6

Fuels, Combustion, and Efciency of Boilers and Heaters

6.01 Estimatin$ HH% &'i$'er 'eatin$ (alue) and *H% &lo+er 'eatin$ (alue) of fuels from ultimate analysis, relatin$ 'eat in-uts based on HH% and *H%, relatin$ boiler efciencies based on HH% and *H% 6.02 Estimatin$ HH% and *H% of fuel oils if ./0 is 1no+n 6.03 Calculatin$ cost of fuels on 22 Btu &million Btu) basis, com-arin$ electricity cost +it' cost of fuels 6.04 Estimatin$ annual fuel cost for -o+er -lants, relatin$ 'eat rates +it' efciency of -o+er -lants 6.0 3eterminin$ $as re$ulator settin$s for different fuels 6.06 Correctin$ fuel 4o+ meter readin$s for o-eratin$ fuel $as -ressures and tem-eratures 6.0! 3eterminin$ ener$y, steam 5uantity, and electric 'eater ca-acity re5uired for 'eatin$ air 6.0" 3eterminin$ ener$y, steam 5uantity, and electric 'eater ca-acity re5uired for 'eatin$ fuel oils 6.0# Combustion calculations from ultimate analysis of fuels, determinin$ +et and dry air and 4ue $as 5uantities, (olumetric analysis of 4ue $as on +et and dry basis, -artial -ressures of +ater (a-or and carbon dio6ide in 4ue $as, molecular +ei$'t and density of 4ue $as 6.10 Combustion calculations on 22 Btu basis, determinin$ air and 4ue $as 5uantities in t'e absence of fuel data

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.1 6.16a 6.16b 6.1! 6.1" 6.1#

6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.2 a 6.2 b 6.2 c 6.2 d 6.26a 6.26b 6.26c 6.26d 6.26e 6.26f 6.2!a 6.2!b 6.2!c 6.2"

Estimatin$ e6cess air from 4ue $as C72 readin$s Estimatin$ e6cess air from C72 and 72 readin$s, estimatin$ e6cess air from 72 readin$s alone Effect of reducin$ o6y$en in 4ue $as, calculatin$ 4ue $as -roduced, calculatin$ ener$y sa(ed and reduction in fuel cost Effect of fuel 'eatin$ (alues on air and 4ue $as -roduced in boilers 3eterminin$ combustion tem-erature of different fuels in t'e absence of fuel analysis Calculatin$ as' concentration in 4ue $ases 8elatin$ as' concentration bet+een mass and (olumetric units 3eterminin$ meltin$ -oint of as' 1no+in$ as' analysis 3eterminin$ 972 and 973 in 4ue $ases in lb:22 Btu and in --m &(olume) 3eterminin$ efciency of boilers and 'eaters, efciency on HH% basis, dry $as loss, loss due to moisture and combustion of 'ydro$en, loss due to moisture in air, radiation loss, efciency on *H% basis, +et 4ue $as loss, relatin$ efciencies on HH% and *H% basis 3eterminin$ efciency of boilers and 'eaters on HH% and *H% basis from 4ue $as analysis *oss due to C7 formation 9im-le formula for efciency determination 3eterminin$ radiation losses in boilers and 'eaters if casin$ tem-erature and +ind (elocity are 1no+n %ariation of 'eat losses and efciency +it' boiler load 9ulfur de+ -oint of 4ue $ases Com-utin$ acid de+ -oints for (arious acid (a-ors Effect of $as tem-erature on corrosion -otential .not'er correlation for sulfuric acid de+ -oint Con(ertin$ ;76 and C7 from lb:' to --m for turbine e6'aust $ases Con(ertin$ ;76 and C7 from lb:' to --m for red boilers Con(ertin$ <HC from lb:22 Btu to --m Con(ertin$ 976 from lb:22 Btu to --m Con(ertin$ ;76 and C7 from lb:' to --m before and after au6iliary rin$ in an H89= 8elatin$ steam $enerator emission from measured o6y$en (alue to 3> basis 76y$en consum-tion (ersus fuel in-ut for $as turbine e6'aust $ases 3eterminin$ $as turbine e6'aust $as analysis after au6iliary rin$ 3eterminin$ turbine e6'aust $as tem-erature after au6iliary rin$ 8elatin$ 'eat rates of en$ines to fuel consum-tion

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

6.01 DC Ho+ are t'e HH% &'i$'er 'eatin$ (alue) and *H% &lo+er 'eatin$ (alue) of fuels estimated +'en t'e ultimate analysis is 1no+nE .C Fe can use t'e e6-ressions G1H 7 HH% ? 14, 00 @ C A 62,000 @ H2 B 2 A 4000 @ 9 " *H% ? HH% B #!20 @ H2 B 1110F I1J I2J

+'ere F is t'e fraction by +ei$'t of moisture in fuel, and C, H2 , 72, and 9 are fractions by +ei$'t of carbon, 'ydro$en, o6y$en, and sulfur in t'e fuel. 0f a coal 'as C ? 0C"0, H2 ? 0C003, 72 ? 0C00 , F ? 0C0!3, 9 ? 0C006, and t'e rest as', nd its HH% and *H%. 9ubstitutin$ into E5s. &1) and &2), +e 'a(e 0C00 HH% ? 14, 00 @ 0C"0 A 62,000 @ 0C003 B " A 4000 @ 0C006 ? 11,!!1 Btu:lb *H% ? 11,!!1 B #!20 @ 0C003 B 1110 @ 0C0!3 ? 11,66" Btu:lb Fuel in-uts to furnaces and boilers and efciencies are often s-ecied +it'out reference to t'e 'eatin$ (alues, +'et'er HH% or *H%, +'ic' is misleadin$. 0f a burner 'as a ca-acity of D 22 Btu:' &million Btu:') on HH% basis, its ca-acity on *H% basis +ould be D*H% ? DHH% @ *H% HH% I3aJ

9imilarly, if KHH% and K*H% are t'e efciencies of a boiler on HH% and *H% basis, res-ecti(ely, t'ey are related as follo+sC KHH% @ HH% ? K*H% @ *H% 6.02a DC Ho+ can +e estimate t'e HH% and *H% of a fuel oil in t'e absence of its ultimate analysisE I3bJ

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

.C =enerally, t'e ./0 of a fuel oil +ill be 1no+n, and t'e follo+in$ e6-ressions can be usedC HH% ? 1!,""! A !C @ ./0 B 102C2 @ >9 *H% ? HH% B #1C23 @ >H2 +'ere >H2 is t'e -ercent 'ydro$en by +ei$'t. >H2 ? F B +'ere F F F F ? 24C 0 for 0 ? 2 C00 for # ? 2 C20 for 20 ? 2 C4 for 30 ./0 ./0 ./0 ./0 # 20 30 40 2122C ./0 A 131C I J I4aJ I4bJ

HH% and *H% are in Btu:lb.

6.02b DC 3etermine t'e HH% and *H% of 30 ./0 fuel oil in Btu:$al and in Btu:lb. .ssume t'at >9 is 0. . .C From E5. &4a), HH% ? 1!,""! A !C @ 30 B 102C2 @ 0C ? 1#,6 1 Btu:lb Lo calculate t'e density or s-ecic $ra(ity of fuel oils +e can use t'e e6-ression s? Hence 3ensity ? 0C"!6 @ "C33 ? !C3 lb:$al ".33 is t'e density of li5uids in lb:$al +'en s ? 1. HH% in BtuM$al ? 1#, 61 @ !C3 ? 142,!# 141C 131C A ./0 ? 141C 131C A 30 ? 0C"!6 I6J

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

From E5. & ), >H2 ? 2 C2 B 2122C 131C A 30 ? 12C0

*H% ? 1#, 61 B #1C23 @ 12C0 ? 1",460 Btu:lb ? 1",460 @ !C3 ? 134,! " Btu:$al

6.03a DC . $ood +ay to com-are fuel costs is to c'ec1 t'eir (alues -er 22 Btu red. 0f coal 'a(in$ HH% ? # 00 Btu:lb costs N2 :lon$ ton, +'at is t'e cost in N:22 BtuE .C 1 lon$ ton ? 2240 lb. 1 22 Btu 'as 106:# 00 ? 10 +ould cost 10 @ 2 2240 ? N1C1!:22 Btu lb of coal. Hence 10 lb

6.03b DC 0f ;o. 6 fuel oil costs 30 cents:$al, is it c'ea-er t'an t'e coal in D6.03aE .C Lable 6.1 $i(es t'e HH% of fuel oils. 0t is 1 2,400 Btu:$al. Hence 1 22 Btu +ould cost 106 1 2,400 @ 0C30 ? N1C#6:22 Btu

6.03c DC F'ic' is less e6-ensi(e, electricity at 1. cents:1F' or $as at N3:22 BtuE .C 3413 Btu ? 1 1F'. .t 1. cents:1F', 1 22 Btu of electricity costs &106:3413) @ 1. :100 ? N4.4. Hence in t'is case, electricity is costlier t'an $as. L'is e6am-le ser(es to illustrate t'e con(ersion of units and does not im-ly t'at t'is situation +ill -re(ail in all re$ions.

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

L.B*E 6.1 Ly-ical Heat Contents of %arious 7ils

Ly-ical oil 9-. $r. 60 F =ross Btu:$al 160,426 1 #,03" 1 !,6#2 1 6,3"4 1 ,11 1 3,""1 1 2,6"1 1 1, 1 1 0,3"0 14#,2! 14",200 14!,1 3 146,132 14 ,13" 144,16" 143,223 142,300 141,400 140, 21 13#,664 13","26 13",00! 13!,20! =ross 1cal:* 10,6"1 10, "# 10,4## 10,412 10,32" 10,246 10,166 10,0"" 10,013 #,#3# #,"6! #,!#" #,!30 #,664 #, ## #, 36 #,4! #,41 #,3 6 #,2## #,243 #,1"# #,136 Ft> H ".3 # ".601 "."36 #.064 #.2" 10.00 10.21 10.41 10.61 10."0 10.## 11.3! 11. 11.!2 11."# 12.06 12.4! 12.63 12.!" 12.#3 13.0! O O ;et Btu:$al 1 3,664 1 2,1"3 1 0,! 2 14#,36" 14",02" 146,3 1 14 ,100 143,""" 142,!12 141, !2 140,466 13#,2 1 13",210 13!,1#" 136,214 13 ,2 " 134,163 133,2 # 132,3"0 131, 24 130,6"# O O ;et 1cal:* 10,231 10,133 10,03! #,#4 #," 6 #,!44 #,661 #, "0 #, 02 #,426 #,3 3 #,2!2 #,202 #,13 #,06# #,006 ",#33 ","!3 ","14 ",! ! ",!02 O O 9-. Lem-. .ir 9-. 'eat 'eat at corr. 60 F <lt. at 40 F 300 F & ./0M F) &ft3:$al) >C72 0.3#1 0.3#4 0.3#! 0.400 0.403 0.406 0.40# 0.412 0.41 0.41! 0.420 0.423 0.426 0.42" 0.431 0.434 0.436 0.43# 0.442 0.444 0.44! 0.4 0 0.4 2 0. 04 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0" 12 16 1# 23 2! 30 34 3" 41 4 4" 2 # 62 66 6# !2 !6 !# "2 0.04 O O 0.04" 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.0 2 0.0 4 0.0 6 0.0 " 0.060 0.061 0.063 0.06 0.06! 0.0"# 0.0!2 0.0!4 0.0!6 0.0!# 0.0"2 0.0" 0.0"" 1 "1 O O 1 2# 1 13 1 0# 14#4 14!" 1463 144" 1433 1423 140# 13# 13"1 136" 1360 134! 1334 1321 130# O O O O 1".0 1!.6 1!.1 16.! 16.4 16.1 1 ." 1 . 1 .2 14.# 14.! 14. 14.3 14.0 13." 13.6 13.4 13.3 13.1 13.0 12."

./0
0 2 4 6 " 10 12 14 16 1" 20 22 24 26 2" 30 32 34 36 3" 40 42 44

&1 .6 C) lb:$al 1$:m3 1.0!6 1.060 1.044 1.02# 1.014 1.000 0.#"6 0.#!3 0.# # 0.#46 0.#34 0.#22 0.#10 0."#" 0.""! 0."!6 0."6 0." 0."4 0."3 0."2 0."16 0."06 ".#6# "."34 ".!04 ". !! ".4 4 ".33 ".21# ".106 !.##6 !.""# !.!" !.6"3 !. " !.4"" !.3#4 !.303 !.213 !.126 !.041 6.# " 6."!! 6.!#" 6.!20 1,0! 1,0 # 1,043 1,002" 1,013 1,000 #" .0 #!1. # ".3 #4 . #33.0 #20.# #0#.# "#!. ""6.2 "! .2 "64. " 4.1 "43.# "33.# "24.2 "14.! "0 .4

;o. 6 oil

;o.

oil

;o. 4 oil ;o. 2 oil

;o. 1 oil

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

6.04 DC Estimate t'e annual fuel cost for a 300 2F coalPred -o+er -lant if t'e o(erall efciency is 40> and t'e fuel cost is N1.1:22 Btu. L'e -lant o-erates for 6000 ':yr. .C /o+er -lants 'a(e efciencies in t'e ran$e of 3 Q42>. .not'er +ay of e6-ressin$ t'is is to use t'e term 'eat rate, dened as Heat rate ? 3413 efficiency Btu:1F'

0n t'is case it is 3413:0.4 ? " 30 Btu:1F'. .nnual fuel cost ? 1000 @ me$a+att @ 'eat rate @ I':yrJ @ cost of fuel in N:22 Btu ? 1000 @ 300 @ " 30 @ 6000 1C1 106 @ ? N16C# @ 106 L'e fuel cost for any ot'er ty-e of -o+er -lant could be found in a similar fas'ion. Heat rates are -ro(ided by -o+er -lant su--liers. 6.0 DC . 20 22 Btu:' burner +as rin$ natural $as of HH% ? 10 0 Btu:scf +it' a s-ecic $ra(ity of 0.6. 0f it is no+ re5uired to burn -ro-ane 'a(in$ HH% ? 2300 Btu:scf +it' a s-ecic $ra(ity of 1. , and if t'e $as -ressure to t'e burner +as set at 4 -si$ earlier for t'e same duty, estimate t'e ne+ $as -ressure. .ssume t'at t'e $as tem-erature in bot' cases is 60 F. .C L'e 'eat in-ut to t'e burner is s-ecied on HH% basis. L'e fuel 4o+ rate +ould be D:HH%, +'ere D is t'e duty in Btu:'. L'e $as -ressure differential bet+een t'e $as -ressure re$ulator and t'e furnace is used to o(ercome t'e 4o+ resistance accordin$ to t'e e5uation 3/ ? +'ere 3/ ? -ressure differential, -si RFf2 r I!J

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

R ? a constant r ? $as density ? 0.0! s &s is t'e $as s-ecic $ra(ity, s ? 1 for air) Ff ? fuel 4o+ rate in lb:' ? 4o+ in scf' @ 0.0! s *et t'e subscri-ts 1 and 2 denote natural $as and -ro-ane, res-ecti(ely. 20 @ 106 @ 0C0! @ 0C6 10 0 20 @ 106 2300 @ 0C0! @ 1C

Ff 1 ? Ff 2 ?

3/1 ? 4, r1 ? 0C0! @ 0C6, and r2 ? 0C0! @ 1C . Hence, from E5. &!), 3/1 ? 3/2 or 3/2 ? 2C0" -si$ Hence, if t'e $as -ressure is set at about 2 -si$, +e can obtain t'e same duty. L'e calculation assumes t'at t'e bac1-ressure 'as not c'an$ed. Ff21r2 Ff22r1 4 3/2 I2300J2 0C6 @ 1C I10 0J2

6.06 DC =as 4o+ measurement usin$ dis-lacement meters indicates actual cubic feet of $as consumed. Ho+e(er, $as is billed, $enerally, at reference conditions of 60 F and 14.6 -sia &4 oS). Hence $as 4o+ 'as to be corrected for actual -ressure and tem-erature. /lant en$ineers s'ould be a+are of t'is con(ersion. 0n a $asPred boiler -lant, 1000 cu ft of $as -er 'our +as measured, $as conditions bein$ 60 -si$ and "0 F. 0f t'e $as 'as a 'i$'er caloric (alue of 10 0 Btu:scf, +'at is t'e cost of fuel consumed if ener$y costs N4:22 BtuE .C L'e fuel consum-tion at standard conditions is found as follo+s. Ls /sLa I"J

%s ? %a/a

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

+'ere %s, %a ? fuel consum-tion, standard and actual, cu ftM' Ls ? reference tem-erature of 20 8 La ? actual tem-erature, 8 /s, /a ? standard and actual -ressures, -sia 20 %s ? 100 @ I30 A 14C22J 14C6 @ 40 @ ? 2#00 scf' Hence Ener$y used ? 2#00 @ 10 0 ? 3.0 22 Btu:' Cost of fuel ? 3.0 @ 4 ? N12.2:'. 0f -ressure and tem-erature corrections are not used, t'e dis-lacement meter readin$ can lead to incorrect fuel consum-tion data.

6.0! DC Estimate t'e ener$y in Btu:' and in 1ilo+atts &1F) for 'eatin$ ! ,000 lb:' of air from #0 F to 22 F. F'at is t'e steam 5uantity re5uired if 200 -sia saturated steam is used to accom-lis' t'e duty noted abo(eE F'at siSe of electric 'eater +ould be usedE .C L'e ener$y re5uired to 'eat t'e air can be e6-ressed as D ? Fa C- 3L +'ere D ? duty, BtuM' Fa ? air flo+, lbM' C- ? s-ecific 'eat of air, BtuMlb F 3L ? tem-erature rise, F C- may be ta1en as 0.2 for t'e s-ecied tem-erature ran$e. D ? ! ,000 @ 0C2 @ I22 B #0J ? 2C 3 @ 10 6 Btu:' I#J

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

<sin$ t'e con(ersion factor 3413 Btu ? 1 1F', +e 'a(e D ? 2C 3 @ 106 3413 ? !41 1F

. ! 0 1F 'eater or t'e ne6t 'i$'er siSe could be c'osen. 0f steam is used, t'e 5uantity can be estimated by di(idin$ D in Btu:' by t'e latent 'eat obtained from t'e steam tables &see t'e .--endi6). .t 200 -sia, t'e latent 'eat is "43 Btu:lb. Hence 9team re5uired ? 2C @ 106 "43 ? 3046 lb:'

6.0" DC Estimate t'e steam re5uired at 2 -si$ to 'eat 20 $-m of 1 ./0 fuel oil from 40 F to 1"0 F. 0f an electric 'eater is used, +'at s'ould be its ca-acityE .C Lable 6.2 $i(es t'e 'eat content of fuel oils in Btu:$al G2H. .t 1"0 F, ent'al-y is 2# Btu:$al, and at 40 F it is 26 Btu:$al. Hence t'e ener$y absorbed by t'e fuel oil is D ? 20 @ 60 @ I 2# B 26J ? 0C6 @ 106 Btu:' ? 0C6 @ 106 3413 ? 1! 1F

L'e latent 'eat of steam &from t'e steam tables) is #34 Btu:lb at 2 -si$ or 40 -sia. Hence 9team re5uired ? 0C6 @ 106 #34 ? 646 lb:'

0f an electric 'eater is used, its ca-acity +ill be a minimum of 1! 1F. .llo+in$ for radiation losses, +e may c'oose a 200 1F 'eater. 0n t'e absence of information on fuel oil ent'al-y, use a s-ecic $ra(ity of 0.# and a s-ecic 'eat of 0. Btu:lb F. Hence t'e duty +ill be 0C# D ? 20 @ 60 @ 62C40 @ 0C @ I1"0 B 40J !C4" @ ? 0C63 @ 106 Btu:' &!.4" is t'e con(ersion factor from cubic feet to $allons.)

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

L.B*E 6.2 Heat Content &Btu:$al) of %arious 7ilsa

=ra(ity, ./0 at 60 F &1 .6 C) 10 Lem-. & F) 32 60 100 120 140 160 1"0 200 220 240 260 300 400 00 600 !00 "00
a

20

2 30 3 9-ecic $ra(ity, 60 F:60 F 0.#042 0 0 #0 226 2# 366 43" 11 "! 663 !41 "20 #"4 1416 2041 1""4 2434 23"! 2"62 2#2! 332! 3 02 3"2! 0."!62 0 0 "# 222 2#0 360 431 1236 03 12#3 !! 13 2 6 2 1412 !2# 14!4 "0! 1 3! #6" 166" 13#3 201" 1" 4 2404 23 0 2"2 2""1 32"1 344! 3!!2 0."4#" 0 0 "! 21# 2"6 3 42 4#6 6# 643 !1" !# # 4 13!2 1##! 1"26 23!6 2314 2!"# 2"3! 323! 33# 3!20

40

1.0000 0 0 # 23! 310 3"4 460 3" 61! 6#! !!# "62 1034 14"# 1#"1 2 11 30!" 34!" 36"3 400"

0.#6 # 0 0 #3 233 30 3!" 4 3 2# 60! 6"6 !66 "4" 101! 1463 20"" 1#4! 24#! 246! 2#42 302 342 361# 3#44

0.#340 0 0 #2 22# 300 3!1 44 20 #6 13!1 6!4 1434 ! 3 14#" "33 1 63 ### 16## 143# 2064 1#14 2464 2426 2#01 2#!4 33!4 3 # 3""4

0."2 1 0 0 "6 21 106 2"1 1116 34# 116# 41" 1223 4"" 12!" 60 133 633 13#3 !0! 14 2 !"3 1 13 #3# 163# 13 2 1#!! 1!## 234# 22"1 2! 6 2!#6 31#6 334 36!0

0."01! 0 0 " #6 1062 1112 1164 121! 12!2 132! 13"4 1442 1 02 1626 1333 1# " 1!!4 2324 224" 2!23 2! 6 31 6 32#! 3622

%alues in re$ular ty-e are for li5uid, bold (alues are for (a-or.

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L.B*E 6.3 Combustion Constants

Heat of combusionc 9- $r ;o. 9ubstance 1 Carbon 2 Hydro$en 3 76y$en 4 ;itro$en &atm) Carbon mon6ide 6 Carbon dio6ide /arafn series CnH2nA2 ! 2et'ane " Et'ane # /ro-ane 10 nPButane 11 0sobutane 12 nP/entane 13 0so-entane 14 ;eo-entane 1 nPHe6ane 7len series Cn H2n 16 Et'ylene 1! /ro-ylene 1" nPButene &butylene) 1# 0sobutene 20 nP/entene .romatic series Cn H2nB6 21 BenSene C6 H6 22 Loluene C! H" 23 Tylene C" H10 2iscellaneous $ases 24 .cetylene 2 ;a-'t'alene 26 2et'yl alco'ol 2! Et'yl alco'ol 2$ .mmonia 2# 9ulfur 30 Hydro$en sulde 31 9ulfur dio6ide 32 Fater (a-or 33 .ir Formula C H2 72 ;2 C7 C72 2ol. +ta 12.01 2.016 32.000 2".016 2".01 44.01 *b -er cu ftb O O Cu ft -er lbb air ? 1,000b O 0.06# # 1.10 3 0.#!1"e 0.#6!2 1. 2"2 Btu:cu ft =ross O ;etd O Btu:lb =ross
$

;etd

0.00 32! 1"!.!23 0.0"461 11."1# 0.0!43#c 13.443c 0.0!404 13. 06 0.11!0 ". 4"

32 .0 2! .0 O O O O 321." 321." O O

14,0#3 14,0#3 1,623 61,100 O O O O 4,34! 4,34! O O

CH4 C2 H6 C3 H" C4 H10 C4 H10 C H12 C H12 C H12 C6 H14

16.041 30.06! 44.0#2 ".11" ".11" !2.144 !2.144 !2.144 "6.16#

0.04243 0.0"02#c 0.11#6c 0.1 "2c 0.1 "2e 0.1#04e 0.1#04e 0.1#04e 0.22!4e

23. 6 12.4 c ".36 c 6.321c 6.321e .2 2e .2 2e .2 2e 4.3#$e

0. 43 1.04""2e 1. 61!c 2.066 4e 2.066 4e 2.4"!2c 2.4$!2e 2.4"!2e 2.#!04c

1013.2 1!#2 2 #0 33!0 3363 4016 400" 3##3 4!62

#13.1 1641 23" 3113 310 3!0# 3!16 36#3 4412

23,"!# 22,320 21,661 21,30" 21,2 ! 21,0#1 21,0 2 20,#!0 20,#40

21, 20 20,432 1#,#44 1#,6"0 1#,62# 1#, 1! 1#,4!$ 1#,3#6 1#,403

C2 C3 C4 C4 C

H4 H6 H" H" H10

2".0 1 42.0!! 6.102 6.102 !0.12"

0.0!4 6 0.1110e 0.14"0e 0.14"0e 0.1" 2e

13.412 #.00!e 6.! 6e 6.! 6e .400e

0.#!40 1.4 04e 1.#336e 1.#336e 2.41#0e

1613." 2336 30"4 306" 3"36

1 13.2 21"6 2$$ 2$6# 3 "6

21,644 21,041 20,"40 20,!30 20,!12

20,2# 1#,6#1 1#,4#6 1#,3"2 1#,363

!6.10! 0.2060c #2.132 0.2431c 106.1 " 0.2"03e

4." 2c 2.6#20e 3! 1 4.113e 3.1!60e 44"4 3. 6!e 3.661"e 230

3601 42"4 4#"0

1$,210 1",440 1",6 0

1!,4"0 1!,620 1!,!60

C2 H2 26.036 0.06#!1 C10H" 12".162 0.33"4e CH3 7H 32.041 0.0"46e C2 H 7H 46.06! 0.1216e ;H3 1!.031 0.04 6e 9 H2 9 972 H2 7 O 32.06 34.0!6 O
e

14.344 2.# e 11."20e ".221e 21.#14e O 10.#!# .!!0 21.01!e 13.063

e

0.#10! 4.420"e 1.10 2e 1. "#0e 0. #61e O 1.1$#" 2.264 0.621 e 1.0000

e

14## " 4f $6!.# 1600.3 441.1 O 64! O O O

144" 6 4f !6".0 14 0. 36 .1 O #6 O O O

21, 00 20,!!6 1!,2#"f 16,!0"f 10,2 # #,0!" 13,161 11,#2# #,66" ",001 3,#"3 3,#"3

0.0#10# 64.06 0.1!33 1".016 0.04! "e 26.# 0.0!6

!,100 6, 4 O O O O O O

.ll $as (olumes corrected to 60 F and 30 in. H$ dry. For $ases saturated +it' +ater at 60 F, 1.!3> of t'e Btu (alue must be deducted.
a b

Calculated from atomic +ei$'ts $i(en in Uournal of t'e .merican C'emical 9ociety, February 1#3!. 3ensities calculated from (alues $i(en in $* at 0 C and !60 mmH in t'e 0nternational Critical Lables allo+in$ for t'e 1no+n

de(iations from t'e $as la+s. F'ere t'e coefcient of e6-ansion +as not a(ailable, t'e assumed (alue +as ta1en as 0.003! -er C. Com-are t'is +it' 0.003662, +'ic' is t'e coefcient for a -erfect $as. F'ere no densities +ere a(ailable, t'e (olume of t'e mole +as ta1en as 22.411 *. Con(erted to mean Btu -er lb &1:1"0 of t'e 'eat -er lb of +ater from 32 to 212 F) from data by Frederic1 3. 8ossini, ;ational Bureau of 9tandards, letter of .-ril 10, 1#3!, e6ce-t as noted.
c

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Cu ft -er cu ft of combustible 8e5uired for combustion 72 O 0. O O 0. O O 1.""2 O O 1.""2 O ;2 .ir O 2.3"2 O O 2.3"2 O

*b -er lb of combustible 8e5uired for combustion 72 2.664 !.#3! O O 0. !1 O ;2 "."63 26.40! O O 1.#00 O .ir C72 O O O 1. !1 O E6-erimental error in 'eat of combustion & V >) 0.012 0.01 O O 0.04 O

Flue -roducts C72 O O O O 1.0 O H2 7 O 1.0 O O O O O 1.""2 O O 1.""2 O ;2

Flue -roducts H2 7 O ".#3! O O O O ;2 "."63 26.40! O O 1.#00 O

11. 2! 3.664 34.344 O O 2.4!1 O

2.0 3. .0 6. 6. ".0 ".0 ".0 #.

!. 2" 13.1! 1"."21 24.46! 24.46! 30.114 30.114 30.114 3 .!60

#. 2" 16.6! 23."21 30.#6! 30.#6! 3".114 3".114 3".114 4 .260

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 .0 .0 .0 6.0

2.0 3.0 4.0 .0 .0 6.0 6.0 6.0 !.0

!. 2" 13.1! 1"."21 24.46! 24.46! 30.114 30.114 30.114 3 .!60

3.##0 3.!2 3.62# 3. !# 3. !# 3. 4" 3. 4" 3. 4" 3. 2"

13.2! 12.3#4 12.0!4 11.#0" 11.#0" 11."0 11."0 11."0 11.!3"

1!.26 16.11# 1 .!03 1 .4"! 1 .4"! 1 .3 3 1 .3 3 1 .3 3 1 .266

2.!44 2.#2! 2.##4 3.02# 3.02# 3.0 0 3.0 0 3.0 0 3.064

2.246 1.!#" 1.634 1. 0 1. 0 1.4#" 1.4#" 1.4#" 1.464

13.2! 12.3#4 12.0!4 11.#0" 11.#0" 11."0 11."0 11."0 11.!3"

0.033 0.030 0.023 0.022 0.01# 0.02 0.0!1 0.11 0.0

3.0 4. 6.0 6.0 !.

11.2#3 16.#3# 22. " 22. " 2".232

14.2#3 21.43# 2". " 2". " 3 .!32

2.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 .0

2.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 .0

11.2#3 16.#3# 22. " 22. " 2".232

3.422 3.422 3.422 3.422 3.422

11.3" 11.3" 11.3" 11.3" 11.3"

14."0! 14."0! 14."0! 14."0! 14."0!

3.13" 3.13" 3.13" 3.13" 3.13"

1.2" 1.2" 1.2" 1.2" 1.2"

11.3" 11.3" 11.3" 11.3" 11.3"

0.021 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.03!

!. #.0 10.

2".232 3 .!32 6.0 33."!" 32.$!" !.0 3#. 24 0.024 ".0

3.0 4.0 .0

2".232 3.0!3 10.224 13.2#! 3.3"1 0.6#2 10.224 33."!" 3.126 10.401 13. 2! 3.344 0.!"2 10.401 3#. 24 3.16 10. 30 13.6# 3.31! 0."4# 10. 30

0.12 0.21 0.36

2. #.411 11.#11 2.0 12.0 4 .1!0 !.1!0 10.0 1. .646 !.146 1.0 3.0 11.2#3 14.2#3 2.0 0.! 2."23 3. !3 O O 1. O O O
d

1.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 1. O 1.0 O O O

#.411 4 .1!0 .646 11.2#3 3.323

O .646 !.146 1.0 O O O O O O

O 972

O O O

10.224 13.2#! 3.3"1 0.6#2 #.#6" 12.#64 3.434 0. 62 4.#"4 6.4"2 1.3!4 1.12 6.#34 #.01" 1.#22 1.1!0 4.6"" 6.0#! O 1. "! 972 O 0.##" 3.2"! 4.2" 1.##" O 972 .646 1.40# 4.6"" 6.0#! 1.""0 0. 2# O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

3.0!3 2.##6 1.4#" 2.0"4 1.40#

10.224 #.#6" 4.#"4 6.#34 . 11 3.2"! 4.6"" O O O

0.16 O 0.02! 0.030 0.0"" 0.0!1 0.30 O O O

3eduction from $ross to net 'eatin$ (alue determined by deductin$ 1",#1# Btu:lb mol +ater in t'e -roducts of combustion.

7sborne, 9timson and =innin$s, 2ec'anical En$ineerin$, -. 163, 2arc' 1#3 , and 7sborne, 9timson, and Floc1, ;ational Bureau of 9tandards 8esearc' /a-er 20#.
e

3enotes t'at eit'er t'e density or t'e coefcient of e6-ansion 'as been assumed. 9ome of t'e materials cannot e6ist as

$ases at 60 F and 30 in.H$ -ressure, in +'ic' case t'e (alues are t'eoretical ones $i(en for ease of calculation of $as -roblems. <nder t'e actual concentrations in +'ic' t'ese materials are -resent t'eir -artial -ressure is lo+ enou$' to 1eet'em as $ases.
f

From t'ird edition of Combustion. .da-ted from 8ef. ".

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

6.0#a DC ;atural $as 'a(in$ CH4 ? "3C4>, C2H6 ? 1 C">, and ;2 ? 0C"> by (olume is red in a boiler. .ssumin$ 1 > e6cess air, !0 F ambient tem-erature, and "0> relati(e 'umidity, -erform detailed combustion calculations and determine 4ue $as analysis. .C From C'a-ter +e 1no+ t'at air at !0 F and "0> 8H 'as a moisture content of 0.012 lb:lb dry air. Lable 6.3 can be used to $ure air re5uirements of (arious fuels. For e6am-le, +e see t'at CH4 re5uires #. 3 mol of air -er mole of CH4, and C2 H6 re5uires 16.6" mol. *et us base our calculations on 100 mol of fuel. L'e t'eoretical dry air re5uired +ill be "3C4 @ #C 3 A 16C6" @ 1 C" ? 10 "C3 mol Considerin$ 1 > e6cess, .ctual dry air ? 1.1 @ 10 ".3 ? 121! mol E6cess air ? 0.1 @ 10 ".3 ? 1 ".! mol E6cess 72 ? 1 ".! @ 0.21 ? 33.3 mol E6cess ;2 ? 121! @ 0.!# ? #61 mol &.ir contains 21> by (olume 72 , and t'e rest is ;2 .) 2oisture in air ? 121! @ 2# 0C012 ? 23C mol 1" @ &Fe multi-lied moles of air by 2# to $et its +ei$'t, and t'en t'e +ater 5uantity +as di(ided by 1" to $et moles of +ater.) Lable 6.3 can also be used to $et t'e moles of C72, H27, ;2 and 72 G3H. C72 ? 1 @ "3C4 A 2 @ 1 C" ? 11 mol H2 7 ? 2 @ "3C4 A 3 @ 1 C" A 23C ? 23!C! mol 72 ? 33C3 mol ;2 ? #61 A 0C" ? #61C" mol L'e total moles of 4ue $as -roduced is 11 A 23!.! A 33.3 A #61." ? 134!.". Hence >C72 ? 9imilarly, >H2 7 ? 1!C!, >72 ? 2C , >;2 ? !1C3 11 134!C" @ 100 ? "C

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

L'e analysis abo(e is on a +et basis. 7n a dry 4ue $as basis, >C72 ? "C @ 9imilarly, >72 ? 3C0>, >;2 ? "6C!> 100 100 B 1!C! ? 10C3>

Lo obtain +da,++a ,+d$ , and ++$, +e need t'e density of t'e fuel or t'e molecular +ei$'t, +'ic' is 1 100 @ I"3C4 @ 16 A 1 C" @ 30 A 0C" @ 2"J ? 1"C30 2# 100 @ 1"C3 23C @ 1" 1"C3 @ 100 11 @ 44 A 33C3 @ 32 A #61 @ 2" 1"30 ? 1" lb dry $as:lb fuel ++$ ? 11 @ 44 A 33C3 @ 32 A 23!C! @ 1" A #61C" @ 2" 1"30 ? 20C40 lb +et $as:lb fuel

L'is -rocedure can be used +'en t'e fuel analysis is $i(en. 2ore often, -lant en$ineers +ill be re5uired to estimate t'e air needed for combustion +it'out a fuel analysis. 0n suc' situations, t'e 22 Btu basis of combustion and calculaP tions +ill come in 'andy. L'is is discussed in D6.10a. 6.0#b DC For t'e case stated in D6.0#a, estimate t'e -artial -ressure of +ater (a-or, - + , and of carbon dio6ide, -c, in t'e 4ue $as. .lso estimate t'e density of 4ue $as at 300 F. .C L'e -artial -ressures of +ater (a-or and carbon dio6ide are im-ortant in t'e determination of nonluminous 'eat transfer coefcients. -+ ? (olume of +ater (a-or total flue $as (olume (olume of carbon ? 0C0" atm ? 1C2! -sia -c ? dio6ide total flue $as (olume ? 0C1!! atm ? 2C6 -sia

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

+da ? 121! @ ++a ? 1#C2# A +d$ ?

? 1#C2# lb dry air:lb fuel ? 1#C 2 lb +et air:lb fuel

Lo estimate t'e $as density, its molecular +ei$'t must be obtained &see D .0 ). 2F ? / I2Fi @ yi J

? 2" @ !1C3 A 1" @ 1!C! A 32 @ 2C A 44 @ "C 100 ? 2!C! Hence, from E5. &6), 14C! r$ ? 2!C! @ 4#2 3 # @ !60 @ @ 14C! ? 0C0 lb:cu ft

L'e $as -ressure +as assumed to be 14.! -sia. 0n t'e absence of 4ue $as analysis, +e can obtain t'e density as discussed in D .03. r$ ? 40 !60 ? 0C0 2 lb:cu ft

6.10a DC 3iscuss t'e basis for t'e million Btu met'od of combustion calculations. .C Eac' fuel suc' as natural $as, coal, or oil re5uires a certain amount of stoic'iometric air -er 22 Btu red &on HH% basis). L'is 5uantity does not (ary muc' +it' t'e fuel analysis and 'as t'erefore become a (aluable met'od of e(aluatin$ combustion air and 4ue $as 5uantities -roduced +'en fuel $as analysis is not a(ailable. For solid fuels suc' as coal and oil, t'e dry stoic'iometric air + da in lb:lb fuel can be obtained from 7 " +'ere C, H2, 72, and 9 are carbon, 'ydro$en, o6y$en, and sulfur in t'e fuel in fraction by +ei$'t. For $aseous fuels, +da is $i(en by +da ? 2C4! @ C7 A 34C34 @ H2 A 1!C2! @ CH4 A 13C3 @ C2H2 A 14C"1 @ C2H4 A 16C12 @ C2H6 B 4C32 @ 72

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

+da ? 11C 3 @ C A 34C34 @ H2 B 2 A 4C2# @ 9

E6am-le 1 *et us com-ute t'e amount of air re5uired -er 22 Btu red for fuel oil. C ? 0."! , H ? 0.12 , and ./0 ? 2". 9olution. From &4a), HH% ? 1!,""! A !C @ 2" B 102C2 @ 0 ? 1#,4#! Btu:lb L'e amount of air in lb:lb fuel from t'e abo(e e5uation is +da ? 11C 3 @ 0C"! A 34C34 @ 0C12 ? 14C3" lb:lb fuel 1 22 Btu of fuel red re5uires &1 @ 106):1#,4#! ? t'e abo(e, 1.2" lb of fuel re5uires 1C2" @ 14C3" ? !3! lb of dry air Lable 6.4 s'o+s a ran$e of !3 Q! 0. Lo t'is must be added e6cess air, t'e effect of moisture in t'e air s'ould also be considered. E6am-le 2 *et us ta1e t'e case of natural $as +it' t'e follo+in$ analysisC met'ane ? "3.4>, et'ane ? 1 .">, and nitro$en ? 0.">. 9olution. Con(ertin$ t'is to -ercent +ei$'t basis, +e 'a(e 1.2" lb of fuel. Hence, from

Fuel CH4 C2H6 ;2

> (ol 1".3 1 ." 0."

2F 16 30 2"

Col 2 @ col 3 1334.4 4!4 22.4

> +t !2."# 2 ."# 1.22

*et us com-ute t'e air re5uired in lb:lb fuel. From Lable 6.3, .ir re5uired ? 1!C26 @ 0C!2"# A 16C11# @ 0C2 "# ? 16C! lb:lb fuel HH% of fuel ? 0C!2"# @ 23,"!6 A 0C2 "# @ 22,320 ? 23,1"1 Btu:lb +'ere 23,"!6 and 22,320 are HH% of met'ane and et'ane from Lable 6.3.

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

L.B*E 6.4 Combustion Constant . For Fuels

;o. 1 2 3 4 6 ! " # Fuel Blast furnace $as Ba$asse Carbon mono6ide $as 8enery and oil $as ;atural $as Furnace oil and li$nite Bituminous coals .nt'racite Co1e . ! 6 0 6!0 !20 !30 !4 Q! 0 !60 !"0 "00

L'e amount of fuel e5ui(alent to 1 22 Btu +ould be &1 @ 106): 23,1"1 ? 43.1 lb, +'ic' re5uires 43.1 @ 16.! ? !22 lb of air, or 1 22 Btu red +ould need !22 lb of dry air, t'is is close to t'e (alue indicated in Lable 6.4. *et us ta1e t'e case of 100> met'ane and see 'o+ muc' air it needs for combustion. From Lable 6.3, air re5uired -er -ound of met'ane is 1!.26 lb, and its 'eatin$ (alue is 23,"!# Btu:lb. 0n t'is case 1 22 Btu is e5ui(alent to &1 @ 106):23,"!# ? 41."" lb of fuel, +'ic' re5uires 41."" @ 1!.26 ? !23 lb of dry air. La1in$ t'e case of -ro-ane, 1 lb re5uires 1 .!03 lb of air. 1 22 Btu ? 1 @ 106 21,661 ? 46C1! lb fuel

L'is +ould re5uire 46.1! @ 1 .!03 ? !2 lb of air. L'us for all fossil fuels +e can come u- +it' a $ood estimate of t'eoretical dry air -er 22 Btu red on HH% basis, and $as analysis does not affect t'is (alue si$nicantly. L'e amount of air -er 22 Btu is termed . and is s'o+n in Lable 6.4 for (arious fuels. 6.10b DC . red 'eater is rin$ natural $as at an in-ut of ! 22 Btu:' on HH% basis. 3etermine t'e dry combustion air re5uired at 10> e6cess air and t'e amount of 4ue $as -roduced if t'e HH% of fuel is 20,000 Btu:lb. .C From Lable 6.4, . is !30 lb:22 Btu. Hence t'e total air re5uired is Fa ? ! @ 1C1 @ !30 ? 60,200 lb:'

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

L'e 4ue $as -roduced is F$ ? Fa A Ff ? 60,200 A L'ese (alues can be con(erted to (olume rates at any tem-erature usin$ t'e -rocedure described in C'a-ter . L'e 22 Btu met'od is 5uite accurate for en$ineerin$ -ur-oses suc' as fan selection and siSin$ of ducts and air and $as systems. 0ts ad(anta$e is t'at fuel analysis need not be 1no+n, +'ic' is $enerally t'e case in -o+er and -rocess -lants. L'e efciency of 'eaters and boilers can also be estimated usin$ t'e 22 Btu met'od of combustion calculations. 6.10c DC . coalPred boiler is rin$ coal of HH% ? # 00 Btu:lb at 2 > e6cess air. 0f ambient conditions are "0 F, relati(e 'umidity "0>, and 4ue $as tem-erature 300 F, estimate t'e combustion air in lb:lb fuel, t'e (olume of combustion air in cu ft:lb fuel, t'e 4ue $as -roduced in lb:lb fuel, and t'e 4ue $as (olume in cu ft:lb fuel. .C Because t'e fuel analysis is not 1no+n, let us use t'e 22 Btu met'od. From Lable 6.4, . ? !60 for coal. 1 22 Btu re5uires !60 @ 1.2 ? # 0 lb of dry air. .t "0> 'umidity and "0 F, air contains 0.01" lb of moisture -er -ound of air &C'a-. ). Hence t'e +et air re5uired -er 22 Btu red is # 0 @ 1.01" lb. .lso, 1 22 Btu red e5uals 106:# 00 ? 10 lb of coal. Hence # 0 10 1C01" ? #C21 10 4#2 3 # @ 40 ? 0C0!36 lb:cu ft Isee C'a-C , D C03JC Hence %olume of air ? 40 !60 # 0 A 10 10 %olume of flue $as, cu ft:lb fuel ? ? 1#1 106 20,000 ? 60,2 0 lb:'

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

+da ? dry air, lb:lb fuel ?

? #C0

++a ? +et air, lb:lb fuel ? # 0 @ ra ? density of air at "0 F ? 2# @

#C21 ? 12 cu ft:lb fuel 0C0!36 r$ ? density of flue $as ? ? 0C0 26 lb:cu ft ? 10C0

+d$ ? dry flue $as in lb:lb fuel ? 10C0 0C0 26

6.11 DC 0s t'ere a +ay to $ure t'e e6cess air from 4ue $as C72 readin$sE .C Wes. . $ood estimate of e6cess air E in -ercent can be obtained from t'e e5uation E ? 100 @ R1 B 1 >C72 I10aJ

>C72 is t'e -ercent of carbon dio6ide in dry 4ue $as by (olume, and R 1 is a constant de-endin$ on t'e ty-e of fuel, as seen in Lable 6. . For e6am-le, if >C72 ? 1 in 4ue $as in a coalPred boiler, t'en for bituminous coal &R1 ? 1".6), E ? 100 @ 1"C6 B 1 ? 24> 1

6.12 DC 3iscuss t'e si$nicance of >C72 and >72 in 4ue $ases. .C E6cess air le(els in 4ue $as can be estimated if t'e >C7 2 and >72 in dry 4ue $as by (olume are 1no+n. L'e 'i$'er t'e e6cess air, t'e $reater t'e 4ue $as 5uantity and t'e $reater t'e losses. /lant en$ineers s'ould control e6cess air le(els to 'el- control -lant o-eratin$ costs. L'e cost of o-eration +it' 'i$' e6cess air is discussed in D6.13. . formula t'at is +idely used to $ure t'e e6cess air is G1H E ? 100 @ 72 B C7:2 0C264 @ ;2 B I72 B C7:2J I10bJ

L.B*E 6. R1 Factors for Fuels

Fuel ty-e Bituminous coals Co1e 7il 8enery $as and $as oil ;atural $as Blast furnace $as
9ourceC 8ef. 1.

R1 1".6 20. 1 . 13.4 12. 2 .

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

+'ere 72 , C7, and ;2 are t'e o6y$en, carbon mono6ide, and nitro$en in dry 4ue $as, (ol>, and E is t'e e6cess air, >. .not'er formula t'at is 5uite accurate is G1H E ? R2 @ 72 21 B 72 I10cJ

+'ere R2 is a constant t'at de-ends on t'e ty-e of fuel &see Lable 6.6). 6.13 DC 0n a natural $as boiler of ca-acity 0 22 Btu:' &HH% basis), t'e o6y$en le(el in t'e 4ue $as is reduced from 3.0> to 2.0>. F'at is t'e annual sa(in$s in o-eratin$ costs if fuel costs N4:22 BtuE L'e HH% of t'e fuel is 1#,000 Btu:lb. L'e e6it $as tem-erature is 00 F, and t'e ambient tem-erature is "0 F. .C L'e ori$inal e6cess air is #0 @ 3:I21 B 3J ? 1 > &see D6.12). L'e e6cess air is no+ E ? #0 @ 2C0 ? #C4!> 21 B 2

Fit' 1 > e6cess, t'e a--ro6imate air re5uired &see D6.10a) is 0 @ !46 @ 1.1 ? 42,"# lb:'. 106 Flue $as ? 42,"# A 0 ? 4 ,2 6 lb:' 1#,000 @

L.B*E 6.6 Constant 12 <sed in

E5. &10c) Fuel Carbon Hydro$en Carbon mono6ide 9ulfur 2et'ane 7il Coal Blast furnace $as Co1e o(en $as
9ourceC 8ef. 1.

R2 100 "0 121 100 #0 #4. #! 223 "#.3

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Fit' #.4!> e6cess air, .ir re5uired ? 0 @ !46 @ 1C0#4! ? 40,"32 lb:' Flue $as -roduced ? 40,"32 A 0@ ? 43,463 lb:' 8eduction in 'eat loss ? I4 , 26 B 43,463J @ 0C2 @ I 00 B "0J ? 0C22 22 Btu:' L'is is e5ui(alent to an annual sa(in$s of 0.22 @ 4 @ 300 @ 24 ? N6336. &Fe assumed 300 days of o-eration a year.) L'is could be a si$nicant sa(in$s considerin$ t'e life of t'e -lant. Hence -lant en$ineers s'ould o-erate t'e -lant realiSin$ t'e im-lications of 'i$' e6cess air and 'i$' e6it $as tem-erature. 76y$en le(els can be continuously monitored and recorded and 'oo1ed u- to combustion air systems in order to o-erate t'e -lant more efciently. &0t may be noted t'at e6it $as tem-erature +ill also be reduced if e6cess air is reduced. L'e calculation abo(e indicates t'e minimum sa(in$s t'at can be realiSed.) 6.14 DC Fuels are often interc'an$ed in boiler -lants because of relati(e a(ailability and economics. 0t is desirable, t'en, to analySe t'e effect on t'e -erformance of t'e system. 3iscuss t'e im-lications of burnin$ coal of #"00 Btu:lb in a boiler ori$inally intended for 11,400 Btu:lb coal. .C *et us assume t'at t'e duty does not c'an$e and t'at t'e efciency of t'e unit is not altered. Ho+e(er, t'e fuel 5uantity +ill c'an$e. Combustion air re5uired, bein$ a function of 22 Btu red, +ill not c'an$e, but t'e 4ue $as -roduced +ill increase. *et us -re-are a table. 106 1#,000

Coal 1 Fuel HH%, Btu:lb Fuel red -er 22 Btu &106:HH%) .ir re5uired -er 22 Btu &2 > e6cess air) Flue $as, lb 8atio of 4ue $as 11,400

Coal 2 #"00

"! 102 !60 @ 1.2 ? # 0 !60 @ 1.2 ? # 0 103! 10 2 1 1.01

Fe can use t'e same fans, because t'e (ariation in 4ue $as -roduced is not si$nicant enou$' to +arrant 'i$'er $as -ressure dro-s. Fe must loo1 into ot'er

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

as-ects, suc' as t'e necessity of 'i$'er combustion air tem-erature &due to 'i$'er moisture in t'e fuel), as' concentration, and foulin$ c'aracteristics of t'e ne+ fuel. 0f a different ty-e of fuel is $oin$ to be used, say oil, t'is +ill be a maXor c'an$e, and t'e fuelP'andlin$ systemYs burners and furnace desi$n +ill 'a(e to be re(ie+ed. L'e $as tem-erature -roles +ill c'an$e o+in$ to radiation c'aracterP istics, and absor-tion of surfaces suc' as su-er'eaters and economiSers +ill be affected. . discussion +it' t'e boiler desi$n en$ineers +ill 'el-.

6.1 DC F'at is meant by combustion tem-erature of fuelsE Ho+ is it estimatedE .C L'e adiabatic combustion tem-erature is t'e ma6imum tem-erature t'at can be attained by t'e -roducts of combustion of fuel and air. Ho+e(er, because of dissociation and radiation losses, t'is ma6imum is ne(er attained. Estimation of tem-erature after dissociation re5uires sol(in$ se(eral e5uations. For -ur-oses of estimation, +e may decrease t'e adiabatic combustion tem-erature by 3Q > to obtain t'e actual combustion tem-erature. From an ener$y balance it can be s'o+n t'at *H% A .a @ HH% @ C-a @ Ita B "0J:106 I1 B >as':100 A .a @ HH%:106J @ C-$

tc ?

I11J

+'ere *H%, HH% ? lo+er and 'i$'er caloric (alue of fuel, Btu:lb . ? t'eoretical air re5uired -er million Btu red, lb a ? e6cess air factor ? 1 A E:100 ta, tc ? tem-erature of air and combustion tem-erature, F C-a , C-$ ? s-ecic 'eats of air and -roducts of combustion, Btu:lb F For e6am-le, for fuel oil +it' combustion air at 300 F, *H% ? 1!,000 Btu: lb, HH% ? 1",000 Btu:lb, a ? 1.1 , and . ? !4 &see Lable 6.4). Fe 'a(e 1!,000 A !4 @ 1C1 @ 1",000 @ 0C2 @ I300 B "0J:10 6 I1 A !4 @ 1C1 @ 1",000:10 6J @ 0C32

tc ?

? 3400 F C-a and C-$ +ere ta1en as 0.2 and 0.32, res-ecti(ely.

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

6.16a DC Ho+ is t'e as' concentration in 4ue $ases estimatedE .C /articulate emission data are needed to siSe dust collectors for coalPred boilers. 0n coalPred boilers, about ! > of t'e as' is carried a+ay by t'e 4ue $ases and 2 > dro-s into t'e as' -it. L'e follo+in$ e6-ression may be deri(ed usin$ t'e 22 Btu met'od of combustion calculation G HC Ca ? 240,000 @ I> as':100J L @ Z!C6 @ 10B6 @ HH% @ I100 A EJ A 1 B I> as':100J[ +'ere Ca ? as' concentration, $rains:cu ft E ? e6cess air, > L ? $as tem-erature, 8 HH% ? 'i$'er 'eatin$ (alue, Btu:lb E6am-le 0f coals of HH% ? 11,000 Btu:lb 'a(in$ 11> as' are red in a boiler +it' 2 > e6cess air and t'e 4ue $as tem-erature is " 0 8, determine t'e as' concentration. 9olution. 9ubstitutin$ into E5. &12a), +e 'a(e Ca ? 240,000 @ 0C11 " 0 @ I!C6 @ 10B6 @ 11,000 @ 12 A 1 B 0C11J I12aJ

? 2C! $rains:cu ft

6.16b DC Ho+ do you con(ert t'e as' concentration in t'e 4ue $as in +t> to $rains:acf or $rains:scfE .C Flue $ases from incineration -lants or solid fuel boilers contain dust or as', and often t'ese com-onents are e6-ressed in mass units suc' as lb:' or +t>, +'ereas en$ineers in(ol(ed in selection of -ollution control e5ui-ment -refer to +or1 in terms of $rains:acf or $rains:scf &actual and standard cubic feet). L'e relationP s'i- is Ca ? 0C01 @ . @ !000 @ r ? !0. I12bJ

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

+'ere r ? $as density, lb:cu ft ? 3#. :&460 A t) t ? $as tem-erature, F Ca ? as' content, $rains:acf or $rains:scf de-endin$ on +'et'er density is com-uted at actual tem-erature or at 60 F . ? as' content, +t> L'e e6-ression for density is based on atmos-'eric 4ue $ases 'a(in$ a molecular +ei$'t of 2"." &see D .03). Flue $ases contain 1. +t> as'. L'e concentration in $rains:acf at 400 F is Ca ? !0 @ 1C @ and at 60 F, Ca ? !0 @ 1C @ 3#C 20 ? !C#" $rains:scf 3#C "60 ? 4C" $rains:acf

6.1! DC 3iscuss t'e im-ortance of t'e meltin$ -oint of as' in coalPred boilers. Ho+ is it estimatedE .C 0n t'e desi$n of steam $enerators and as' remo(al systems, t'e as' fusion tem-erature is considered an im-ortant (ariable. *o+ as' fusion tem-erature may cause sla$$in$ and result in de-osition of molten as' on surfaces suc' as su-er'eaters and furnaces. L'e furnace +ill t'en absorb less ener$y, leadin$ to 'i$'er furnace e6it $as tem-eratures and o(er'eatin$ of su-er'eaters. . 5uic1 estimate of as' meltin$ tem-erature in C can be made usin$ t'e e6-ression G6H tm ? 1# @ .l273 A 1 @ I9i72 A Li72J A 10 @ ICa7 A 2$7J A 6 @ IFe273 A ;a27 A R27J +'ere tm is t'e fusion tem-erature in C, and t'e rest of t'e terms are -ercent as' content of o6ides of aluminum, silicon, titanium, calcium, ma$nesium, iron, sodium, and -otassium.

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E6am-le .nalysis of a $i(en as' indicates t'e follo+in$ com-ositionC .l273 ? 20>, 9i72 A Li72 ? 30> Ca7 A 2$7 ? 1 >

Fe273 A ;a27 A R27 ? 20>, Find t'e fusion tem-erature.

9olution. 9ubstitutin$ into E5. &13), +e nd t'at tm ? 1100 C.

6.1"a DC F'at is t'e emission of 972 in lb:22 Btu if coals of HH% ? 11,000 Btu:lb and 'a(in$ 1. > sulfur are red in a boilerE .C L'e follo+in$ e6-ression $i(es e, t'e emission of 97 2 in lb:22 BtuC e ? 2 @ 104 9 HH% I14J

+'ere 9 is t'e -ercent sulfur in t'e fuel. e ? 2 @ 104 @ 1C ? 2C!3 lb:22 Btu 11,000

0f an 972 scrubbin$ system of ! > efciency is installed, t'e e6itin$ 97 2 concentration +ill be 0.2 @ 2.!3 ? 0.6" lb:22 Btu.

6.1"b DC F'at is t'e 972 le(el in --m &-arts -er million) by (olume if t'e coals in D6.1"a are red +it' 2 > e6cess airE .C Fe 'a(e to estimate t'e 4ue $as -roduced. <sin$ t'e 22 Btu met'od, +$ ? 106 A 1C2 @ !60 ? 1041 lb:22 Btu 11,000

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*et t'e molecular +ei$'t be 30, +'ic' is a $ood estimate in t'e absence of 4ue $as analysis. L'en, 2oles of flue $as ? 1041 ? 34C! -er 22 Btu fired 30

2oles of 972 ?

2C!3 64 ? 0C042

&from D6.1"a and Lable .1)

&64 is t'e molecular +ei$'t of 972. 3i(idin$ +ei$'t by molecular +ei$'t $i(es t'e moles.) Hence --m of 972 in 4ue $as +ill be 0.042 @ 106:34.! ? 1230 --m.

6.1"c DC 0f > of t'e 972 $ets con(erted to 973, estimate t'e --m of 973 in t'e 4ue $as. .C 2oles of 973 ? 0C0 @ Hence --m by (olume of 973 ? 0C001! 34C! @ 106 ? 4# --m 2C!3 ? 0C001! -er 22 Btu "0

&"0 is t'e molecular +ei$'t of 973.)

6.1#a DC Ho+ is t'e efciency of a boiler or a red 'eater determinedE .C L'e estimation of t'e efciency of a boiler or 'eater in(ol(es com-utation of se(eral losses suc' as t'ose due to 4ue $ases lea(in$ t'e unit, unburned fuel, radiation losses, 'eat loss due to molten as', and so on. 8eaders may refer to t'e .92E /o+er Lest Code G!H for details. L+o met'ods are +idely used, one based on t'e measurement of in-ut and out-ut and t'e ot'er based on 'eat losses. L'e latter is -referred, because it is easy to use.

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

L'ere are t+o +ays of statin$ t'e efciency, one based on HH% and t'e ot'er on *H%. .s discussed in D6.01, KHH% @ HH% ? K*H% @ *H% L'e (arious losses are G1H, on an HH% basis, 1. 3ry $as loss, *1 C *1 ? 24+d$ t$ B ta HH% I1 aJ

2. *oss due to combustion of 'ydro$en and moisture in fuel, * 2C *2 ? I# @ H2 A F J @ I10"0 A 0C46t $ B ta J @ 100 HH%

3. *oss due to moisture in air, *3 C *3 ? 46 2+da t$ B ta HH% I1 cJ

4. 8adiation loss, *4. L'e .merican Boiler 2anufacturers .ssociation &.B2.) c'art G!H may be referred to to obtain t'is (alue. . 5uic1 estimate of *4 is *4 ? 100C62B0C42 lo$ D For E5s. &1 a)Q&1 d), +d$ ? dry 4ue $as -roduced, lb:lb fuel +da ? dry air re5uired, lb:lb fuel H2, F ? 'ydro$en and moisture in fuel, fraction 2 ? moisture in air, lb:lb dry air &see D .0#b) t$ , ta ? tem-eratures of 4ue $as and air, F D ? duty in 22 Btu:' . Lo losses *1 Q*4 must be added a mar$in or unaccounted loss, * . Hence efciency becomes KHH% ? 100 B I*1 A *2 A *3 A *4 A * J I1 eJ I1 dJ

;ote t'at combustion calculations are a -rere5uisite to efciency determination. 0f t'e fuel analysis is not a(ailable, -lant en$ineers can use t'e 22 Btu met'od to estimate +d$ rat'er easily and t'en estimate t'e efciency &see D6.20). L'e efciency can also be estimated on *H% basis. L'e (arious losses considered are t'e follo+in$.

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1. Fet 4ue $as lossC ++$ Ct$ B ta HH% I1 f J

&C-, $as s-ecic 'eat, +ill be in t'e ran$e of 0.26Q0.2! for +et 4ue $ases.) 2. 8adiation loss &see D6.23) 3. <naccounted loss, mar$in L'en K*H% ? 100 B Isum of t'e abo(e t'ree lossesJ 7ne can also con(ert KHH% to K*H% usin$ E5. &3b) &see D6.01). 6.1#b DC Coals of HH% ? 13, 00 Btu:lb and *H% ? 12,600 Btu:lb are red in a boiler +it' 2 > e6cess air. 0f t'e e6it $as tem-erature is 300 F and ambient tem-erature is "0 F, determine t'e efciency on HH% basis and on *H% basis. .C From t'e 22 Btu met'od of combustion calculations, assumin$ t'at moisture in air is 0.013 lb:lb dry air, ++$ ? ? 1C013 @ !60 @ 1C2 A 106 :13, 00 106:13, 00 1036 ? 14C0 !4

&!60 is t'e constant obtained from Lable 6.4.) Hence +et flue $as loss ? 100 @ 14C0 @ 0C26 @ 300 B "0 12,600

? 6C3 > *et radiation and unaccounted losses be 1.3>. L'en K*H% ? 100 B I6C3 A 1C3J ? #2C34> KHH% ? #2C34 @ 12,600 ? "6C1"> 13, 00

&8adiation losses (ary from 0. > to 1.0> in lar$e boilers and may $o u- to 2.0> in smaller units. L'e maXor loss is t'e 4ue $as loss.)

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6.1#c DC 3etermine t'e efciency of a boiler rin$ t'e fuel $i(en in D6.0#a at 1 > e6cess air. .ssume radiation loss ? 1>, e6it $as tem-erature ? 400 F, and ambient tem-erature ? !0 F. E6cess air and relati(e 'umidity are t'e same as in D6.0#a &1 > and "0>). .C 8esults of combustion calculations are already a(ailable. 3ry flue $as ? 1" lb:lb fuel 2oisture in air ? 1#C 2 B 1#C2# ? 0C23 lb:lb fuel Fater (a-or formed due to combustion of fuel ? 20C4 B 1" B 0C23 ? 2C1! lb:lb fuel HH% ? "3C4 @ 1013C2 A 1 C" @ 1!#2 100 ? 112" Btu:cu ft

Fuel density at 60 F ? 1".3:3!# ? 0.4"3 lb:cu ft, so 112" HH% ? ? 23,364 Btu:lb 0C04"3 L'e losses are 1. 3ry $as loss, *1 ? 100 @ 1" @ 0C24 @ 2. *oss due to combustion of 'ydro$en and moisture in fuel, *2 ? 100 @ 2C1! @ ? 11C1> 3. *oss due to moisture in air, *3 ? 100 @ 0C23 @ 0C46 @ 400 B !0 23,364 ? 0C1 > 10"0 A 0C46 @ 400 B !0 23,364 400 B !0 ? 6C1> 23,364

4. 8adiation loss ? 1.0> . <naccounted losses and mar$in ? 0> Lotal losses ? 6C1 A 11C1 A 0C1 A 1C0 ? 1"C3 > Hence Efficiency on HH% basis ? 100 B 1"C3 ? "1C6 > 7ne can con(ert t'is to *H% basis after com-utin$ t'e *H%.

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

6.1#d DC Ho+ do e6cess air and boiler e6it $as tem-erature affect t'e (arious losses and boiler efciencyE .C Lable 6.! s'o+s t'e results of combustion calculations for (arious fuels at different e6cess air le(els and boiler e6it $as tem-eratures. 0t also s'o+s t'e amount of C72 $enerated -er 22 Btu red. 0t can be seen t'at natural $as $enerates t'e lo+est amount of C7 2 . 106 #C06 @ 44 @ 1#C1! @ ? 116C lb C72:22Btu, natural, $as 23,!"# 2!C ! @ 100 ?

L.B*E 6.! Combustion Calculations for %arious Fuels

=as L$o , F E., > C72 3 0 4 0 #.06 3 0 1 4 0 1 ".34 1!.!0 !1.4" 2.4" 20.# .23 !.0# 0.10 0.13 10."# 11.32 =as L$o , F E., > *4 , > E' , > El , > 2F "3.2 "1.1 #2.3 "#.# 2!. ! "2.# "0. #1.! "#.2 2!.66 3 0 4 0 3 0 1 4 0 1 3 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 7il 3 0 1 4 0 1 Coal 4 0 2 0 2

12."" 12.3! !3."3 0.#2 16.31 .13 6.#6 0.0# 0.12 6.63 6."#

11."2 11.4! !4.1# 2. 3 1!.!! .62 !.63 0.10 0.14 6.63 6."# 7il 3 0 1 4 0 1

13.3" !.10 ! .43 3.#4 0.1 13.42 ".#1 11.2 0.1 0.1# 4.3 4.46 Coal 4 0 2 0 2

1#.11 H27 !0.#3 ;2 0.#0 72 972 1#.1! F$ :Ff 4.!4 6.44 *1 , > 0.0# 0.12 *2 , > 10."# 11.32 *3 , >

1.0 "!.1 " .0 #2." #0.0 2"."6 "6.! "4.3 #2.3 "#.# 2".#! " .6 "3.0 "#.0 "6.4 2#.64

Coal &+t>)C C ? !2.", H2 ? 4.", ;2 ? 1. , 72 ? 6.2, 9 ? 2.2, H27 ? 3. , as' ? #.0, HH% ? 1313# Btu:lb, *H% ? 12,634 Btu:lb. 7il &+t>)C C ? "!. , H2 ? 12. , ./0 ? 32, HH% ? 1#,!2! Btu:lb, *H% ? 1", 12 Btu:lb. =as &(ol>)C CH4 ? #!, C2H6 ? 2, C3H" ? 1, HH% ? 23,!"# Btu:lb, *H% ? 21,462 Btu:lb.

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

&L'e abo(e is obtained by con(ertin$ t'e (olumetric analysis to +ei$'t basis usin$ t'e molecular +ei$'ts of C72 and t'e 4ue $as.) For oil, C72 $eneraP ted ? 162.4 lb, and for coal, 202.# lb. 6.20 DC . red 'eater of duty 100 22 Btu:' &HH% basis) rin$ ;o. 6 oil s'o+s t'e follo+in$ dry 4ue $as analysisC C72 ? 13C >, 72 ? 2C >, ;2 ? "4>

L'e e6it $as tem-erature and ambient tem-erature are 300 F and "0 F, res-ecP ti(ely. 0f moisture in air is 0.013 lb:lb dry air, estimate t'e efciency of t'e unit on *H% and HH% basis. *H% ? 1",400 Btu:lb and HH% ? 1#, 00 Btu:lb. .C Because t'e fuel analysis is not 1no+n, let us estimate t'e 4ue $as -roduced by t'e 22 Btu met'od. First, com-ute t'e e6cess air, +'ic' is E ? #4C @ 2C 21 B 2C ? 12C">

L'e factor #4. is from Lable 6.6 &see D6.12). L'e +et 4ue $as -roduced is !4 @ 1C12" @ 1C013 106 106:1#, 00 Hence ? 1!C6 lb:lb fuel Fet $as loss ? 100 @ 1!C6 @ 0C26 @ 300 B "0 1",400 ? C4!> A 106 1#, 00

L'e radiation loss on HH% basis can be a--ro6imated by E5. &1 d)C 8adiation loss ? 100C62B0C42 lo$ D ? 0C60> D ? 100 22 Btu:' *et us use 1.0> on *H% basis, alt'ou$' t'is may be a bit 'i$'. Hence t'e efciency on *H% basis is 100 ! 6.4! ? #3. 3>. L'e efciency on HH% basis +ould be GE5. &3b)H KHH% @ HH% ? K*H% @ *H%

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or KHH% ? # C 3 @ 1",400 ? ""C2 1#, 00

L'us, e(en in t'e absence of fuel ultimate analysis, t'e -lant -ersonnel can c'ec1 t'e efciency of boilers and 'eaters based on o-eratin$ data.

6.21 DC Ho+ is t'e loss due to incom-lete combustion suc' as t'e formation of C7 determinedE .C Efforts must be made by t'e boiler and burner desi$ners to ensure t'at com-lete combustion ta1es -lace in t'e furnace. Ho+e(er, because of (arious factors suc' as siSe of fuel -articles, turbulence, and a(ailability of air to fuel and t'e mi6in$ -rocess, some carbon mono6ide +ill be formed, +'ic' means losses. 0f C7 is formed from carbon instead of C72, 10,600 Btu:lb is lost. L'is is t'e difference bet+een t'e 'eat of reaction of t'e t+o -rocesses C A 72 \ C72 and C A 72 \ C7

L'e loss in Btu:lb is $i(en by G1H *? C7 C7 A C72 @ 10,160 @ C

+'ere C is t'e carbon in t'e fuel, fraction by +ei$'t, and C7 and C7 2 are (ol> of t'e $ases. E6am-le 3etermine t'e losses due to formation of C7 if coal +it' HH% of 12,000 Btu:lb is red in a boiler, $i(en t'at C7 and C72 in t'e 4ue $as are 1. > and 1!> and t'e fuel 'as a carbon content of 6>. 9olution. 9ubstitutin$ into t'e e5uation $i(en abo(e, *? 1C 1"C @ 10,160 @ 0C 6 12,000 ? 0C03"

or * ? 3."> on HH% basis &di(idin$ loss in Btu:lb by HH%).

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6.22 DC 0s t'ere a sim-le formula to estimate t'e efciency of boilers and 'eaters if t'e e6cess air and e6it $as tem-erature are 1no+n and t'e fuel analysis is not a(ailableE .C Boiler efciency de-ends mainly on e6cess air and t'e difference bet+een t'e 4ue $as e6it tem-erature and t'e ambient tem-erature. L'e follo+in$ e6-ressions 'a(e been deri(ed from combustion calculations for ty-ical natural $as and oil fuels. L'ese may be used for 5uic1 estimations. For natural $asC KHH% , > ? "#C4 B I0C001123 A 0C01# @ E.J @ 3L K*H% , > ? ##C0 B I0C001244 A 0C0216 @ E.J @ 3L For fuel oilsC KHH% , > ? #2C# B I0C0012#" A 0C01#0 @ E.J @ 3L K*H% , > ? ##C0 B I0C0013"3 A 0C0203 @ E.J @ 3L +'ere E. ? e6cess air factor &E. ? 1.1 means 1 > e6cess air) 3L ? difference bet+een e6it $as and ambient tem-eratures E6am-le ;atural $as at 1 > e6cess air is red in a boiler, +it' e6it $as tem-erature 2"0 F and ambient tem-erature "0 F. 3etermine t'e boiler efciency. E. ? 1C1 and 3L ? 2"0 B "0 ? 200 F. 9olution. KHH% ? "#C4 B I0C001123 A 0C01# @ 1C1 J @ I2"0 B "0J ? "4C64> K*H% ? ##C0 B I0C001244 A 0C0216 @ 1C1 J @ I2"0 B "0J ? #3C!"> L'e abo(e e5uations are based on 1> radiation -lus unaccounted losses. I16aJ I16bJ

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6.23 DC L'e a(era$e surface tem-erature of t'e aluminum casin$ of a $asPred boiler +as measured to be 1"0 F +'en t'e ambient tem-erature +as " F and t'e +ind (elocity +as m-'. L'e boiler +as rin$ 0,000 scf' of natural $as +it' *H% ? 10! Btu:scf. 3etermine t'e radiation loss on *H% basis if t'e total surface area of t'e boiler +as 2 00 ft2. .ssume t'at t'e emissi(ity of t'e casin$ ? 0.1. .C L'is e6am-le s'o+s 'o+ radiation loss can be obtained from t'e measurement of casin$ tem-eratures. L'e +ind (elocity is m-' ? 440 f-m. From D". 1 +e see t'at t'e 'eat loss 5 in Btu:ft2 ' +ill be 5 ? 0C1!3 @ 10B" @ 0C1 @ ZI460 A 1"0J4 B I460 A " J4[ r]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]] 440 A 6# 1C2 I1!J A 0C2#6 @ I1"0 B " J @ 6# ? 2 2 Btu:ft2 ' L'e total 'eat loss +ill be 2 00 @ 2 2 ? 0.63 @ 106 Btu:'. L'e radiation loss on *H% basis +ill be 0.63 @ 106 @ 100:& 0,000 @ 10! ) ? 1.1!>. 0f t'e HH% of t'e fuel +ere 11"2 Btu:scf, t'e radiation loss on HH% basis +ould be 0.63 @ 11"2:10! ? 1.06>. 6.24 DC Ho+ does t'e radiation loss (ary +it' boiler duty or loadE Ho+ does t'is affect t'e boiler efciencyE .C L'e 'eat losses from t'e surface of a boiler +ill be nearly t'e same at all loads if t'e ambient tem-erature and +ind (elocity are t'e same. %ariations in 'eat losses can occur o+in$ to differences in t'e $as tem-erature -role in t'e boiler, +'ic' (aries +it' load. Ho+e(er, for -ractical -ur-oses t'is (ariation can be considered minor. Hence t'e 'eat loss as a -ercent +ill increase as t'e boiler duty decreases. L'e boiler e6it $as tem-erature decreases +it' a decrease in load or duty and contributes to some im-ro(ement in efciency, +'ic' is offset by t'e increase in radiation losses. Hence t'ere +ill be a sli$'t increase in efciency as t'e load increases, and after a certain load, efciency decreases. L'e abo(e discussion -ertains to red +ater tube or re tube boilers and not +aste 'eat boilers, +'ic' 'a(e to be analySed for eac' load because t'e $as 4o+

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and inlet $as tem-erature can (ary si$nicantly +it' load de-endin$ on t'e ty-e of -rocess or a--lication. 6.2 a DC 3iscuss t'e im-ortance of de+ -oint corrosion in boilers and 'eaters red +it' fuels containin$ sulfur. .C 3urin$ t'e -rocess of combustion, sulfur in fuels suc' as coal, oil, and $as is con(erted to sulfur dio6ide. 9ome -ortion of it &1Q >) is con(erted to sulfur trio6ide, +'ic' can combine +it' +ater (a-or in t'e 4ue $as to form $aseous sulfuric acid. 0f t'e surface in contact +it' t'e $as is cooler t'an t'e acid de+ -oint, sulfuric acid can condense on it, causin$ corrosion. .3/ &acid de+ -oint) is de-endent on se(eral factors, suc' as e6cess air, -ercent sulfur in fuel, -ercent con(ersion of 972 to 973 , and -artial -ressure of +ater (a-or in t'e 4ue $as. 2anufacturers of economiSers and air 'eaters su$$est minimum coldPend tem-eratures t'at are re5uired to a(oid corrosion. Fi$ures 6.1 and 6.2 are ty-ical. 9ometimes t'e minimum 4uid tem-erature, +'ic' affects t'e tube metal tem-erature, is su$$ested. L'e follo+in$ e5uation $i(es a conser(ati(e estimate of t'e acid de+ -oint G"HC Ld- ? 1C!"42 A 0C026# lo$ -+ B 0C12# lo$ -973 A 0C32# lo$ -+ @ lo$ -973 +'ere Ld- ? acid de+ -oint, R -+ ? -artial -ressure of +ater (a-or, atm -973 ? -artial -ressure of sulfur trio6ide, atm Lable 6." $i(es ty-ical -973 (alues for (arious fuels and e6cess air. D6.1"c s'o+s 'o+ --m 973 can be com-uted from +'ic' -973 is obtained. . -ractical +ay to determine Ld- is to use a de+ -oint meter. .n estimation of t'e coldPend metal tem-erature can $i(e an indication of -ossible corrosion. 6.2 b DC Ho+ is t'e de+ -oint of an acid $as com-utedE .C Lable 6.# s'o+s t'e de+ -oint correlations for (arious acid $ases G#,11H. I1"aJ

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F0=<8E 6.1 L'e relations'i- bet+een 973 and .3L. &Courtesy of *and Combustion 0nc.)

Flue $as from an incinerator 'as t'e follo+in$ analysis &(ol>)C H2 7 ? 12, 972 ? 0.02, HCl ? 0.001 and t'e rest o6y$en and nitro$en. =as -ressure ? 10 in. +$. Com-ute t'e de+ -oints of sulfuric and 'ydroc'loric acids $i(en t'at 2> of 972 con(erts to 973 . 0n order to use t'e correlations, t'e $as -ressures must be con(erted to mmH$. .tmos-'eric -ressure ? 10 in. +$ ? 10:40! ? 0.024 ! atm$ or 1.024 ! atm abs. -H2 7 ? 0C12 @ 1C024 ! @ !60 ? #3C44 mmH$ ln /H2 7 ? 4C 3! /HCl ? 0C001 @ 1C024 @ !60 ? 0C116" mmH$ ln -HCl ? B2C14!3 /artial -ressures of sulfuric acid and 973 are e5ual. Hence /973 ? 0C02 @ 0C0002 @ !60 @ 1C024 ? 0C0031 mmH$ ln /973 ? B C!!16 9ubstitutin$ into t'e e5uations, +e obtain t'e follo+in$.

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

F0=<8E 6.2 *imitin$ tube metal tem-eratures to a(oid e6ternal corrosion in economiSers and air 'eaters +'en burnin$ fuels containin$ sulfur. &From 8ef. 13, +it' -ermission.)

For 'ydroc'loric acidC 1000 Ld? 3C!36" B 0C1 #1 @ 4C 3! A 0C0326 @ 2C14!3 B 0C0026# @ 4C 3! @ 2C14!3 ? 3C0 "" or Ld- ? 32! R ? 4 C ? 12# F

L.B*E 6." 973 in Flue =as &--m)

9ulfur &>) Fuel 7il Coal 11 2 E6cess air &>) 0. 2 6 3Q! 1.0 3 ! !Q14 2.0 3 " 14Q2" 3.0 4 10 20Q40 12 2!Q 4 4.0 .0 6 14 33Q66

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L.B*E 6.# 3e+ /oints of .cid =asesa

Hydrobromic acid 1000:Ld- ? 3. 63# ! 0.13 0 ln /H27 ! 0.03#" ln /HBr A 0.0023 ln /H2 7 ln /HBr Hydroc'loric acid 1000:Ld- ? 3.!36" ! 0.1 #1 ln /H27 ! 0.0326 ln /HCl A 0.0026# ln /H2 7 ln /HCl ;itric acid 1000:Ld- ? 3.6614 ! 0.1446 ln /H27 ! 0.0"2! ln /H;73 A 0.00! 6 ln /H2 7 ln /H;73 9ulfurous acid 1000:Ld- ? 3.# 26 ! 0.1"63 ln /H37 A 0.000"6! ln /972 ! 0.000#13 ln /H27 ln /972 9ulfuric acid 1000:Ld- ? 2.2!6 ! 0.02#4 ln /H27 ! 0.0" " ln /H3 974 A 0.0062 ln /H27 ln /H2974
a

Ld- is de+ -oint tem-erature &R), and / is -artial -ressure &mmH$). Com-ared +it' -ublis'ed data, t'e -redicted de+ -oints are +it'in about 6 R of actual (alues e6ce-t for H2974, +'ic' is +it'in about # R. 9ourceC HCl, HBr, H;73 and 972 correlations +ere deri(ed from (a-orQli5uid e5uilibrium data. L'e H2974 correlation is from 8ef. .

For sulfuric acidC 1000 Ldor Ld- ? 404 R ? 131 C ? 26" F L'e de+ -oints of ot'er $ases can be obtained in a similar manner. 6.2 c DC 3oes t'e -otential for acid de+ -oint corrosion decrease if t'e $as tem-erature at t'e economiSer is increasedE ? 2C2!6 B 0C02#4 @ 4C 3! A 0C0" " @ C!!16 B 0C0062 @ 4C 3! @ C!!16 ? 2C4!

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

.C .cid de+ -oints +ere com-uted in D6.2 a. 0f t'e tube +all tem-eratures can be maintained abo(e t'e de+ -oint, t'en condensation of (a-ors is unli1ely. Ho+e(er, t'e tube +all tem-erature in a $asPtoPli5uid 'eat e6c'an$er suc' as t'e economiSer is $o(erned by t'e $as lm 'eat transfer coefcient rat'er t'an t'e tubePside +ater coefcient, +'ic' is (ery 'i$'. 0t can be s'o+n by usin$ t'e electrical analo$y and ne$lectin$ t'e effects of foulin$ t'at G#H tm ? to B Ito B tiJ +'ere tm ? tube +all tem-erature to ? $asP and tubePside 4uid tem-erature 'i ? tubePside 'eat transfer coefcient 'o ? $asPside 'eat transfer coefcient 0n an economiSer, 'i is ty-ically about 1000 Btu:ft2 ' F and '0 is about 1 Btu:ft2 ' F. *et us assume t'at +ater tem-erature ti ? 2 0 F and com-ute t'e +all tem-erature tm for t+o $as tem-eratures, 3 0 F and ! 0 F. 1000 ? 2 2F tm1 ? 3 0 B I3 0 B 101 2 0J 1000 101 ? 2 "F 'i 'i A ' o

tm2 ? ! 0 B I! 0 B 2 0J Hence for a (ariation of 400 F in $as tem-erature, t'e tube +all tem-erature c'an$es by only 6 F because t'e $as lm 'eat transfer coefcient is so lo+ com-ared to t'e +aterPside coefcient. E(en +it' nned tubes t'e difference +ould be mar$inal. Fe see t'at if +e s-ecify a 'i$'er stac1 $as tem-erature +'en selectin$ or desi$nin$ an economiSer +e cannot a(oid corrosion concerns if t'e +ater tem-erature is lo+ or close to t'e acid de+ -oint. . better +ay is to increase t'e +ater tem-erature enterin$ t'e economiSer by raisin$ t'e deaerator -ressure or by usin$ a 'eat e6c'an$er to -re'eat t'e +ater. 6.2 d DC <sin$ t'e correlation $i(en belo+, e(aluate t'e sulfuric acid de+ -oint. Ld- ? 203C2 A 2!C6 lo$ /H27 A 10C"3 lo$ /973 A 1C06 Ilo$ /973 A "J2C1# I1"bJ

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

L'e -artial -ressures are in atmos-'eres and de+ -oint is in de$rees Celsius. .C <sin$ t'e data from D6.2 b G14H, /973 ? 0C0031 mmH$ ? 4C1 @ 10B6 atm lo$ /973 ? B C3"!2 /H27 ? #3C44 mmH$ ? 0C122# atm lo$ /H2 7 ? B0C#104

Ld- ? 203C2 B 2!C6 @ 0C#104 B 10C"3 @ C3"!2 A 1C06 @ I2C612"J 2C1# ? 12"C4 C, or 263 F +'ic' a$rees +it' t'e ot'er correlation. Ho+e(er, it s'ould be mentioned t'at t'ese calculations 'a(e some uncertainty, and e6-erience s'ould be ta1en as t'e $uide.

6.26a DC Ho+ do you con(ert -ollutants suc' as ;76 and C7 from $as turbine e6'aust $ases from mass units suc' as lb:' to --mE .C Fit' strict emission re$ulations, -lant en$ineers and consultants often nd it necessary to relate mass and (olumetric units of -ollutants suc' as ;76 and C7. 0n $as turbine co$eneration and combined cycle -lants, in addition to t'e -ollutants from t'e $as turbine itself, one 'as to consider t'e contributions from duct burners or au6iliary burners t'at are added to increase t'e steam $eneration from t'e H89=s &'eat reco(ery steam $enerators). 7ne can easily obtain t'e total lb:' of ;76 or C7 in t'e e6'aust $as. Ho+e(er, re$ulations refer to ;76 and C7 in --m(d &-arts -er million (olume dry) referred to 1 > o6y$en in t'e $as. L'e con(ersion can be done as follo+s. 0f + lb:' is t'e 4o+ rate of ;76 &usually re-orted as ;7 2 ) in a turbine e6'aust 4o+ of F lb:', t'e follo+in$ e6-ression $i(es ;76 in (olumetric units on dry basis G#H. % ? 100 @ +'ere >H2 7 ? (olume of +ater (a-or 2F ? molecular +ei$'t of t'e e6'aust $ases I+:46J:IF :2FJ 100 B >H2 7 I1#J

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

L'e (alue of % obtained +it' E5. &1#) must be con(erted to 1 > o6y$en on dry basis to $i(e --m(d of ;76C %n ? % @ I21 B 1 J @ 106 21 B 100 @ >72 :I100 B >H27J +'ere >72 is t'e o6y$en -resent in t'e +et e6'aust $ases and factor F con(erts % to 1 > o6y$en basis, +'ic' is t'e usual basis of re-ortin$ emissions. 9imilarly, C7 emission in --m(d can be obtained as %c ? 1C642 @ %n &for t'e same + lb:' rateJ because t'e ratio of t'e molecular +ei$'ts of ;72 and C7 is 1.642. E6am-le 3etermine t'e ;76 and C7 concentrations in --m(d, 1 > o6y$en dry basis if 2 lb:' of ;76 and 1 lb:' of C7 are -resent in 0,000 lb:' of turbine e6'aust $as t'at 'as t'e follo+in$ analysis by (olume -ercent &usually ar$on is added to t'e nitro$en content)C C72 ? 3C , 9olution. First, 2F ? I3C @ 44 A 10 @ 1" A ! @ 2" A 11C @ 32J:100 ? 2" *et us com-ute ;76 on dry basis in t'e e6'aust. %? 100 @ I2 :46J I 0,000:2"J:I100 B 106 @ I21 B 1 J 21 B Z100:I100 B 10J @ 11C Hence %n ? 0C000030!4 @ 0C!3 @ 106 ? 22C4 --m(d 9imilarly, %c ? &1 :2 ) @ 1.642 @ 22.4 ? 22.0 --m(d. 6.26b DC Ho+ can t'e emissions due to ;76 and C7 in red boilers be con(erted from --m to lb:22 Btu or (ice (ersa G10HE .C /ac1a$ed steam $enerators rin$ $as or oil must limit emissions of -ollutants in order to meet state and federal re$ulations. Criteria on emissions of common 10J F? ? 0C!3 @ 106 ? 0C000030!4 H2 7 ? 10, ;2 ? ! , 72 ? 11C ?%@F I20J

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

-ollutants suc' as carbon mono6ide &C7) and o6ides of nitro$en &;76) are often s-ecied in -arts -er million (olume dry &--m(d) at 3> o6y$en. 7n t'e ot'er 'and, burner and boiler su--liers often cite or $uarantee (alues in -ounds -er million Btu red. Lable 6.10 demonstrates a sim-le met'od for calculatin$ t'e con(ersion. 0t s'ould be noted t'at e6cess air 'as little effect on t'e con(ersion factor. Lable 6.10 s'o+s t'e results of combustion calculations for natural $as and ;o. 2 oil at (arious e6cess air le(els. L'e table s'o+s t'e 4ue $as analysis, molecular +ei$'t, and amount of 4ue $as -roduced -er million Btu red on 'i$'er 'eatin$ (alue &HH%) basis. <sin$ t'ese, +e +ill arri(e at t'e relations'i- bet+een --m(d (alues of ;76 or C7 and t'e corres-ondin$ (alues in lb:22 Btu red. Calculations for ;atural =as From sim-le massPtoPmole con(ersions +e 'a(e %n ? 106 @ W @ +'ere 2F ? molecular +ei$'t of +et 4ue $ases ; ? -ounds of ;76 -er million Btu red 72 ? (ol> o6y$en in +et 4ue $ases %n ? -arts -er million (olume dry ;76 F$m ? 4ue $as -roduced -er 22 Btu red, lb W ? 100:&100 ! >H27), +'ere H27 is t'e (olume of +ater (a-or in +et 4ue $ases L.B*E 6.10 8esults of Combustion Calculations &.nalysis in (ol>)
/ercent e6cess air 0 Com-onent C72 H27 ;2 72 2F F$m
a

; 46

2F F$m

21 B 3 21 B 72 @ W

I21J

10 20 ;atural $asa ".6" 1".3" !1.22 1.!2 2!.62 "41 ".02 1!.0" !1.!3 3.1" 2!.6" #14

30 !.4 1 .#6 !2.16 4.43 2!.!! #66

0 13.4# 12."" !3.63 0 2"."! !#0

10 20 ;o. 2 7ilb 12.33 11.#0 !4.02 1.!6 2"." "64 11.3 11.0! !4.34 3.24 2"."4 #3"

30 10. 1 10.36 !4.62 4. 0 2"."2 1011

#.4! 1#.#1 !0.62 0 2!. 2 !6"

;atural $as analysis assumedC C1 ? #!, C2 ? 2, C3 ? 1 (ol>. &HH% and **% ? 23,! # and 21,462 Btu:lb, res-ecti(ely.) ;o. 2 oil analysis assumedC C ? "!. >, H2 ? 12. >, ./0 ? 32. &HH% and **% ? 1#,!2! and 1", 12 Btu:lb, res-ecti(ely.)
b

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From Lable 6.10, for Sero e6cess airC F$m ? I106:23,!"#J @ 1"C3 ? !6# W ? 100:I100 B 1#C#1J ? 1C24" 2F ? 2!C 3, 72 ? 0

9ubstitutin$ t'ese into E5. &21) +e 'a(e 1" ? "32 ; %n ? 106 @ 1C24" @ ; @ 2!C 2 46 @ !6# @ 21 @ 9imilarly, to obtain --m(d C7 &-arts -er million (olume dry C7), one +ould use 2" instead of 46 in t'e denominator. L'us t'e molecular +ei$'t of ;76 +ould be 46 and t'e calculated molecular +ei$'t of C7 +ould be 2". %e ? 136! C7 +'ere C7 is t'e -ounds of C7 -er 22 Btu red on 'i$'er 'eatin$ (alue &HH%) basis. ;o+ re-eat t'e calculations for 30> e6cess airC 100 B 1 C#6 2F ? 2!C!!, 72 ? 4C43 ; @ 2!C!! %n ? 106 @ 1C1"# 46 #"6C6 @ @ 1" 21 B I4C43 @ 1C1"#J ? "32; F$m ? #"6C6, 100 ? 1C1"#

L'us, inde-endent of e6cess air, +e obtain "32 as t'e con(ersion factor for ;76 and 136! for C7. 9imilarly, for ;o. 2 oil and usin$ (alues from Lable 6.10, %n ? !"3; E6am-le 0f a natural $as burner $enerates 0.1 lb of ;76 -er 22 Btu red, t'en t'e e5ui(alent +ould e5ual "32 @ 0.1 ? "3 --m(d. 6.26c DC Ho+ can t'e emissions of unburned 'ydrocarbons &<HCs) be con(erted from lb:22 Btu to --m( basisE and %c ? 12"6 C7

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

W?

.C 8efer to Lable 6.10, +'ic' s'o+s t'e results of combustion calculations for oil and $aseous fuels at (arious e6cess air le(els. Fe can obtain <HC emissions on --m( basis if lb:22 Btu (alues are 1no+n. *et us assume t'at < is t'e emission of <HC &treated as met'ane) in lb:22 Btu in 4ue $ases of natural $as at 20> e6cess air. <sin$ E5. &21) for con(ertin$ from mass to (olume units, %u ? 106 @ W @ 2F @ I21 B 3J 16 @ F$m @ I21 B 72 @ W J

2F ? 16 for <HC and 2!.6" for 4ue $ases, +ater (a-or in 4ue $ases ? 1!.0" (ol> at 20> e6cess air for natural $as, F$m ? #14 lb:22 Btu, and > o6y$en +et ? 3.1". Hence, 100 "2C#2 @ 16 @ #14 @ I21 B 3C1" @ 100:"2C#2J ? 23#4< --m(d

For e6cess air at 10> e6cess air, 2F ? 2!.62 for 4ue $ases, +ater (a-or ? 1".3" (ol>, o6y$en +et ? 1.!2 (ol> F$m ? "41. %u ? < @ 106 @ 100 @ 2!C62 @ 1" 16 @ "41 @ I21 B 1C!2 @ 100:"2C62J

"2C62 ? 236 < --m(d

Hence, if t'e <HC (alue is 0.1 lb:22 Btu for natural $as, it is e5ui(alent to about 23! --m(. For ;o. 2 oil at 20> e6cess air, F$m ? #3", o6y$en ? 3.24, 2F 4ue $ases ? 2"."4, +ater (a-or ? 11.0! (ol>. %u ? < @ 106 @ 100 2"C"4 @ 1" @ ""C#3 16 @ #3" @ I21 B 3C24 @ 100:""C#3J ? 2240< --m(d

6.26d DC Con(ert 976 (alues from lb:22 Btu to --m(d.

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%u ? < @ 106 @ 2!C6" @ 1"

.C Eac' -ound of sulfur in fuel con(erts to 2 lb of 972. <sin$ natural $as at 20> e6cess air, 9 lb:22 Btu of 972 is e5ui(alent to %s ? 9 @ 106 @ 100 "2C#2 ? #"9 --m(d @ 2!C6" @ 1" 64 @ #14 @ I21 B 3C1" @ 100:"2C#2J

0.1 lb:22 Btu of 976 is e5ui(alent to 60 --m(. GFe are sim-ly usin$ E5. &21) and substitutin$ for 2F and W .H 9imilarly, for ;o. 2 oil at 20> e6cess air, %s ? 9 @ 106 @ 100 ""C#3 @ 2"C"4 @ 1" 64 @ I21 B 3C24 @ 100:"2C#2J 6.26e DC . $as turbine H89= 'as t'e follo+in$ dataC E6'aust $as 4o+ ? 00,000 lb:' at #00 F =as analysis (ol>, C72 ? 3, H2 7 ? !, ;2 ? ! , 72 ? 1 . L'e e6'aust $as 'as # lb:' of ;76 and C7. L'e H89= is red to 1 00 F usin$ natural $as consistin$ of (ol> met'ane ? #!, et'ane ? 2, -ro-ane ? 1. Fuel in-ut ? #0 22 *H%. HH% of fuel ? 23,!#0 Btu:lb, and *H% ? 21,43# Btu:lb. L'e burner contributes 0.0 lb:22 Btu of ;76 and C7. .lso see +'at 'a--ens +'en t'e burner contributes 0.1 lb:22 Btu of t'ese -ollutants. Flue $as analysis after combustion (ol> C72 ? 4C42, H2 7 ? #C!", ;2 ? !3C#1, 72 ? 11C"6, and 4ue $as 4o+ ? 04,1#" lb:'. Com-ute t'e ;76 and C7 le(els in --m(d corrected to 1 > o6y$en before and after t'e burner. .C Fe 'a(e to con(ert t'e mass 4o+ of ;76 and C7 to (olumetric units and correct for 1 > o6y$en dry basis. .t t'e burner inlet, usin$ E5s. &1#) and &20), --m(d ;76 ? # 46 @ 100 #3 @ 21 B 1 2"C3" @ 106 @ ? 14C! 00,000 21 B 1 @ 100:#3 ? 349 --m(d

0n t'is e6am-le, t'e molecular +ei$'ts of ;76 ? 46, 4ue $as ? 2".3". L'e mass of C7 remains t'e same, so --m(d C7 ? &46:2") @ 14.! ? 24.2. .t t'e burner e6it, t'e mass of ;76 in t'e e6'aust $ases after combusP tion is # A #0 @ 23,!#0 21,43# @ 0C0 ? 14 lb:'

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Because t'e burner 'eat in-ut is on *H% basis and emissions are on HH% basis, +e correct t'e (alues usin$ t'e abo(e e6-ression. --m(d ;76 ? 14 100 2"C2 @ @ 106 46 #0C22 04,1#" 21 B 1 @ ? 14C4 21 B 11C"6 @ 100:#0C22 @

--m(d C7 ? I46:2"J @ 14 ? 23C! Fit' 0.1 lb:22 Btu emissions from t'e burner, ;76 --m(d ? 1#. and C7 --m(d ? 32.1 L'us bot' t'e burner contribution and t'e initial -ollutant le(els in t'e turbine e6'aust $ases affect t'e --m( (alues after combustion. --m(d (alues after t'e burner can be lo+er or 'i$'er t'an t'e inlet --m(d (alues, t'ou$' in terms of mass 4o+ t'ey +ill al+ays be 'i$'er.

6.26f DC 9team $enerator emissions are usually referred to 3> o6y$en dry basis, and $as turbine or H89= emissions are referred to 1 > o6y$en dry basis. Ho+e(er, in o-eration, different e6cess air rates are used t'at $enerate 4ue $ases +it' different o6y$en le(els. F'at is t'e -rocedure for con(ertin$ from actual to 3> o6y$en basisE .C --m &^ 3> dry) ? --m &actual) @

21 B 3 21 B 72 IactualJ

0f dry o6y$en in 4ue $ases is 1.!> and 12 --m of a -ollutant is measured, t'en at 3> o6y$en, Emission ? 12 @ 21 B 3 21 B 1C! ? 11C2 --m

6.2!a DC 0n $as turbine co$eneration and combined cycle -roXects, t'e 'eat reco(ery steam $enerator may be red +it' au6iliary fuel in order to $enerate additional steam. 7ne of t'e fre5uently as1ed 5uestions concerns t'e consum-tion of o6y$en in t'e e6'aust $as (ersus fuel 5uantity red. Fould t'ere be sufcient o6y$en in t'e e6'aust to raise t'e e6'aust $as to t'e desired tem-eratureE

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

.C =as turbine e6'aust $ases ty-ically contain 14Q16> o6y$en by (olume com-ared to 21> in air. Hence $enerally t'ere is no need for additional o6y$en to re au6iliary fuel suc' as $as or oil or e(en coal +'ile raisin$ its tem-erature. &0f t'e $as turbine is inXected +it' lar$e amounts of steam, t'e o6y$en content +ill be lo+er, and +e s'ould refer t'e analysis to a burner su--lier.) .lso, if t'e amount of fuel red is (ery lar$e, t'en +e can run out of o6y$en in t'e $as stream. 9u--lementary rin$ or au6iliary rin$ can double or e(en 5uadru-le t'e steam $eneration in t'e boiler com-ared to its unred mode of o-eration G1H. L'e ener$y D in Btu:' re5uired to raise F$ lb:' of e6'aust $ases from a tem-erature of t1 to t2 is $i(en by D ? F$ @ I'2 B '1 J +'ere '1, '2 ? ent'al-y of t'e $as at t1 and t2, res-ecti(ely L'e fuel 5uantity in lb:' is Ff in D:*H%, +'ere *H% is t'e lo+er 'eatin$ (alue of t'e fuel in Btu:lb. 0f 0> (olume of o6y$en is a(ailable in t'e e6'aust $ases, t'e e5ui(alent amount of air Fa in t'e e6'aust is G#H Fa ? 100 @ F$ @ 7 @ 32 23 @ 100 @ 2#C

0n t'is e5uation +e are merely con(ertin$ t'e moles of o6y$en from (olume to +ei$'t basis. . molecular +ei$'t of 2#. is used for t'e e6'aust $ases, and 32 for o6y$en. L'e factor 100:23 con(erts t'e o6y$en to air. Fa ? 0C04!1 @ F$ @ 7 I22J

;o+ let us relate t'e air re5uired for combustion +it' fuel red. From D .03Q D. .0 +e 1no+ t'at eac' 22 Btu of fuel red on HH% basis re5uires a constant amount . of air. . is !4 for oil and !30 for natural $as, t'us, 10 6:HH% lb of fuel re5uires . lb of air. Hence D:*H% lb of fuel re5uires D *H% D *H% or *H% D ? 0C04!1 @ F$ @ 7 @ 106 . @ HH% @ I24J @.@ HH% 106 HH% 106 lb air

and t'is e5uals Fa from &22). @.@ ? Fa ? 0C04!1F$ @ 7 I23J

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;o+ for natural $as and fuel oils, it can be s'o+n t'at *H%:I. @ HH%J ? 0C00124. 9ubstitutin$ into E5. &24), +e $et D ? "C4 @ F$ @ 7 I2 J

L'is is a (ery im-ortant e5uation, because it relates t'e ener$y in-ut by t'e fuel &on *H% basis) +it' o6y$en consumed. E6am-le 0t is desired to raise t'e tem-erature of 1 0,000 lb:' of turbine e6'aust $ases from # 0 F to 1 ! F in order to double t'e out-ut of t'e +aste 'eat boiler. 0f t'e e6'aust $ases contain 1 (ol> of o6y$en, and t'e fuel in-ut is 2# 22 Btu:' &*H% basis), determine t'e o6y$en consumed. 9olution. From E5. &24), 7? 2# @ 106 1 0,000 @ "C4 ? 3C32>

Hence if t'e incomin$ $ases 'ad 1 (ol> of o6y$en, e(en after t'e rin$ of 2# 22 Btu:' +e +ould 'a(e 1 ! 3.32 ? 11.6"> o6y$en in t'e e6'aust $ases. . more accurate met'od +ould be to use a com-uter -ro$ram G#H, but t'e abo(e e5uation clearly tells us if t'ere is li1ely to be a s'orta$e of o6y$en. 6.2!b DC 1 0,000 lb:' of turbine e6'aust $ases at #00 F 'a(in$ a $as analysis &(ol>) of C72 ? 3, H2 7 ? !, ;2 ? ! and 72 ? 1 enters a duct burner, and 3 22 Btu:' &*H%) of natural $as is red. 3etermine t'e e6'aust $as analysis after t'e burner. <se 100> met'ane as fuel $as analysis for illustrati(e -ur-oses. .C From Lable 6.3, t'e *H% ? 21, 20 Btu:lb. Hence fuel red ? 3 @ 10 6: 21, 20 ? 1626 lb:'. From combustion basics, CH4 A 272 \ C72 A 2H2 7 9o 16 lb of met'ane re5uires 64 lb of o6y$en and yields 44 lb of C7 2 and 36 lb of +ater (a-or, usin$ molecular +ei$'ts of 16 for met'ane, 32 for o6y$en, 44 for carbon dio6ide, and 1" for +ater (a-or. Hence 1626 lb:' of met'ane +ill consume 1626 @ I64:16J ? 6 04 lb:' of o6y$en

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

.lso, it +ill increase C72 by 1626 @ I44:16J ? 44!1 lb:' H2 7 +ill increase by 1626 @ I36:16J ? 36 # lb:' Con(ert t'e (olume -ercent in incomin$ e6'aust $ases to +ei$'t -ercent basis as follo+s. L'e molecular +ei$'t of incomin$ $ases is 0C03 @ 44 A 0C0! @ 1" A 0C! @ 2" A 0C1 @ 32 ? 2"C3" Fraction by +ei$'t of C72 ? 0C03 @ 44:2"C3" ? 0C046 H27 ? 0C0! @ 1":2"C3" ? 0C0444 ;2 ? ! @ 2":2"C3" ? 0C!4 72 ? 0C1 @ 32:2"C3" ? 0C16#1 L'e amounts of t'ese $ases in incomin$ e6'aust $as in lb:'C C72 ? 1 0,000 @ 0C046 ? 6#! lb:' H2 7 ? 1 0,000 @ 0C0444 ? 6660 lb:' ;2 ? 1 0,000 @ 0C!4 ? 111,000 lb:' 72 ? 1 0,000 @ 0C16#1 ? 2 ,36 lb:' L'e nal -roducts of combustion +ill 'a(e C72 ? 6#! A 44!1 ? 11,446 lb:' H2 7 ? 6660 A 36 # ? 10,31# lb:' ;2 ? 111,000 72 ? 2 ,36 B 6 04 ? 1","61 lb:' Lotal e6'aust $as flo+ ? 11,446 A 10,31# A 111,000 A 1","61 ? 1 1,626 lb:' +'ic' matc'es t'e sum of e6'aust $as 4o+ and t'e fuel $as red. Lo con(ert t'e nal e6'aust $as to (ol> analysis, +e 'a(e to obtain t'e number of moles of eac' constituent. 2oles of C72 ? 11,446:44 ? 260C1 H27 ? 10,31#:1" ? !3C2 ;2 ? 111,000:2" ? 3#64C3 72 ? 1","61:32 ? "#C4 Lotal moles ? 3"!

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Hence C72 ? 260C1: 3"! ? 0C04"3, or 4C"3> by (olume 9imilarly, H2 7 ? !3C2: 3"! ? 0C1064, or 10C64 (ol> ;2 ? 3#64C2: 3"! ? 0C!3 #, or !3C # (ol> 72 ? "#C4: 3"! ? 0C10#4, or 10C#4 (ol> <sin$ E5. &2 ), +e see t'at nearly 4> o6y$en 'as been consumed G&3 @ 106)& ".4:1 0,000) ? 4>H or nal o6y$en ? 1 ! 4 ? 11>, +'ic' a$rees +it' t'e detailed calculations. F'en -ossible, detailed combustion calculations s'ould be done because t'ey also re(eal t'e (olume -ercent of +ater (a-or, +'ic' 'as increased from !> to 10.64>. L'is +ould naturally increase t'e $as s-ecic 'eat or its ent'al-y and affect t'e 'eat transfer calculations. Lable 6.11 s'o+s t'e e6'aust $as analysis at (arious rin$ tem-eratures.

6.2!c DC 3etermine t'e nal e6'aust $as tem-erature after combustion in t'e e6am-le in D6.2!b. .C Lo arri(e at t'e nal $as tem-erature, t'e ent'al-y of t'e e6'aust $ases must be obtained. . sim-listic s-ecic 'eat assum-tion can also $i(e an idea of t'e tem-erature but +ill not be accurate. L.B*E 6.11 Effect of Firin$ Lem-erature on E6'aust =as .nalysis
Firin$ tem-erature, F 1400 Burner duty, 22 Btu:' Lotal $as 4o+, lb:' H27, (ol> C72 , (ol> 72 , (ol> 22. 1 1,03! #.33 4.1# 12.3" 1"00 41."3 1 1,#4! 11.2# .1" 10.1" 2200 62.#" 1 2,#3 13.3# 6.26 !."3 2600 "6. 4 1 4,03 1 .6! !.42 .2! 3000 111.1 1 ,1!4 1".00 ".6 2.6!

1 0,000 lb:' of e6'aust $ases at #00 F. E6'aust $as analysis &(ol>)C C72 ? 3, H27 ? !, ;2 ? ! , 72 ? 1 . ;atural $asC C1 ? #! (ol>, C2 ? 3 (ol>.

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

<sin$, say, 0.3 Btu:lb F for t'e a(era$e $as s-ecic 'eat for t'e tem-eraP ture ran$e in consideration, t'e increase in $as tem-erature is 3 @ 106 :I1 0,000 @ 0C3J ? !!! F or Final $as tem-erature ? #00 A !!! ? 16!! F Ho+e(er, let us use $as ent'al-y calculations, +'ic' are more accurate. Fi$ure 6.3 s'o+s t'e $as ent'al-y for t'e turbine e6'aust $as at (arious tem-eratures. &. -ro$ram +as used to com-ute t'ese (alues based on t'e ent'al-y of indi(idual constituents.) Ent'al-y of e6'aust $as at #00 F ? 220 Btu:lb. From an ener$y balance across t'e burner, 1 0,000 @ 220 A 3 @ 106 ? 1 1,626 @ '$ +'ere '$ ? ent'al-y of nal -roducts of combustion. '$ ? 44". Btu:lb. From t'e c'art, t'e $as tem-erature ? 1660 F. . com-uter -ro$ram -robably $i(es more accurate results, because it can com-ute t'e $as tem-erature and ent'al-y for any $as analysis and iterate for t'e actual ent'al-y, +'ereas a c'art can be de(elo-ed only for a $i(en e6'aust $as analysis and a ma6imum rin$ tem-erature.

F0=<8E 6.3 Ent'al-y of turbine e6'aust $as as a function of tem-erature.

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

6.2" DC Ho+ can t'e fuel consum-tion for -o+er -lant e5ui-ment suc' as $as turbines and diesel en$ines be determined if t'e 'eat rates are 1no+nE .C L'e 'eat rate &H8) of $as turbines or en$ines in Btu:1F' refers indirectly to t'e efciency. Efficiency ? 3413 H8

+'ere 3413 is t'e con(ersion factor from Btu:' to 1F. 7ne 'as to be careful about t'e basis for t'e 'eat rate, +'et'er it is on HH% or *H% basis. L'e efciency +ill be on t'e same basis. E6am-le 0f t'e 'eat rate for a $as turbine is #000 Btu:1F' on *H% basis and t'e 'i$'er and lo+er 'eatin$ (alues of t'e fuel are 20,000 and 22,000 Btu:lb, res-ecti(ely, t'en Efficiency on *H% basis ? 3413 #000 ? 0C3!#, or 3!C#>

Lo con(ert t'is efciency to HH% basis, sim-ly multi-ly it by t'e ratio of t'e 'eatin$ (aluesC 20,000 Efficiency on HH% basis ? 3!C# ? 34C4 > 22,000 @

;72E;C*.L<8E . C, C7, C72 Ca Ce E E. HH% H8 'i , ' o R R1 , R 2 L'eoretical amount of air for combustion -er 22 Btu red, lb Carbon, carbon mono6ide, and carbon dio6ide .s' concentration in 4ue $as, $rains:cu ft 9-ecic 'eat, Btu:lb F Emission rate of sulfur dio6ide, lb:22 Btu E6cess air, > E6cess air factor Hi$'er 'eatin$ (alue, Btu:lb or Btu:scf Heat rate, Btu:1F' 0nside and outside 'eat transfer coefcients, Btu:ft 2 ' F Constant used in E5. &!) Constants used in E5. &10a) and &10c)

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

*1 Q* *H% 2F /c , /+,/H2 7 /973 /a , /s 3/ 5 D s 9 ta, t$ tm LdLs , L a %s , %a %c , % n + F Fa , F $ , F f K r

*osses in steam $enerator, > *o+er 'eatin$ (alue, Btu:lb or Btu:scf 2olecular +ei$'t /artial -ressures of carbon dio6ide and +ater (a-or, atm /artial -ressure of sulfur trio6ide, atm .ctual and standard -ressures, -sia 3ifferential -ressure, -si Heat loss, Btu:ft2 ' Ener$y, Btu:' or 1F 9-ecic $ra(ity 9ulfur in fuel Lem-eratures of air and $as, F 2eltin$ -oint of as', C, tube +all tem-erature, C .cid de+ -oint tem-erature, R 9tandard and actual tem-eratures, 8 9tandard and actual (olumes, cu ft C7 and ;76 --m(d Fei$'t of air, lb:lb fuel, subscri-t da stands for dry air, +a, +et air, +$, +et $as, d$, dry $as 2oisture, lb:' Flo+ rates of air, $as, and fuel, lb:' Efciency, subscri-ts HH% and *H% denote t'e basis 3ensity, lb:cu ft, subscri-t $ stands for $as, f for fuel

8EFE8E;CE9
1. 2. 3. 4. . 6. !. ". #. % =ana-at'y. .--lied Heat Lransfer. Lulsa, 7RC /ennFell Boo1s, 1#"2, -- 14Q24. ;ort' .merican Combustion Handboo1. 2nd ed. Cle(eland, 7HC ;ort' .merican 2f$. Co., 1#!", -- #Q40. Babcoc1 and Filco6. 9teamC 0ts =eneration and <se. 3"t' ed. ;e+ Wor1, 1#!", - 6Q2. % =ana-at'y, <se c'art to estimate furnace -arameters. Hydrocarbon /rocessin$, Feb 1#"2, - 106. % =ana-at'y. Fi$ure -articulate emission rate 5uic1ly. C'emical En$ineerin$, Uuly 26, 1#"2, - "2. % =ana-at'y. ;omo$ram estimates meltin$ -oint of as'. /o+er En$ineerin$, 2arc' 1#!", - 61. .92E. /o+er Lest Code. /erformance test code for steam $eneratin$ units, /LC 4.1. ;e+ Wor1C .92E, 1#!4. % =ana-at'y. Estimate combustion $as de+-oint. 7il and =as Uournal, .-ril 1#!", - 10 . % =ana-at'y. Faste Heat Boiler 3es1boo1. .tlanta, =.C Fairmont /ress, 1##1.

Copyright 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

10. % =ana-at'y. Con(ertin$ --m to lb:22 Btu, an easy met'od. /o+er En$ineerin$, .-ril 1##2, - 32. 11. RW Hsiun$. /redictin$ de+ -oints of acid $ases. C'emical En$ineerin$, Feb #, 1#"1, - 12!. 12. C Bau1al Ur. L'e Uo'n Kin1 Combustion Handboo1. Boca 8aton, F*C C8C /ress, 2001. 13. Babcoc1 and Filco6, 9team, its $eneration and use, 40t' ed. L'e Babcoc1 and Filco6 Com-any, Barberton, 7'io, 1##2. 14. .= 711es. =et acid de+ -oint of 4ue $as. Hydrocarbon /rocessin$, Uuly 1#"!.

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