, with this &ust the sha,e neededL 'ogen rushed to Eu+chingHs roo" afterward and burned incense, to signify his enlighten"ent experience. Throwing hi"self at the "asterHs feet, he declared, Ihave experienced the dropping away of "ind and body.I Eu+ching i""ediately recogniGed his enlighten"ent to be genuine #"odern "asters reportedly can discern a noviceHs state "erely by the way he rings a gong$ and he replied, I7ou have indeed dropped body and "ind.I I)ut wait a "inute,I 'ogen cautioned. I'onHt sanction "e so easily. @ow do you really ,now -Hve achieved enlighten"entLI To which Eu+ching replied si"ply, I)ody and "ind have dropped away.I 'ogen bowed in ac,nowledg"ent of his ac,nowledg"ent. *nd thus, in May 4<<>, was the greatest Zen teacher in Eapan enlightened. -n the fall Eu+ ching conferred upon 'ogen the seal of patriarchal succession of his line of the TsHao+tung sect.; 'ogen stayed on for two "ore years studying under Eu+ching, but finally he decided to return again to Eapan. hen they parted, Eu+ching gave his Eapanese protege the patriarchal robe, his own portrait #called chinso, a sy"bol of trans"ission$, and bade hi" farewell. !o did 'ogen return to Eapan in the fall of 4<<?, ta,ing with hi" the ,oan collection &lue %liff #ecord, which he copied his last night in China. )ut he also brought the fire of a

powerful idea, pure "editation, that for"ed the basis for the Eapanese !oto school of Zen. 'ogen returned to EisaiHs old te"ple of 3ennin+&i, where he proceeded to write the "inor classic 1 Oniversal #ecommendation for Za0en, introducing the idea of intense "editation to his country"en. Kou should pay attention to the fact that even the &uddha +a-yamuni had to practice GaGen for six years. $t is also said that &odhidharma had to do GaGen at +hao,lin temple for nine years in order to transmit the &uddha, mind. +ince these ancient sages were so diligent, how can present,day trainees do without the practice of GaGenC Kou should stop pursuing words and letters and learn to withdraw and reflect on yourself. 3hen you do so, your body and mind will naturally fall away, and your original &uddha,nature will appear.5 -t was the opening shot in a ca"paign to "a,e pure Zen the "eaningful alternative to the decadent traditional )uddhis" of the aristocracy and the new !alvationist sect of %ure (and. )ut first the Eapanese had to be taught how to "editate, so he wrote a "editation Ihandboo,I that explained exactly how and where to underta,e this traditional )uddhist practice. @is directions are worth Juoting at length. ow, in doing GaGen it is desirable to have a /uiet room. Kou should be temperate in eating and drin-ing, forsa-ing all delusive relationships. +etting everything aside, thin- neither of good nor evil, right nor wrong. Thus, having stopped the various functions of your mind, give up the idea of becoming a &uddha. This holds true not only for GaGen but for all your daily actions. Osually a thic- s/uare mat is put on the floor where you sit and a round cushion on top of that. Kou may sit in either the full or half lotus position. $n the former, first put your right foot on your left thigh and then your left foot on your right thigh. $n the latter, only put your left foot on the right thigh. Kour clothing should be worn loosely but neatly. ext, put your right hand on your left

foot and your left palm on the right palm, the tips of the thumbs lightly touching. +it upright, leaning to neither left nor right, front nor bac-. Kour ears should be on the same plane as your shoulders and your nose in line with your navel. Kour tongue should be placed against the roof of your mouth and your lips and teeth closed firmly. 3ith your eyes -ept continuously open, breathe /uietly through your nostrils. 'inally, having regulated your body and mind in this way, ta-e a deep breath, sway your body to left and right, then sit firmly as a roc-. Thin- of nonthin-ing. How is this doneC &y thin-ing beyond thin-ing and nonthin-ing. This is the very basis of GaGen.48 This first little essay was "eant to provide Eapan a taste of the real Zen he had experienced in China, and it was the beginning of an astounding literary output. 'ogen asserted that since the )uddha had "editated and )odhidhar"a had "editated, the "ost valuable thing to do is "editate. /ot surprisingly, he received a cold response fro" the other schools in 3yoto, both the Tendai sects and the other IZenI teachers who, li,e Eisai, taught a IsyncreticI Zen of co"pro"ise with establish"ent )uddhis". @is rigid doctrine was socially aw,ward for the syncretic Zen "on,s at 3ennin+&iAwho seasoned their practice with chants and esoteric cere"oniesAand 'ogen finally decided to spare the" further e"barrass+ "ent by retiring to a "ountain retreat. 0ff he went to another te"ple, *nHyoin, where he began to elaborate on the role of "editation in Zen practice, writing another essay, entitled I)endowaI or I(ecture on Training,I designed to provide a "ore dialectical defense for GaGen. ritten in the for" of eighteen Juestions and answers, the I(ecture on TrainingI was intended to further &ustify the intense "editation he had described earlier. This essay later beca"e the initial section of a "assive boo, today ,nown as the +hobogen0o #Treasure of ?nowledge #egarding the True Dharma$, which was guarded as a secret treasure of the !oto school for "any centuries.

Suestion> . . . 'or most people the natural way to enlightenment is to read the scriptures and recite the nembutsu E"raise to 1mida &uddhaF. +ince you do nothing more than sit cross,legged, how can this mere sitting be a means of gaining enlightenmentC 1nswer> . . . If what use is it to read the scriptures and recite the ne"butsuC $t is useless to imagine that the merits of &uddhism come merely from using one6s tongue or voice( if you thin- such things embrace all of &uddhism, the Truth is a long way from you. Kou should only read the scriptures so as to learn that the &uddha was teaching the necessity of gradual and sudden training and that from this you can realise enlightenment( do not read them so as to ma-e a show of wisdom with useless intellection. . . . Just to continually repeat the ne"butsu is e/ually useless, for it is a frog who croa-s both day and night in some field. . . . They who do nothing . . . more than study the scriptures . . . never understand this, so 7ust stop it and thereby cure your delusions and doubts. Just follow the teachings of a true master and, through the power of ZaGen, find the utterly 7oyful enlightenment of &uddha.88 -t is not surprising to find 'ogen fir" in the belief that "editation is superior to the practices of two co"peting "ove"entsD the traditional sutra veneration of the Tendai sect and the %ure (and schoolsH chanting of the ne"butsu to *"ida )uddha. )ut what about the 1inGai Zen teaching that enlighten"ent is sudden and cannot be induced by gradual practiceL @e next attac,s this positionD Suestion> &oth in $ndia and %hina, from the beginning of time to the present day, some Zen teachers have been enlightened by such things as the sound of stones stri-ing bamboos, whilst the color of plum blossoms cleared the minds of others. The E&uddhaF was enlightened at the sight of the morning star, whilst Ehis followerF 1nanda understood the Truth through seeing a stic- fall. 1s well as these, many Zen teachers of the five

schools after the +ixth "atriarch were enlightened by only so much as a word. Did all of them practise ZaGenC 1nswer> 'rom olden times down to the present day, all who were ever enlightened, either by colors or sounds, practised ZaGen without ZaGen and became instantaneously enlightened.8; hat exactly is he saying hereL -t would see" that he is convoluting the early teaching of the !outhern sect, which proposed that I"editationI is a "ind process that "ight also be duplicated by other "eans. 'ogen see"s to be arguing that GaGen is efficacious since all who beca"e enlightened were really I"editatingI in daily life, whether they realiGed it or not. The !outhern school clai"ed that dhyana could be anything and therefore it see"ed ancillaryK 'ogen clai"s it could be anything and therefore it is essential. 'ogen also ca"e bac, to his original doctrinal dile""a, the Juestion that had sent hi" wandering fro" teacher to teacher in Eapan while still a youthD hy strive for enlighten"ent if all creatures are )uddhas to begin withL @e finally felt Jualified to address his own Juandary. Suestion> There are those who say that one has only to understand that this mind itself is the &uddha in order to understand &uddhism, and that there is no need to recite the scriptures or undergo bodily training. $f you understand that &uddhism is inherent in yourself, you are already fully enlightened and there is no need to see- for anything further from anywhere. $f this is so, is there any sense in ta-ing the trouble to practice ZaGenC 1nswer> This is a very grievous mista-e, and even if it should be true and the sages should teach it, it is impossible for you to understand it. $f you would truly study &uddhism, you must transcend all opinions of sub7ect and ob7ect. $f it is possible to be enlightened simply by -nowing that the self is, in its self,nature, the &uddha, then there was no need for +ha-yamuni to try so diligently to teach the 3ay.8

hether this answer resolves the paradox will be left to the &udg"ent of others. )ut for all his intensities and eccentricities, 'ogen was certainly a powerful new thin,er, clearly the strongest dialectician in the history of Eapanese Zen. @e was also a "agnetic personality who attracted "any followers, and by 4<66 he had so outgrown the space at *nHyoin that a larger te"ple was i"perative #which beca"e available than,s to his aristocratic connections$. @is next "ove was to 3osho+&i, a te"ple near 3yoto, where he spent the succeeding ten years in intense literary creativity, where he constructed the first truly independent Zen "onastery in Eapan, and where he found a worthy disciple, 3oun E&o #449;+4<;8$, who served as head "on, and ulti"ately as his successor. -t was here, beginning in 4<66, that 'ogen finally recreated Chinese ChHan totally in Eapan, right down to an architectural replica of a !ung+style "onastery and an unco"pro"ising discipline re"iniscent of his old Chinese "aster Eu+ching. *fter settling in at 3osho+&i he began, in late 4<6>, a fundraising drive for the purpose of building the first Zen+ style "on,sH hall #sodo$ in Eapan. @e believed that this building, viewed by the lawgiver %o+chang @uai+hai as the heart of a ChHan "onstery, was essential if he were to effectively teach "editation. The doors would be open to all, since the oneti"e aristocrat 'ogen was now very "uch a "an of the people, welco"ing rich and poor, "on,s and lay"en, "en and wo"en.4= hen the "editation hall opened in 4<65, 'ogen signaled the occasion by posting a set of rules for behavior re"iniscent of @uai+haiHs laws set down in eighth+century China. * Juic, s,i" of these rules tells "uch about the character of the "aster 'ogen. o mon- shall be admitted to this meditation hall unless he has an earnest desire for the 3ay and a strong determination not to see- fame and profit. . . . 1ll mon-s in this hall should try to live in harmony with one another, 7ust as mil- blends well with water. . . . Kou should not wal- about in the outside world( but if unavoidable, it is

permissible to do so once a month. . . . ?eep the supervisor of this hall informed of your whereabouts at all times. . . . ever spea- ill of others nor find fault with them. . . . ever loiter in the hall. . . . 3ear only robes of plain material. . . . ever enter the hall drun- with wine. . . . ever disturb the training of other mon-s by inviting outsiders, lay or clerical, into the hall. . . . 8J 'ogen "aintained this first pure Zen "onastery for a decade, during which ti"e he co"posed forty "ore sections of his classic !hobogenGo. *nd during this ti"e the tree of Zen too, root in Eapanese soil fir"ly and surely. )ut things could not go s"oothly forever. 'ogenHs powerful friends at court protected hi" as long as they could, but eventually his popularity beca"e too "uch for the &ealous Tendai "on,s on Mt. @iei to bear. To fight their censure he appealed to the e"peror, clai"ing #as had Eisai before hi"$ that Zen was good for Eapan. )ut the other schools i""ediately filed opposing briefs with the e"peror and the court, cul"inating in a &udiciary proceeding with distinguished clerics being convened to hear both sides. *s "ight have been expected they ruled against 'ogen, criticiGing hi" for being obsessed with 0a0en and ignoring the sutras, etc. -t probably was this political setbac, that persuaded hi" to Juit the 3yoto vicinity in 4<=6 and "ove to the provinces, where he could teach in peace.45 @e ca"ped out in various s"all Tendai "onasteries #where he wrote another twenty+nine chapters of the +hobogen0o$ until his final te"ple, called Eihei+&i, or Eternal %eace, was co"pleted in the "ountains of present+day :u,ui prefecture. This site beca"e the center of !oto Zen in Eapan, the principal "onastery of the sect. 'ogen hi"self was approaching elder states"anhood, and in 4<=? he was su""oned to the warrior headJuarters of 3a"a,ura by none other than the "ost powerful "an in Eapan, the warrior @o&o To,iyori. The ruler wanted to learn about Zen, and 'ogen correctly perceived it would be unhealthy to refuse the invitation.

The warriors in 3a"a,ura would "ost li,ely have been fa"iliar with the syncretic 1inGai Zen of Eisai, which focused on the use of the ,oan. :or his own part, 'ogen did not re&ect the ,oan out of hand #he left a collection of three hundred$K rather he &udged it a device intended to create a "o"entary gli"pse of satori, or enlighten"ent, whose real value was "ainly as a "etaphor for the enlighten"ent experienceAan experience he believed could be realiGed in full only through gradual practice. $n the pursuit of the 3ay E&uddhismF the prime essential is sitting :GaGen<. . . . &y reflecting upon various 4public, cases4 :-oan< and dialogues of the patriarchs, one may perhaps get the sense of them but it will only result in one6s being led astray from the way of the &uddha, our founder. Just to pass the time in sitting straight, without any thought of ac/uisition, without any sense of achieving enlightenment@this is the way of the 'ounder. $t is true that our predecessors recommended both the -oan and sitting, but it was the sitting that they particularly insisted upon. There have been some who attained enlightenment through the test of the -oan, but the true cause of their enlightenment was the merit and effectiveness of sitting. Truly the merit lies in the sitting.8B 'ogen spent the winter of 4<=?+=; in 3a"a,ura teaching "editation, and was in turn offered the post of abbot in a new Zen "onastery being built for the warrior capital. )ut 'ogen politely declined, perhaps believing the !alvationist sects and the syncretic Zen of Eisai were still too strong a"ong the sa"urai for his pure "editation to catch hold.4; 0r possibly he sensed his health was beginning to fail and he wanted to retire to his beloved "ountain "onastery, where the politics of 3yoto and 3a"a,ura could not reach. Maybe 'ogenHs "any nights of intense "editation in heat and cold had ta,en their toll, or the long hours of writing and rewriting his "anual of Zen had sapped his strength. -n any case, his health deteriorated rapidly after 3a"a,ura until finally, in 4<>6, all realiGed that the end

was near. @e appointed the faithful head "on, E&o his successor at Eihei+&i, and on the insistence of his disciples was then ta,en to 3yoto for "edical care. @owever, nothing could be done, and on *ugust <; he said farewell, dying in the grand traditionAsitting in 0a0en. -n the long run, 'ogen see"s the one we should ac,nowledge as the true founder of Zen in EapanK pure Zen first had to be introduced before it could grow. )ut at the ti"e of 'ogenHs death it was not at all obvious that !oto Zen, or any Zen for that "atter, would ever survive to beco"e an independent sect in Eapan. 49 %erhaps 'ogen felt this too, for his later writings beca"e increasingly strident in their denunciation of the !alvationist sects and the syncretic 1inGai schools. @e thought of hi"self as above sectarianis", clai"ing that 0a0en was not a sect but rather an expression of pure )uddhis". *nd perhaps it was after all only an accident that the teacher who had taught hi" to "editate happened to be a "e"ber of the TsHao+tung school. *fter 'ogenHs death, his s"all co""unity persevered in the "ountains, isolated and at first preserving his teaching. )ut eventually internal disputes pulled the co""unity apart, and the te"ple fell inactive for a ti"e. :urther"ore, his teaching of intensive "editation was soon diluted by the introduction of rituals fro" the esoteric schools of traditional )uddhis". -n this new for" it began to proselytiGe and spread outward, particularly in provincial areas, where its si"plicity appealed to co""on fol,.<8 -t also welco"ed wo"en, so"ething not necessarily stressed in all the )uddhist sects. *lthough !oto was by this ti"e pretty "uch a thing of the past in China, with the last recogniGed Chinese !oto "aster dying about a century after 'ogen, the school prospered in Eapan, where today it has three followers for every one of 1inGai. ChHan still had 1inGai "asters in China, however, and in the next phase of Zen they would start e"igrating to teach the Eapanese in 3a"a,ura. The result was that !oto beca"e the low+,ey ho"e+grown Zen, while 1inGai beca"e a vehicle for i"porting Chinese culture to the

warrior class. -t is to this dyna"ic period of warrior 1inGai Zen that we "ust now loo, for the next great "asters.

Cha/t"# S"!"nt""n
IKKY0& ZEN ECCENTRIC

The earliest Eapanese "asters brought ChHan fro" China in the hope that its discipline would revitaliGe traditional )uddhis". !ince EisaiHs te"ple was the first to include ChHan practice, he has received credit for founding Eapanese 1inGai Zen. @istory, however, has glorified "atters so"ewhat, for in fact Eisai was little "ore than a Tendai priest who dabbled a bit in ChHan practice and en&oyed a gift for advancing hi"self with the 3a"a,ura warlords. /or was 'ogen inspired to establish the !oto sect in Eapan. @e too was "erely a refor"er who chanced across a Chinese !oto "aster devoted to "editation. -t was the powerful discipline of "editation that 'ogen sought to introduce into Eapan, not a sectarian branch of Zen. 0nly later did 'ogenHs "ove"ent beco"e a proselytiGing Zen sect. These and other thirteenth+

century Eapanese refor"ers i"ported ChHan for the si"ple reason that it was the purest expression of )uddhis" left in China. 'uring the early era Zen focused on 3yoto and 3a"a,ura and was "ainly a refor"ation within the Tendai school. The Eapanese understanding of ChHan was hesitant and inconclusiveAto the point that few Eapanese of the "id+thirteenth century actually realiGed a new for" of )uddhis" was in the "a,ing. 4 0ver the next century and a half, however, a revolution began, as Zen at first gradually and then precipitously beca"e the preoccupation of EapanHs ruling class. The Zen explosion ca"e about via a co"bination of circu"stances. e have seen that the warrior ruler @o&o To,iyori #4<<?+56$ was interested in the school and offered 'ogen a te"ple in 3a"a,ura, an invitation 'ogen refused. @owever, in 4<=5 an e"igre ChHan "aster fro" the Chinese "ainland na"ed (an+chHi #4<4<+?;$ appeared in Eapan uninvited, having heard of Eapanese interest in ChHan. @e went first to 3yoto, where he found Zen still sub&ect to hostile sectarianis", and then to 3a"a,ura, where he "anaged in 4<=9 to "eet To,iyori. The Eapanese strong"an was delighted and proceeded to have the te"ple of another sect converted to a Zen establish"ent, "a,ing (an+chHi abbot. !hortly after, To,iyori co"pleted construction of a !ung+style Zen "onastery in 3a"a,ura, again putting (an+chHi in charge. This Chinese "on,, "erely one of "any in his native China, had beco"e head of the leading Zen te"ple in Eapan. hen word got bac,, a host of enterprising Chinese clerics began pouring into the island nation see,ing their fortune.< Thus began the next phase of early Eapanese Zen, fueled by the invasion of Chinese ChHan "on,s. This "ove"ent occupied the re"ainder of the thirteenth century and was spurred along by unsettled conditions in ChinaAna"ely the i""inent fall of the !outhern !ung 'ynasty to the Mongols and a concurrent power struggle within ChHan itself, which induced "on,s fro" the less powerful establish"ents to see, greener pastures. 6 -n 4<56 a senior ChHan cleric na"ed u+an #449?+4<?5$ arrived in 3a"a,ura and was also "ade an abbot by

To,iyori.= The first "on,, (an+chHi, thereupon "oved to 3yoto and began proselytiGing in the old capital. u+an subseJuently certified To,iyori with a seal of enlighten"ent, "a,ing the "ilitary strong"an of Eapan an ac,nowledged ChHan "aster. To,iyoriHs interest in Zen did not go unnoticed by the warriors around hi", and his advocacy, co"bined with the influx of Chinese "on,s appearing to teach, initiated the Zen bandwagon in 3a"a,ura. To,iyori died in 4<56, and his young son To,i"une #4<>4A;=$, who ca"e to power five years later, initially showed no interest in Zen practice. )ut he was still in his teens in 4<5; when there appeared in Eapan envoys fro" 3ublai 3han de"anding tribute. The Mongols were at that "o"ent co"pleting their sac, of China, and Eapan see"ed the next step. 2ndeterred, the Eapanese answered all Mongol de"ands with haughty insults, with the not+unexpected result that in 4<?= 3ublai launched an invasion fleet. *lthough his ships foundered in a fortuitous strea, of bad weather, the Eapanese ,new that there would be "ore. -t was then that To,i"une began strengthening his discipline through Zen "editation and toughening his instincts with ,oans. @e studied under a newly arrived Chinese "aster whose li"ited Eapanese necessitated their co""unicating through a translator. # hen the enlightened Chinese found cause to stri,e his all+powerful student, he prudently pu""eled the interpreter instead.$> The sa"urai also began to ta,e an interest in Zen, which naturally appealed to the warrior "entality because of its e"phasis on discipline, on experience over education, and on a rough+and+tu"ble practice including debates with a "aster and blows for the loserAall congenial to "en of si"ple, unschooled tastes. :or their own part, the perceptive Chinese "issionaries, ha"pered by the language barrier, rendered Zen as si"plistic as possible to help the faith co"pete with the !alvationist sects a"ong the often illiterate warriors. -n 4<;4 the Mongols launched another invasion force, this ti"e 488,888 "en strong, but they were held off several wee,s by the steel+nerved sa"urai until a

typhoon #later na"ed the 3a"i,aGe or I'ivine indI$ providentially san, the fleet. The extent to which Zen training aided this victory can be debated, but the courage of To,i"une and his soldiers undoubtedly benefited fro" its rigorous discipline. The Eapanese ruler hi"self gave Zen heavy credit and i""ediately began building a co""e"orative Zen "onastery in 3a"a,ura. )y the ti"e of To,i"uniHs pre"ature death in 4<;=, 1inGai Zen had been effectively established as the faith of the 3a"a,ura rulers. @is successor continued the develop"ent of Zen establish"ents, supported by new Chinese "asters who also began teaching Chinese culture #calligraphy, literature, in, painting, philosophy$ to the 3a"a,ura warriors along with their Zen. !ince the faith was definitely beginning to boo", the govern"ent prudently published a list of restrictions for Zen "onasteries, including an abolition of ar"s #a traditional proble" with the other sects$ and a li"it on the nu"ber of pretty boys #novices$ that could be Juartered in a co"pound to te"pt the "on,s. The "axi"u" nu"ber of "on,s in each "onastery also was prescribed, and severe rules were established governing discipline. 0ut of this era in the late thirteenth century evolved an organiGation of Zen te"ples in 3yoto and 3a"a,ura based on the !ung Chinese "odel of five "ain "onasteries #called the Ifive "ountainsI or go0an$ and a networ, of ten officially recogniGed subsidiary te"ples. :urther"ore, Chinese culture beca"e so fashionable in 3a"a,ura that collections of !ung art began appearing a"ong the illiterate provincial warriorsAan early harbinger of the Eapanese evolution of Zen fro" asceticis" to aesthetics.5 The creation of the go0an syste" at the end of the thirteenth century gave Zen a for"al role in the religious structure of Eapan. Zen was now fashionable and had powerful friends, a perfect co"bination to foster growth and influence. 0n the so"eti"es pointed urging of the govern"ent, te"ples fro" other sects were converted to Zen establish"ents by local authorities throughout Eapan.? The court and aristocracy in 3yoto also began ta,ing an interest in pure,

!ung+style 1inGai. Te"ples were built in 3yoto #or converted fro" other sects$, and even the cloistered e"perors began to "editate #perhaps searching less for enlighten"ent than for the ru"ored occult powers$. hen the 3a"a,ura regi"e collapsed in the "id+ fourteenth century and warriors of the newly ascendent *shi,aga clan returned the seat of govern"ent to 3yoto, the old capital was already well acJuainted with ZenHs political i"portance. @owever, although 1inGai Zen had "ade "uch visible headway in EapanAthe ruling classes increasingly "editated on ,oans, and Chinese "on,s operated new !ung+style "onasteriesAthe depth of understanding see"s disappointingly superficial overall. The go0an syste" soon turned so political, as "onasteries co"peted for official favor, that before long establish"ent Zen was al"ost devoid of spiritual content. -n "any ways, Eapanese Zen beca"e decadent al"ost fro" the start. The i""ense prestige of i"ported Chinese art and ideas, together with the powerful role of the Zen clerics as virtually the only group sufficiently educated to oversee relations with the continent, "eant that early on, ZenHs cultural role beca"e as telling as its spiritual place. %erhaps the condition of Zen is best illustrated by noting that the "ost fa"ous priest of the era, Muso !ose,i #4<?>+46>4$, was actually a powerful political figure. This Zen prelate, who never visited China, ca"e to pro"inence when he served first an ill+fated e"perorA subseJuently deposedAand later the *shi,aga warrior who deposed hi". Muso was instru"ental in the Eapanese govern"entHs establish"ent of regular trade with the "ainland. @e was also responsible for a revision of the go0an ad"inistrative syste", establishing #in 466;$ official Zen te"ples in all sixty+six provinces of Eapan and spreading the power base of the faith. *lthough Muso is today honored as an i"portant Eapanese "aster, he actually preferred a IsyncreticI Zen inter"ingled with esoteric rites and apparently understood very little of real Zen. * prototype for "any Zen leaders to co"e, he was a scholar, aesthetician, and architect of so"e of the great cultural "onu"ents in 3yoto, personally designing

several of the capitalHs finest te"ples and landscape gardens. Thus by the "id+fourteenth century Zen had beco"e hardly "ore than an u"brella for the i"port of Chinese technology, art, and philosophy.; The "on,s were, by MusoHs own ad"ission, "ore often than not Ishaven+headed lay"enI who ca"e to Zen to learn painting and to write a stilted for" of Chinese verse as part of a go0an literary "ove"ent. The overall situation has been well su""ariGed by %hilip 7a"pols,yD IThe "on,s in te"ples were all poets and literary figures.. . . NTOhe use of ,oans, particularly those derived fro" the N&lue %liff #ecordO, beca"e a literary and educational device rather than a "ethod for the practice of Zen.I9 @e further notes that I. . . with the go0an syste" froGen in a bureaucratic "old, priests with ad"inistrative talents gained in ascendency. -n the headJuarters te"ples "en interested in literary pursuits withdrew co"pletely fro" te"ple affairs and devoted the"selves exclusively to literature. To be sure, priests gave lectures and continued to write co""entaries. )ut the go0an priests see"ed to concern the"selves "ore and "ore with trivialities. )y the "id+ fifteenth century Zen teaching had virtually disappeared in the te"ples, and the priests devoted the"selves "ainly to cere"onial and ad"inistrative duties.I48 *uthentic Zen practice had beco"e al"ost co"pletely e"asculated, overshadowed by the rise of a Zen+inspired cultural "ove"ent far outstripping Chinese prototypes. The political convolutions of fourteenth+century Eapan, as well as the organiGational shenanigans of the official 1inGai Zen sect, need not detain us further.44 e need only note that the go0an syste", which so effectively gave Zen an official presence throughout Eapan, also "eant that the institution present was Zen in na"e only. !ignificantly, however, a few "a&or "onasteries elected not to participate in the official syste". 0ne of the "ost i"portant was the 'aito,u+&i in 3yoto, which "anaged, by not beco"ing part of the establish"ent, to "aintain so"e authenticity in its practice. *nd out of the 'aito,u+&i tradition there ca"e fro" ti"e to ti"e a few Zen "on,s

who still understood what Zen was supposed to be about, who understood it was "ore than painting, gardens, poetry, and power. %erhaps the "ost celebrated of these iconoclastic throwbac,s to authentic Zen was the legendary -,,yu !o&un #469=+4=;4$. The "aster -,,yu, a breath of fresh air in the stifling, hypocritical world of institutionaliGed Zen, see"s al"ost a reincarnation of the early ChHan "asters of the THang. 4< @owever, his penchant for drin,ing and wo"aniGing is "ore re"iniscent of the Taoists than the )uddhists. @istorical infor"ation on -,,yu and his writings is spread a"ong various docu"ents of uneven reliability. The "a&or source is a pious chronicle allegedly co"piled by his disciple )o,usai fro" firsthand infor"ation. hereas this docu"ent has the virtue of being conte"poraneous with his life, it has the drawbac, of being abbreviated and selectively edited to o"it unflattering facts. Then there is a collection of tales fro" the To,ugawa era #454>+4;5;$ which are heavily e"bellished when not totally apocryphal. The picaresJue character created in the To,ugawa Tales led one co""entator to li,en -,,yu to the fabulous !ufi philosopher+vagabond /asrudin, who also beca"e a vehicle to trans"it fol, wisdo". 46 These tales see" to have developed around -,,yu si"ply because his devil+"ay+care attitude, co"bined with his antischolarly pose, "ade hi" a perfect peg on which to hang all sorts of didactic #not to "ention 1abelaisian$ anecdotes. :inally, there is a vast body of his own poetry and prose, as well as a collection of calligraphy now widely ad"ired for its spontaneity and power. )o,usaiHs chronicle identifies -,,yuHs "other as a lady+in+waiting at the i"perial palace of E"peror .o,o"atsu, who chose fro" ti"e to ti"e to Ishow her favor.I hen she was discovered to be with child, the e"press had her sent away, charging that she was sy"pathetic to a co"peting political faction. ConseJuently, the "aster -,,yu was born in the house of a co""oner on /ew 7earHs 'ay of the year 469=, the natural son of an e"peror and a daughter of the warrior class.

*t age five his "other "ade hi" acolyte in a Zen "onastery, a "ove so"e suggest was for his physical safety, lest the shogun decide to do away with this e"perorHs son as a potential threat. @is schooling in this go0an era was aristocratic and classical, founded on Chinese literature and the )uddhist sutras. )y age eleven he was studying the Ci"ala,irti !utra and by thirteen he was intensively reading and writing Chinese poetry. 0ne of his wor,s, written at age fifteen and entitled I!pring :inery,I de"onstrates a delicate sensibility re"iniscent of Eohn 3eatsD How many passions cling to this wanderer6s sleevesC .ultitudes of falling blossoms mar- the passion of Heaven and Earth. 1 perfumed bree0e across my pillow( 1m $ asleep or awa-eC Here and now melt into an indistinct +pring dream. 8H The poet here has returned fro" a wal, only to find the perfu"e of flowers clinging to his clothes, confusing his sense of reality and place. -t recalls 3eatsH nightingale AI:led is that "usicDA'o wa,e or sleepLI -n this early poe" we catch a gli"pse of the sensualist -,,yu would one day beco"e. *t age eighteen he beca"e a novice to a reclusive "on, of the Myoshin+&i branch of Zen in 3yotoK but when his "entor died two years later he wandered for a ti"e disconsolate and suicide+prone. Then at twenty+two he decided to try for an interview with 3aso !oton #46><+ 4=<;$, the 'aito,u+&i+trained "aster ,nown to be the sternest teacher in Eapan. *s was traditional, the "aster at first shut hi" out and refused an audience. -,,yu resolved to wait outside until death, Ita,ing the dew for his roof and the grasses for his bed.I @e slept at night under an e"pty boat and stood all day in front of 3asoHs retreat. *fter 3aso repeatedly failed to discourage hi", even once dousing hi" with water, the "aster relented and invited -,,yu in for an interview. They were "ade for each other and for "any years thereafter -,,yu and 3aso Ipursued deep "atters tirelessly.I

-,,yu ca"e to revere 3aso, probably one of the few authentic "asters of the age, and he stayed to serve this teacher for al"ost a decade, even though life with 3aso was arduous. !ince they lived near a "a&or la,e, -,,yu would each night "editate in a borrowed fisher"anHs boat until dawn. hen his purse Iwent flat,I he would &ourney to the capital and sell incense or cheap clothing to poor housewivesAafterwards returning to the "onastery in the sa"e straw sandals, hat, and cloa,.4> *fter three years 3aso gave hi" the Zen na"e -,,yu, a recognition of his progress. -,,yuHs enlighten"ent occurred in his twenty+sixth year when, while "editating in the boat, he was startled by the cry of a crow. @e rushed bac, at dawn and reported this to his "aster. 3aso responded, I7ou have reached the stage of an arhat None who has overco"e egoO, but not that of a Master, novice.I -,,yu replied, IThen -H" perfectly happy as an arhat and donHt need to be a Master.I 3aso responded, I ell, then, you really are a Master after all.I45 *lthough it was custo"ary for "on,s to receive a certificate fro" their "aster attesting to their enlighten"ent, the "atter of -,,yuHs certificate is proble"atical. @e hi"self refused to give out certificates, and he is depicted in )o,usaiHs chronicle as periodically ta,ing out his own and reJuesting it be destroyed by his disciplesAafter which it see"ed to "iraculously appear again several years later. The Juantity of invention and accretion attached to -,,yuHs disappearing certificate has fostered speculation that he never, in fact, actually received a seal. -n any case, he probably would have destroyed his own seal of enlighten"ent in later years. @is life grew progressively "ore unconventional with ti"e, &ust the opposite of "ost. )eginning as a classicist in the finest 3yoto tradition, he had gone on to beco"e a spiritual recluse in the "ountains under a harsh "editation "aster. *fter all this training he then too, the road,

beco"ing a wandering "on, in the traditional THang "ode. ell, al"ost in the traditional "ode. @e see"ed to wander into brothels and wine shops al"ost as often as into Zen te"ples. @e consorted with high and low, "erchant and co""oner, "ale and fe"ale. 0ur record of these explorations, both geographic and social, is in his writings, particularly his poetry. @e also harbored a vendetta against the co"placency and corruption of Eapanese Zen and its "asters, particularly the new abbot of 'aito,u+&i, an older "an na"ed 7oso who had once been a fellow disciple of his beloved 3aso. hen -,,yu was forty+six he was invited by 7oso to head a subte"ple in the 'aito,u+&i co"pound. @e accepted, "uch to the delight of his ad"irers, who began bringing the te"ple donations in gratitude. @owever, after only ten days -,,yu concluded that 'aito,u+&i too had beco"e "ore concerned with cere"ony than with the preservation of Zen, and he wrote a fa"ous protest poe" as a parting gestureAclai"ing he could find "ore of Zen in the "eat, drin,, and sex traditionally forbidden )uddhists. 'or ten days in this temple my mind6s been in turmoil, .y feet are entangled in endless red tape. $f some day you get around to loo-ing for me, Try the fish,shop, the wine parlor, or the brothel.8B -,,yuHs attac, on the co""ercialiGation of Zen was not without cause. The scholar Ean Covell observes that in -,,yuHs ti"e, I1inGai Zen had sun, to a low point and enlighten"ent was Hsold,H particularly by those te"ples associated with the !hogunate. Zen te"ples also "ade "oney in sa,e+brewing and through usury. -n the "id+ fifteenth century one Zen te"ple, !ho,o,u+&i, furnished all the advisers to the !hogunateHs govern"ent and received "ost of the bribes. The i"perial+sanctioned te"ple of 'aito,u+&i was only on the fringe of this corruption, but -,,yu felt he could not criticiGe it enough.I4;

-ronically, -,,yu also attac,ed the writing of IZenI poetryAin his poe"s. @e was really attac,ing the literary go0an "ove"ent, the preoccupation of "on,s who forsoo, Zen to concentrate on producing forgettable verse in for"al Chinese. They put their poetry before, indeed in place of, Zen practice. -,,yu used his poetry #later collected as the ICraGy Cloud %oe"sI or ?youn,shu$ as a "eans of expressing his enlighten"ent, as well as his criticis" of the establish"ent. -t also, as often as not, celebrated sensual over spiritual pleasures. hereas the THang "asters created illogic and struggled with intuitive trans"ission, -,,yu cheerfully gave in to the existential life of the senses. -n the introduction to one poe" he told a parable explaining his priorities. Ince upon a time there was an old woman who supported a retired hermit for some twenty years. 'or a long time, she sent a young girl to serve his food. Ine day she told the girl to throw her arms around the monand as- him how he felt. 3hen the girl did so, the montold her, 4$ am li-e a withered tree propped up against a cold boulder after three winters without warmth.4 The girl went bac- to the old woman and made her report. 4Twenty years wasted feeding a phony laymanL4 exclaimed the woman. Then she ran him off and burnt his hut to the ground. The grandmotherly old woman tried to give that rascal a ladder. To provide the pure mon- with a nice bride. $f tonight $ were to be made such a proposition, The withered willow would put forth new spring growth. 85 * particularly lyrical exploration of sensuality is found in a poe" entitled I* o"anHs N)odyO has the :ragrance of /arcissus,I which celebrates the essence of sexuality. Ine should ga0e long at Ethe fairyF hill then ascend it. .idnight on the Jade bed amid E1utumnF dreams 1 flower opening beneath the thrust of the plum branch.

#oc-ing gently between the fairy6s thighs. ;9 -,,yuHs a"ours see" to have produced a nu"ber of natural progeny. -n fact, there is the legend that one of -,,yuHs "ost devoted followers, a "on, na"ed Eotei, was in fact his illegiti"ate son. *ccording to the To,ugawa Tales, there was a once+rich fan "a,er in !a,ai whose business had declined to the point that he had to sell his shop and stand on the streetcorner haw,ing fans. Then one day -,,yu ca"e by carrying so"e fans decorated with his own fa"ous calligraphy and as,ed the "an to ta,e the" on co""ission. /aturally they all sold i""ediately and, by subseJuent "erchandising of -,,yuHs wor,s, the "anHs business eventually was restored. -n gratitude he granted -,,yu his daughter, fro" which union sprang -,,yuHs natural son, Eotei. This story is Juestionable but it does illustrate the reputation -,,yu en&oyed, both as artist and lover. :urther"ore, he wrote touching and suspiciously fatherly poe"s to a little girl na"ed !ho,o. 3atching this four,year,old girl sing and dance, $ feel the pull of ties that are hard to dismiss, 'orgetting my duties $ slip into freedom. .aster 1bbot, whose Zen is thisL<4 hen -,,yu was in his seventies, during the disastrous civil conflict ,nown as the 0nin war, he had a love affair with a forty+year+old te"ple attendant na"ed Mori. 0n languid afternoons she would play the Eapanese -oto or harp and he the wistful+sounding sha-uhachi, a long ba"boo flute so"eti"es carried by "on,s as a weapon. This late+life love affair occasioned a nu"ber of erotic poe"s, including one that clai"s her restoration of his virility #called by the Chinese euphe"is" I&ade stal,I$ cheered his disciples. How is my hand li-e .ori6s handC +elf confidence is the vassal, 'reedom the master. 3hen $ am ill she cures the 7ade stal-

1nd brings 7oy bac- to my followers.;; -,,yu also left a nu"ber of prose fables and ser"ons that portray a "ore sober personality than does his often iconoclastic verse. 0ne classic wor,, written in 4=>? and called I!,eletons,I has beco"e a Zen classic. -n the section given below he explores the )uddhist idea of the Coid and nothingnessD Let me tell you something. Human birth is analogous to stri-ing up a fire@the father is flint, the mother is stone and the child is the spar-. Ince the spar- touches a lamp wic- it continues to exist through the 4secondary support4 of the fuel until that is exhausted. Then it flic-ers out. The lovema-ing of the parents is the e/uivalent of stri-ing the spar-. +ince the parents too have 4no beginning,4 in the end they, too, will flic-er out. Everything grows out of empty space from which all forms derive. $f one lets go the forms then he reaches what is called the 4original ground.4 &ut since all sentient beings come from nothingness we can use even the term 4original ground4 only as a temporary tag.;G -t see"s unfortunate that -,,yuHs prose is not better ,nown today.<= -n fact the best+,nown accounts of -,,yu are the apocryphal tales that attached to hi" during the To,ugawa era. * typical episode is the following, entitled I-,,yu 'oes Magic,I in which the picaresJue Zen+"an uses his natural resources to thwart the bluster of a haughty priest fro" one of the scholarly aristocratic sects A&ust the thing guaranteed to please the co""on "an. 0nce -,,yu was ta,ing the 7odo no 3awase ferry on his way to !a,ai. There was a yamabushi N"ountain ascetic of Esoteric )uddhis"O on board who began to Juestion hi". 4Hey, Kour #everence, what sect are youC4 4$ belong to the Zen sect,4 replied $--yu. 4$ don6t suppose your sect has miracles the way our sect doesC4

4 o, actually we have lots of miracles. &ut if it6s miracles, why don6t you show the sort of miracles that your people haveC4 43ell,4 said the ya"abushi, 4&y virtue of my magic powers $ can pray up 'udo Ea fierce guardian deity of &uddhismF before your very eyes and ma-e him stand right there on the prow of the boat.4 1nd, with the beads of his rosary the man began to invo-e first ?ongo and then +eita-a EEsoteric &uddhist deitiesF. 1t this, all the passengers began to loo- bacand forth wondering what was going to happen. Then, 7ust as he had said, there on the prow of the boat, the form of 'udo appeared surrounded by a halo of dancing flames. Then the ya"abushi made a ferocious face and told him, 4Kou6d all better offer him a prayer.4 This made the other passengers very uneasy@all that is but $--yu, who was completely unruffled. 43ell,4 spat out the ya"abushi, 4How about you, Zen mon-C How are you going to deal with my miracleC4 4&y producing a miracle of my own. 'rom my very body $ will cause water to issue forth and extinguish the flames of your 'udo. Kou6d better start your prayers up again.4 1nd $--yu began to pee mightily all over the flames until at last the ya"abushiHs magic was counteracted and the entire image melted away. Thereupon the passengers on the boat all bowed to $--yu for his wonderful display.;J -ronically, the real+life -,,yu spent his twilight years restoring 'aito,u+&i after its destruction #along with the rest of 3yoto$ fro" the ten+year 0nin war #4=5?+??$, by ta,ing over the te"ple and using his contacts in the "erchant co""unity to raise funds. @e had over a hundred disciples at this ti"e, a popularity that saddened hi" since earlier #and, he thought, "ore deserving$ "asters had had "any fewer followers. Thus in the last decade of his life he finally exchanged his straw sandals and reed hat for the robes of a prestigious abbot over a "a&or "onastery. @is own a"bivalence on this he confessed in a poe"D

'ifty years a rustic wanderer, ow mortified in purple robes.;= -,,yuHs contributions to Zen culture are also significant. @e helped inspire the secular Zen ritual ,nown today as the tea cere"ony, by encouraging the "an today re"e"bered as its founder. @e also supported one of the best+,nown dra"atists of the /o theater and was hi"self a "aster calligrapher, an art closely a,in to painting in the :ar East and regarded by "any as even "ore de"anding.<? @e even created a soybean dish #natto$ now a staple of Zen "onastic cuisine. )ut as his biographer Ea"es !anford has pointed out, the real life of this truly great Eapanese "aster has all but eluded us. @is poetry is in classical Chinese and virtually un,nownK his prose lies largely unreadK and the To,ugawa legend of -,,yu is al"ost entirely apocryphal. This last travesty has extended even to fictionaliGing his role as a child at the "onasteryK there is now a popular television cartoon series in Eapan about the irrepressible acolyte -,,yu. !anford speculates that his attraction for conte"porary Eapanese is that, in the legend of -,,yu, Iit is possible for the "odern Eapanese "ind to re+discover HnativeH exa"ples of, and &ustification for, individualis"A a ter" and concept whose full assi"ilation into "odern Eapanese culture has for over fifty years been bloc,ed by a legacy of residual /eo+Confucian nor"s left over fro" NEapanHs repressive pastO.I<; -t does see" true that the Zen+"an -,,yu represents a safety valve in Eapanese society, both then and now. @e brought the i"pulsive candor of Zen to the world of affairs, de"onstrating by exa"ple that after enlighten"ent it is necessary to return to a world where "ountains are again "ountains, rivers again rivers. *nd by re&ecting official IZen,I -,,yu "ay well have been the "ost Zenli,e of all Eapanese "asters.

Cha/t"# Ei.ht""n
HAK0IN& +APANESE MASTER OF THE KOAN

The closing era of the Eapanese "iddle ages, in the decades following -,,yuHs death, is now ,nown as the Century of the Country at ar. Eapan beca"e a land of Juarreling fiefdo"s, and Zen, too, drifted for want of leadership and inspiration. The eventual reunification of the country late in the sixteenth century was led by a brutal "ilitary strategist na"ed 0da /obunaga #4>6=+ ;<$. *s part of his ta,eover he obliterated the "ilitaristic )uddhist co"plex on Mt. @iei by one day si"ply slaughtering all its "on,s and burning the establish"ent to the ground, thereby ending per"anently the real influence of )uddhis" in Eapanese politics. /obunaga was succeeded by an even "ore acco"plished "ilitarist, Toyoto"i @ideyoshi #4>65+9;$, who brought to the shogunate a flair for diplo"acy and cunning co"pro"ise. @ideyoshi solidified Eapan only to have yet another warlord, To,ugawa -eyasu #4>=<+4545$, "aneuver its rule into the hands of his own fa"ilyAinaugurating the two and a half centuries of totalitarian isolationis" ,nown today as the To,ugawa era #454>+4;5;$. @e also "oved the capital to the city whose "odern na"e is To,yo, at last leaving historic 3yoto in repose. 2nder the To,ugawa a new "iddle class of urban "erchants and crafts"en arose, and with it ca"e a version of Zen for co""on people, with "asters who could touch the concerns of the wor,ing class. *"ong these beloved "asters "ust certainly be re"e"bered the "on, Ta,uan #4>?6+45=>$ fro" -,,yuHs rebuilt 'aito,u+&i te"ple, who introduced Zen teachings to this new audience, and the wandering teacher )an,ei #45<<+ 96$, whose ,indly, "ystical interpretation of oneness through 0a0en earned hi" wide fa"e. 0verall, however, 1inGai Zen re"ained spiritually dor"ant until the "iddle of the To,ugawa era, when there appeared one of the "ost truly inspired Zen teachers of all ti"e. The "aster @a,uin #45;5+4?59$ was born as !ugiya"a -wa&iro in @ara, a s"all village at the base of Mt. :u&i. @e was the youngest of five children in a fa"ily

of "odest "eans, an origin that "ay have helped hi" understand the concerns of the poor. *s he tells his story, he was seven or eight when his "other too, hi" to hear a priest fro" the !alvationist /ichiren sect preach on the tor"enting )uddhist hells. @e was terrified and secretly began day and night reciting the (otus !utra #which clai"s to protect fro" the perils of fire or water those who chant the proper incantation$. The fear of hell, with its boiling caldrons, so per"eated his young "ind that he even beca"e leary of the traditional Eapanese bath, then often ta,en in a round tub fired fro" the botto" with wood. @e clai"ed this fear of the bath finally convinced hi" to beco"e a "on,. Ine day when $ was ta-ing a bath with my mother, she as-ed that the water be made hotter and had the maid add wood to the fire. Mradually my s-in began to pric-le with the heat and the iron bath,cauldron began to rumble. +uddenly $ recalled the descriptions of the hells that $ had heard and $ let out a cry of terror that resounded through the neighborhood. 'rom this time on $ determined to myself that $ would leave home to become a mon-. To this my parents would not consent, yet $ went constantly to the temple to recite the sutras. . . .8 )ut after several years of study and chanting, he was dis"ayed to find he still felt pain #when he tested hi"self one day with a hot po,er$. @e resolved to intensify his devotion and at age fifteen he entered a local Zen te"ple #against his parentsH wishes$ and was ordained as a "on,. @a,uin pursued his study of the (otus !utra, the pri"ary scripture venerated at this te"ple #an illustration of how far Eapanese Zen had traveled fro" its tradition of "editation and ,oans$, but after a year he concluded it was &ust another boo,, no different fro" the Confucian classics. @e therefore began to drift fro" te"ple to te"ple until, at nineteen, he experienced another spiritual crisis. -n a boo, of religious biographies he ca"e across the story of the Chinese "on, 7en+tHou #;<;+;?$, who had been attac,ed and "urdered by bandits,

causing hi" to e"it screa"s heard a full three "iles away. @a,uin was plunged into depression. $ wondered why such an enlightened mon- was unable to escape the swords of thieves. $f such a thing could happen to a man who was li-e a unicorn or phoenix among mon-s, a dragon in the sea of &uddhism, how was $ to escape the staves of the demons of hell after $ diedC 3hat use was there in studying ZenL< @e thereupon too, up his staff and set out as an itinerant see,er, only to "eet disappoint"ent after disappoint"entAuntil finally he decided to put his future in the hands of chance. 0ne day as the abbot of a te"ple was airing its library outside, @a,uin decided to select a boo, at rando" and let it decide his fate. @e pic,ed a volu"e of biographies of Chinese ChHan worthies and opening it read of an eleventh+century (in+chi "aster who ,ept awa,e in "editation by boring into his own thigh with a wood drill. The story galvaniGed @a,uin, and he vowed to pursue Zen training until enlighten"ent was his. @a,uin clai"s that at age twenty+four he had his first really "oving satori experience. @e was in a te"ple in /iigata prefecture, "editating on the IMuI ,oan #PD I'oes a dog have )uddha+natureL *D IMuQI$, and so intense was his concentration that he even forgot sleeping and eating. Then one day . . . +uddenly a great doubt manifested itself before me. $t was as though $ were fro0en solid in the midst of an ice sheet extending tens of thousands of miles. 1 purity filled my breast and $ could neither go forward nor retreat. To all intents and purposes $ was out of my mind and the Mu alone remained. 1lthough $ sat in the Lecture Hall and listened to the .aster6s lecture, it was as though $ were hearing a discussion from a distance outside the hall. 1t times it felt as though $ were floating through the air. This state lasted for several days. Then $ chanced to hear the sound of the temple bell and $ was suddenly

transformed. $t was as if a sheet of ice had been smashed or a 7ade tower had fallen with a crash. G Elated with his transfor"ation, he i""ediately tre,,ed bac, to an earlier "aster and presented a verse for approval. The "aster, however, was not i"pressed. The .aster, holding my verse up in his left hand, said to me> 4This verse is what you have learned from study. ow show me what your intuition has to say,4 and he held out his right hand. $ replied> 4$f there were something intuitive that $ could show you, $6d vomit it out,4 and $ made a gagging sound. The .aster said> 4How do you understand %hao, chou6s MuC4 $ replied> 43hat sort of place does Mu have that one can attach arms and legs to itC4 The .aster twisted my nose with his fingers and said> 4Here6s some place to attach arms and legs.4 $ was nonplussed and the .aster gave a hearty laugh. H *gain and again he tried to extract a seal fro" this "aster, but always in vain. 0ne of these fruitless exchanges even left hi" lying in a "ud puddle. Ine evening the .aster sat cooling himself on the veranda. 1gain $ brought him a verse $ had written. 4Delusions and fancies,4 the .aster said. $ shouted his words bac- at him in a loud voice, whereupon the .aster sei0ed me and rained twenty or thirty blows with his fists on me, and then pushed me off the veranda. This was on the fourth day of the fifth month after a long spell of rain. $ lay stretched out in the mud as though dead, scarcely breathing and almost unconscious. $ could not move( meanwhile the .aster sat on the veranda roaring with laughter.J @e finally despaired of receiving the seal of enlighten"ent fro" this teacher, although he did have further spiritual experiences under the "anHs rigorous

guidanceAexperiences @a,uin interpreted, perhaps rightly, as satori. :eeling wanderlust he again too, to the road, everywhere experiencing increasingly deep satori. -n southern -se he was enlightened when suddenly swa"ped in a downpour. /ear 0sa,a he was further enlightened one evening in a te"ple "on,sH hall by the sound of falling snow. -n .ifu prefecture he had an even deeper experience during wal,ing "editation in a "on,sH hall. @e also had a "ental and physical collapse about this ti"e, no doubt resulting fro" the strain of his intensive asceticis". *fter his fatherHs death in 4?45, he studied in 3yoto for a ti"e, but the next year he returned to the !hoin+&i te"ple near his original ho"e at @ara. eary of life at thirty+two, he still was undecided about his future. )ac, at the te"ple where he had started, he no longer had any idea of what to do. Then a revelation appearedD Ine night in a dream my mother came and presented me with a purple robe made of sil-. 3hen $ lifted it, both sleeves seemed very heavy, and on examining them $ found an old mirror, five or six inches in diameter, in each sleeve. The reflection from the mirror in the right sleeve penetrated to my heart and vital organs. .y own mind, mountains and rivers, the great earth seemed serene and bottomless. . . . 1fter this, when $ loo-ed at all things, it was as though $ were seeing my own face. 'or the first time $ understood the meaning of the saying, 4The Eenlightened spiritF sees the &uddha,nature within his eye.I5 ith this drea" he finally achieved full satori. @e resolved that the old ra"shac,le te"ple would be his final ho"e. @e had found enlighten"ent there and there he would stay, his own "aster at last. *nd sure enough, @a,uin never "oved again. -nstead, the people of EapanAhigh and lowAca"e to see hi". @is si"ple country te"ple beca"e a "agnet for "on,s and lay"en see,ing real Zen. )y force of his own character, and "ost certainly without his conscious intention, he gradually beca"e the leading religious figure in Eapan. )y

the end of his life he had brought the ,oan practice bac, to a central place in Zen and had effectively created "odern 1inGai. @a,uin was the legiti"ate heir of the Chinese ,oan "aster Ta+hui, and the first teacher since to actually expand the philosophical di"ensions of Zen. -t will be recalled that Ta+hui advocated I-ntrospecting+the+3oanI "editation, called -6an,hua ChHan in Chinese and 3anna Zen in Eapanese, which he put forth in opposition to the I!ilent -llu"inationI "editation of the !oto school. @a,uin hi"self clai"ed that he first tried the Juietistic approach of tranJuil "editation #albeit on a ,oan$, but he was unable to clear his "ind of all distractions. 3hen $ was young the content of my -oan meditation was poor. $ was convinced that absolute tran/uility of the source of the mind was the &uddha 3ay. Thus $ despised activity and was fond of /uietude. $ would always seeout some dar- and gloomy place and engage in dead sitting. Trivial and mundane matters pressed against my chest and a fire mounted in my heart. $ was unable to enter wholeheartedly into the active practice of Zen.B Thus @a,uin concluded that "erely following Ta+huiHs in&unction to "editate on a ,oan was not the entire answer. @e then decided the only way that Zen could be lin,ed "eaningfully to daily life was if a practitioner could actually "editate while going about daily affairs. This idea was rather radical, although it probably would not have unduly disturbed the THang "asters. @a,uin was again extending both the definition of enlighten"ent, as it intersects with the real world, and the "eans of its realiGation. @e was saying to "editate on a ,oan in such a "anner that you can continue your daily life but be oblivious to its distractions. @e invo,ed the Chinese "asters to support the idea. The Zen .aster Ta,hui has said that meditation in the midst of activity is immeasurably superior to the /uietistic approach. . . . 3hat is most worthy of respect is a pure -oan meditation that neither -nows nor is

conscious of the two aspects, the /uiet and the active. This is why it has been said that the true practicing monwal-s but does not -now he is wal-ing, sits but does not -now he is sitting.2 @a,uin redefined "editation to include a physically active aspect as well as "erely a Juiet, sitting aspect. *nd under this new definition anyone, even lay"en, could "editate at any ti"e, in any place. @a,uin did not exclude sitting in "editationK he tried to broaden the definition to include the ,ind of thing he believed would really produce "eaningful enlighten"ent. -n addition, "editation in action ta,es away the excuse of "ost lay"en for not practicing introspectionAand what is "ore, it brings respect fro" others. Do not say that worldly affairs and pressures of business leave you no time to study Zen under a .aster, and that the confusions of daily life ma-e it difficult for you to continue your meditation. Everyone must reali0e that for the true practicing mon- there are no worldly cares or worries. +upposing a man accidentally drops two or three gold coins in a crowded street swarming with people. Does he forget about the money because all eyes are upon himC ... 1 person who concentrates solely on meditation amid the press and worries of everyday life will be li-e the man who has dropped the gold coins and devotes himself to see-ing them. 3ho will not re7oice in such a personL9 @a,uin realiGed that "editating in the "iddle of distractions was initially "ore difficultAwith fewer short+ ter" rewardsAthan sitting Juietly alone. @owever, if you want to "a,e the heightened awareness of Zen a part of your life, then you "ust "editate in daily life fro" the very first. Eust as you cannot learn to swi" in the ocean by sitting in a tub, you cannot relate your Zen to the worldHs pressures, stress, and tensions if it is forever sheltered in silent, lonely isolation. -f this is difficult at first, persevere and loo, toward the ulti"ate rewards.

're/uently you may feel that you are getting nowhere with practice in the midst of activity, whereas the /uietistic approach brings unexpected results. Ket rest assured that those who use the /uietistic approach can never hope to enter into meditation in the midst of activity. +hould by chance a person who uses this approach enter into the dusts and confusions of the world of activity, even the power of ordinary understanding which he had seemingly attained will be entirely lost. Drained of all vitality, he will be inferior to any mediocre, talentless person. The most trivial matters will upset him, an inordinate cowardice will afflict his mind, and he will fre/uently behave in a mean and base manner. 3hat can you call accomplished about a man li-e thisL48 Puietistic "editation is easier, naturally, but a person who practices it will turn out to be &ust as insecure and petty as so"eone not enlightened at all. hat is eJually i"portant, Ileisure+ti"eI "editation that separates our spiritual life fro" our activities is "erely hiding fro" reality. 7ou cannot co"e ho"e fro" the &ob and suddenly turn on a "editation experience. @e cites the case of so"eone who excuses hi"self to "editate, but who is then so harried and tense it does no good. Even should there be such a thing as . . . reaching a state where the great illumination is released by means of dead sitting and silent illumination . . . people are so involved in the numerous duties of their household affairs that they have scarcely a moment in which to practice concentrated meditation. 3hat they do then is to plead illness and, neglecting their duties and casting aside responsibilities for their family affairs, they shut themselves up in a room for several days, loc- the door, arrange several cushions in a pile, set up a stic- of incense, and proceed to sit. Ket, because they are exhausted by ordinary worldly cares, they sit in meditation for one minute and fall asleep for a hundred, and during the little bit of meditation that they manage to accomplish, their minds are beset by countless delusions.88

)ut what is worse, these people then bla"e their careers, assu"ing they need "ore isolation. )ut this is li,e the aspiring ocean swi""er in the tub "ista,enly desiring less water. ETheyF furrow their brows, draw together their eyebrows, and before one -nows it they are crying out> 4Iur official duties interfere with our practice of the 3ay( our careers prevent our Zen meditation. $t would be better to resign from office, discard our seals, go to some place beside the water or under the trees where all is peaceful and /uiet and no one is about, there in our own way to practice dhyana contemplation, and escape from the endless cycle of suffering.4 How mista-en these people areQ4< @aving deter"ined "editation in the "idst of activity is the only "eaningful practice, he next addressed the Juestion of how to go about it. @e explained that we can do it by "a,ing our activities into "editation. 3hat is this true meditationC $t is to ma-e everything> coughing, swallowing, waving the arms, motion, stillness, words, action, the evil and the good, prosperity and shame, gain and loss, right and wrong, into one single -oan.8G @e gave an exa"ple of how to change the i"ple"ents of daily living into a )uddhist "etaphor, in this case by a warriorHs "a,ing his clothes, sword, and saddle into a "editation hall of the "ind. .a-e your s-irt and upper garments into the seven, or nine, striped mon-s6 robe( ma-e your two,edged sword into your resting board or des-. .a-e your saddle your sitting cushion( ma-e the mountains, rivers, and great earth the sitting platform( ma-e the whole universe your own personal meditation cave. . . . Thrusting forth the courageous mind derived from faith, combine it with the true practice of introspection. 8H

-f "editation bears no relationship to life, what good is itL -t is "erely self+centered gratification. This he conde"ned, pointing out that if everyone did nothing but "editate on his own inner concerns, society at large would fall apart. *nd ulti"ately Zen would be bla"ed. :urther"ore, this inner+directed preoccupation with self+ awareness is bad Zen. @a,uin si"ilarly taught that a Zen which ignored society was hollow and "eaningless, and its "on,s of no use to anybody. @e was particularly stern with conventional Zen students, who were content in their own enlighten"ent and ignored the needs of others. IMeditation in actionI for the "on, "eant the sa"e as for a lay"an, with one significant difference. hereas the lay"an could bring "editation to his obligatory life of affairs, the "on, "ust bring the life of the world to his "editation. Eust to hide and "editate on your own original nature produces inadeJuate enlighten"ent, while also shutting you off fro" any chance to help other people, other sentient beings. The ancient "asters ,new, said @a,uin, that a person truly enlightened could travel through the world and not be distracted by the so+called five desires #wealth, fa"e, food, sleep, and sex$. The enlightened being is aware of, but not enticed by, sensual gratification. The Third "atriarch E+eng,ts6an, d. =9=F has said> 4$f one wishes to gain true intimacy with enlightenment, one must not shun the ob7ects of the senses.4 He does not mean here that one is to delight in the ob7ects of the senses but, 7ust as the wings of a waterfowl do not get wet even when it enters the water, one must establish a mind that will continue a true -oan meditation without interruption, neither clinging to nor re7ecting the ob7ects of the senses.8J )ut @a,uin as,ed so"ething of a Zen novice even "ore difficult than that as,ed by the Chinese "asters of oldAwho "erely de"anded that a "on, re&ect the world, turn his bac,, and shut out its distractions. -n contrast,

@a,uin insists that he "editate while out in the world, actively i""ersing hi"self in its attractions. The older ChHan "asters advised a "on, to ignore the world, to treat it "erely as a bac,drop to his preoccupation with inner awarenessK @a,uin says to test your "editation outside, since otherwise it serves for nothing. *nd today 1inGai "on,s are expected to silently "editate during all activities, including wor,ing in the yard of the "onastery, harvesting vegetables, or even wal,ing through the town for their for"al begging. @a,uin not only redefined "editation, he also revitaliGed ,oan practice a"ong full+ti"e Zen "on,s and ulti"ately brought on a renaissance of 1inGai Zen itself. @e for"aliGed the idea of several stages of enlighten"ent #based on his own experience of increasingly deep satori$ as well as a practice that supported this growth. )ut "ost of all @a,uin was dis"ayed by what he considered to be the co"plete "isunderstanding of ,oan practice in Eapan. Mon,s had "e"oriGed so "any anecdotes about the ancient Chinese "asters that they thought they could signify the resolution of a ,oan by so"e insincere theatrics. E9Ff the mon-s who move about li-e clouds and water, eight or nine out of ten will boast loudly that they have not the slightest doubt about the essential meaning of any of the seventeen hundred -oans that have been handed down. . . . $f you test them with one of these -oans, some will raise their fists, others will shout 4,atsu,4 but most of them will stri-e the floor with their hands. $f you press them 7ust a little bit, you will find that they have in no way seen into their own natures, have no learning whatsoever, and are only illiterate, boorish, sightless men.8= @a,uin breathed new life bac, into ,oan theory. :or instance, he see"s the first Eapanese "aster to ta,e a psychological interest in the ,oan and its wor,ings. @e believed a ,oan should engender a Igreat doubtI in the "ind of a novice, and through this great doubt lead hi" to the first enlighten"ent or -ensho.4? -nitially he had

advocated the IMuI ,oan for beginners, but late in life he ca"e up with the fa"ous I hat is the sound of one hand clappingLI4; *s he described this ,oan in a letter to a laywo"anD 3hat is the +ound of the +ingle HandC 3hen you clap together both hands a sharp sound is heard( when you raise the one hand there is neither sound nor smell. . . . This is something that can by no means be heard with the ear. $f conceptions and discriminations are not mixed within it and it is /uite apart from seeing, hearing, perceiving, and -nowing, and if, while wal-ing, standing, sitting, and reclining, you proceed straightforwardly without interruption in the study of this -oan, then in the place where reason is exhausted and words are ended, you will suddenly . . . brea- down the cave of ignorance.. . . 1t this time the basis of mind, consciousness, and emotion is suddenly shattered. 85 )ut this is not the endK rather it is the beginning. *fter a disciple has penetrated this ,oan, he receives ,oans of increasing difficulty. :ro" @a,uinHs own experience he ,new that satori experiences could be repeated and could beco"e ever deeper and "ore "eaningful. *lthough he hi"self never chose to overtly syste"atiGe and categoriGe ,oans, his heirs did not hesitate to do so, creating the structure that is "odern 1inGai Zen. @ow did Zen finally e"erge, after all the centuries and the convolutionsL *s @a,uinHs descendants taught Zen, a "on, entering the "onastery was assigned a ,oan chosen by the "aster. @e was expected to "editate on this ,oan until his -ensho, his first gli""er of satori, which "ight reJuire two to three years. *fter this a new phase of study began. The "on, was then expected to wor, his way through a progra" of ,oans, reJuiring as "uch as a decade "ore, after which he "ight "editate on his own, in seclusion, for a ti"e longer.<8 The "aster wor,ed with "on,s individually #a practice reputedly left over fro" the ti"e when Chinese+ spea,ing "asters had to co""unicate in writing$ via a face+to+face interview #sen0en$ re"iniscent of a Marine

Corps drill instructor harassing a recruit. The "on, would bow to the "aster, seat hi"self, and sub"it his atte"pt at resolution of the ,oan. The "aster "ight either ac,nowledge his insight, give hi" so"e obliJue guidance, or si"ply greet hi" with stony silence and ring for the next recruitAsignifying an unsatisfactory answer. @a,uin "ade his disciples "editateK he "ade the" struggle through ,oan after ,oanK he "ade "onastic discipline as rigorous as possibleK and he taught that it is not enough "erely to be interested in yourself and your own enlighten"ent. )ut he insisted that if you follow all his teachings, if you "editate the right way and wor, through increasingly difficult ,oans, you too can find the enlighten"ent he found, an enlighten"ent that expressed itself in an enor"ous physical vitality. Even though $ am past seventy now my vitality is ten times as great as it was when $ was thirty or forty. .y mind and body are strong and $ never have the feeling that $ absolutely must lie down to rest. +hould $ want to $ find no difficulty in refraining from sleep for two, three, or even seven days, without suffering any decline in my mental powers. $ am surrounded by three, to five, hundred demanding students, and even though $ lecture on the scriptures or on the collections of the .asters6 sayings for thirty to fifty days in a row, it does not exhaust me.;8 @a,uin was a prolific writer and always aware of his audience. :or his lay followers, he wrote in si"ple Eapanese and related his teachings to the needs and li"itations of secular life. :or his "on, disciples he wrote in a "ore scholarly style. *nd finally, we have "any long elegant letters co"posed for various dignitaries of govern"ent and the aristocracy. @e also was an artist of note, producing so"e of the "ost powerful Zen+style paintings of any Eapanese. (i,e his writings, these wor,s are vigorous, i"pulsive, and dyna"ic. @e see"s to have been an inspiration for "any

later Zen artists, including !engai #4?>8+4;6?$ and the Zen poet 1yo,an #4?>;+4;64$.<< @a,uin died in his sleep at age eighty+three. 'uring his life he had reestablished 1inGai Zen in Eapan in a for" fully as rigorous as ever practiced in the "onasteries of THang and !ung China, and he had si"ultaneously discovered a way this Zen could be "ade accessible to lay"en, through "editation in activity. hereas previous Eapanese teachers had let ,oan practice atrophy in order to attract a greater nu"ber of followers, @a,uin si"ultaneously "ade Zen both "ore authentic and "ore popular. @is genius thereby saved traditional Zen in its classical for", while at last "a,ing it accessible and "eaningful in "odern life.

Cha/t"# Nin"t""n
REF(ECTIONS

hat is the resilience of Zen that has allowed it to survive and flourish over all the centuries, even though freJuently at odds philosophically with its "ilieuL *nd why have the insights of obscure rural teachers fro" the Chinese and Eapanese Middle *ges re"ained pertinent to "uch of "odern life in the estL 0n the other hand, why

has there been a consistent criticis" of Zen #fro" early China to the present day$ conde"ning it as a retreat fro" realityAor worse, a preoccupation with self a"idst a world that calls for social conscienceL These Juestions are co"plex, but they should be ac,nowledged in any inJuiry into Zen thought. They are also "atters of opinionD those wishing to see Zen as unwholeso"e are fixed in their critical views, &ust as those co""itted to Zen practice are unsha,ably steadfast. hat follows is also opinion, even though an atte"pt has been "ade to "aintain balance. SOCIA( CONSCIENCE IN ZEN * distinguished "odern Zen "aster was once as,ed if Zen followers loo,ed only inward, with no concern for others. @e replied that in Zen the distinction between oneself and the world was the first thing to be dissolved. ConseJuently, "ere self+love is i"possibleK it resolves naturally into a love of all things. !tated in this way, Zen teachings beco"e, in a twin,ling, a profound "oral philosophy. here there is no distinction between the universe and ourselves, the very concept of the ego is inappropriate. e cannot thin, of ourselves without si"ultaneously thin,ing of others. Zen is not, therefore, an obsession with the self, but rather an obsession with the universe, with all thingsAfro" nature to the social better"ent of all. *lthough Zen initially forces a novice to focus on his own "ind, this is only to enable hi" or her to attain the insight to "erge with all things, great and s"all. True Zen introspection eventually "ust lead to the dissolution of the self. hen this occurs, we no longer need the chiding of a .olden 1ule. -t is fair to Juestion whether this particular view of social conscience, which "ight be described as "ore IpassiveI than Iactive,I adeJuately refutes the charge of I"e+is"I in Zen. )ut perhaps less is so"eti"es "ore in the long run. There is no great history of Zen charity, but then there have been few if any bloody Zen Crusades and little of the religious persecution so co""on to estern "oral syste"s. %erhaps the hu"anis" in Zen ta,es a

gentler, less fla"boyant for". -n the scales of har" and help it see"s as noble as any of the worldHs other spiritual practices. ZEN AN) CREATIVITY Zen gained fro" Taois" the insight that total reliance on logical thought stifles the hu"an "ind. (ogic, they found, is best suited to analyGing and categoriGingAfunctions today increasingly delegated to the co"puter. hereas the logical "ode of thought can only "anipulate the world view of given paradig", intuition can inspire genuine creativity, since it is not shac,led by the nagging analytical "ind, which often serves only to inti"idate i"aginative thought. Zen struggled relentlessly to deflate the po"posity of "anHs rationality, thereby releasing the potential of intuition. *lthough "uch research has arisen in recent ti"es to pursue the sa"e effectAfro" Ibrainstor"ingI to drugsAZen challenged the proble" "any centuries ago, and its powerful tools of "editation and the ,oans still taunt our "odern shortcuts. ZEN AN) MIN) RESEARCH That Zen ideas should find a place in psychoanalysis is not surprising. Meditation has long been used to still the distraught "ind. Eapanese researchers have studied the effects of "editation on brain activity for "any years, and now si"ilar studies are also underway in the est. The connection between Zen Ienlighten"entI and a heightened state of IconsciousnessI has been exa"ined by psychologists as diverse as Erich :ro"" and 1obert 0rnstein. )ut perhaps "ost significantly, our recent research in the he"ispheric specialiGation of the brainA which suggests our left he"isphere is the seat of language and rationality while the right do"inates intuition and creativityA appears to validate centuries+ old Zen insights into the dichoto"y of thought. Zen IresearchI on the "indHs co"ple"entary "odes "ay well light the path to a fuller understanding of the diverse powers of the hu"an "ind.

ZEN AN) THE ARTS *t ti"es the ancient Chinese and Eapanese art for"s influenced by Zen see" actually to anticipate "any of the aesthetic principles we now call I"odern.I !ixteenth+ century Zen cera"ics could easily pass as creations of a conte"porary potter, and ancient Chinese and Eapanese in,s and calligraphies recall the "odern "onochro"e avant+garde. Zen stone gardens at ti"es see" pure abstract expressionis", and the Zen+influenced landscape gardens of Eapan can "anipulate our perception using tric,s only recently understood in the est. Eapanese hai,u poetry and /o dra"a, created under Zen influence, anticipate our "odern distrust of languageK and conte"porary architecture often echoes traditional Eapanese designAwith its preference for clean lines, open spaces, e"phasis on natural "aterials, si"plicity, and the integration of house and garden. *esthetic ideals e"erging fro" Zen art focus heavily on naturalness, on the e"phasis of "anHs relation to nature. The Zen artists, as do "any "oderns, li,ed a sense of the "aterials and process of creation to co"e through in a wor,. )ut there is a subtle difference. The Zen artists freJuently included in their wor,s devices to ensure that the "essage reached the viewer. :or exa"ple, Zen cera"ics are always intended to force us to experience the" directly and without analysis. The tric, was to "a,e the surface see" curiously i"perfect, al"ost as though the artist were careless in the application of a finish, leaving it uneven and rough. *t ti"es the glaGe see"s still in the process of flowing over a piece, uneven and "arred by ashes and lu"ps. There is no sense of IprettinessID instead they feel old and "arred by long use. )ut the artist consciously is forcing us to experience the piece for itself, not as &ust another ite" in the category of bowl. e are led into the process of creation, and our awareness of the piece is heightenedA &ust as an unfinished painting bec,ons us to pic, up a brush, This device of drawing us into involve"ent, co""on to Zen arts fro" hai,u to in, painting, is one of

the great insights of Zen creativity, and it is so"ething we in the est are only now learning to use effectively. ZEN AN) PERCEPTION 0ne of the "a&or insights of Zen is that the world should be perceived directly, not as an array of e"bodied na"es. *s noted, the Zen arts reinforce this attitude by deliberately thwarting verbal or analytical appreciation. e are forced to approach the" with our logical faculties in abeyance. This insistence on direct perception is one of the greatest gifts of Zen. /o other "a&or syste" of thought cha"pions this insight so clearly and forthrightly. Zen would have our perception of the world, indeed our very thoughts, be nonverbal. )y experiencing nature directly, and by thin,ing in pure ideas rather than with IinternaliGed speech,I we can i""easurably enrich our existence. The dawn, the flower, the breeGe are now experienced "ore exJuisitelyAin their full reality. Zen wor,ed hard to debun, the "ysterious power we "ista,enly ascribe to na"es and concepts, since the Zen "asters ,new these serve only to separate us fro" life. !hutting off the constant babble in our head is difficult, but the richness of experience and i"agery that e"erges is astounding. -t is as though a screen between us and our surroundings has suddenly dropped away, putting us in touch with the universe. THE ZEN (IFE The heart of Zen is practice, Isitting,I physical discipline. :or those wishing to experience Zen rather than "erely speculate about it, there is no other way. 3oans can be studied, but without the guidance of practice under a "aster, they are hardly "ore than an intellectual exercise. 0nly in for"al "editation can there be the real beginning of understanding. Zen philosophy, and all that can be trans"itted in words, is an abo"ination to those who really understand. ThereHs no escaping the Taoist adage, IThose who spea, do not ,now, those who ,now

do not spea,.I ords can point the way, but the path "ust be traveled in silence. R R R

NOTES
PREFACE TO ZEN 4. Chang Chung+yuan, TaoD * /ew ay of Thin,ing #/ew 7or,D %erennial (ibrary, 49??$, p. =. <. -bid., p. 5. 6. -bid., p. >8. =. -bid., p. 4=>. >. -bid., p. 4>6. 5. Puoted in Max 3alten"ar,, (ao TGu and Taois" #!tanford, Calif.D !tanford 2niversity %ress, 4959$, p. <8. ?. )urton atson, -ntroduction to The Co"plete or,s of Chuang TGu #/ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 495;$, p. ?. ;. *rthur aley, Three ays of Thought in *ncient China #.arden City, /. 7.D 'oubleday, undated reprint of 4969 edition$, p. 4>. 9. .ai+fu :eng and Eane English, trans., Chuang Tsu #/ew 7or,D Cintage )oo,s, 49?=$, p. >>. 48. -bid. 689 44. ". Theodore de )ary, ing+tsit Chan, and )urton atson, !ources of Chinese Tradition, Col. 4 #/ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 4958$, p. <=8. 4<. -bid., pp. <=6+<==. 46. Puoted by :ung 7u+lan, * !hort @istory of Chinese %hilosophy #/ew 7or,D Mac"illan %ublishing Co., -nc., 49=;$, p. <68. 4=. Puoted in ibid., p. <6>. 4>. '. @oward !"ith, Chinese 1eligions #/ew 7or,D @olt, 1inehart and inston, 495;$, p. 485. 45. :rederic, E. !treng, E"ptinessD * !tudy in 1eligious Meaning #/ashvilleD *bingdon %ress, 495?$, pp. 4>9+ 58. 4?. *rthur :. right, )uddhis" in Chinese @istory #!tanfordD !tanford 2niversity %ress, 49>9$, p. 56.

4;.

alter (iebenthal, Chao (unD The Treatises of !eng+ chao #@ong 3ongD hong 3ong 2niversity %ress, 495;$, p. 5<. <=< M /0TE! 48, 44$4#4,, pp. fifi f$?. <8. @elnrich 'u"oulin, * @istory of Zen )adtihis" #)ostonD )eacon %ress, 4888$, Si. 58, <4. Puoted by :ung 7u -an, !hort @istory of #Chinese %hilosophy, p, <><, :. BO)HI)HARMA& FIRST PATRIARCH OF ZEN 4. Translated by '. T. !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries #/ew 7or,D .rove %ress, 4954$, p. 4 ?9. This is a translation of a passage fro" the 1ecords of the Trans"ission of the (a"p co"piled in 488= by Tao+yuan. * si"pler version of the story can be found in the original source docu"ent, the :urther )iographies of E"inent %riests #@su ,ao+seng chuan$, prepared around the year 5=> by Tao hsuan, and translated -n CatHs 7awn, published by the :irst Zen -nstitute of *"erica, /ew 7or,, 49= ?. The story is repeated also in the ChHuan fg+pao chi, prepared ca, ?88 48 by Tu :ei, <. The fact that this episode does not appear in the earliest story of )odhidhar"aHs life "a,es one s,eptical about its authenticity. -t is ,nown that E"peror u welco"ed another fa"ous -ndian "issionary, %ara"artha, who landed in Canton in >=8 #!"ith, Chinese 1eligions, p. 4<8$. This "on, espoused the -dealistic school of )uddhis", which was at odds with the school of ChHan. -t see"s possible that the story of )odhidhar"aHs "eeting was constructed to counter the prestige that uHs -nterest undoubtedly gave the -dealistic school. 6. The )uddhist concept of Merit "ight be li,ened to a spiritual savings account, Merit accrues on the record of oneHs good deeds and provides several for"s of reward in this world and the next, The -dea that good deeds do not engender Merit see"s to have been pioneered by Tao+sheng #ca, 658 =6=$, the Chinese originator of the idea of !udden Enlighten"ent, IE"ptinessI is, of course, the teaching of the Middle

%ath of /agar&una, The i"plication that E"peror u was startled by this concept is worth a raised eyebrow, !unyata or Ie"ptinessI was hardly un,nown -n the )uddhist schools of the ti"e. This whole story is suspect, being first found -n the ChHuan fa+pao chi of Tu :ei #ca. ?88 48$, but not in the earlier biography, the @su ,ao+seng chuan #:urther )iographies of E"inent %riests -, co"piled by Tao+ hsuan around 5=>, There is, incidentally, another co"peting story of a "on, na"ed )odhidhar"a in China, @e was described as a %ersian and was reported in 7ang - -suan+chihHs )uddhist Monasteries -n (oyang #(o+yang ChHleh+lan+chi$, written -n >=?, to have been associated with the 7ung+ning "onastery, which would have been possible only between the years >45 and ><;. This %ersian figure apparently clai"ed to be 4>8 years in age, and he "ost probably ca"e to China via the trading port of Canton used by %ersians. This fact has been used by so"e to cast doubt on the "ore accepted story of a !outh -ndian "on, na"ed )odhidhar"a arriving at Canton between ><8 and ><>. %erhaps a legendary %ersian was transfor"ed into a legendary -ndian by the Dhyana school, or perhaps it was a different individual. =. This is the conclusion of the leading Zen scholar today, %hilip 7a"pols,y, in The %latfor" !utra of The !ixth %atriarch #/ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 495?$, p. 48. >. English translations of various versions of this essay "ay be found -n CatHs 7awn by the :irst Zen -nstitute of *"ericaK -n -$. T, !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eriesK and in Eohn C. @. u, The .olden *ge of Zen #TaipeiD 2nited %ublishing Center, 498?$. Concerning this essay, %hilip 7a"pols,y #private co""unication$ has noted, I hereas a version exists -n The Trans"ission of the (a"p, various texts have been found in the Tun+huang docu"ents and elsewhere, so that a "ore co"plete version is available. -t is considered authentic,I 5. !uGu,i, Essays in *nn )uddhis", :irst !eries, p. 4;8.

?. -bid., pp. 4;8+;4. ;. This point is enlarged considerably in an essay attributed to )odhidhar"a but "ost li,ely apocryphal, which -s translated -n '. T, !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", Third !eries #/ew 7or,D !a"uel eiser, -nc., 49?4$ pp. <=+68, 9. !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, p. 4;4. 48. !uGu,i, -bid. 44. u, .olden *ge of Zen, pp. =8 >8. 4<. -bid., p. >8. 46. -bid., p. >8. 4=. !uGu,i translates the passage fro" the Ca&rasa"adhi !utra in Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, pp. 4;6+;=. %ortions are as followsD I!aid the )uddhaD The two entrances are HEntrance by 1easonH and HEntrance by Conduct,H HEntrance by 1easonH "eans to have a deep faith in that all sentient beings are identical in essence with the true nature which is neither unity nor "ultiplicityK only it is beclouded by external ob&ects, The nature in itself neither departs nor co"es. hen a "an in singleness of thought abides in chueh+,uan, he will clearly see into the )uddha+ nature, of which we cannot say whether it exists or exists not, and in which there is neither selfhood nor otherness. . . .I !uGu,i translates the ter" chueh+ ,uan as being Iawa,enedI or Ienlightened,I 4>. @u !hih, IThe 'evelop"ent of Zen )uddhis" in China,I Chinese !ocial and %olitical !cience 1eview, 4>,= #Eanuary 496<$, p. =;6, %hilip 7a"pols,y #private co""unication$ has Juestioned this generaliGation of @u !hih, noting, IThere were few practicing HZenH )uddhists, but other Chinese )uddhists probably "editated seriously, although not exclusively.I 45. !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, p, 4;5. 4?. !ee @u !hih, I'evelop"ent of Zen )uddhis" in China,I p. =;<D I)ut the whole syste" of dhyana practice, even in its concise for" as presented in the translated "anuals, was not fully understood by the Chinese )uddhists. . . . The best proof of this is the following Juotation fro" @ui+chiao, the scholarly historian of )uddhis" and author of the first series of

)uddhist )iographies which was finished in >49. -n his general su""ary of the biographies of practitioners of dhyana, @ui+chiao saidD H)ut the apparent utility of dhyana lies in the attain"ent of "agic powers. . .H.HI 4;. !uGu,i #Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, p. 494$, points out, I/agar&una says in his fa"ous co""entary on the %ra&napara"ita sutra, HMoral conduct is the s,in, "editation is the flesh, the higher understanding is the bone, and the "ind subtle and good is the "arrow.H I !ince this co""entary "ust have been co""on ,nowledge, the interest in )odhidhar"aHs alleged exchange with his disciples lies in his recasting of a co""on coinage. 49. :ro" the ChHuan fa+pao chi #ca. ?88+48$ of Tu :ei, as described by 7a"pols,y, The %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriach. This story happens to parallel closely the posthu"ous capers ascribed to certain fa"ous religious Taoists of the age. <8. 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis", p. ?<. <4. @u !hih, I'evelop"ent of Zen )uddhis" in China,I p. ><. @. H0I1K2O& SECON) PATRIARCH OF ZEN 4. Translated in !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, p.498. <. @e is well docu"ented in Tao+hsuanHs @su ,ao+seng chuan or :urther )iographies of E"inent %riests #*.'. 5=>$. !elected portions of this biography are related in 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarchK and !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, which for" the basis for "uch of the historical infor"ation reported here. 0ther useful sources are 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis"K and Chou @siang+ ,uang, Dhyana )uddhis" in China #*llahabad, -ndiaD -ndo+Chinese (iterature %ublications, 4958$. 6. The :urther )iographies of E"inent %riests by Tao+ hsuan declares that bandits were responsible for severing his ar", but the ?48 Chuan fa+pao chi of Tu :ei piously refutes this version, presu"ably since efforts were starting to get underway to construct a

Zen lineage, and dra"atic episodes of interaction were essential. This later wor, was also the first to report that )odhidhar"a was poisoned and then later seen wal,ing bac, to -ndia. =. *s reported by 'u"oulin #@istory of Zen )uddhis", p. ?6$, this story, which is typical of later ChHan teaching "ethods, first appears so"e five hundred years after )odhidhar"aHs death, in the Ching+te chHuan+teng+lu #488=$. >. 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis", p. ?=. 5. '. T. !uGu,i, !tudies in the (an,avatara !utra #(ondonD 1outledge F 3egan %aul, 4968$ pp. =+?. ?. -bid, p. >9. ;. '. T. !uGu,i, Manual of Zen )uddhis" #/ew 7or,D .rove %ress, 4958$, pp. >8+>4. 9. '. T. !uGu,i, The (an,avatara !utra #(ondonD 1outledge F 3egan %aul, 496<$, p. ?9. 48. -bid., p. ;4. 44. !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, p. 496. 4<. -bid., p. 49=. 46. -bid., pp. 49=+9>. 4=. Chou @siang+,uang, Dhyana )uddhis" in China, p. <=.

C. SEN*1TS2AN3 TAO1HSIN3 FA1+0N*3 AN) H0N*1 +EN& FO0R EAR(Y MASTERS 4. *s usual, the biography can be traced in three sources. The earliest, the @su ,ao+seng chuan of Tao+ hsuan #5=>$, apparently does not "ention !eng+tsHan, or if it does so it gives hi" a different na"e. @owever, in the ChHuan fa+pao chi of Tu :ei #?48$ he receives a perfunctory biography. The "ore e"bellished tale, giving exchanges and a copy of his supposed poe", is to be found in the later wor,, the Ching+te chHuan+ teng+lu #488=$. 'u"oulin #@istory of Zen )uddhis"$ provides a discussion of the earliest historical notices of !eng+ tsHan. The ?48 version of the history is translated in

CatHs 7awn #p. 4=$ and the 488= version is repeated in !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries. <. !uGu,i, who recounts this last story in Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries #p. 49>$, points out identical insights in the third chapter of the Ci"ala,irti !utra. 6. 1eportedly @ui+,Ho also trans"itted his copy of the (an,avatara to !eng+tsHan, declaring that after only four "ore generations the sutra would cease to have any significance #7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch, p. 44$. *s things turned out, this was "ore or less what happened, as the (an,avatara was replaced in the ChHan schools by the "ore easily understood 'ia"ond !utra. The (an,avatara school was destined to be short+lived and to provide nothing "ore than a sacred relic for the dyna"ic ChHan teachers who would follow. =. !uGu,i points out #Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, p. 495$ that the Chinese word hsin can "ean "ind, heart, soul, and spirit, beingall or any at a given ti"e. @e provides a full translation of the poe", as does 1. @. )lyth in Zen and Zen Classics, Col. 4 #To,yoD @o,useido %ress, 4958$. >. )lyth, Zen and Zen Classics, Col. 4, p. 488. 5. -bid., p. 484. ?. -bid., p. 486. ;. * detailed discussion of this era "ay be found in oodbridge )ingha", The :ounding of the THang 'ynasty #/ew 7or,D 0ctagon )oo,s, 49?8$. 9. @is biography "ay be found in C. %. :itGgerald, !on of @eaven #/ew 7or,D *M! %ress -nc., 49?4$, reprint of 4966 Ca"bridge 2niversity %ress edition. 48. !ee 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis", p. ?;. 44. This story is translated in CatHs 7awn, p. 4;. 4<. 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis", pp. ?;+?9. 46. !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", Third !eries, p. <;. 4=. * lucid account of :a+&ung "ay be found in Chang Chung+yuan, trans., 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis" #/ew 7or,D 1ando" @ouse, 4959K paperbac, edition, Cintage, 49?4$, which is a beautiful translation of portions of The Trans"ission of the (a"p #Ching+te chHuan+teng+lu$, the text fro"

488=. This text was a "a&or source for the abbreviated biography given here. 4>. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 49. 45. -bid., p. >. 4?. * version of this exchange is given in !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, p. <8<. 4;. !ee 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch, p. 45. <. SHEN1HSI0 AN) SHEN1H0I& *RA)0A(? AN) ?S0))EN? MASTERS 4. :or an excellent biography see C. %. :itGgerald, The E"press u #CancouverD 2niversity of )ritish Colu"bia, 495;$. Curiously, nowhere in this biography is there "ention of her lioniGing of the ChHan "aster !hen+hsiu, so"ething that figures largely in all ChHan histories. <. * biography of !hen+hsiu fro" ChHan sources "ay be found in 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch. :urther details "ay be found in @u !hih, IChHan #Zen$ )uddhis" in ChinaD -ts @istory and Method,I %hilosophy East and est, 6, 4 #*pril 49>6$, pp. 6+<=. !ee also 3enneth ChHen, )uddhis" in China #%rincetonD %rinceton 2niversity %ress, 495=$. 6. !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, p. <4=. =. Two boo,s that give so"ething of the intellectual at"osphere of THang China are biographies of its two leading poetsD *rthur aley, The %oetry and Career of (i %o #(ondonD .eorge *llen F 2nwin, (td., 49>8$K and *. 1. 'avis, Tu :u #/ew 7or,D Twayne %ublishers, -nc., 49?4$. >. :or a detailed biography of !hen+hui, see 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch. 5. The scholar who brought the significance of !hen+hui to the attention of the world was @u !hih, whose land"ar, English+language papers on Zen are IChHan #Zen$ )uddhis" in ChinaD -ts @istory and MethodI and IThe 'evelop"ent of Zen )uddhis" in China.I These wor,s draw upon the "anuscripts discovered this

century in the Tun+huang caves in the "ountains of far northwest China. These "anuscripts clarified "any of the "ysteries surrounding the early history of ChHan, enabling scholars for the first ti"e to distinguish between real and "anufactured historyA since so"e of the wor,s were written before ChHan historians began to e"broider upon the ,nown facts. * brief but useful account of the finding of these caves and the subseJuent re"oval of "any of the "anuscripts to the )ritish Museu" in (ondon and the )ibliotheJue /ationale in %aris "ay be found in CatHs 7awn. The best discussion of the significance of these finds and of @u !hihHs lifelong interpretive wor, is provided by 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch. 1egarding the circu"stances of this ser"on, alter (iebenthal #IThe !er"on of !hen+hui,I *sia Ma&or, /.!. 6, < N49><O, p. 46=$ says, IThere are only two opportunities to deliver addresses in the ritual of )uddhist "onasteries, one during the uposatha cere"ony held "onthly when the prati"o,sa rules are read to the "e"bers of the co""unity and they are ad"onished to confess their sins, one during the initiation cere"ony held once or twice a year. :or the purpose of initiation special platfor"s are raised, one for "on,s and one for nuns, inside the co"pounds of so"e especially selected "onasteries.I ?. Puoted in @ilda @oo,ha", * !hort @istory of China #/ew 7or,D !t. MartinHs %ress, -nc., 49?<K paperbac, edition, /ew 7or,D /ew *"erican (ibrary, 49?<$, p. 4?>. ;. 'iscussions of the adventures of *n (u+shan "ay be found in "ost general surveys of Chinese history, including @oo,ha", !hort @istory of China, olfra" Eberhard, * @istory of China #)er,eleyD 2niversity of California %ress, 4958$K 3enneth !cott (atourette, The ChineseD Their @istory and Culture #/ew 7or,D Mac"illan, 495<$K Eohn *. @arrison, The Chinese E"pire #/ew 7or,D @arcourt )race Eovanovich, -nc., 49?<$K and 1ene .rousset, The 1ise and !plendour of

the Chinese E"pire #)er,eleyD 2niversity of California %ress, 495<$. 9. This is the interpretation of @u !hih. :or translations of the "a&or wor,s of !hen+hui, see alter (iebenthal, IThe !er"on of !hen+hui,I pp. 46<+>>K and ". Theodore de )ary, ed., !ources of Chinese Tradition, Col. 4., pp. 6>5+58. *lso see Edward ConGe, ed., )uddhist Texts Through the *ges #0xfordD )runo Cassirer, 49>=$, excerpted in ade )as,in, ed., Classics in Chinese %hilosophy #Totowa, /. E.D (ittlefield, *da"s, 49?=$. * short translation is also provided in !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", Third !eries, pp. 6? ff. The fullest translation of the wor,s of !hen+hui found in the Tun+huang caves is in EacJues .ernet, EntretMens du Maitre de Dhyana Chen+houei du @o+tso #@anoiD %ublications de lHecole frangaise dHExtre"e+0rient, Col. 64, 49=9$. *n English translation of a portion of this text "ay be found in ing+tsit Chan, * !ource )oo, in Chinese %hilosophy #%rincetonD %rinceton 2niversity %ress, 4956$. 48. (iebenthal, I!er"on of !hen+hui,I pp. 465 ff. 44. -bid., p. 4==. 4<. -bid., pp. 4=5, 4=?, 4=9. 46. !ee @u !hih, IChHan #Zen$ )uddhis" in China.I 4=. @u !hih, I'evelop"ent of Zen )uddhis" in China,I p. =96. 4>. @u !hih, IChHan #Zen$ )uddhis" in China,I p. 44. 45. The differences between the /orthern and !outhern schools of ChHan during the eighth century are explored in the wor,s of @u !hih, %hilip 7a"pols,y, and alter (iebenthal noted elsewhere in these notes. 0ther general surveys of Chinese religion and culture that have useful analyses of the Juestion include ing+tsit Chan, !ource )oo, in Chinese %hilosophy, pp. =<> ff., '. @oward !"ith, Chinese 1eligionsK and :ung 7u+lan, !hort @istory of Chinese %hilosophy. 4?. * study of the last distinguished "e"ber of !hen+ huiHs school, the scholar Tsung+"i #?;8+;=4$, "ay be found in Eeffrey )roughton, I3uei+feng Tsung+"iD The

4;.

Convergence of ChHan and the TeachingsI #%h. '. dissertation, Colu"bia 2niversity, 49?>$. '. T. !uGu,i, IZenD * 1eply to @u !hih,I %hilosophy East and est, 6, 4 #*pril 49>6$, pp. <>+=5. 8. H0I1NEN*& THE SIXTH PATRIARCH AN) FATHER OF MO)ERN ZEN 4. * nu"ber of English translations of the %latfor" !utra are in existence. *"ong the "ost authoritative "ust certainly be counted 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarchK and ing+tsit Chan, The %latfor" !cripture #/ew 7or,D !t. EohnHs 2niversity %ress, 4956$. * widely circulated translation is in *. :. %rice and ong Mou+(a", The 'ia"ond !utra and the !utra of @ui+/eng #)er,eley, Calif.D !ha"bhala, 4959$. *nother well+,nown version is found in Charles (u,, ChHan and Zen TeachingD Third !eries #/ew 7or,D !a"uel eiser, -nc., 49?4$. Two lesser+,nown translations are %aul :. :ung and .eorge '. :ung, The !utra of the !ixth %atriarch on the %ristine 0rthodox 'har"a #!an :ranciscoD )uddhaHs 2niversal Church, 495=$K and @suan @ua, The !ixth %atriarchHs 'har"a Eewel %latfor" !utra #!an :ranciscoD )uddhist Text Translation !ociety, 49?4$. <. :ro" the 'ia"ond !utra, contained in 'wight .oddard, ed., * )uddhist )ible #)ostonD )eacon %ress, 49?8$, p. 48<. *nother version "ay be found in %rice and ong, 'ia"ond !utra and the !utra of @ui+neng. *n extended co""entary "ay be found in Charles (u,, ChHan and Zen Teaching, :irst !eries, pp. 4=9+<8;. (ater ChHanists have "aintained that @ung+&en taught both the 'ia"ond !utra and the (an,avatara !utra, the respective scriptures of what ca"e to be called !outhern and /orthern schools of ChHan. @owever, "ost scholars today believe that his "a&or e"phasis was on the (an,avatara !utra, not the 'ia"ond !utra as the legend of @ui+neng would have.

6. :ro" %rice and ong, 'ia"ond !utra and the !utra of @ui+neng, p. 4>. =. -bid., p. 4;. >. The earliest version of the %latfor" !utra is that found in the Tun+huang caves and translated by 7a"pols,y and Chan. This "anuscript 7a"pols,y dates fro" the "iddle of the ninth century. * "uch later version, dated 44>6, was found in a te"ple in 3yoto, Eapan, in 496=. This is said to be a copy of a version dating fro" 95?. The standard version up until this century was a "uch longer wor, which dates fro" 4<94. *s a general rule of thu"b with the early ChHan writings, the shorter the wor,, the better the chance it is early and authentic. :or this reason, the shorter Tun+huang wor,s are now believed to be the "ost authoritative and best account of the thoughts of the !ixth %atriarch. 5. 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch, p. 59. ?. The "ost obvious proble" with attribution of the %latfor" !utra to @ui+neng is that "any of the sections of the ser"on appear al"ost verbati" in The !er"on of !hen+hui, indicating that either one was a copy of the other or they had a co""on source #which could have been the si"ple setting down of a verbal tradition$. -t has been pointed out that !hen+ hui, who praises @ui+neng to the s,ies in his ser"on, never clai"s to be Juoting the "aster. -nstead, he pronounces as his own a nu"ber of passages that one day would be found in the wor, attributed to @ui+ neng. The scholar @u !hih has drawn the "ost obvious conclusion and has declared that !hen+hui and his school "ore or less created the legend of @ui+ nengAloc,, stoc,, and sutra. 0thers refuse to go this far, preferring instead to conclude that !hen+hui and @ui+neng are "erely two representatives of the sa"e school. ;. 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch, p. 4>?. 9. 7a"pols,y, -bid., p. 4=8 48. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. ;<.

44. !ee especially I-nti"ations of -""ortalityID 0ur birth is but a sleep and a forgettingD The !oul that rises with us, our lifeHs !tar, @ath had elsewhere its setting, and co"eth fro" afarD /ot in entire forgetfulness, *nd not in utter na,edness, )ut trailing clouds of glory do we co"e . . . 4<. 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch, pp. 4=4+=<. 46. -bid., p. 44?. 4=. :ro" ibid., pp. 46;+69. :or interpretive co""ent see '. T. !uGu,i, The Zen 'octrine of /o Mind #/ew 7or,D !a"uel eiser, 49?<$. 4>. 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch, pp. 445+4?. 5. MA1TS0& ORI*INATOR OF ?SHOCK? EN(I*HTENMENT 4. !ee )roughton, 3uei+feng Tsung+"iD The Convergence of ChHan and the Teachings. -t was also around this ti"e that the idea of twenty+eight -ndian %atriarchs of Zen, cul"inating in )odhidhar"a, was finally ironed out and "ade part of the Zen tradition. <. !ee *rthur aley, The (ife and Ti"es of %o Chu+i #(ondonD *llen F 2nwin, 49=9$. 6. @u !hih, I'evelop"ent of Zen )uddhis" in China,I p. =9?. =. @u+!hin, IChHan #Zen$ )uddhis" in China,I p. 4;. >. :or so"e of @uai+&angHs attributed teachings, see Charles (u,, The Trans"ission of the Mind 0utside the Teaching #/ew 7or,D .rove %ress, 49?>$, pp. 6<+6?. The reliability of this text should be Juestioned, however, if we accept %hilip 7a"pols,yHs essay in %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch, p. >6D I@uai+&ang #5??+?==$ . . . is ,nown as a disciple of @ui+neng. -nfor"ation about hi" is based on sources co"posed "uch later than his deathK no "ention is "ade of hi" in any eighth+century wor,. . . .I 5. Eeffrey )roughton #I3uei+feng Tsung+"i,I p. <?$ points out that Ma+tsuHs "asterHs techniJue for achieving Ino+"indI was to chant a phrase until running out of

breath, at which ti"e the activities of the "ind would see" to ter"inateAa reaction the "ore s,eptical "ight call physiological. )reath control and breath exercises, it will be recalled, have always figured largely in -ndian "editative practices. ?. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4=;. The discussion of Ma+tsu in this volu"e supplied valuable bac,ground for the analysis provided here. ;. @u !hih, I'evelop"ent of Zen )uddhis" in China,I p. =9;. 9. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 468. 48. -bid., p. 4=9. 44. -bid. 4<. -bid. 46. There are "any translations of the Mu"on,an. 0ne of the "ore recent and scholarly is by Zen,ai !hibaya"a, Zen Co""ents on the Mu"on,an #/ew 7or,D /ew *"erican (ibrary, 49?>$. 4=. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4>8. 4>. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 9>. 45. The "ost recent and the "ost detailed translation of the )lue Cliff 1ecord is by Tho"as and E. C. Cleary, The )lue C- iff 1ecord, 6 vols. #)er,eley, Calif.D !ha"bhala, 49??$. 4?. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4>4. 4;. -bid., p.4>4. 49. This story is recounted in u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 488. <8. -bid., p. 48<. <4. 1ecounted in -bid., p. 48<. <<. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHari )uddhis", pp. 4>8+><. <6. -bid., p. 4>8. <=. !ee (u,, Trans"ission of the Mind 0utside the Teaching, p. =5.

=. H0AI1HAI& FATHER OF MONASTIC CH2AN 4. This location is given by Eohn )lofeld in The Zen Teaching of @ui+@ai on !udden -llu"ination #(ondonD 1yder F Co., 495<K paperbac, reprint, /ew 7or,D eiser, 49?<$, p. <9. Charles (u, #Trans"ission of the Mind 0utside the Teaching, p. >8$ saysD I@uai+hai, the 'har"a+successor of Ma Tsu, was also called %ai Chang N%o ChHangO after the "ountain where he stayed at @ung Chou #now /anchang, capital of 3iangsi province$. %ai Chang "eansD %ai, one hundred, and Chang, a "easure of ten feet, i.e., 0ne+ thousand+foot "ountain.I @owever, (u, identifies the birthplace of @uai+hai as Chang (o in "odern :u,ien province, as does Chou @siang+,uang in Dhyana )uddhis" in China. <. This story is repeated in various places, including u, .olden *ge of ZenK and )lofeld, Zen Teaching of @ui @ai on !udden -llu"ination. This latter reference is as part of a docu"ent ,nown as the Tsung+ching 1ecord, being a recorded dialogue of the "aster ta,en down by a "on, na"ed Tsung+ching, who was a conte"porary of @uai+hai. 6. This story is Case >6 of the @e,iganro,u or )lue Cliff 1ecord, a !ung 'ynasty period collection of ChHan stories and their interpretation. The best current translation is probably in Cleary and Cleary, )lue Cliff 1ecord, Col. <, p. 6>?. =. !ee (u,, Trans"ission of the Mind 0utside the Teaching, p. =5. >. !tories involving hi" "ay be found in the Mu"on,an, Cases < and =8, and in the @e,iganro,u or )lue Cliff 1ecord, Cases >6, ?8, ?4, ?<. The "ost co"plete accounting of anecdotes "ay be found in )lofeld, Zen Teachings of @ui+@ai on !udden -llu"inationK and Tho"as Cleary, !ayings and 'oings of %ai+chang #(os *ngelesD Center %ublicatons, 49?9$. 5. 3enneth 3. !. ChHen, #The Chinese Transfor"ation of )uddhis" N%rincetonD %rinceton 2niversity %ress, 49?6O, p. 9>$ says, I)esides the Cinaya controlling the conduct of the )uddhist clergy, the basic code

governing )uddhist and Taoist "on,s and nuns during the THang 'ynasty was the Tao+seng+,e #1ules concerning )uddhist and Taoist clergy$, for"ulated during the Chen+,uan era, probably 56?. This Tao+ seng+,e is no longer extant, however, but the Eapanese wor, !oni+ryo, which governs the conduct of the co""unity of "on,s and nuns in Eapan, was based on it. Therefore a study of the !oni+ryo would give us a good idea of the contents of the Tao+seng+ ,e. . . . NCertainO provisions of the THang codes superseded the "onastic code and called for penalties for offenses which went beyond those specified in the !oni+ryo or the )uddhist Cinaya.I ?. :or a scholarly discussion of the econo"ic role of )uddhis" in THang China, see '. C. Twitchett, IMonastic Estates in THang China,I *sia Ma&or, #49>>+ >5$, pp. 4<6+=5. @e explains that the THang govern"ent was always a trifle uneasy about the presence of un+taxed "onastic establish"ents, and not without reason. )uddhis" in THang China was big business. The large "onasteries were beneficiaries of gifts and beJuests fro" the aristocracy, as well as fro" the palace itself. #Eunuchs, along with palace ladies, were particularly generous.$ (ay"en often would beJueath their lands to a "onastery, so"eti"es including in the will a curse on anyone who "ight later wish to ta,e the land away fro" the church. These gifts were thought to ensure better fortunes in the world to co"e, while si"ultaneously resolving tax difficulties for the donor. :or the "onasteries the"selves this wealth could only accu"ulate, since it never had to be divided a"ong sons. *fter *n (u+shanHs rebellion, a flavor of feudalis" had penetrated Chinese society, and huge tracts ca"e to be held by the )uddhist "onasteries, to which entire estates were so"eti"es donated. *s a result, the )uddhists had enor"ous econo"ic power, although we "ay suspect the iconoclastic dhyana establish"ents in the south en&oyed little of it. ;. !ee 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis", pp. 48<+86.

9. !ee @einrich 'u"oulin and 1uth :uller !asa,i, The 'evelop"ent of Chinese Zen #/ew 7or,D :irst Zen -nstitute of *"erica, 49>6$, p.46. -nterestingly, the Cinaya sect, founded by Tao+hsuan #>95+55?$, was pri"arily concerned with the laws of "onastic discipline. The fa"iliarity of ChHan teachers with the concerns of this sect "ay have contributed to the desire to create rules for their own asse"blies. 48. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 489. 44. !ee '. T. !uGu,i, The Zen Mon,Hs (ife #/ew 7or,D 0ly"pia %ress, 49?<$K Eshin /ishi"ura, 2nsuiD * 'iary of Zen Monastic (ife #@onoluluD 2niversity %ress of @awaii, 49?6$K !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", :irst !eries, pp. 64=+65<K and 3o&i !ato, The Zen (ife #/ew 7or,D eatherhillMTan,osha, 49??$. * succinct su""ary of Zen "onastic life is also provided by !ir Charles Eliot in Eapanese )uddhis" #(ondonD 1outledge F 3egan %aul, 496>$, p. =85. 4<. !ee )lofeld, Zen Teaching of@ui @ai on !udden -llu"ination, p. ><. 46. -bid., pp. 58+54. 4=. -bid., p. =;. 4>. -bid., p. 466. 45. -bid., p. ??. 4?. -bid., p. >>. 4;. -bid., p. >5. 49. -bid., p. ?;. <8. -bid., p. >=. 9. NAN1CH20AN AN) CHAO1CHO0& MASTERS OF THE IRRATIONA( 4. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4>6. <. -bid., p. 4?;. 6. *ccording to a biographical s,etch of /an+chHuan given by Cleary and Cleary in )lue Cliff 1ecord, p. <5<. =. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 458. This was also incorporated in the )lue Cliff 1ecord as Case =8 #-bid., p. <9<$, where the

!ung+era co""entary is actually "ore obscure than what it atte"pts to explain. >. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 465. 5. -bid., p. 465. ?. )lyth, Zen and Zen Classics, Col. 6, p. >?. ;. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4>9. 9. -bid., p. 4>?. This anecdote is also Case 59 of the )lue Cliff 1ecord. 48. -bid., p. 454. 44. -bid. 4<. -bid., p. 45<. 46. -bid., p. 45=. Translation of a THang text, IThe !ayings of Chao+chou,I is provided by 7oel @off"an, 1adical Zen #)roo,line, Mass.D *utu"n %ress, 49?;$. 4=. 1ecounted by .ar"a C. C. Chang in The %ractice of Zen #/ew 7or,D @arper F 1ow, 49>9$, p. <=. This is also Case 4= of the Mu"on,an and Cases 56 and 5= of the )lue Cliff 1ecord. 4>. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 4<?. This is also Case 49 of the Mu"on,an. 45. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4>9. 4?. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 4<9. 4;. -bid., p. 466. 49. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 459. <8. -bid., p. 4=8. <4. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 465. <<. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4?4. <6. This is Case 4 of the Mu"on,an, here Juoted fro" a very readable new translation by 3atsu,i !e,ida, Two Zen ClassicsD Mu"on,an 5+ @e,iganro,u #/ew 7or,D eatherhill, 49??$, p. <?. <=. u, .olden *ge of Zen, pp. 4==+=>. <>. )lyth, Zen and Zen Classics, Col. 6, p. ??. <5. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 4=>. <?. -bid., p. 469. <;. -bid., p. 4=5.

<9. -bid., p. 4==. ;. P2AN* AN) HAN1SHAN& (AYMAN AN) POET 4. !ee )urton atson, Cold Mountain #/ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 49?8$, p. 46. This concept of the Zen lay"an has longbeen a part of Zen practice in Eapan, and for this reason both (ay"an %Hang and the poet @an+shan are favorite ChHan figures with the Eapanese. -n fact, the eighteenth+ century Eapanese "aster @a,uin wrote a co""entary on @an+shan. <. !ee 1uth :uller !asa,i, 7oshita,a -riya, and 'ana 1. :rasier, The 1ecorded !ayings of (ay"an %Hang #/ew 7or,D eatherhill, 49?4$, p. 4;. 6. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4=>. This story is fa"ous and found in "any sources. =. *s evidenced by a co""on saying of the ti"eD I-n 3iangsi the Master is Ma+tsuK in @unan the Master is !hih+tHou. %eople go bac, and forth between the" all the ti"e, and those who do not ,now these two great Masters are co"pletely ignorant.I 7a"pols,y, %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch, p. >>. >. !asa,i et al., 1ecorded !ayings of (ay"an %Hang, p. =5. 5. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4=>. ?. !ee -bid., p. 4?>. ;. !asa,i et al., 1ecorded !ayings of (ay"an %Hang, p. =?. 9. (u,, Trans"ission of the Mind 0utside the Teaching, p. =<. 48. !asa,i et al., 1ecorded !ayings of (ay"an %Hang, p. >;. 44. -bid., p. 59. 4<. -bid., p. ?4 46. -bid., p.=?. 4=. -bid., p. ;;. 4>. -bid., pp. >=+>>. The translators explain the last two verses as followsD IThis is derived fro" the old

Chinese proverbD HTo win by a flu,e is to fall into a flu,eH #and thus to lose by a flu,e$.I Concerning the "eaning of this exchange, it would see" that water is here being used as a "etaphor for the undifferentiated Coid, which subsu"es the te"porary individuality of its parts the way the sea is undifferentiated, yet contains waves. hen Tan+hsia accepts this pre"ise a little too auto"atically, %Hang is forced to show hi" #via a splash$ that water #and by extension, physical "anifestations of the co"ponents of the Coid$ can also assu"e a physical reality that i"pinges on daily life. Tan+hsia tries feebly to respond by returning the splash, but he clearly lost the exchange. 45. -bid. p. ?6. 4?. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4?5. *lso see !asa,i et al., 1ecorded !ayings of (ay "an %Hang, p. ?>. 4;. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4??. 49. !asa,i et al., 1ecorded !ayings of (ay"an %Hang, p. =<. atson, Cold Mountain, p. >8. atson explains that the <8. *rthur aley, I<? %oe"s by @an+shan,I Encounter, 6, 6 #!epte"ber 49>=$, p. 6. <4. opening line about ta,ing along boo,s while hoeing in the field was I:ro" the story of an i"poverished scholar of the for"er @an 'ynasty who was so fond of learning that he carried his copies of the Confucian classics along when he went to wor, in the fields.I The last line is I*n allusion to the perch, stranded in a carriage rut in the road, who as,ed the philosopher Chuang TGu for a dipperful of water so that he could go on living.I <<. -bid., p. >5. <6. aley, I<? %oe"s by @an+shan,I p. 5. <=. :ro" u Chi+yu, I* !tudy of @an !han,I THoung %ao, =>, =+> #49>?$, p. =6<. <>. .ary !nyder, I@an+shan,I -n Cyril )irch, ed., *nthology of Chinese (iterature, #/ew 7or,D .rove %ress, 495>$, p. <84.

<5. !ee -bid., pp. 49=+95. <?. !ee atson, Cold Mountain, p. 4=. atson says, IZen co""entators have therefore been forced to regard @an+shanHs professions of loneliness, doubt, and discourage"ent not as revelations of his own feelings but as vicarious recitals of the ills of unenlightened "en which he can still sy"pathiGe with, though he hi"self has transcended the". @e thus beco"es the traditional )odhisattva figureA co"passionate, in the world, but not of it.I atson re&ects this interpretation. <;. -bid., p. 5?. <9. -bid., p. ;;. 68. -bid., p. ?;. 64. -bid., p. ;4. 6<. -bid., pp. 44+4<. 66. !nyder, I@an+shan,I p. <8<.

:6. H0AN*1PO& MASTER OF THE 0NIVERSA( MIN) 4. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 48<. <. This probably was during the last decade of the eighth century, since Ma+tsu died in ?;;. 6. This volu"e actually consists of two boo,s, ,nown as the Chun+chou 1ecord #;=6$ and the an+iing 1ecord #;=9$. They are translated and published together by Eohn )lofeld as The Zen Teaching of @uang %o. #/ew 7or,D .rove %ress, 49>;$. This appears to have been the source for biographical and anecdotal "aterial later included in The Trans"ission of the (a"p, portions of which are translated in Chang Chung+ yuan. 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis". *nother translation of biographical, didactic, and anecdotal "aterial "ay be found in Charles (u,, Trans"ission of the Mind 0utside the Teaching, whose source is unattributed but which possibly could be a translation of the 458< wor, 1ecords of %ointing at The Moon, a co"pilation of ChHan "aterials.

=. )lofeld, Zen Teaching of @uang %o, p. <;. >. -bid., p. <?. 5. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 486. ?. -bid. ;. -bid., p. 98. 9. -bid., p. 486. 48. )lofeld, Zen Teaching of @uang %o, p. 99. 44. This gesture of defeat is reported elsewhere to have been a triple prostration. @uang+po apparently clai"ed victory in these exchanges when he either ,ept silent or wal,ed away. 4<. an+ling is reported by Chang Chung+yuan to be the "odern town of @suan+chHeng in southern *nhwei province #0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 4<6$. *ccording to The Trans"ission of the (a"p the pri"e "inister built a "onastery and invited @uang+ po to co"e lecture there, which the "aster did. The "onastery was then na"ed after a "ountain where the "aster had once lived. 46. -bid., p. 48=. 4=. -bid. 4>. )lofeld, Zen Teaching of @uang %o, p. >>. 45. -bid., p. 468. 4?. -bid., pp. ;4+;<. 4;. -bid., p. == 49. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. ;?. <8. )lofeld, Zen Teaching of @uang %o, p. >6. <4. -bid., p. 69. <<. -bid., p. =5. <6. -bid., p. 6?. <=. -bid. <>. -bid., p. =8. <5. -bid., p. 54. <?. -bid., p. <5. <;. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. ;>. <9. )lofeld, Zen Teachings of @uang %o, p. >8. 68. !ee u, .olden *ge of Zen.

64. Chang Chung+yuan reports so"e disagree"ent over the actual date of @uang+poHs death. -t see"s that he is reported to have died in ;=9 in 1ecords of )uddhas and %atriarchs in Carious 'ynasties, whereas the year of his death is given as ;>> in the .eneral 1ecords of )uddhas and %atriarchs. 6<. Excerpts fro" the @an 7u treatise are provided in Edwin 0. 1eischauer, EnninHs Travels in THang China #/ew 7or,D 1onald %ress, 49>>$, pp. <<4 ff. This recounting of a visit by a ninth+century Eapanese "on, to China reveals indirectly how lac,ing in influence the ChHanists actually were. -n a diary of "any years ChHan is "entioned only rarely, and then in tones of other than respect. @e viewed the ChHanists warily and described the" as Iextre"ely unruly "en at heartI #p. 4?6$. @owever, his trip in China was severely disturbed by the sudden eruption of the .reat %ersecution, "a,ing hi" so fearful that he actually destroyed the )uddhist art he had collected throughout the country. 66. !ee @u !hih, IChHan #Zen$ )uddhis" in China.I 6=. !ee -bid. 6>. 3enneth ChHen, in IThe Econo"ic )ac,ground of the @ui+ChHang !uppression of )uddhis",I @arvard Eournal of *siatic !tudies, 49 #49>5$, points out that the i"perial decree reJuired the turning in only of statues "ade fro" "etals having econo"ic value. Those "ade fro" clay, wood, and stone could re"ain in the te"ples. @e uses this to support his contention that the "ain driving force behind the .reat %ersecution was the inordinate econo"ic power of the )uddhist establish"ents. ::. (IN1CHI& FO0N)ER OF RINZAI ZEN 4. * discussion of the five houses of ChHan "ay be found in 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis", pp. 485+<<K and 'u"oulin and !asa,i, 'evelop"ent of Chinese Zen, pp. 4?+6<. 2seful su""aries of their teachings also "ay be found in Chou @siang+,uang, Dhyana )uddhis" in China.

<. *ccounts of (in+chiHs life are found in The 1ecord of (in+chi, The Trans"ission of the (a"p, The :ive (a"ps Meeting at the !ource, and :inger %ointing at the Moon. The "ost reliable source is probably The 1ecord of (in+chi, since this was co"piled by his follower#s$. The definitive translation of this wor, certainly "ust be that by 1uth :. !asa,i, The 1ecorded !ayings of ChHan Master (in+chi @ui+chao of Chen %refecture, #3yoto, EapanD -nstitute of Zen !tudies, 49?>$ and recently re+issued by @eian -nternational, -nc., !outh !an :rancisco, Calif. *nother version, The Zen Teachings of 1inGai, translated by -r"gard !chloegl #)er,eley, Calif.D !ha"bhala, 49?5$, is less satisfactory. The (in+chi excerpts fro" The Trans"ission of the (a"p "ay be found in Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis". Excerpts fro" The :ive (a"ps Meeting at the !ource and :inger %ointing at the Moon are provided in Charles (u,, ChHan and Zen Teaching, !econd !eries #)er,eleyD !ha"bhala, 49?4$. Translations of his ser"ons, sayings, etc. together with co""entary "ay also be found in u, .olden *ge of ZenK Chou @siang+,uang, Dhyana )uddhis" in ChinaK and )lyth, Zen and Zen Classics, Col. 6. 6. 1. @. )lyth is suspicious that (in+chiHs story was enhanced so"ewhat for dra"atic purposes, clai"ing #Zen and Zen Classics, Col. 6, p. 4>4$, I*s in the case of the !ixth %atriarch, N(in+chiHsO enlighten"ent is recounted Hdra"atically,H that is to say "ini"iGing his previous understanding of Zen in order to bring out the great change after enlighten"ent.I =. !asa,i, 1ecorded !ayings of (in+chi, pp. <=+<>. >. -bid., p. <>. 5. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", pp. 44?+4;. ?. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 49=. ;. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 44;. 9. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 49>. 48. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 449.

44. !asa,i, 1ecorded !ayings of (in+chi, p. =6. 4<. -bid., p. =>. 46. 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis", p. 4<<. 4=. 0f (in+chiHs shout, 1. @. )lyth says #Zen and Zen Classics, Col. 6, p. 4>=$D INThe shoutO is a war+cry, but the fight is a sort of shadow+boxing. The universe shouts at us, we shout bac,. e shout at the universe, and the echo co"es bac, in the sa"e way. )ut the shouting and the echoing are continuous, and, spiritually spea,ing, si"ultaneous. Thus the NshoutO is not an expression of anythingK it has no #separable$ "eaning. -t is pure energy, without cause or effect, rhy"e or reason.I 4>. *fter !asa,i, 1ecorded !ayings of (in+chi, p. =?. 45. !ee u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. <84. 4?. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", pp. 4<4+<<. 4;. !asa,i, 1ecorded !ayings of (in+chi, p. =. 49. -bid., p. =4. <8. -bid., p. =;. <4. -bid., p. <. <<. -bid., p. ?8. <6. -bid., p. 5. <=. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 9;. <>. u, .olden *ge of Zen, pp. <8=+8>. <5. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 99. <?. 'u"oulin, 'evelop"ent of Chinese Zen, p. <<. <;. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 99. <9. 'u"oulin, 'evelop"ent of Chinese Zen, p. <6. 68. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings ofChHan )uddhis", p. 9>. 64. !asa,i, 1ecorded !ayings oM(in+chi, pp. <?+<;. 6<. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 9>. 66. @einrich 'u"oulin #'evelop"ent of Chinese Zen, p. <<$ notes that this is "erely playing off the well+ ,nown Ifour propositionsI of -nd ian )uddhist logicD existence, nonexistence, both existence and

nonexistence, and neither existence nor nonexistence. 6=. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. <8<. 6>. -bid., p. <86. 65. !asa,i, 1ecorded !ayings of (in+chi. p. <9. 6?. -bid., p. <=. 6;. -bid., p. 6;.

:@. T0N*1SHAN AN) TSAO1SHAN& FO0N)ERS OF SOTO ZEN 4. %hilip 7a"pols,y, in %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch, alleges that @sing+ssu was resurrected fro" anony"ity because !hih+tHou #?88+98$ was in need of a connection to the !ixth %atriarch. The "ysterious "aster @sing+ssu co"es into pro"inence well over a hundred years after his deathK his actual life was not chronicled by any of his conte"poraries. /either, for that "atter, was the life of his pupil !hih+tHou, although the latter left a heritage of disciples and a burgeoning "ove"ent to perpetuate his "e"ory. <. -bid., p. >>. 6. The stories attached to !hih+tHou are varied and Juestioned by "ost authorities. :or exa"ple, there is the story that he was enlightened by reading !eng+ chauHs Chao+Eun #The )oo, of Chao$ but that his philosophy ca"e fro" (ao TGu. =. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. >;. >. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 4?4. 5. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. >;. ?. -bid., p. 58. ;. -bid., pp. 54+5<. 9. -bid., pp. 5=+5>. 48. -bid., p. ?5. 44. This is elaborated by (u,, ChHan and Zen Teaching, !econd !eries, p. 455. 4<. -bid., p. 4?=.

46. Extended discussions of this concept are provided by Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", pp. =4+>?K and by u, .olden *ge of Zen, pp. 4??+;<. 4=. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 4?9. 4>. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. =9. 45. !ee (u,, Chan and Zen Teaching, !econd !eries, p. 469. 4?. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. >8. 4;. -bid., p. 59. 49. hen 1. @. )lyth translates this poe" in Zen and Zen Classics, Col. <, called the @o,yoGa""ai in Eapanese, he includes a grand dose of s,epticis" concerning its real authorship, since he believes the poe" unworthy of the "aster #p. 4><$. <8. -bid., p. 4>?. <4. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. =;. <<. -bid., p. ?8. <6. -bid., p. ?4. <=. -bid., p. ?<. <>. 'u"oulin, 'evelop"ent of Chinese Zen, p. <5. <?. Eliot, Eapanese )uddhis", p. 45;. :C. K0EI1SHAN3 Y0N1MEN3 AN) FA1YEN& THREE MINOR HO0SES 4. *ccounts of the lives and teachings of the "asters of the 3uei+yang school can be found in a nu"ber of translations, including Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis"K and (u,, ChHan and Zen Teachings, !econd !eries. )oth provide translations fro" The Trans"ission of the (a"p. 0ther sources appear to be used in u, .olden *ge of Zen, which includes a lively discussion of 3uei+shan and the 3uei+yang sect. <. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 4>9. 6. Charles (u, #ChHan and Zen Teaching, !econd !eries, p. >;$ "a,es a valiant try at explication when he

says, IN@uai+haiO wanted hi" to perceive Hthat which gave the orderH and Hthat which obeyed it.H . . . N@uai+ haiO continued to perfor" his great function by pressing the student hard, insisting that the latter should perceive HthatH which arose fro" the seat, used the po,er, raised a little fire, showed it to hi" and said, H-s this not fireLH . . . This ti"e the student could actually perceive the reply by "eans of his self+ nature. . . . @ence his enlighten"ent.I =. !ee -bid., p. >;. !su+"a see"s to have had a good record in predicting "onastic success, and he was "uch in de"and. *lthough the reliance on a fortuneteller see"s so"ewhat out of character for a ChHan "aster, we should re"e"ber that fortunetelling and future prediction in China are at least as old as the - Ching. >. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. <8<. 5. -bid., p. <8=. ?. (u,, ChHan and Zen Teaching, !econd !eries, p. 5?. ;. -bid., p. ?;. 9. u, .olden *ge of Zen, p. 45?. 48. -bid., p. 45?. 44. Eohn u #.olden *ge of Zen, p. 45>$ says, IThe style of the house of 3uei+yang has a char" all of its own. -t is not as steep and sharp+edged as the houses of (in+ chi and 7un+"en, nor as close+,nit and resourceful as the house of TsHao+tung nor as speculative and broad as the house of :a+yen, but it has greater depth than the others.I 4<. !ee Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. <59. 0ther translations of 7un+"en anecdotes, as well as interpretations and appreciations, can be found in (u,, ChHan and Zen Teaching, !econd !eriesK Chou, Dhyana )uddhis" in ChinaK u, .olden *ge of ZenK and )lyth, Zen and Zen Classics, Col. <. 46. @e had six ,oans out of forty+eight in the Mu"on,an and eighteen ,oans out of a hundred in the @e,iganro,u. %erhaps his extensive representation in the second collection is attributable to the fact that its

co"piler, ChHung+hsien #9;8+48<>$, was one of the last surviving representatives of 7un+"enHs school. 4=. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis" p. <;=. 4>. -bid., p. <;5. 45. -bid., p. <<9. 4?. -bid., p. <<;. 4;. -bid., p. <<9. 49. !e,ida, Two Zen ClassicsD Mu"on,an F @e,iganro,u, p. 6=9. This ,oan is fro" @e,iganro,u, Case ??. <8. :ro" the Mu"on,an, Case <4. The Chinese ter" used was ,an+shin chueh, which Chang Chung+yuan #0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. 688$ characteriGes as followsD IThis "ay be translated either of two waysD a piece of dried excre"ent or a ba"boo stic, used for cleaning as toilet tissue is today.I <4. )lyth, Zen and Zen Classics, Col. <, p. 4=<. <<. Those with insatiable curiosity "ay consult u, .olden *ge of Zen, pp. <== ff. <6. Translations of his teachings fro" The Trans"ission of the (a"p are provided by Chang Chung Dyuan in 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis" and by Charles (u, in ChHan and Zen Teachings, !econd !eries. * translation of a co"pletely different source, which varies significantly on all the "a&or anecdotes, is provided in Eohn u, .olden *ge of Zen. * translation, presu"ably fro" a Eapanese source, of so"e of his teachings is supplied by 1. @. )lyth in Zen and Zen Classics, Col. <. @einrich 'u"oulin offers a brief assess"ent of his influence in his two boo,sD 'evelop"ent of Chinese Zen and @istory of Zen )uddhis". <=. Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan )uddhis", p. <6;. * co"pletely different version "ay be found in u, .olden *ge of Zen, pp. <6<+66. <>. )uddhis" Chang Chung+yuan, 0riginal Teachings of ChHan, p. <=<. :<. TA1H0I& MASTER OF THE KOAN

4. !ee 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis", p. 4<;. <. -sshu Miura and 1uth :uller !asa,i, Zen 'ust #/ew 7or,D @arcourt, )race F orld, 4955$, pp. 48+44. 6. -bid., p. 48. This individual is identified as /an+yuan @ui+yang #d. 968$. =. This is Case 4 in the Mu"on,an, usually the first ,oan given to a beginning student. >. This is Case <5 of the Mu"on,an. The version given here is after the translation in !e,ida, Two Zen ClassicsD Mu"on,an F @e,iganro,u, p. ;9. 5. This is Case >= of the @e,iganro,u. The version given is after -bid., p. <95, and Cleary and Cleary, )lue Cliff 1ecord, p. 65<. ?. -sshu and !asa,i, Zen 'ust, p. 46. ;. There are a nu"ber of translations of the Mu"on,an currently available in English. The "ost recent is !e,ida, Two Zen ClassicsD Mu"on,an F @e,iganro,uK but perhaps the "ost authoritative is Zen,ei !hibaya"a, Zen Co""ents on the Mu"on,an, trans. !u"i,o 3udo #/ew 7or,D @arper Tr 1ow, 49?=K paperbac, edition, /ew 7or,D /ew *"erican (ibrary, 49?>$. 0ther translations are /yogen !enGa,i and %aul 1eps, IThe .ateless .ate,I in %aul 1eps, ed., Zen :lesh, Zen )ones #1utland and To,yoD Tuttle, 49>?$K !oh,au 0gata, IThe Mu Mon 3wan,I in Zen for the est #/ew 7or,D 'ial, 49>9$K and 1. @. )lyth, Zen and Zen Classics, Col. =, IMu"on,anI #To,yoD @o,useido, 4955$. Three translations of the )lue Cliff 1ecord are currently available in English. There is the early and unsatisfactory version by 1. '. M. !haw #(ondonD Michael Eoseph, 4954$. * readable version is provided in !e,ida, Two Zen Classics, although this excludes so"e of the traditional co""entary. The authoritative version is certainly that by Cleary and Cleary, )lue Cliff 1ecord. 9. This is the case with the version provided in !e,ida, Two Zen Classics. 48. !ee 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis", p. 4<;.

44. !ee (. Carrington .oodrich, * !hort @istory of the Chinese %eople #/ew 7or,D @arper F 1ow, 49=6$, p. 454. 4<. The "ost co"prehensive collection of Ta+huiHs writings is translated in Christopher Cleary, !wa"pland :lowersD The (etters and (ectures of Zen Master Ta @ui #/ew 7or,D .rove %ress, 49??$. Excerpts are also translated by !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", !econd !eries. )iographical infor"ation "ay also be found in -sshu and !asa,i, Zen 'ust. 46. Translated in -sshu and !asa,i, Zen 'ust, p. 456. 4=. * wor, ,nown today as the Cheng+fa+yen+tsang. !ee -sshu and !asa,i, Zen 'ust, p. 456. 4>. !ee -bid. 45. !ee -bid. 4?. Translated by Cleary, !wa"pland :lowers, pp. 4<9+68. 4;. !ee !e,ida, Two Zen Classics, p. 4?. 49. !uGu,i, Essays in Zen )uddhis", !econd !eries, p. 486. <8. Cleary, !wa"pland :lowers, p. 5=. <4. -bid., p. >?. <<. -bid., p. 4=. <6. )ut he destroyed the" in vain. *round 4688 a "on, "anaged to asse"ble "ost of the ,oans and co""entary fro" scattered sources and put the boo, bac, into print. The proble" continues to this dayK there is now available a boo, of IanswersI to a nu"ber of ,oansA7oel @off"an, The !ound of 0ne @and Clapping #/ew 7or,D )asic )oo,s, 49?>$. 0ne reviewer of this boo, observed sadly, I/ow if only getting the HanswerH were the sa"e as getting the point.I

:8. EISAI& THE FIRST +APANESE MASTER

4. This anecdote is in Martin Charles Collcutt, IThe Zen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval EapanI #%h.'. dissertation, @arvard 2niversity, 49?>$. <. *lthough there were various atte"pts to introduce ChHan into Eapan prior to the twelfth century, nothing ever see"ed to stic,. 'u"oulin #@istory of Zen )uddhis", pp. 46;+69$ su""ariGed these efforts as followsD IThe first certain infor"ation we possess regarding Zen in Eapan goes bac, to the early period of her history. The outstanding Eapanese )uddhist "on, during that age, 'osho, was attracted to Zen through the influence of his Chinese teacher, @suan+ tsang, under who" he studied the 7ogacara philosophy #5>6$. . . . 'osho thus ca"e into i""ediate contact with the tradition of )odhidhar"a and brought the Zen of the patriarchs to Eapan. @e built the first "editation hall, at a te"ple in /ara. . . . I* century later, for the first ti"e in history, a Chinese Zen "aster ca"e to Eapan. This was Tao+hsuan, who belonged to the northern sect of Chinese Zen in the third generation after !hen+hsiu. 1esponding to an invitation fro" Eapanese )uddhist "on,s, he too, up residence in /ara and contributed to the growth of Eapanese culture during the Te"pyo period #?<9+?=9$. . . . The conte"plative ele"ent in the Tendai tradition, which held an i"portant place fro" the beginning, was strengthened in both China and Eapan by repeated contacts with Zen. I* further step in the spread of Zen occurred in the following century when -+,Hung, a Chinese "aster of the (in+chi sect, visited Eapan. @e ca"e at the invitation of the E"press Tachibana 3achi,o, wife of the E"peror !aga, during the early part of the !howa era #;6=+;=;$, to teach Zen, first at the i"perial court and later at the 'anrin&i te"ple in 3yoto, which the e"press had built for hi". @owever, these first efforts in the syste"atic propagation of Zen according to the Chinese pattern did not "eet with lasting success. -+ ,Hung was unable to launch a vigorous "ove"ent. 'isappointed, he returned to China, and for three centuries Zen was inactive in Eapan.I

6.

=. >.

5.

*nother opportunity for the Eapanese to learn about ChHan was "issed by the fa"ous Eapanese pilgri" Ennin, who was in China to witness the .reat %ersecution of ;=>, but who paid al"ost no attention to ChHan, which he regarded as the obsession of unruly neHer+do+wells. * nu"ber of boo,s provide infor"ation concerning early Eapanese history and the circu"stances surrounding the introduction of )uddhis" to Eapan. .eneral historical wor,s of particular relevance includeD Eohn hitney @all, Eapan, fro" %rehistory to Modern Ti"es #/ew 7or,D 'elacorte, 49?8$K Mi,iso @ane, Eapan, * @istorical !urvey #/ew 7or,D !cribnerHs, 49?<$K Edwin 0. 1eischauer, EapanD %ast and %resent, 6rd ed. #/ew 7or,D 3nopf, 495=$K and .eorge ). !anso", * @istory of Eapan, 6 vols. #!tanford, Calif.D !tanford 2niversity %ress, 49>;+56$. !tudies of early Eapanese )uddhis" "ay be found inD Masaharu *nesa,i, @istory of Eapanese 1eligion #(ondonD 3egan %aul, Trench, Trubner, 4968D reissue, 1utland, Ct.D Tuttle, 4956$K illia" 3. )unce, 1eligions in Eapan #1utland, Ct.D Tuttle, 49>>$K ChHen, )uddhis" in ChinaK Eliot, Eapanese )uddhis"K !hinsho @anaya"a, * @istory of Eapanese )uddhis" #To,yoD )u,,yo 'endo 3yo,ai, 4955$K and E. 'ale !aunders, )uddhis" in Eapan #%hiladelphiaD 2niversity of %ennsylvania %ress, 495=$. -n fact, the popularity of esoteric rituals was such that they were an i"portant part of early Zen practice in Eapan. This world is well described by -van Morris in The orld of the !hining %rinceD Court (ife in *ncient Eapan #/ew 7or,D 3nopf, 495=$. * discussion of the relation of this aesthetic life to the for"ation of Eapanese Zen "ay be found in Tho"as @oover, Zen Culture #/ew 7or,D 1ando" @ouse, 49??K paperbac, edition, /ew 7or,D Cintage, 49?;$. 0ne of the "ost readable accounts of the rise of the Eapanese "ilitary class "ay be found in %aul Carley, !a"urai #/ew 7or,D 'elacorte, 49?8K paperbac, edition, /ew 7or,D 'ell, 49?<$.

?. This theory is advanced eloJuently in Collcutt, IZen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan.I -n later years the ChHan sect in China itself actually entered a phase of decadence, with the inclusion of esoteric rites and an ecu"enical "ove"ent that advocated the chanting of the ne"butsu by ChHanistsAso"e of who" clai"ed there was great si"ilarity between the psychological aspects of this "echanical chant and those of the ,oan. ;. *ccounts of EisaiHs life "ay be found in 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis"K and in Collcutt, IZen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan.I 9. !ee Collcutt, IZen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan.I 48. !ee !aunders, )uddhis" in Eapan, p. <<4. 44. Translated in ". Theodore de )ary, ed. !ources of Eapanese Tradition, Col. 4 #/ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 49>;$, pp. <65+6?. 4<. -bid., p. <6?. 46. 'e )ary, !ources of Eapanese Tradition, pp. <69+=8. 4=. *gain the best discussion of this intrigue is provided by Collcutt, IZen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan.I 4>. Carley, !a"urai, p. =>. :5.)O*EN& FATHER OF +APANESE SOTO ZEN 4. 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis", p. 4>4. This state"ent "ay be faint praise, for Eapan has never been especially noted for its religious thin,ers. *s philosophers, the Eapanese have been great artists and poets. %erhaps no culture can do everything. <. )iographical infor"ation on 'ogen "ay be found in @ee+Ein 3i", 'ogen 3igenAMystical 1ealist #TucsonD 2niversity of *riGona %ress, 49?>$K 7uho 7o,oi, Zen Master 'ogen #/ew 7or,D eatherhill, 49?5$K and 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis". Translations of his writings "aybe found in 'ogen 3igenAMystical 1ealist and Zen Master 'ogen as well as in Eiyu 3ennett, Zen is Eternal (ife #E"eryville, Calif.D 'har"a, 49?5$K 'ogen, 1ecord of Things @eard fro"

the Treasury of the Eye of the True Teaching trans, by Tho"as Cleary #)oulder, Colo.D .reat Eastern )oo, Co"pany, 49?;$K :rancis 'o&un Coo,, @ow to 1aise an 0x #(os *ngelesD Center %ublications, 49?;$K and 3osen /ishiya"a and Eohn !teven, !hobogenGoD The Eye and Treasury of the True (aw #/ew 7or,D eatherhill, 49??$. 6. 3i", 'ogen 3igenAMystical 1ealist, p. <>. =. 7o,oi, Zen Master 'ogen, p. <;. >. !ee Collcutt, IZen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan.I 5. 3i", 'ogen 3igenAMystical 1ealist, p. <9. ?. -bid., p. 6>. ;. !ee 7o,oi, Zen Master 'ogen, p. 6<. 9. -bid., pp. =>A=5. 48. -bid., p. =5. 44. 3ennett, Zen -s Eternal (ife, pp. 4=4+=<. 4<. -bid., p. 4><. 46. -bid., pp. 4>8+>4. 4=. 'ogenHs attitude toward wo"en was revolutionary for his ti"e. * sa"pling is provided in 3i", 'ogen 3igen AMystical 1ealist, pp. >=+>>D I!o"e people, foolish in the extre"e, also thin, of wo"an as nothing but the ob&ect of sensual pleasures, and see her this way without ever correcting their view. * )uddhist should not do so. -f "an detests wo"an as the sexual ob&ect, she "ust detest hi" for the sa"e reason. )oth "an and wo"an beco"e ob&ects, thus being eJually involved in defile"ent. . . . hat charge is there against wo"anL hat virtue is there in "anL There are wic,ed "en in the worldK there are virtuous wo"en in the world. The desire to hear 'har"a and the search for enlighten"ent do not necessarily rely on the difference in sex.I 4>. 7o,oi, Zen Master 'ogen, pp. 6>+65. 45. !ee Collcutt, IZen Monastic Training in Medieval Eapan,I p. >9. 4?. Translated in de )ary, !ources of Eapanese Tradition, Col. 4., p. <=?. 4;. !ee Collcutt, IZen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan,I p. 5<.

49. !ee -bid., pp. 5< ff. <8.!ee %hilip 7a"pols,y, trans., The Zen Master @a,uinD !elected ritings, #/ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 49?4$, p. >. :=.IKKY0& ZEN ECCENTRIC 4. This view is advanced convincingly by Collcutt in IZen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan,I p. 446 ff. <. -bid., p. ;8. 6. This would see" to be one of the reasons for what beca"e of a host of e"igrating ChHan teachers as sub+sects of the 7ogi branch struggled for ascendency over each other. =. u+anHs strength of "ind is illustrated by a story related in Collcutt, IZen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan,I p. ;=D I u+an is said to have shoc,ed the religious sensibilities of "any warriors and "on,s when, in what has been interpreted as a deliberate atte"pt to sever the connection between Zen and prayer in Eapanese "inds, he publicly refused to worship before the statue of EiGo in the )uddha @ill of 3encho+&i on the grounds that whereas EiGo was "erely a )odhisattva, he, u+an, was a )uddha.I >. 1elated in -bid., p. ;;. 5. Collcutt #IZen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan,I p. 44=$ points out that the warrior interest in Zen and its Chinese cultural trappings should also be credited partly to their desire to stand up to the snobbery of the 3yoto aristocracy. )y "a,ing the"selves e"issaries of a prestigious foreign civiliGation, the warrior class achieved a bit of cultural one+up"anship on the 3yoto snob set. ?. Collcutt #IZen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan,I p. 485$ reports that this conversion of te"ples to Zen was not always spontaneous. There is the story of one local governor who was called to 3a"a,ura and in the course of a public asse"bly as,ed pointedly whether his fa"ily had yet built a Zen "onastery in their ho"e province. The terrified official declared he had built a

"onastery for a hundred Zen "on,s, and then raced ho"e to start construction. ;. * discussion of the contribution of Zen to Eapanese civiliGation "ay be found in @oover, Zen Culture. *n older survey is '. T. !uGu,i, Zen and Eapanese Culture #%rinceton, /. E.D %rinceton 2niversity %ress, 49>9$. 9. 7a"pols,y, Zen Master @a,uin, p. ;. 48. %hilip 7a"pols,y, IMuro"achi Zen and the .oGan !yste",I in Eohn . @all and Toyoda Ta,eshi, eds., Eapan in the Muro"achi *ge #)er,eleyD 2niversity of California %ress, 49??$, p. 649. 44. 0ne of the best political histories of this era is !anso", @istory of Eapan. :or the history of Zen, the best wor, appears to be Martin Collcutt, The Zen Monastic -nstitution in Medieval Eapan #Ca"bridgeD @arvard 2niversity %ress, in press$, a revised version of the dissertation cited above. 4<. English sources on -,,yu are less co""on than "ight at first be supposed. The "ost exhaustive study and translation of original -,,yu writings to date is certainly that of Ea"es !anford, IZen+Man -,,yuI #%h.'. dissertation, @arvard 2niversity, 49?<$. There is also a lively and characteristically insightful essay by 'onald 3eene, IThe %ortrait of -,,yu,I in *rchives of *sian *rt, Col. <8 #4955+5?$, pp. >=+5>. This essay has been collected in 'onald 3eene, (andscapes and %ortraits #%alo *ltoD 3odansha -nternational, 49?4$. *nother wor, of -,,yu scholarship is !on&a *rntGen, I* %resentation of the %oet -,,yu with Translations fro" the 3younshu HMad Cloud *nthologyHI #2npublished thesis, 2niversity of )ritish Colu"bia, Cancouver, 4955$. 46. !ee Tho"as Cleary, The 0riginal :aceD *n *nthology of 1inGai Zen #/ew 7or,D .rove %ress, 49?;$, p. 46. *n exa"ple of a /asrudin+esJue parable told about -,,yu is the story of his approaching the house of a rich "an one day to beg for food wearing his torn robes and straw sandals. The "an drove hi" away, but when he returned the following day in the luxurious robe of a )uddhist prelate, he was invited in for a

banJuet. )ut when the food arrived -,,yu re"oved his robe and offered the food to it. 4=. !anford, IZen+Man -,,yu,I p. =;. 4>. -bid., p. 5;. 45. -bid. pp. ;8+;4. 4?. Translated by 3eene, (andscapes and %ortraits, p. <6>. %rofessor 3eene #personal co""unication$ has provided a revised and, he believes, "ore fully accurate translation of this verse as followsD *fter ten days of living in this te"ple "y "indHs in tur"oilK 1ed strings, very long, tug at "y feet. -f one day you get around to loo,ing for "e, Try the restaurants, the drin,ing places or the brothels. @e notes that the Ired stringsI of the second line refer to the ties of physical attach"ent to wo"en that drew -,,yu fro" the te"ple to the pleasure Juarters. 4;. Eon Covell and 7a"ada !obin, Zen at 'aito,u+&i #/ew 7or,D 3odansha -nternational, 49?=$, p. 65. 49. !anford, IZen+Man -,,yu,I p. <<4. <8. -bid., p. <<5. <4. -bid., p. <6>. <<. -bid., p. <<>. <6. -bid., pp. <>6+>=. * translation "ay also be found in Cleary, 0riginal :aceK and in 1. @. )lyth and /. *. addell, I-,,yuHs !,eletons,I The Eastern )uddhist, /.!. ?, 6 #May 49?6$, pp. 444+<>. *lso see )lyth, Zen and Zen Classics, Col. ?. <=. !anford clai"s #IZen+Man -,,yu,I p. 6=4$ that -,,yuHs prose is Ial"ost totally un,nownI in Eapan. <>. -bid., pp. 6<5+<?. <5. -bid., p. 4?<. <?. Ean Covell #Zen at 'aito,u+&i, p. 6;$ says, I-,,yuHs own in, paintings are unpretentious and see"ingly artless, always with the flung+in, techniJue. @is calligraphy is ran,ed a"ong historyHs greatest . . .I <;. !anford, IZen+Man -,,yu,I p. 6=<. :9.HAK0IN& +APANESE MASTER OF THE KOAN

4. 7a"pols,y, Zen Master @a,uin, p. 445. This is undoubtedly the definitive wor, by and about @a,uin in English and has been used for all the Juotations that follow. *nother translation of so"e of @a,uinHs wor,s is 1. '. M. !haw, The E"bossed Tea,ettle #(ondonD .eorge *llen F 2nwin, 4956$. * short translation of @a,uinHs writings "ay be found in Cleary, 0riginal :ace. %erhaps the "ost incisive biographical and interpretive "aterial "ay be found, respectively, in 'u"oulin, @istory of Zen )uddhis"K and -sshu and !asa,i, Zen 'ust. <. 7a"pols,y, Zen Master @a,uin, p. 44?. 6. -bid., p. 4;. =. -bid., pp. 44;+49. >. -bid., p. 449. 5. -bid., p. 4<4. ?. -bid., pp. 64+6<. ;. -bid., p. 66. 9. -bid., p. =9. 48. -bid., p. 66. 44. -bid., pp. ><+>6. 4<. -bid., p. >6. 46. -bid., p. >;. 4=. -bid. 4>. -bid., p. 6>. 45. -bid., pp. 56+5=. 4?. The Igreat ball of doubt,I ,nown in Chinese as i+tHuan, was a classic Zen phrase and has been traced by 1uth :uller !asa,i #Zen 'ust, p. <=?$ bac, to a tenth+ century Chinese "on,, who clai"ed in a poe", IThe ball of doubt within "y heartM as as big as a big wic,er bas,et.I @a,uinHs analysis of the Igreat ball of doubtI is translated in Zen 'ust, p. =6. 4;. @a,uinHs invention of his own ,oans, which were ,ept secret and never published, is a significant departure fro" the usual techniJue of si"ply ta,ing situations fro" the classic literature, and de"onstrates both his creativity and his intellectual independence. -t also raises the Juestion of whether they really were I,oansI under the traditional definition of Ipublic

caseI or whether they should be given a different na"e. 49. 7a"pols,y, Zen Master @a,uin, p. 45=. <8. The ,oan syste" of @a,uin is discussed by 7a"pols,y in Zen Master @a,uin, p. 4>K and by !asa,i, in The Zen 3oan, pp. <?+68. <4. 7a"pols,y, Zen Master @a,uin, p. 6<. <<. !ee '. T. !uGu,i, !engaiD The Zen Master #.reenwich, Conn.D /ew 7or, .raphic !ociety, 49?4$K )urton atson, 1yo,anD Zen Mon,+%oet of Eapan #/ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 49??$K and Eohn !tevens, 0ne 1obe, 0ne )owlD The Zen %oetry of 1yo,an #/ew 7or,D eatherhill, 49??$.

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@suan @ua. The !ixth %atriarchHs 'har"a Eewel %latfor" !utra. !an :ranciscoD )uddhist Text Translation !ociety, 49?4. @u !hih. IChHan #Zen$ )uddhis" in ChinaD -ts @istory and Method,I %hilosophy East and est, 6, 4 #*pril 49>6$, pp. 6+<=. +++++. IThe 'evelop"ent of Zen )uddhis" in China,I Chinese !ocial and %olitical !cience 1eview, 4>, = #Eanuary 496<$, pp. =?>+>8>. -nada, 3enneth 3. /agar&unaA* Translation of his Mula"adhya"a,a,ari,a ith *n -ntroductory Essay. To,yoD @o,useido, 49?8. -shihara, *,ira, and @oward !. (evy, The Tao of !ex. To,yoD !hibundo, 495;. 3alten"ar,, Max. (ao TGu and Taois". !tanford, Calif.D !tanford 2niversity %ress, 4959. 3alupahana, 'avid E. )uddhist %hilosophyD * @istorical *nalysis. @onoluluD 2niversity %ress of @awaii, 49?5. 3ato, )unno, 7oshiro Ta"ura, and 3o&iro Miyasa,a, trans. The Threefold (otus !utra. /ew 7or,D eatherhillM3osei, 49?>. 3eene, 'onald, IThe %ortrait of -,,yu,I (andscapes and %ortraits. %alo *ltoD 3odansha -nternational, 49?4. 3i", @ee+&in. 'ogen 3igenD Mystical 1ealist. %hoenixD 2niversity of *riGona %ress, 49?>. 3odera, Ta,ashi Ea"es. 'ogenHs :or"ative 7ears in China. (ondonD 1outledge F 3egan %aul, 49?9. 3ubose, .yo"ay M. Zen 3oans. ChicagoD 1egnery, 49?6. (atourette, 3enneth !cott. The ChineseD Their @istory and Culture. /ew 7or,D Mac"illan, 495=.

(au, '. C. (ao TGuATao Te Ching. )alti"oreD %enguin, 4956. ++++++ + +. Mencius. )alti"oreD %enguin, 49?8. (egge, Ea"es. * 1ecord of )uddhistic 3ingdo"s. /ew 7or,D 'over, 495>. (evenson, Eoseph 1., and :ranG !chur"ann. ChinaD *n -nterpretive @istory. )er,eleyD 2niversity of California %ress, 4959. (iebenthal, alter. Chao (unD The Treatises of !eng+chao. @ong 3ongD @ong 3ong 2niversity %ress, 495;. ++++++++. IChinese )uddhis" 'uring the =th and >th Centuries,I Monu"enta /ipponica, 44 #49>>$, pp. ==+;6. ++++++++. IThe !er"on of !hen+hui,I *sia Ma&or, /. !. 6, < #49><$, pp. 46<+>>. (ing, Trevor. The )uddha. )alti"oreD %enguin, 49?6. (u,, Charles. ChHan and Zen Teachings. 6 vols. (ondonD 1ider, 4958+5<. ++++++ + +. The Trans"ission of the Mind 0utside the Teaching. /ew 7or,D .rove, 49?>. ++++++++. The Ci"ala,irti /irdesa !utra. )er,eley, Calif.D !ha"bhala, 49?<. Mc/aughton, illia". The Taoist Cision. *nn *rborD 2niversity of Michigan, 49?4. Miura, -sshu, and 1uth :uller !asa,i. Zen 'ust. /ew 7or,D @arcourt, )race F orld, 4955. Morris, -van. The orld of the !hining %rinceD Court (ife in *ncient Eapan. /ew 7or,D 3nopf, 495=. Munro, 'onald E. The Concept of Man in Early China. !tanford, Calif.D !tanford 2niversity %ress, 4959.

/ishi"ura, Eshin. 2nsuiD * 'iary of Zen Monastic (ife. @onoluluD 2niversity %ress of @awaii, 49?6. /ishiya"a, 3osen, and Eohn !tevens. !hobogenGoD The Eye and Treasury of the True (aw. /ew 7or,D eatherhill, 49??. 0gata, !oha,u. Zen for the est. /ew 7or,D 'ial, 49>9.

%ardue, %eter *. )uddhis"D * @istorical -ntroduction to )uddhist Calues and the !ocial and %olitical :or"s they have *ssu"ed in *sia. /ew 7or,D Mac"illan, 49?4. %rice, *. :., and ong Mou+(a", trans. The 'ia"ond !utra and the !utra of @ui /eng. )er,eley, Calif.D !ha"bhala, 4959. %ullyblan,, Edwin. The )ac,ground of the 1ebellion of *n (u+shan. (ondonD 49>>. 1a"anan, 3. Cen,ata. /agar&unaHs %hilosophy. /ew 'elhiD Motilal )anarsidass, 49?>. 1eichelt, 3arl (udvig. Truth and Tradition in Chinese )uddhis". /ew 7or,D %aragon, 495;. 1eischauer, Edwin 0. EnninHs Travels in THang China. /ew 7or,D 1onald %ress, 49>>. ++++++++. EapanD %ast and %resent, 6rd. ed. /ew 7or,D 3nopf. 495=. 1eps, %aul, ed. Zen :lesh, Zen )ones. 1utland and To,yoD Tuttle, 49>?. 1obinson, 1ichard @. The )uddhist 1eligion. #1evised Edition$ )el"ont, CaliforniaD 'ic,enson %ublishing Co., -nc., 49?8. ++++++++. 1eview of )uddhis" in Chinese @istory, by *rthur :. right, Eournal of *"erican 0riental !ociety, ?9,= #0ctober+'ece"ber, 49>9$, pp. 646+6;.

!anford, Ea"es. IZen+Man -,,yu.I %h.'. dissertation, @arvard 2niversity, 49?<. #0btainable only fro" Ea"es !anford, 'epart"ent of 1eligion, 2niversity of /orth Carolina, Chapel @ill, /. C. <?>4=.$ !anso", .eorge ). * @istory of Eapan. 6 vols. !tanford, Calif.D !tanford 2niversity %ress, 49>;+56. !asa,i, 1uth :uller, trans. The 1ecorded !ayings of ChHan Master (in+chi @ui+chao of Chen %refecture. 3yotoD -nstitute for Zen !tudies, 49?>. ++++++ + +, 7oshita,a -riya, and 'ana 1. :raser. The 1ecorded !ayings of (ay"an %HangD * /inth+Century Zen Classic. /ew 7or,D eatherhill, 49?4. !ato, 3o&i. The Zen (ife. /ew 7or,D 49??. eatherhillMTan,osha,

!aunders, E. 'ale. )uddhis" in Eapan. %hiladelphiaD 2niversity of %ennsylvania %ress, 495=. !chloegl, -r"gard, trans. The Zen Teachings of 1inGai. )er,eley, Calif.D !ha"bhala, 49?5. !e,ida, 3atsu,i, trans. Two Zen ClassicsD Mu"on,an Er @e,iganro,u. /ew 7or,D eatherhill, 49??. !hafer, Edward. IThe (ast 7ears of ChHang+an.I 0riens Extre"us, < #0ctober 4956$, pp. 466+?9. !haw, 1. '. M. The E"bossed Tea,ettle. (ondonD *llen F 2nwin, 4956. ++++++ + +, trans. The )lue Cliff 1ecords. (ondonD Michael Eoseph, 4954. !hibaya"a, Zen,ei. Zen Co""ents on the Mu"on,an. Trans. !u"i,o 3udo. /ew 7or,D @arper F 1ow, 49?=. !ho,o, atanabe. Eapanese )uddhis"D * Critical *ppraisal. To,yoD Eapanese Cultural !ociety, 49?8.

!"ith, '. @oward. Chinese 1eligions. /ew 7or,D @olt, 1inehart and inston, 495;. !nyder, .ary. I@an+shan,I in Cyril )irch, ed., *nthology of Chinese (iterature. /ew 7or,D .rove, 495>. !tevens, Eohn. 0ne 1obe 0ne )owiD The Zen %oetry of 1yo,an. /ew 7or,D eatherhill, 49??. !treng, :rederic, E. E"ptinessD * !tudy in 1eligious Meaning. /ashvilleD *bingdon, 495?. !uGu,i, 'aisetG T. Essays in Zen )uddhis" #:irst !eries$. (ondonD 1ider, 49=9K paperbac, edition, /ew 7or,D .rove,4954. ++++++ + +. Essays in Zen )uddhis" #!econd !eries$. (ondonD 1ider, 49>6K paperbac, edition, /ew 7or,D eiser, 49?4. ++++++ + +. Essays in Zen )uddhis" #Third !eries$. (ondonD 1ider, 49>6K paperbac, edition, /ew 7or,D eiser, 49?4. +++++. The (an,avatara !utra. (ondonD 1outledge F 3egan %aul, 495;. ++++++ + +. Manual of Zen )uddhis". /ew 7or,D .rove, 4958. ++++++ + +. !engaiD The Zen Master. .reenwich, Conn.D /ew 7or, .raphic !ociety, 49?4. ++++. !tudies in the (an,avatara !utra. (ondonD 1outledge F 3egan %aul, 4968. ++++++++. Zen and Eapanese Culture. %rinceton, /. E.D %rinceton 2niversity %ress, 49>9. ++++++++. The Zen 'octrine of /o Mind. /ew 7or,D eiser, 49?<. ++++++ + +. The Zen Mon,Hs (ife. 3yotoD Eastern )uddhist !ociety, 496=K paperbac, edition, /ew 7or,D 0ly"pia, 49?<. Trevor, @. M., trans. The 0x and @is @erds"an, * Chinese Zen Text. To,yoD @o,useido, 4959.

Twitchett, 'enis. IMonastic Estates in THang China,I *sia Ma&or, > #49>>+>5$, pp. 4<6+=5. Carley, @. %aul. -"perial 1estoration in Medieval Eapan. /ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 49?4. ++++++++. The 0nin ar. /ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 495?. ++++++++. !a"urai. /ew 7or,D 'elacorte, 49?8K paperbac, edition, /ew 7or,D 'ell, 49?<. aley, *rthur. The *nalects of Confucius. /ew 7or,D Cintage, 496;. ++++++++. The )oo, of !ongs. /ew 7or,D .rove, 496?. ++++++++. The (ife and Ti"es of %o Chii+-. (ondonD *llen F 2nwin, 49=9. ++++++++. The %oetry and Career of (i %o. (ondonD *llen F 2nwin, 49>8. ++++++++. Three ays of Thought in *ncient China. /ew 7or,D 'oubleday, undated reprint of 4969 edition. ++++++++. Translations fro" the Chinese. /ew 7or,D Cintage, 495;. ++++++ + +. I<? %oe"s by @an+shan.I Encounter, 6, 6 #!epte"ber 49>=$, p. 6. ++++++++. The ay and -ts %owerD * !tudy of the Tao Te Ching and -ts %lace in Chinese Thought. /ew 7or,D .rove %ress, 49>;. altha", Clae. Chuang+TGuD .enius of the *bsurd. /ew 7or,D *ce, 49?4. atson, )urton. Chinese (yricis". /ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 49?4. ++++++++. Cold Mountain. /ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 49?8. ++++++++. 1yo,anD Zen Mon,+%oet of Eapan. /ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 49??. ++++++++, trans. The Co"plete or,s of Chuang TGu. /ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 495;. eber, Max. The 1eligion of China. /ew 7or,D :ree %ress, 49>4.

elch, @ol"es. Taois"D The %arting of the )eacon %ress, 49>?.

ay. )ostonD

ilhel", 1ichard, trans. The !ecret of the .olden :lower. /ew 7or,D @arcourt, )race, 4964. right, *rthur :. I)uddhis" and Chinese CultureD %hases of -nteraction,I Eournal of *sian !tudies, 4; #49>?+>;$ pp. 4?+=<. ++++++++. )uddhis" in Chinese @istory. !tanfordD !tanford 2niversity %ress, 49>9. u, Eohn C. @. The .olden *ge of Zen. Taipei, TaiwanD Co""ittee on Co"pilation of the Chinese (ibrary, 495?. u, Chi+yu. I* !tudy of @an !han.I THoung %ao, =+> #49>?$. 7a"ada, 3oun. .ateless .ate. (os *ngelesD Center %ublications, 49?9. 7a"pols,y, %hilip ). The %latfor" !utra of the !ixth %atriarch. /ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 495?. ++++++++ trans. The Zen Master @a,uinD !elected ritings. /ew 7or,D Colu"bia 2niversity %ress, 49?4. 7o,oi, 7uho. Zen Master 'ogen. /ew 7or,D eatherhill, 49?5.

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