Globalization: Challenges and Prospects for Muslims

Written by Khurshid Ahmad Abstract [Globalization, though not a new phenomenon for the Muslim World, holds added significance in view of the position it is assuming as a framework for the re ordering of the world! "he speed, the spread and the scope of contemporary globalization, in the wake of revolutionary technological advancements, have turned the planet into a village! #elations between communities and nations are being redefined! $nipolarism, abuse of power and military might, coupled with control over the world%s resources and media, have given present day globalization a &uro American identity! "hey have led to gross asymmetries of political power, military strength and levels of technological and economic development in different parts and countries of the world! Globalization today can easily be termed as a race between the une'ual! "he Muslim ummah, historically the best e(ample of a global community, needs to regroup to take up the challenges of our times! )t has an important role to play in influencing and shaping the future course of globalization! *utting our own homes in order re'uires concerted efforts with a clear vision towards reform, capacity building and multifaceted development of our societies! Aiming for success and embarking on higher grounds in the absence of proper realization, systematic preparation and concrete actions would be futile! &ngaging the entire globe + especially the West + in a meaningful dialogue can provide us the opening to deal with all the stumbling blocks effectively! ,either isolation and autarky nor emotional outbursts and thoughtless confrontation are answers! + &ditorIntroduction &very age has its own fads and clich.s! )n contemporary times, /globalization% seems to have become one0 at least a sizeable section of the intellectual and political community of the world surmises so! #eservations aside, the developments of the past two decades suggest that globalization no longer seems to be a mere fad or clich.0 it is assuming the position of a framework for a re ordering of the world! As such, it is incumbent on the Muslim ummah in particular and the people of the third world in general to have a deeper understanding of what is going on! "hey must be able to sift the grain from the chaff0 to identify those aspects of globalization that are useful, and as such desirable and acceptable, and those that are in1urious and need to be resisted, modified or adapted to suit their conditions, needs and aspirations! "he claim of inevitability and universality has

to be taken with a pinch of salt! 2owever, the response should be positive as well as creative, since isolation and autarky are not the best options! Globalization is not new! As far the Muslim ummah is concerned, its e(istence is based on certain universal values, articles of faith, and principles, which provide the intellectual and conceptual foundations for globalization! "he Muslims believe in Allah, the 3ord of the worlds and the 4reator of the heavens and the earth! "hey believe in all the *rophets of Allah and the 5ur6an testifies that these *rophets and their followers belong to one ummah![7"he 5ur6an makes it very clear that though human beings have been made into tribes and nations + something natural and inevitable + this has been done for mutual identification only! All human beings, races and ethnic groups are e'ual and the only basis for superiority, greatness and leadership is moral e(cellence! "he 5ur%an says8 9: mankind; 3o; We have created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one another! 3o; the noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct! 3o; Allah is Knower, Aware!<[=>o the conceptual framework of )slam and the Muslim $mmah, even by definition, has a global dimension! )n fact, it may rightly be claimed that )slam provides, par e(cellence, the intellectual and moral foundations for an appropriate and sustainable conceptual framework for globalization! 2istorically, the Muslim ummah is the best e(ample of a universal community! ?rom the flood in the age of *rophet ,uh @,oahA to our own times, the spread of this ummah is and has been global! "oday, there are some BC independent Muslim states inhabited by over DEE million people, and over FEE million more Muslims are spread throughout the rest of the world! 4onse'uently, in every part of the world, there is Muslim presence + in most cases, 'uite a significant one! Globalization as a political, economic, cultural and technological process is not very new! "hroughout history, there have been waves of globalization, the critical vehicles for this process being migration, trade and con'uest! What is indeed new in our times, however, is the spread, the scope, the speed, and finally, the structure that is going to imbue the current trend towards global integration with liberalization, deregulation, privatization and the hegemonistic contours of capitalism and American power! "hese factors combined make the globalization of today, to a great e(tent, a uni'ue phenomenon! )t is in this conte(t that limitations of time and space are being annihilated and the entire world is, willy nilly, becoming one global city! "he most significant aspects of the contemporary phase relate to revolutions in technologies concerning transport and communication, particularly the processes of instant transfer of information! >wift global interactions and decision making via new information systems are having far reaching effects on the whole matri( of worldwide relations, including the movement of goods, services and financial flows! "hese represent

developments with profound conse'uences, moral, ideological, economic, cultural and political! )n view of the dominant paradigm of power and civilization, America and &urope remain ma1or players in the making of this new world order! American military power and its outreach, political influence, economic strength, command over technology and almost total control over media, bordering on virtual thought control, have given globalization a distinct &uro American identity! )n the name of promotion of liberalization, privatization, market economy and modernization, the domination of Western norms, value systems of life, socioeconomic institutions, and finally, political and economic interest is being established over the length and breadth of the world! Along with the state players, three other powerful actors are in the field, which are8 aA "he multinational corporations, bA "he international ,G:s and cA "he media! "ogether, they are playing a decisive role in bringing about what can be described as the emergence of a hyper imperialism, giving it the benign name8 6globalization!% "here is nothing wrong with globalization per se0 however, when the crucial ground realities that comprise the conte(t of globalization are ignored, serious problems arise! A 1udicious and honest approach by the Muslim leadership towards addressing these realities is a must for affording some relief to the world that is at the suffering end! Globalization: Some Ground Realities "he first and the foremost reality of the modern world to be recognized is the fact that there e(ist gross asymmetries of political power, military strength and levels of technological and economic development in different parts and countries of the world! ?oreign rule is nothing new in history! 2owever, &uropean colonial rule, which held sway over a part of the world for more than four centuries, has something uni'ue about it! ?or the first time ever in human history, during this period, a large scale physical transfer of resources took place from the colonies to the colonial overlords + the so called mother countries! 4onse'uently, the erstwhile global balance was destroyed and a new global arrangement appeared which established the authority of the Western hemisphere and marginalized all other regions, cultures and people! Guring the twentieth century, although the colonization process apparently reversed, Western power gained further grounds because of selective and lopsided development strategies! As a result, today, one finds a strong center periphery relationship that has been embedded into the global system%s political, economic and technological spheres, and which is primarily responsible for producing serious deformities and ine'uities!

3et us glance over certain anomalies! $p until the end of the eighteenth century, the per capita income of &urope, America, the Muslim World and the rest of the "hird World was within a differential of 78 =0 in certain parts of the world, it was in favor of the Muslim World! ?rom the nineteenth century onwards, the trend changed until, at the dawn of the twenty first century, HC percent of the world%s gross domestic product @GG*A is produced in == rich countries, while the rest of the world, consisting of some 7CE countries and over four fifths of mankind, tries to survive on the remaining 7I percent![I)n 7HEE, &urope%s share in the world%s manufacturing output was hardly =H!7 percent0 America6s, less than one percent0 while that of the rest of the world + the so called "hird World of today + was almost JC!C percent! ,otably, the share of the Muslim World was roughly around FE percent of the world GG*![F- "his sea change has totally distorted the balance of power in the world and created a situation where liberalization and globalization only accentuates the disparities! "he distribution of wealth is grossly skewed, not only globally, but also within the regions and between persons! "here are gross ine'ualities of wealth and income within the developed and underdeveloped world! ?orty billionaires alone, according to a 4,, survey in >eptember =EEI, owned $>KDBB billion, which is more than the total wealth of almost IE percent of the "hird World countries, the abode of over 7!= billion people! While over a billion persons in the world live on less than one dollar a day, the &uropean $nion gives its citizens a subsidy of $>K= per cow per day and this subsidy, in Lapan, is $>KC!B per cow per day! &ven in the richest country of the world, the $>A, with a GG* that is =J percent of the world GG*, over 7= percent of people live below the poverty line![BAsymmetric economic wealth is both accompanied and accentuated by asymmetrical political power and military strength! "he e(penditure of the $> alone on its war machinery is e'ual to the combined defense e(penditure of all the other countries of the world![J- $> forces are stationed in some FE countries of the world with an outreach to every corner of the globe! "echnology has reached a state where a target anywhere in the world can be struck from the $> Military 4ommand stationed in ?lorida! Most of the countries of the world are dependent on the $> arms systems and supplies for their defense0 indeed, the $> accounts for FH percent of the world%s e(ports of arms and defence systems![C)n a world like this, competition and liberalization shall mainly contribute to the disadvantage of the poor and the underprivileged! Moreover, those who stand for trade liberalization insist on liberation of the capital markets and flow of goods and services only8 they do not believe in free movement of labor! "his is why liberalization has become an instrument for the neo colonialism and a method for the virtual establishment over the weak of the dominion of the powerful + particularly the country that today boasts of hyper power! "his being the state of affairs, unless there are safeguards for the weak, globalization can safely be termed as a race between the une'uals! )t will aggravate a process through which, whatever economic and political wherewithal remains in the hands of the poorer

countries of the world, will be further reduced, if not decimated! "his is the concern of the people in the "hird World as well as of those who care for 1ustice and fair play elsewhere in the world! )t is symbolized by protests from >eattle to 4ancun! "he second ground reality to be aware of is that today%s globalization is taking place in the absence of any 1ust and agreed 1uridico political and economic infrastructure at the global level! "he legal, political, economic and financial architecture of the world is out of tune with the demands of a healthy, sustainable and e'uitable globalization process! Good governance is not merely a national virtue, it is e'ually important for the global community! "he $nited ,ations :rganization @$,:A and its organs and the Mretton Woods infrastructures built after World War )) reflect and perpetuate the e'uation of power that e(isted at the time of their creation! "he demise of the >oviet $nion has further tilted the balance of power in favor of the only remaining superpower! ,ew institutions, which could ensure security and 1ustice for all the countries and the people of the world, are conspicuous only by their absence! America%s refusal to accept the authority of the )nternational 4riminal 4ourt ratified by over HE countries of the world, its unilateral withdrawal from the Kyoto *rotocol, and its recent veto in the >ecurity 4ouncil on the issue of a resolution condemning )srael%s threat to kill or e(pel the elected *resident of the *alestinian Authority, is an inde( of the incongruity of power and the poverty and deficiencies of the global infrastructure! "he result is obvious0 the lone superpower is now calling the shots and regards itself above the law! )n fact, America is acting in a manner that is contemptuous towards international norms of behavior and is arrogating to itself the right to disregard even its own constitution! )t can violate any international treaty, walk out of any international institution, invade any part of the world in the name of 9preemptive strike< and in pursuit of its alleged 9right< of 9regime change!< )n such a setting, the globalization process can be successful and become a blessing only if there is a global infrastructure ensuring good governance, e'uitable opportunities of participation to all, and commitment by everyone to respect recognized processes for dispensation of 1ustice among the nations and the people of the world! While there is talk of democratization as part of the globalization agenda, there is no mention of making the global players + the $, >ecurity 4ouncil, the )nternational Monetary ?und @)M?A, the World Mank, the ,*", etc! + more democratic! >imilarly, if the people of a country, out of their own free will, choose an alternative culture, political strategy or economic order and are not prepared to tow the liberal $> &uropean model, their verdict is disregarded with impunity! Gemocracy no longer means the will of the people of every country0 it only means surrender to the wishes and preferences of the dominant powers! "his makes the whole process of democratization a sham! Moreover, democracy cannot be imposed from outside0 it can only evolve from within! >o is the problem with forced liberalization and imposed openness! "hey are contradictory in themselves! "he third reality is that globalization needs a particular mindset and an approach based on commitment to and respect for universal values and principles! Globalization with a parochial or nationalistic mindset and in pursuit of hegemonistic ambitions of a nation, system or civilization cannot but be a menace to mankind! )t can succeed and become a

blessing for mankind only if it is rooted in shared universal values and commitment to the processes and traditions of respect for plurality and acceptance of variety and differences as authentic! "his calls for a very different psychological and moral approach! )t demands an approach based on values and geared to achieving the common ideals of 1ustice and fairplay for all! "his is not possible in a climate of obsession with national interests, regional concerns, unilateralism, cultural arrogance and imperialistic ambitions! ?ree trade is a virtue only if it is also fair trade! >o is the case with every other aspect of international contact and cooperation! What one witnesses today, instead, is a globalization without the change re'uired in the psychology and mindset of the leadership, and in the dynamics for the use of power at the global level! "he dominant paradigm is fundamentally flawed! 4hange within this paradigm cannot deliver! What is needed is the change of the paradigm itself! Without a new moral and ideological dispensation, the dream of a 1ust global order will remain unfulfilled! "his brings the discussion to the fourth important dimension! "he new paradigm that can ensure healthy and fair globalization, and universal and shared prosperity, must be based on the values of @aA freedom with responsibility, @bA individualism tempered with social concern and solidarity, @cA competition with cooperation and compassion, @dA efficiency and profit motive with 1ustice and fair play, and @eA power with rule of law and accountability! "he incorporation of these prere'uisites warrants a ma1or paradigm shift to a 1ust order from the dominant civilizational paradigm of the West, which remains one sided, despite the fact that this one sidedness is rooted in partial reality! "he West%s one sidedness stems from its emphasis on freedom, individualism, profit motive, competition, liberalization, efficiency and power, without incorporating within the model the other coordinates of responsibility, solidarity, cooperation, compassion, 1ustice and accountability! 3astly, the central issue8 whether the globalization shall take place in the conte(t of the supremacy of one power + now actually a hyper power + and one economic system, capitalism, or it shall take place in the framework of a pluralistic world where different cultures, religions and socioeconomic systems could flourish without the overlordship of one or a few powerful playersN ?ree movement, dialogue, competition and interaction at the global level can lead to freedom, well being and opportunity for all, only if this takes place in a landscape of genuine diversity, plurality, respect for the rule of law and supremacy of shared values! "his is not possible if only a few dominate while others are forced to follow and succumb! Globalization: Blessing or Blarney "he Western creeds of liberalism, colonialism, secularism, nationalism and capitalism have proved to be parochial and regional as well as racial, class based and culture oriented! "hey have failed to prove their capacity to provide fair and e'uitable opportunities to all human beings! Lustice and compassion for all remain elusive and unattainable!

While certain positive and innovative dimensions of these concepts and ideologies cannot be denied, their limitations and negative contributions outnumber their positive contributions and potentials! "he result is undeniable8 globalization within the framework of these concepts is creating, and is bound to create, ominous problems, and escalating serious conflict situations for humanity in every part of the world! "he twentieth century has been the bloodiest century in history! )t witnessed some two hundred wars including two World Wars, resulting in the death of over 7EE million people and the destruction of vast lands all over the world! More of the same cannot be anything but more fatal! ,ew attitudes and new approaches are needed that are genuinely universal, and capable of providing freedom and opportunity to all and ensuring fair play for all the people and the countries of the world, irrespective of their faiths, cultures, politico economic systems, and positions on world affairs! Gemocracy is a great virtue and an invaluable blessing for humanity, but it can only flourish globally if there is genuine scope for plurality, respect for the rights of all, effective accountability of those who disregard the demands of law and established norms, and e'uality of opportunity for the weak and the strong alike! :therwise, democracy remains a form without substance and may degenerate into a sham and a farce! "he media and free flow of information are ma1or building blocks for a free society8 however, because of monopolistic overtones and maneuverings, they can become vicious instruments of thought control, mind manipulation and intellectual colonization! "echnology, likewise, is a blessing8 but it can also turn into a monster, a vehicle for sub1ugation and decimation of other peoples, morally, militarily, and culturally! Globalization is a great opportunity, but the weaker players can become genuine players and seize the opportunities it offers only if there is a new mindset and a fresh approach that is universal and pluralistic, and is operationalized in the conte(t of a global framework that establishes supremacy of law and ensures e'uality of opportunity to all! Muslims! Preparedness for Globalization "he Muslims, by and large, are not behaving as true representatives of )slam, individually or collectively! &conomically, the Muslim World is poor and dependent on the West! *olitically, it is divided like nine pins! 4ulturally, it seems to be in a melting pot! )n the field of education, research and technological development, it is far behind the rest of the world! According to a recent study, the total number of books published and translated in the Arab world is barely e'ual to the number printed in one, rather less developed, country of &urope, >pain! "he combined GG* of all the BC Muslim countries of the world is less than five percent of the world GG*, or to put it differently, less than the GG* of one &uropean country, )taly + which itself ranks as the fifth or si(th economy in the world! "he bulk of Muslim

financial resources are in the hands of and under the management of American and &uropean banks and investment and management houses! Muslim countries have developed a consumer economy without a sustainable production base! Gespite all of their wealth and resources, almost all the Muslim countries are languishing under foreign and domestic debt, in a few cases, with menacing conse'uences! Militarily, the Muslims are not only dependent on the West0 they are helplessly caught in its grip! Gespite all the e(penditure on defense, they have not been able to even face the threat that has been hammering at the doors of the Arab and Muslim World for over BE years in the form of the 9tiny,< yet armed to the teeth entity of )srael! "he state of political freedoms, the level of participation of the people in the economy and the polity, and the e'uitable sharing of wealth and power within Muslim societies is in very bad shape! And unless they set their houses in order, it is unrealistic to e(pect that )slam and the Muslim ummah can play their rightful role in the current phase of globalization! "he above being the weaknesses of the ummah today, it should be stated that all is not bad news! "here are certain positive developments and there is definitely light beyond the tunnel for the Muslim World! Globalization: the Role for Muslims )t is critical, in this backdrop, to e(amine the role )slam and the Muslim $mmah can play in influencing and shaping the future course of globalization! Globalization provides a very uni'ue opportunity to )slam and the Muslim $mmah! )slam with its fundamental value of "awhid, :neness of God, and conse'uently of :neness of mankind0 of supremacy of the moral over the material0 of integration of spiritual and mundane0 its overriding commitment to 1ustice, beneficence and compassion @al adl wa al ehsanA for all0 and its insistence of shura consultation + as the process for decision making at all levels, can provide a framework for genuine globalization that could be a blessing for mankind! Mut this can become a possibility only if the Muslim $mmah is prepared to take stock of its present position and pursue a path that is truly representative of the )slamic ethos! "he present state of the Muslim $mmah is rather disenchanting! "he Muslims can seize these opportunities only if, on the one hand, they seriously strive to overcome their weaknesses and drawbacks, and on the other, they open up a meaningful civilizational dialogue with the rest of the world, particularly with the West, as an ummah with a mission! As the 5ur6an says8 9"hus We have appointed you a middle nation, that ye may be witnesses against mankind, and that the messenger may be a witness against you O<[H-

)f the Muslims pursue this mission diligently and with perseverance, then the promise of Allah @>W"A is very clear8 9?aint not, nor grieve, for ye will overcome them if ye are @indeedA believers!<[D"he promise of success comes with a clear condition and that is in kuntum momineen + if you actually behave as true believers! And to be a momin does not merely mean offering prayers five times a day, fasting in the month of #amadan and fre'uent visits for $mrah and 2a11! "hey are obligations and constitute mighty pillars of a Muslim%s strength, but prayers @salahA must prompt us to fight evil and become rightful representatives of )slam! ?asting @sawmA should inculcate in us the true and dynamic spirit of ta'wa, which is God consciousness, heedfulness towards Allah, self discipline and commitment to a life dedicated to the fulfillment of )slamic ideals! :bligatory charity @zakahA is a great 6ibadah%, but it also gives us a vision of a sharing society where wealth ensures well being of all and mobilization of the resources of the ummah for the welfare of humanity! *ilgrimage to Ka%aba @ha11A is a symbol of the Muslims% unity! "oday, millions of Muslims come for ha11 from every part of the world, but where is the unity that may harness their energies in the direction of amr bil ma%roof wa nahee anil munkar bidding what is right and forbidding what is wrong and of conducting the affairs of human society with 1usticeN Globalization can be a historic opportunity, provided Muslims can fulfill the 5ur6anic condition8 in kuntum mo6mineen! )f the Muslims sincerely, seriously and courageously strive in the path of Allah @>W"A, 2is help and guidance is assured8 9As for those who strive in $s, We surely guide them to :ur paths, and lo; Allah is with the good!<[7E"he #ay Ahead for Muslims )slam calls Muslims to a mission, an approach and an effort rooted in the framework and geared to the ideals outlined above! )f Muslims are prepared to put their shoulders to this harness, the present is struggle, and future is )slam! Mut this calls for clear commitment and serious efforts in the right direction! A strategy to face this challenge would consist of, at least, the following elements8 $irstly8 "he clear vision of the ob1ectives, the moral and civilizational identity, and the mission as ummah! Secondly: >erious efforts towards reforming and reconstructing individual lives and societies in accordance with the values and principles of )slam! "his must be done with complete loyalty to Allah @>W"A and 2is *rophet @peace by upon himA, sincere adherence to the Givine revelation as contained in the 5ur6an and the >unnah, ensuring freedom and opportunity to all members of the society, as )slam wants Muslims to run their affairs through mutual consultation @shuraA, supremacy of law, pursuit of 1ustice,

and respect for the rights of Allah @>W"A and of the people @2u'u'ullah and 2u'u'ul )badA! "hirdly: Muslims must realize that systematic preparation to face the challenge is as much a part of an )slamic strategy as unwavering confidence in our mission and responsibility! Knowledge, character, moral sublimity, economic strength, political power, military capability, technological prowess, and social cohesion are key elements of this preparation! Without setting our own house in order and mobilizing all the resources at hand to prepare to play the rightful role in the world, nothing can be achieved! ?ourthly8 "he Muslim ummah have no option but to move towards greater cooperation, unity and collective self reliance! #egional groupings, trade and financial arrangements, educational and technological alliances, and political co ordinations are stepping stones to a global order that is more balanced and 1ust, and that represents a fair state of e'uilibrium between different nations, socio political systems and civilizations! Muslim unity could be an effective guarantee against decimation of Muslim countries and the eclipse of their civilizational identity in the face of the onslaught of unmanaged globalization! Muslims should not be merely at the receiving end0 they must plan and prepare themselves to play a positive role both to protect their identity and interests, and to make the world a better place for all! ?inally8 Muslims must realize that emotional outbursts and thoughtless confrontation are no answers to the multidimensional challenges the ummah faces today! )n fact, as an ummah with a mission, the right course of action for the Muslims is dialogue, contact, participation, and cooperation at the global level! "his must be an essential component of their strategy! "heir response to the global challenges must be proactive and positive0 that is the only way, not only to survive, but also to make their own mark on history! [7- al 5ur%an =I8 B= *)4K"2A38 9And lo; "his your religion is one religion and ) am your 3ord, so keep your duty unto Me!< al 5ur%an =78 D= *)4K"2A38 93o; "his, your religion, is one religion, and ) am your 3ord, so worship Me!< al 5ur%an F8 7 *)4K"2A38 9: mankind; Me careful of your duty to your 3ord Who created you from a single soul and from it created its mate and from them twain hath spread abroad a multitude of men and women! Me careful of your duty toward Allah in Whom ye claim @your rightsA of one another, and toward the wombs @that bare youA! 3o; Allah hath been a watcher over you!< "he *rophet Muhammad @blessings be upon himA said8 9"he origin of man is from one couple and the entire humanity is one family!< [=- al 5ur%an FD8 7I + tr! *)4K"2A3!

[I- *aul Kennedy, "he #ise and ?all of the Great *owers @3ondon8 ?ontana *ress, 7DHHA, p!7DE! >ee also *! Mairoch, 9)nternational )ndustrialization 3evels from 7CBE to 7DHE,< Lournal of &uropean &conomic 2istory 778=JD III0 M! >hahid Alam, *overty from the Wealth of ,ations8 )ntegration and *olarisation in the Global &conomy since 7CJE @3ondon8 Macmillan *ress, =EEEA0 and Mranca Milanovic, 9"rue World )ncome Gistribution, 7DHH and 7DDI,< "he &conomic Lournal @77=, Lanuary =EE=A, pp! B7 D=! [F- )bid [B- ,oreena 2ertz, "he >ilent "akeover8 Global 4apitalism and the Geath of Gemocracy @3ondon8 William 2einemann, =EE7A0 Lohn Gray, ?alse Gawn8 "he Gelusions of Global 4apitalism @3ondon8 Granta Mooks, 7DDHA0 William Greinder, :ne World, #eady or ,ot8 "he Manic 3ogic of Global 4apitalism @,ew Pork8 >unrise Q >chuster, 7DDCA0 Wayner &llwood, "he ,o ,onsense Guide to Globalization @3ondon8 Rerso, =EE7A! [J- Antes #oddick, "ake it *ersonally8 2ow Globalization affects you and powerful ways to challenge it @3ondon8 2arper 4ollins, =EE7A0 2ertz @=EE7A cited in B0 Military &(penditure and Arms "ransfer @Washington, G!4!8 Government *rinting :ffice, 7DDBA!

[C- )bid [H- al 5ur%an =8 7FI + tr! *)4K"2A3! [D- al 5ur%an I8 7ID + tr! *)4K"2A3! [7E- al 5ur%an =D8 JD + tr! *)4K"2A3!

Islam and %emocracy: Some Conceptual and Contemporary %imensions Written by Khurshid Ahmad

As the twenty first century begins and humanity enters its third millennium, the world is awash with dazzling new claims and dis'uieting apprehensions! :n the one hand, there are claims about the demise of 4ommunism, the end of the 4old War and the final victory of Western liberalism, political and economic, heralding the /end of history!% :n the other, there is widespread hue and cry about religious resurgence and the e(plosion of fundamentalisms the world over and apprehensions about a new era to be marked by a /clash of civilizations!% )t is time sober intellectuals, particularly those representing the Muslim $mmah, address themselves to the issues that are being debated in the academic world as well in its corridors of powers, and try to rethink the strategy of )slam and the Muslim $mmah vis S vis these challenges! >ome of the ma1or issues agitating humanity today and the direct concern of the $mmah, include8 Globalization, 3iberalization, Gemocratization, *rivatization, >ecularization, #eligious #esurgence and the spectre of )nternational "errorism! )n this paper, ) propose to e(amine some aspects of the Gemocratization debate! "his paper argues that /democracy%, as it has developed in the conte(t of Western civilization and polity, is neither a monolithic concept nor a totally uncontested one! )t is more appropriate to suggest that democracy remains a multi faced phenomenon, both at the conceptual as well as the operational levels! )t is, therefore, intellectually unacceptable and culturally untenable to assume that a particular Western model of democracy must be accepted as an ideal form of polity for the entirety of mankind, particularly for Muslims, who have their own distinct moral and ideological identity and historico cultural personality! Globalization may be the trend of the times, but it cannot be allowed to become a rubric of neo colonialism! Western democratic thought and e(perience, despite their richness and variety, are found, on deeper reflection and analysis, to be conceptually flawed and riddled with operational contradictions, deformities, and failures! W!M! Gallie has rightly called it an /essentially contestable concept!% )ts simple /e(port% to the Muslim world, as also to other "hird World countries, is not a realistic option! As such, efforts to indiscriminately promote through pressure, manipulation or outright imposition any form of Western secular democracy as an active goal of foreign policy of the $nited >tates and other Western powers is highly ill advised! "his author further submits that it is desirable to differentiate between the two ma1or dimensions of democracy, i!e! its philosophic roots8 the concept of popular sovereignty and conse'uent principle of legitimacy based e(clusively on popular support0 and its operational mechanisms ensuring people%s participation in governance in order to discern the will of the people as to the choice of rulers as well of policies and programs! )t is also the contention of this writer that within the conte(t of )slamic faith, culture, history and contemporary e(perience, there are clear lines of guidance which suggest a uni'ue and distinct political framework that can rightly be described as truly participatory, both in substance and spirit and capable of establishing a political order committed to the twin goals of adl @1usticeA and shura @consultationA, the real substance of operational democracy! More importantly, any effort to force secular democracy down the throats of Muslims is possible only through despotic rule! #eal democratization, giving the people a chance to freely fashion their affairs according to their ideals and

aspirations, cannot but lead to )slamization, as the two represent two sides of the same coin! "he )slamic political order is based on the concept of "awhid and seeks it flowering in the form of popular vicegerency @KhilafaA operating through a mechanism of >hura, supported by the principles of e'uality of humankind, rule of law, protection of human rights including those of minorities, accountability of rulers, transparency of political processes and an overriding concern for 1ustice in all its dimensions8 legal, political, social economic and international! "he >hari%ah provides the broad framework within which the people under the umbrella of Givine Guidance participate in developing a civil society and its institutions, including all the organs of state! "he )slamic model also has the potential for establishing authentic socio political pluralism! As such, it provides for the healthy coe(istence of religions, ethnic and linguistic groups, cultures and civilizations at national and global levels! "he system possesses vertical consistency as well as horizontal harmony in a way that can ensure the establishment of peace and a 1ust socio political order for all human beings in an era when the whole world is becoming a global city! %emocracy: "he #estern Perspecti&e "he word democracy entered the &nglish language in the si(teenth century from the ?rench democratie! "he word is Greek in origin being derived from demokratie, the root meaning being demos @peopleA and kratos @ruleA! As far as Muslim literature is concerned, the term 1umhariyat was first used in the "urkish language in the eighteenth century and was derived from the Arabic word 1amhur, meaning people or assembly or collection of people! "he term was used with reference to the ?rench #epublic! Gemocracy, as such, refers to a form of government in which, in contradistinction to aristocracy, monarchy, dictatorship or authoritarian rule, the people are regarded as the real source of power and point of reference in respect not only of the principles and modes of governance, but also as the real source of values, principles, ideals and policies! )t is the people who are looked upon as sovereign, en1oying the right to rule and to whom those in authority are accountable! "he term democracy indicates both a set of ideals and principles and a political system, a mechanism for governance and a politico legal culture! "he real test of democracy is its principle of legitimacy, laying down that power is legitimate only when it is derived from the authority of the people and is based on their consent! )n the post #enaissance era of &uropean history, the kings% divine right to rule was challenged! "here was a popular rebellion against the monarchies of &urope and their aristocratic regimes as well as against the authority of the church and its ecclesiastical rule! )t was in this conte(t that the principle of sovereignty of the people was e(pounded, severing the relations of politics with religion and divine authority! /"he *eople% were affirmed as the source of political power and the real arbiter of their own fate! "hey were crowned as the source of all values and authority0 their well being and empowerment became the real goal of all political effort!

"he philosophical roots of democracy lie in the concept of /popular sovereignty!% )t consists, on the one hand, of denial of the e(istence or at least the relevance of eternal religious guidance and absolute moral values in matters of political governance, and on the other, the affirmation that the people, their popular will, be accepted as the real source of all authority and power! )n short, legal as well as political sovereignty was located in the people, giving rise to a variety of forms and e(pressions of democratic polity8 direct, representative, functional, parliamentary, republican, federal, proletarian, etc! 9"he central principle that drove democratic demands along during the nineteenth century,< claims #ichard Lay, 9was that of the sovereignty of the people!< 2owever nebulous the concept of /the people% is, both conceptually and in practice, this has remained the philosophic and moral bedrock of secular Western democracy! "he other dimension of democracy relates to a variety of forms of self government and popular participation in political decision making, i!e! developing political processes instrumental in finding out the will of the people for running the affairs of the state! "he operational models are based on the principles of liberty and e'uality, of constitutionalism and rule of law, of division of power between different organs of state, e(ecutive, legislature and 1udiciary, of fundamental rights, including the rights of minorities, of freedom of belief, opinion, e(pression, association, press and communication! "he substance of democracy seeks e(pression in the vision of a government that is chosen by the people, operates in the service of the people in accordance with their wishes and preferences, and is accountable before them! "he Western democratic model is based on the principle of separation between religion and politics and, as such, is concerned only with the worldly welfare of the people! "he entire corpus of law and its gala(y of human rights are permeated with this spirit! )t deserves to be recorded that Western countries have, in pursuit of their rendezvous with democracy, made very valuable e(periments towards developing viable mechanisms for popular participation! "he multi party system, various electoral systems for the periodic selection of political leaderships, the separation of 1udiciary and e(ecutive, institutional arrangements for legislation + unicameral or bicameral + constitute ma1or dimensions of this political dispensation! Gemocratic e(periences in the West have not been an unmi(ed blessing! Gespite certain historic achievements, there have been serious failures and miscarriages because of the absence of firm moral moorings! As absolute values have no place in this system, the standards of right and wrong were sub1ected to the whims of the people, who began to change their ethical values as they changed their clothes and fashions! A process of decriminalization of ma1or evil practices and moral sins began, with the result that human society was e(posed to the tyrannies of moral relativism, the idiosyncrasies of ma1ority rule, ethnic, racial and class based tensions, economic rivalries and e(ploitations, and the erosion of all those basics that had sustained human society from time immemorial! Gemocracy substituted sheer 'uantity for 'uality and counting of hands to the place of attending to standards of #ight, "ruth and Lustice! ,arrow party politics led to further degeneration of the system! )n certain countries, the one party system was introduced leading to the establishment of a party dictatorship in the name of democracy! >ome of the principles on which democracy wasbased became diluted with the result that practice

so deviated from the original concept and the whole e(ercise began to turn into a mockery! Giovanni >artori argues that, 9According to the minimal standard, roughly half of the world may be included in the realm of democracy0 according to the medium standard the number of democratic countries dwindles0 and according to the high standard a mere dozen or so countries have achieved a satisfactory degree of democracy! And it re'uires little effort to imagine how easily the label /democratic% can be turned into /undemocratic,% and vice versa, simply by switching from one standard to another O Westerners have lived under democratic system long enough to have reached the phase of democratic disillusionment O $p to this point we are able to specify what democracy is8 the border between a democratic and non democratic political system is still definite! Mut no sooner do we apply the word democracy to most of the "hird World, and in particular to the so called developing nations then the standard becomes so low that one may well wonder whether the word democracy is still appropriate!< )n a recent issue of ?oreign Affairs, "homas 4arothers laments that the /world wide democratic revolution has been cooling off around the globe%! 2e declares8 9What appeared to many enthusiasts a few years back to be grand unifying movement may, at least over the ne(t several decades, heighten the political divide between the Western world @including 3atin America, &astern &urope and parts of the former >oviet $nionA and the non Western one! "his is not a prophecy of a clash of civilizations but a warning against facile universalism!< 4!M! Macpherson sums up the 1ourney of democracy from the detestable /rule of the mob% to the present honourable status of global darling, when she says8 9Gemocracy used to be a bad word! &verybody who was anybody knew that democracy in its original sense of rule by the people of government in accordance with the will of the bulk of the people would be a bad thing + fatal to individual freedom and to all the graces of civilized living! "hat was the position taken by pretty nearly all men of intelligence from the earliest historical times down to about a hundred years ago! "hen, within fifty years, democracy became a good thing!< Although it has become /a good thing,% particularly after the fall of the >oviet $nion, astute observers cannot, however, overlook the anomalies, contradictions and ini'uities that continue to characterize the systems of government that commonly fall under the rubric of democracy! What historian &!2! 4ar said in the early 7DBEs is echoed in the mid 7DDEs! Anthony Arblaster comes to the painful conclusion that despite all the claims and certain definite achievements, 9Gemocracy is still /unfinished business% on the agenda of modern politics! Gespite the right to vote, men and women both have failed to ac'uire their rightful share in power! 9Mourgeois democracy<, by and large, remains /a facade behind which the capitalist class continued to rule and dominate society< and 9the revival of women%s movements since 7DJEs bear witness to the failure of women%s suffrage in itself to achieve e'uality between the se(es, or even to abolish some of the more blatant forms of discrimination against women!<

"he same author laments that 9the principles of e'uality of political power which is embodied in the possession of each and every citizen of our vote stands in sharp contrast to the blatant ine'ualities in the distribution of political power in almost every other important respect!< 2e comes to the same conclusion as that of &!2! 4ar8 9>o we must at least conclude that the purposes for which ordinary people wanted political democracy, or the vote, have not yet been completely fulfilled by any means< and rightly surmises that8 9it would be foolish to imagine that the Western democracies have a monopoly of the relevant e(perience!< )t is the opinion of this writer that the secular Western democracy has its own distinct ethos, and its indiscriminate e(port to other parts of the world cannot lead to the establishment of a stable, truly democratic and 1ust political order! A number of lessons can be learned from the democratic e(periments made in different parts of the world, but the people in the non Western world, particularly the Muslim $mmah, must not blindly follow any of the Western models0 instead, they should draw upon their own ideological and historical sources and establish institutions that represent their own values and ideals! "here is no harm in learning from the e(periences of mankind, and a lot can be learned from the contemporary Western world, but only those arrangements, which have roots in our own history and e(perience and are considered part of our value framework and cultural ethos can really be fruitful in our own lands! "he )slamic *olitical >ystem )slam is not a religion in the limited sense of the word, as the term is used in Western philosophic and religious literature! 3iterally meaning submission, it stands for man%s total submission to the Will of Allah @>W"A and a firm commitment to pursue all 2is 4ommands and Guidance! As such, while first and foremost @iA )slam represents a relationship between humans and God, it is also @iiA a covenant to follow the entire guidance revealed by Allah and e(emplified in the life of 2is *rophet Muhammad @pbuhA and @iiiA a process of integrating oneself with the community of believers, the $mmah, which has been raised to invite mankind to the *ath of "ruth, to establish what is #ight and to forbid what is Wrong! )slam is a complete code of conduct, a comprehensive and all embracing way of life, a din that covers all aspects of human e(istence, personal and public, moral and mundane, spiritual and material, legal and social, economic and educational, national and international! Gin is the basis of loyalty and identity, and the >hari%ah is the ordained path covering all walks of life, from prayer to socio economic policies! "he )slamic political system is not something independent or self contained0 it is part of the )slamic way of life and is inseparable from other aspects of this din! 3ife is visualized as an integrated whole! "he )man is the seed and the starting point! "he tree that grows out of this seed covers all areas of human e(istence! "he #evealed Guidance in the form of the 5ur%an and the >unnah is eternal, absolute and universal! )t provides a framework within which there e(ists immense dynamism and capacity to meet all the emerging challenges of the time! )t gives a world view, a vision and a set of values, and leaves enough room to work out details for different situations in space time! "he real ob1ective is seeking Allah%s good pleasure and aspiring for success in the everlasting life that is to come! Gin and mu1tama @societyA and din and dawla @stateA are therefore inseparable as are din and ta'wa @personal pietyA and din and ibadat @worshipA! "awhid is

the cardinal principle on which the entire fabric of )slamic life rests! )n the light of this foundational principle, the key elements of the )slamic political order are as follows8 >overeignty belongs to Allah alone! 2e is the 4reator, the Master, the rabb, the 3aw Giver, the Guide! A human is 2is creation @makhlu'A, 2is abd @servantA and 2is Khalifa @vicegerent and representativeA! A human%s assignment on earth is to live a life in obedience to the Givine Will, and establish the >hari%ah that has been revealed for his guidance so as to be at peace with him or herself, with the universe and with his 3ord, the 4reator! "his would bring peace, 1ustice, bliss and prosperity in this world and ensure real salvation in the hereafter! All human beings are e'ual before the 3ord and sub1ect to the same 3aw that 2e has ordained! "he )slamic political system is based on the principle of the sovereignty of Allah and the supremacy of the >hari%ah! "he legitimacy of the system comes from the loyalty and obedience to Allah and commitment to follow and establish the >hari%ah! "he 5ur%an is very e(plicit on this point8 9Rerily 2is is the 4reation and 2is is the 3aw!< 9"he Authority rests with none but Allah! 2e commends you not to surrender to anyone save 2im! "his is the #ight Way @of lifeA!< 9Rerily We have sent to you the Mook with "ruth so that you @: *rophetA might 1udge between them by what Allah has shown you!< 9And those who do not make their decisions in accordance with that revelead by Allah, are in fact the un believers O un1ust the evil doers!< "he position of human beings is that of Allah%s vicegerent @KhalifaA! "his istikhlaf has been entrusted on all those human beings who accept Allah as their #abb and >overeign! "he concept is one of popular vicegerency, shared by all believers! Ricegerency also means that limited authority has been delegated to the people to run these affairs! "he authority is endowed, not on any chosen person, family, tribe or group, but on all Muslim men and women and it is they who have to e(ercise this power in accordance with the )slamic principle of shura! 9Allah has promised to those among you who believe and do righteous deeds that 2e will assuredly make them to succeed @those who ruleA and grant them vicegerency in the land 1ust as 2e made those before them succeed @othersA!< "he theory of state that follows from this and other in1unctions of the 5ur%an lays down two cardinal principles8 first, of God%s sovereignty and second, of the /popular vicegerency% of the believers! 2ence, legitimacy in the )slamic political order comes, first and foremost, from accepting Allah as the >overeign and 2is 3aw, i!e! the >hari%ah as the >upreme 3aw, and secondly, the governance of society by and in accordance with the will of the people! "hose in authority must en1oy the confidence and support of the Muslims, the $mmah, the real repositories of Khilafa! )t is very clear from the verse 'uoted above that the authority or assignment to rule over the earth has been promised to the whole community of believers and not to any particular person, class, family or group! "he istikhlaf granted to the faithful is in the nature of a popular vicegerency + each and all have been given this assignment! "hat is why the mode of decision making for the $mmah has been described as shura, i!e! their affairs are conducted through consultation among themselves! All are e'ual as members of the society and the criteria

for e(cellence and leadership is tied to their 'ualities of trustworthiness, competence and ta'wa8 i!e! God consciousness, dutifulness and sense of accountability! "he 5ur%an says that8 9"he most honorable in the sight of Allah is the one who e(cels in piety and heedfulness!< "he *rophet @peace be upon himA also said8 9&veryone of you is like a >hepard @i!e! in command of his flockA and everyone of you is accountable for his ward!< All distinctions of caste, colour, tribe and nobility have been abolished, establishing real e'uality between humans @We have honored the progeny of AdamA! "he only criteria for e(cellence according to the 5ur%an being merit and virtuous behavior + /ilm @knowledgeA0 gism @physical competenceA and ta'wa @piety and good conductA! "he principle of obedience e(pounding the network of rights and obligations in an )slamic polity has two distinct dimensions8 one, loyalty to Allah and 2is *rophet and second, the people%s right to free speech, discussion, dissent and participation, including the right to disagree and criticize those in authority! 9: you who believe, obey Allah and obey 2is Messenger and those from among yourselves who hold authority0 then if there is any dispute between you @i!e! the people and the rulersA concerning any matter refer it to Allah and 2is *rophet if you [reallybelieve in Allah and the 3ast Gay!< *rophet, peace be upon him, said8 9"he best form of 1ihad is to utter a word of truth to a tyrannical ruler!< ?urthermore, he said8 9)f any of you sees some evil, he should set it right with his hand0 if he is unable to do so, then with his tongue0 and if he is unable to do even that, then @let him denounce itA in his heart! Mut this last is the weakest form of faith!< "he picture of an )slamic polity that emerges from these guidelines is very clear! "his is a faith based society! )ts sheet anchor is loyalty to Allah and 2is *rophet and decision making is to take place in accordance with the values, principles and commands contained in the Givine Guidance, the >hari%ah! "here is, however, no room for any privileged class or priestly order in this system! Mundane power is shared by all members of community who are e'ual before the law! "hey have e'ual rights and obligations! All of the personal, civil, political, social, cultural and economic rights are guaranteed under Givine 3aw! "he rulers do not en1oy any arbitrary power! All are e'ually responsible before the law! )n fact, the rulers are obliged to ensure these rights to all, particularly to the weaker members of society! 2uman rights have been enshrined in the >hari%ah and no one has any power to abridge or ignore them! ?reedom and e'uality are the very breath of this society8 al amr bil maruf wal nahi an al munkar @commanding what is right and forbidding what is wrongA are its life mission! >hura @consultation and participation in

decision makingA is its way0 this is the process of decision making at all levels, in respect of all its affairs, social, economic, political or otherwise! *ersons in authority must en1oy the trust and confidence of the people and be accountable before them! As such, political authority and power making have to be devised on the basis of the supremacy of the >hari%ah and the consent and confidence of the people! Accountability is not only before God, it is also before the law and the people! Any political arrangement is possible as long as these principles and values are fully respected! As )slam%s guidance is absolute, universal and eternal, it has been left to the $mmah to develop different forms, institutions and mechanisms suitable to different socio historic conditions! A variety of forms and arrangements are possible within this framework, some have been e(perienced in the past! ,ew e(periments and arrangements can be made today and tomorrow! "his is the beauty and potential of )slam! "his has been the distinctive feature of the Muslim historical e(perience spread over fourteen centuries! "he Muslim &(perience "he *rophet Muhammad @pbuhA set a model not only in respect of his personal life and intense spiritual relationship between humans and God, but he also established a society and a state that has been the pace setter for the Muslim politico historical e(perience! "he covenant of al A'ba )) @bayat al a'ba al thaniA and the covenant of Madina @Mitha' MadinaA constituted the cardinal foundations on which the society and state of Medina was founded! "he )slamic political model, in the eyes of the $mmah, was e(emplified during the period of the *rophet and the four #ightly Guided 4aliphs @al Khulafa al #ashidunA! >ome of the distinctive aspects of this model are as follows8 "he #ule of 3aw and e'uality of all before the law, as discussed earlier! "he supremacy of the 5ur%an and >unnah, and resort to )1tihad in matters not covered by these sources! )1tihad is informed and disciplined rational effort to find out solutions to new 'uestions of law in the light of the general principles of the >hari%ah! "he entire corpus of Muslim law, perhaps the greatest contribution of the Muslims to civilization, has been developed through a rational, democratic and popular process, in which the learned and the concerned participate through debate, dialogue and discussion! "his was the voluntary acceptance of and submission to the law so developed by the $mmah that gave legitimacy to different schools of law! )t is one of the ma1or wonders of history that law in the Muslim society was never derived from the will of the rulers, as was the case in other contemporaneous societies and cultures! "he entire legal system evolved outside the corridors of political power and, once established, the rulers were as much sub1ect to this law as were commoners! "his has worked as a great check on arbitrary power and has entrenched the true credentials of concept of participatory democracy in Muslim society! Lohn 3! &sponsito and Lohn :! Roll say in )slam and Gemocracy8 9)n the long standing or /oriental despotism,% there is no sense of a separation of powers of structures limiting the power of the ruler! 2owever, such unlimited power was not available to leaders in classical Muslim societies and this situation is visible both in )slamic law of political structures and in actual historical e(perience O )t was the consensus of those scholars and not the commands and rules of the 4aliphs, that provided the basis for formal )slamic law! ,o ruler was recognized as being above the law, and all rulers would be 1udged by that law!<

>hura was the mechanism for decision making as much as for the selection of the political leadership at all levels! "he first four 4aliphs were selected by the community, although the methods of selection and approval differed! "he common principle was the consent and confidence of the community and accountability before them! &ven when this principle of the community%s choice was abandoned and heredity rule crept in, the fiction of bay%a @people%s acceptance of the rulersA continued! "he institutions or nasiha @adviceA, shura @consultationA, ikhtilaf @disagreementTdifference of opinionA, al amr bil maruf @commanding right and virtueA, al nahi an al munkar @forbidding wrong and viceA, and hisba @public accountability and ombudsman shipA continued to play important roles at all times and in a variety of ways! #espect for human rights and contractual obligations in respect to the people in general and to minorities and friendly states and communities in particular has been a perennial feature of Muslim polity! "he separation of the 1udiciary from the e(ecutive and its total independence at all levels has been another cardinal feature of the Muslim e(perience! "his is why rule of law and access to 1ustice for all remained inalienable aspects of Muslim society! "his, by and large, protected Muslim lands from the tyranny of arbitrary rule! "his principle of the separation of powers, established as it was during the period of the #ightly Guided 4aliphs, continued in later periods despite certain degeneration in the system! "he supremacy of the constitution, i!e! )slam, remained an integral part of the Muslim e(perience! &sposito and Roll record a certain aspect of it in the conte(t of :ttoman rule, that8 9"he $lama of the imperial system had the accepted right + which was not often e(ercised because of political reasons + to invalidate any regulation issued by the >ultan if they 1udged it not to be in accord with )slamic 3aw! &ven more, the head of the hierarchy of the official $lama in the empire, the >haykh al )slam, could issue 1udgments deposing the >ultan for violating the basic )slamic 3aw! Although this power was e(ercised infre'uently, it actually was e(ercised in the depositions of >ultans )brahim @7JFHA, Mehmud )R @7JHCA, Ahmed ))) @7CIEA, and >elim ))) @7HECA! )n these formal actions, the historic check on the power of the ruler formed by the fact that the $lama were the representatives of the /constitution,% that is the )slamic law, is fully reflected! )t shows the potential dimension of the separation of powers in the )slamic heritage!< Another cardinal feature of the Muslim e(perience relates to the system of social security based on zakat @compulsory transfer payments from the rich to the poorA, sad'at @voluntary charitable contributionsA, wa'f @trust foundationA, infa' @spending in the path of AllahA, wassiyya @willA, wiratha @distribution of wealth through inheritanceA, and hiba @be'uestsA! "his led to the establishment of an egalitarian socio economic system, enabling all members of society to seek a respectable living! "he economic organization of the society was such that it enabled its weaker members to stand up and participate in political and economic processes! Another important feature of the Muslim e(perience relates to its acceptance of dissent and opposition + individual as well as collective + as something authentic and as part of the tradition, and not something outside it! :f course, a distinction was made between ikhtilaf @differencesA and fitna @rebellionA, but it is significant that at least in certain ma1or schools of )slamic law, in some specific situations and on the basis of defined conditions, opposition that involves even armed rebellion @khuru1A is accepted as legitimate! &sposito and Roll acknowledge that8 9"he ultimate authority of the 5ur%an and >unnah provide

the basis for criti'ues of e(isting conditions throughout )slamic history! Movements of )slamic opposition, renewal, and reform have been able to find their 1ustification and legitimacy in this appeal to higher authority! )n the modern era, this can become the basis for )slamic constitutionalism that aids both in the state definition and in providing a framework for recognizing legitimacy of opposition!< "hese seven principles are illustrative of the uni'ue Muslim tradition of governance and constitute significant pointers towards the development of a distinctly )slamic model of democratic governance! "hese can be the source of inspiration and guidance for developing )slamic democratic models in the contemporary world! Western Gemocracy and )slamic >hura + A 4omparison )n light of the discussion made thus far, it may be useful to identify some of the basic differences and divergence between the two systems and also point out some of the common concerns and areas where learning from one another%s e(periences may be fruitful! )slam%s strategy is uni'ue! )t focuses on humans8 their souls and personalities! )t is the spiritual flowering within every human being + man and woman + that lends real strength to the )slamic system! 4hange begins by changing oneself from within! "he starting point is the creation of a /moral person% who then plays his or her part in creating a /moral and 1ust society!% "he $mmah is a universal community! Within this wider $mmah there can be smaller groups, entities, even states, and yet they would constitute parts of the total mosaic! )slam builds a civil society, with a spectrum of institutions! "he state is one of them, albeit very important and at the ape(0 yet nonetheless an organ of the community and the civil society! "here is total harmony between its social, political and economic principles and all taken together create a society that is ideological, norm based, and permeated with rabbaniyya @GodlinessA, /adl @1usticeA and ihsan @benevolenceA! "his society is to be organized on the basis of e'uality, brotherhood, mutual help, social responsibility, 1ustice and e'uity for all! )t is a law abiding society in which the rights and duties of all members, including minorities, are fully respected! "he purpose of the sate is service to the members of the society and the establishment of 1ustice! "here is no room for despotism, dictatorship or arbitrary rule! "he )slamic state is different from a secular democracy as it is diametrically opposed to the concept of the sovereignty of the people! Allah is the >upreme 3aw Giver and the >hari%ah is the law of the land! Within the framework of the >hari%ah, new problems are faced and their solutions worked out! "his represents the cardinal difference between the two! As far as the principles of rule of law, protection of fundamental rights, independence of the 1udiciary, the rights of minorities and choice of policies and rulers in accord with the wishes of the people are concerned, )slam ensures them within its own framework! With respect to some of these matters, there e(ists vast common ground with Western democracies and, as such, to that e(tent Muslims can learn from the e(perience of the contemporary West, as others can learn from theirs! Mut because of the basic differences as to the source and nature of law, the two systems are distinct and uni'ue!

"he )slamic state is characterized by the supremacy of the >hari%ah, yet it is diametrically different from theocracy, as it has been known in history + *aranoiac, Mabylonian, Lewish, 4hristian, 2indu, and Muddhist! "he differences are very fundamental! "heocracy stood for divine rule through an ecclesiastical class whose word became the law, undisputed and indisputable! )n )slam, there is no priestly class! Allah is the >overeign! 2is Will is clearly available in the form of the 5ur%an and the >unnah! "he >hari%ah is a known 'uantity, available to all and not a divine secret known only to the priesthood! )n )slam, there is no possibility of any group of people imposing their personal will or preferences over others in the name of God! )t is through an open process of debate and discussion that the law is developed and implemented! All participate in this process! *recisely, the differences are8 "he >hari%ah, the epitome of Givine Will, is available intact, unpolluted and unpollutable by any change or interference! "here is no class of religious intermediaries or official spokesmen for God! *rophethood has come to an end! "he guidance has been perfected! ,ow it is the community, which has to understand and implement the Givine Guidance in the light of changing human scenarios! "he individual is the cornerstone of society, which ensures his freedom, rule of law and respect for opposition and opponents! "he people and the press are free to discuss and resolve problems through >hura! "he entire )slamic fi'h has developed through a process in which the community and its representatives have participated in an open process! "he )slamic state and society are concerned with all the physical and worldly problems of humans and try to solve these problems in accordance with the principles of 1ustice and social well being! "he entire domain of the secular world is the concern of )slam and the Muslims! Pet the )slamic and secular approaches are fundamentally different! "he *rophet @pbuhA has said that the entire landscape of the world is my mos'ue! As such, the )slamic domain is e'ually concerned with all parts of the world! )t is neither of the &ast nor of the West, but truly universal! >imilarly, it covers all matters of human e(istence, spiritual or worldly! "o that e(tent, )slam has no 'uarrel with secularism, which was a reaction to those religious traditions, which neglected the secular world and confined their interest to the spiritual realm alone! )slam also accepts principles of tolerance @9there is no compulsion in religion< in the 5ur%anA and pluralism and gives to all human beings the right to belief and profession! )t accepts the multiplicity of cultures and community lifestyles! "his is part of the )slamic matri(! )slam is at war with secularism with respect to its claim to solve all human problems without reference to religion, Givine Guidance and absolute moral values! "his is the very antithesis of the )slamic approach to life! :n that count, the two represent two worlds apart! Although communism and fascism are no longer dominant political ideologies, there are people who still subscribe to some variant or aspect of these ideologies! Moth of them are products of certain historic and socio political situations within the conte(t of Western civilization! 4entral to these had been the totalitarian character of the state! Moth represented different kinds of dictatorship and authoritarian rule, despite the faUade of elections and parliaments! )n )slam, there is no place for arbitrary power! )slam establishes the state as one of the organs of civil society and affirms the centrality of the

individual, his rights and role in the making of political decisions! "he )slamic state is a creature of law and the rulers are as much accountable before the law as any other citizen! )n fact, the )slamic state does not confer upon its functionaries even those immunities, which are common in many Western democracies! 2uman rights in )slam are inviolable, as sacred covenants from Allah @>W"A! "he individual is respected as the basic unit of society and as moral being, finally accountable before Allah as an individual! &very human being is a sacred entity and is morally responsible for all his choices and actions, here and hereafter! "he individual has to behave with a sense of social responsibility but he is not a mere lifeless cog in the wheel of the state! As such, there is all the difference in the world between the )slamic political order and the dictatorial and authoritarian ideologues of our time! )n view of this comparative analysis, we would like to conclude that the )slamic political system is uni'ue, despite some similarities with other political ideologies! )slam is an organic whole and aims at establishing a society that is not confronted with the dilemma of a /moral human in an immoral society% or of humans herded in an /animal farm!% )slam wants to ensure the simultaneous flowering of the spiritual and material potential of all human beings, enabling them to live in peace and 1ustice, serving the higher moral ideals of life, aiming at God%s good pleasure and eternal bliss! "he )slamic state is an ideological, educational and consultative state providing a socio political framework in which real democracy can flourish! )slamic #esurgence and Gemocratization8 "he 4ontemporary 4hallenge "he contemporary Muslim world is faced with a uni'ue challenge! ?or the first time in history, Muslims have lost their hold over power and almost the entire Muslim world has been under the yoke of colonial rulers! Guring this long night of colonial domination spread almost over two centuries, it also suffered intellectually, morally, economically and culturally! "he worst part of this ordeal related to the gradual disintegration of )slamic institutions, which had sustained the $mmah for some twelve centuries and enabled it to brace challenges from within and without! )t was under colonial rule that a number of institutions were imposed upon Muslim lands through transplantation from the West as a part of its so called /civilizing mission% @/the White Man%s Murden%A, which in fact represented the worst part of imperialism! 3aw, 1udiciary, economy, education, administration, language, literature, arts, and architecture, in short all elements of society and culture were sub1ected to forced Westernization! "his colonial rule also led to the production of a new type of leadership from within the Muslim society, the babu class, as described by historian Arnold "oynbee, a class of people who had no roots in their own faith, culture and history, and who tried to develop a new identity in the shadow of colonial rulers! "his class began to embody not only the values and precepts of the dominant powers, but also its interests, and acted and operated in collaboration with local and e(ternal vested interests! While the mass movement for independence from foreign forces of nationalism in the Muslim world had developed an )slamic identity, this class remained imbued in Western values and acted, consciously or inadvertently as agents of imperial powers! My and large, after independence, the reins of

political power in most Muslim countries fell into the hands of the Westernized leadership groomed during the colonial period, with continued linkages with the culture and political designs of the West! )t is a tragic fact that not only were the political boundaries in the Muslim world carved by foreign rulers, but the new institutions and the new leaderships were also products of this colonial age! "his is the phenomenon that lies at the root of the current crisis and discontent in the Muslim world! )slamic resurgence and popular participation in political decision making are two aspects of the same phenomenon! "he effective sharing of power by the people and the reconstruction of the society and polity in the light of the )slamic ideals of the people are part and parcel of this process! "his is possible only if there is trust, harmony, and cooperation among the people and the rulers! Mut the rulers who inherited power from the colonial powers and the people are not on the same ideological, moral or political wavelengths! "he rulers want to change society and its institutions in accord with the concepts and values of Westernization and its ideological icons + secularism, nationalism, capitalism, socialism, etc! "hey want to introduce laws, institutions and policies derived from Western models! "he people regard this as something against their faith, values and aspirations! "hat is why despite independence, the system of government has per force and per design remained despotic and arbitrary, with some e(ceptions! "he lesson of history is very clear8 secularization and Westernization of Muslim lands is not possible without arbitrary power! "here is no incompatibility between )slam and a truly democratic system based on people%s participation and power sharing! :n the contrary, democratization in the sense of freedom of the people, fundamental rights and people%s participation and )slamization are natural corollaries! "he conflict is between people%s )slamic aspirations and the secular and Westernizing ideals and policies of the ruling elite! )t is only through despotic powers that non )slamic ideas and laws can be imposed on the Muslim people! All the incompatibility is between these two different visions and real democracy is the first casualty of the secular Westernizing bulldozer! American sociologist, ?ilmer >!4! ,orthrop has, with great perception, put his finger at the right spot! 2e says8 9) believe this is one of the reasons why such law @i!e! secular lawA usually has to be put in first by a dictator! )t cannot come in as a mass movement because the masses are in the old tradition!< V Wilfred >mith also makes a very interesting observation in the conte(t of the *akistani situation! 2e says8 9)nsofar as an &astern nation becomes truly democratic, that is, reflecting its own nature, to that e(tent it becomes un Western )nsofar as *akistan is really democratic, and not merely superficially so, to that e(tent it will be )slamic rather than Western!< >mith bluntly says that without )slam, democracy is a 9useless 1argon unworthy of emulation!< As such, democracy becomes 9an aspect of its )slamicness, a part of the definition of their )slamic state!< &sposito and Roll also come very close to this appreciation of the contemporary Muslim situation, which they regard 9as characterized by the twin trends of )slamic resurgence and democratization!< "his is how they read into the contemporary Muslim mind8

9Many Muslims are actively engaged in defining )slamic democracy! "hey believe that the global processes of religious resurgence and democratization can be, and in the case of the Muslim world, are complementary!< Another recent study on Muslim *olitics by Gale &ickelman and Lames *iscatori also makes a plea for a fresh approach towards the contemporary Muslim concern for democracy based on their own values and aspirations and their abhorrence towards transplantations from the Western world! "hey conclude8 9)n the specific conte(t of Muslim politics, de emphasizing paradigms and reassessing the challenges policy makers will have to face in the yeas ahead entails listening to the many Muslim voices not merely those of a Westernized elite! "he first step is to learn to elicit their cultural notions of legitimate authority and 1ustice and to recognize that ideas of 1ust rule, religious or otherwise are not fi(ed O )n the end, such an understanding promises to undermine unreflective presumptions that Muslim relations with others are chiefly hostile and the Muslim governance is almost inevitably arbitrary and authoritarian!< )slam and the Muslim $mmah brook no sympathy for arbitrary and authoritarian rule! Whatever arbitrary power reigns is more a product of colonialization and Westernization, and not of Muslim ideals, history or contemporary aspirations! "hey regard the Western secular version of democracy as alien to their principles, values and traditions! Mut they have their own concept and rich tradition of democracy and people%s participation that ensures 1ust rule, consultative processes at all levels, respect for rights and dissent, the independence of 1udiciary and politico cultural pluralism! "here is no contradiction between )slam and this essence of democracy! Whatever despotic or arbitrary rule e(ists in the Muslim lands is part of an alien and imposed tradition, against which the forces of )slamic resurgence are struggling! )slam and true democratization are two sides of the same coin! As such, democratic processes and )slam would go hand in hand! "he rise and rule of despotisms + civil or military, elected or hereditary + responsible for the negation of democracy and the usurpation of fundamental freedom are fruits of Westernization and secularization, and not of )slam! "he denial and suppression of mass democracy is the agenda of secularism and Westernization, not of )slam! )slamic imperatives and the people%s will, longings and aspirations go together! Gemocratization is bound to be a stepping stone to )slamization! "he fulfilment of )slamic aspirations would become possible only through the promotion of democratic processes! )n the contemporary postcolonial history of the Muslim world, despotism and secularism or socialism have gone together, while )slamic resurgence and people%s freedoms and popular participation are complementary! Gespite freedom from the colonial yoke, the Muslim $mmah is still struggling for its right + its democratic right + to freely develop its polity, society and economy in light of its own ideas, values and aspirations! )t refuses to live under the dictate of concepts and models in conflict with its faith, opposed to its values, distasteful to its history and repugnant to its traditions! )f democracy means rights of a people to self determination and self fulfilment, that is what )slam and the Muslim people have been striving for, nothing more and nothing less! ?ukuyama, ?rancis! @7DDIA! "he &nd of 2istory and the 3ast Man! ,ew Pork8 "he ?ree *ress

2untington, >amuel *! 9"he 4lash of 4ivilizationsN< ?oreign Affairs, vol! C=! ,o! I! >ummer 7DDI, == FD! >ee, also, the debate on this thesis, ?oreign Affairs, vol! C=, ,o! F, = =J and ,o! B, 7HJ DF! Also, 2untington%s book, "he 4lash of 4ivilizations and the #emaking of World :rder @,ew Pork8 >imon and >huster, 7DDJA! Gallie, W!M! @7DJFA! *hilosophy and the 2istorical $nderstanding! 3ondon8 4hatto W Windus! 7BH >ee! &ncyclopedia of )slam Lay, #ichard! @7DDFA! 9Gemocracy!< *olitical )deologies8 An )ntroduction! 3ondon8 #outledge! 7=D )nternational &ncyclopaedia of >ocial >ciences, "he Macmillan 4o!, vol! I, 77I 77H! 4arothers, "homas! 9Gemocracy without )llusions!< ?oreign Affairs, Lan!T?eb! 7DDC, DE! Macmpherson, 4! M! @7DJJA! "he #eal World of Gemocracy! :(ford8 4larendon *ress! 7! 4ar, &! 2! @7DB7A! "he ,ew >ociety! 3ondon8 Macmillan! CJ! 9"o speak today of the defence of democracy as if we are defending something which we know and had possessed for many decades or many centuries is self deception and sham O "he criterion must be sought not in the survival of traditional institutions, but in the 'uestion where power resides and how it is e(ercised! )n this respect, democracy is a matter of degree! >ome countries today are more democratic than others! Mut none is perhaps very democratic, if any high standard of democracy is applied!< Arblaster, Anthony! @7DDFA! Gemocracy! :pen $niversity! DJ ibid! DJ ibid! DC ibid! DH ibid! DH ibid! 7EE 3iterature on Gemocracy is vast! >ome of the ma1or works consulted are8 Gavid 2elf, Models of Gemocracy @$!K! 7DHCA0 Lohn Kean, Gemocracy and 4ivil >ociety @3ondon, 7DDHA0 #obert A! Gahl, Gemocracy and its 4ritics @,ew 2aven, 4", 7DHDA0 Gavid 2eld, 9Gemocracy, the ,ative >tate and the Global >ystem,< in Gavid 2eld @ed!A *olitical "heory "oday @4ambridge $!K! 7DD7A0 #obert A! Gahl, A *reface to Gemocratic "heory @4hicago, 7DJIA0 Giovanni >artori, "he "heory of Gemocracy #evisited @4hattam, ,!L!

7DHCA0 L! 3ively, Gemocracy @:(ford8 Mlackwell, 7DCDA0 A! Arblaster, Gemocracy @Muckingham, 7DDFA0 4! M! Macpherson, "he #eal World of Gemocracy @:(ford, 7DJJA0 M!L! 4rozier, >!*! 2untington and L! Watenula, "he 4risis of Gemocracy @,ew Pork, ,ew Pork $niversity *ress, 7DCBA! "hemes related to )slam and democracy have been e(tensively discussed in contemporary )slamic literature! >ome of the important readings are8 >ayyed Abul A%la Mawdudi, )slamic 3aw and 4onstitution, ed! Khurshid Ahmad @3ahore8 )slamic *ublications, Cth edition, 7DHEA0 )slam, Gemocracy, the >tate and the West, a #oundtable discussion with Gr! 2asan "urabi @"ampa, ?la!, 7DDIA0 ?atima Mernissi, )slam and Gemocracy8 ?ear from the Modern World, tr! Mary Lo 3akaland @#eading, MA 7DD=A0 Lohn 3! &sposito and Lohn :! Roll, )slam and Gemocracy @,ew Pork8 :(ford $niversity *ress, 7DDJA0 "awfi' as >hawi, ?igh al >hura @4airo, 7DDIA0 )slamic #esurgence8 4hallenges, Girections and ?uture *erspectives, A #oundtable Giscussion with Khurshid Ahmad, ed! )brahim Abu #abi @"ampa! ?la!, 7DDBA0 >hura fi al )slam, I vols!, Albait ?oundation, Amman, Lordon! 7DDE8 Gale ?! &ickelman and Lames *iscatori, Muslim *olitics, @*rinceton $niversity, 7DDJA! al 5ur%an C8BF al 5ur%an 7=8FE al 5ur%an F87EB al 5ur%an B8FF FC al 5ur%an =F8BB al 5ur%an F8BD &sposito, Lohn 3! and Roll, Lohn :! @7DDJA! )slam and Gemocracy! ,ew Pork8 :(ford $niversity *ress! F7 &sposito and Roll, ibid, FH FD ibid, F7 Gibb, 2! A! #! Modern "rends )n )slam! ,ationalism 9Oin its western manifestation is confined to the intellectuals who are in direct and close touch with Western thoughts! As the nationalist idea penetrated into the popular mind, it was transformed and could not avoid to be transformed by the pressure of the age long instincts and impulses of the Muslim masses!< @Modern "rends in )slam, 4hicago, 4hicago $niversity *ress, 7DFCA, 77D! Wilfried 4! >mith writes in )slam in Modern 2istory8 9,o Muslim people has evolved a national feeling that has meant a loyalty to or even concern for a community transcending the bounds of )slam O )n the past, only )slam has provided for these people this type of discipline, inspiration, and energy!< @*rinceton, ,! L!, 7DBCA, CC!

,orthop, ?ilmer >! 4! @7DBFA! 4ollo'uium on )slamic 4ulture! *rinceton $niversity *ress! 7ED! >mith, Wilfried 4! @7DBFA! *akistan as an )slamic >tate! 3ahore8 Ashraf! BE ibid, FB &sposito and Roll, op!cit! =7 &ickelman, Gale ?! and *iscatori, Lames! @7DDJA! Muslim *olitics! *rinceton $niversity *ress! 7JF

Islam in the #est

Written by Khurshid Ahmad, Xahid Mukhari Introduction Many scholars classify the )slamic World into si( cultural zones8 the Arab world0 sub >aharan Africa0 the "urkish zone, including 4entral Asia and even central &urope0 the *ersian Gulf0 >outh Asia0 and >outheast Asia or the Malay zone! )n the West, Muslims are creating a new cultural zone of )slam! "here are three main actors in this zone8 immigrant Muslims0 the second generation of the immigrants0 and indigenous Muslims, such as African Americans, and White or >panish Muslims! As these three types of Western Muslims interact with each other and with the larger non Muslim society, a new cultural zone of )slam is emerging! Although the basic tenets of )slam are the same throughout the world, their practical manifestation varies in different regions! "he basic tenet of the )slamic wedding, for e(ample, is consent of both parties and then a contract called nikah! 2owever, the ceremony of a Muslim wedding in >outh Asia contains several traditions that have been adopted from 2indu traditions, such as mehndi, mayoon and barat! 3ikewise, in other cultural zones, nikah is conducted through other different types of ceremonies! >ince the )slamic cultural zone in the West is a new phenomenon and the Muslim traditions in the West have not fully evolved, several issues and debates are emerging there! Meing a Minority A key issue pertains to the relatively new situation of Muslims voluntarily leaving their Muslim homelands to live as a minority in the West alongside a very large non Muslim

ma1ority! Muslims account for about I percent of the population in &urope, and about = percent in the $>, but the interesting phenomenon is that they are neither compelled to go there nor are they being subdued! >econdly, the proportion of second generation and indigenous Muslims is also growing! >o, there are debates all over the West on, for e(ample, how to live in these countries as a significant minority, what the social implications and responsibilities are, how to take part in the political process, whether the armies of those countries may be 1oined, and how to interact with other non Muslim groups! "hese are some fundamental problems that the people and scholars have been discussing! >ome of the scholars are talking about developing a ?i'h Akliah @the ?i'h of MinoritiesA, but another school of thought in the West argues that the Muslims should not live there with the mindset of a minority because the message of )slam is universal, and because a minority mindset would mean that Muslims are always on the defensive, talking about their particular rights, and thus in some ways marginalized from the mainstream! )t is true that Muslims are numerically in minority, but they should be a very useful and productive part of society and spread the message of )slam while living there! >uch conceptual or theoretical issues pertaining to Muslims who choose to live in non Muslim societies as a minority are creating a new environment, which is putting an end to the older debates about Gar al 2arb @Gomain of WarA and Gar al )slam @Gomain of )slamA, and giving rise to new concepts, such as Gar al >ulho @Gomain of 4o e(istanceA, Gar al Amn @Gomain of *eaceA, Gar al Mu%ahidah @Gomain under 4ontractA and Gar al Ga%wah @Gomain of :pportunity to reach peopleA, and, eventually, a new fi'h @LurisprudenceA! "here are also debates on identity issues, such as whether Muslims should be called American Muslims or Muslim American! "he #ole of the Mos'ue "he second characteristic of this emerging zone is the role of the mos'ue! )n the ma1ority of the Muslim countries, mos'ues are being used for prayers and 5ur%anic nazrah @recitationA education! )n some countries, they are administered by the aw'af @endowmentsA and in some, they have become very political and are used as avenues to launch protests against undemocratic regimes, deprivation and marginalization of the public! 2owever, in the West, and especially in the $>, the mos'ue is assuming the new role of an )slamic 4enter! Gue probably to insufficient space and social avenues, the Western mos'ue is becoming a hub of all Muslim activities, such as prayers0 religious education0 hal'as @gatheringsA of men, women, and youth0 youth and sports activities0 etc! Almost all ma1or )slamic 4enters have basketball courts, picnic grounds, and arrangements for indoor sports activities for youth! >ometimes, a ma1or mos'ue primarily houses a gymnasium and cafeteria, mainly to attract the youth, while the /musallah% or main prayer halls comprise a secondary part of the construction! "he gymnasium may also be used for regular or ?riday prayers!

Mos'ues in the West are also being used for political, social and economic activities! )t is not unusual for church students or priests to visit the mos'ues at the time of ?riday prayers! Muslims also invite local non Muslim leaders, such as politicians, police inspectors or superintendents of the local &ducation Moard! After all ?riday prayers, there are usually three types of announcements concerning wrong parking and the eti'uettes of parking0 upcoming hal'as for adults, women or youth0 and the visit of some 4ongressman, would be 4ongressman or mayor who wishes to meet the Muslim community! Moreover, several ma1or )slamic centers have good dining halls and kitchens for social activities! Muslims usually like to rent these halls for weddings, engagements and birthday gatherings! "he underlying idea is that the mos'ue should be very friendly towards the youth, women and senior citizens! #ecently, in ,ew Lersey, a mos'ue initiated a five year e(pansion program with thirty million dollars! :ne of its plans is to build thirty senior citizens% homes to engage the large number of elderly Muslim people in the affairs of )slamic 4enters and mos'ues! Women Another dimension of this new cultural zone is the role of Muslim women! )n the subcontinent, there are some fi'hi @LurisprudentialA, traditional or social issues that discourage the participation of women in &id or ?riday prayers! Mut in the West, it is almost impossible to imagine the absence of women in these prayers! )n some mos'ues, women even participate in fa1r @daybreakA prayers along with the men of their families! "hey are also becoming part and parcel of the management of )slamic centers! Mos'ues where women are not encouraged to participate, probably due to limitations of space or certain fi'hi instructions, are e(ceptions! Almost CE percent of mos'ues in America have >unday and weekly schools and women run most of these educational activities! "hey are also becoming alimahs @scholars of )slamA! "he )slamic >ociety of ,orth America @)>,AA elected a 4anadian converted Muslim woman, Gr! )nget Mason, who is professor of )slamic >tudy in 2ertford >eminary, as its *resident in =EEJ! Guring the last three years, the ,ational *resident of the Muslim >tudents Association @M>AA, another )slamic organization in ,orth America, has been a woman! "he Pouth "here are also issues related to the Muslim youth in the West! "he first generation of immigrants in these countries belongs to any of the si( cultural zones mentioned earlier! "hey tend to e(ercise the traditions and habits of their own cultural zones as pure )slam onto the second generation and sometimes onto indigenous Muslims as well! >ometimes the indigenous Muslims, the African Americans or the White Americans would like to wear Arabic dress or the >outh Asian shalwar and kamiz! "his leads to debates of what the )slamic traditional clothes are because a seemingly )slamic tradition in one cultural zone may not necessarily be considered )slamic in another! "his kind of debate is very common among youth in the West in almost every Muslim home, convention and campus! ?or the second generation, the basic issue is about covering the satr @)slamic

dress codeA and that the dress should not e(pose, so it holds that wearing baggy trousers and loose shirts should be considered as )slamic as shalwar kamiz or Arabic abayas! "hen, there are debates about how to find Muslim spouses0 whether the parents should decide or the young people themselves, or whether there should be a combination of both, and whether an intending couple may talk to each other before their marriageTengagement! Another issue for youth in the West concerns identity! ?or the first generation, it is easy to say that they are, for e(ample, American Muslims of *akistani origin, but the issue of identity is obscure for the youth who are born in the West! >ome people in the West tend to see )slam as a foreign phenomenon and they associate it with everything foreign0 however, for the second generation and indigenous Muslims, )slam is 'uite indigenous! )nvolvement in >ocial >ervices After DT77, the participation of the Muslim community in the social service sector has been growing, which is a new phenomenon! Muslims are organizing free health clinics, food drives, food for poor and other activities for the needy! "he other communities have done a lot of work in this field! "he American Lewish community is running almost JEE local social service organizations and they are collecting almost four billion dollars every year in grants for different social service activities from their own community, and the city, county, state and federal governments! 4atholics have two main social sector organizations! "heir collective budget is more than C billion dollars and J= percent of it comes from the city, counties and state and federal government! Muslims are also learning about these practices! Mos'ues are, again, playing a central role in social service activities! Guring #amadan, iftar parties are held in mos'ues! Mefore the month of #amadan begins, there are notices asking Muslims of the community to register their names if they are interested in providing food for iftar on certain days! At times, there may be around 7,EEE+7,BEE people having iftar in a mos'ue! Muslims in the $> have also started thinking about ways to provide food for homeless people! >o iftar dinner for the homeless is becoming a permanent feature during #amadan! :n the occasion of &id al Adha, Muslim communities in several $> cities collect the sacrificial meat for the poor andTor donate it to food banks! "he media is also used to publicize such actions! *ost DT77 )ssues A large number of first generation Muslim immigrants used to think about going back to their homeland! 2owever, the myth of return has been shattered today because the second generation of Muslim immigrants considers the West its own home! "here is a growing feeling among Muslims in the West that their 4reatorwill ask them about what they did where they lived and how they presented )slam in their vicinity! Although Muslims are facing 'uite harsh propaganda against )slam from the media, think tanks and churches, they are also getting new opportunities to present )slam! "hey are entering the

mainstream media in the West, which was not the case before DT77 or CTC! "heir activities are now covered by local radio, 4,,, other television channels, the ,ew Pork "imes, Washington *ost and other ma1or newspapers! Another issue facing the Muslims in the West is discrimination! Mefore DT77, the 'uestion 9What is )slamN< was as simple as the answer Y )slam is ?aith Y but the situation is 'uite different now! Muslims have to be engaged in very serious debates because non Muslims ask serious 'uestions and demand serious answers about the role of )slam in the affairs of state! >tate and #eligion "he issue of separation of 4hurch and >tate has different meanings in America and &urope! According to some scholars, separation of 4hurch and >tate means protecting the state from religion in &urope, and protecting religion from the state in America! >ome )slamic scholars in the West are also debating the shape of the )slamic state in the conte(t of matters such as the role of non Muslims in an )slamic state, the issue of a Muslim leaving )slam and adopting another religion, the role of women, the act of women leading prayers, and the permissibility of different means of entertainment, like music! )n short, there is a healthy trend of sound intellectual debate on )slam in the West in which Muslim scholars are active! )t is hoped that these deliberations will lead to the emergence of a very solid and productive cultural zone of )slam in the West! Concluding Remar's "he most promising aspect of the developing Western region of )slam is that there is debate and realization that challenges have to be responded to Y this is where the real hope lies for individuals, communities, and nations! "hose who respond to challenges change the world, and those who refuse to take notice of challenges lapse into frustration and desperation! "he most fundamental issues Muslims in the West confront concern, firstly, the 'uestion of 9)slam as a faith< and 9)slam as a culture and a civilization,< and, secondly, e(isting as a minority! "he first issue is not new! )ndeed, the distinction between )slam as a faith and )slam as a culture and civilization has been a very sensitive and important issue in the discourse on >unnah! As they struggle to follow his e(ample, Muslims have debated on what part of the >unnah of their *rophet @peace be upon him [pbuh-A, especially his Aa%dah @habitsA reflected the custom and traditions of his time, as opposed to the universal practices meant to be emulated by every Muslim while considering what the value impact of >unnah was! "he fact is that values and culture are intermingled! 2owever, while values and customs may be amalgamated in a culture, a dissection between the two is possible and, at times, necessary! "hroughout history, the advancement of )slamic culture and civilization, and

the spread of )slam%s geographic and cultural diversity have compelled Muslims to confront the 'uestion of institutional development under different cultural paradigms, and decide, for e(ample, which customs have to be discarded and which may be assimilated, which institutions may be absorbed, and which modified or re1ected! )t is by engaging in this highly creative e(ercise of applying values to given situations that Muslims have evolved their fi'h! "he diversity within fi'h reflects the varying ground realities of the locales where fi'h has developed, such as Madinah, Maghdad and Kufa! "he development of the third generation of Muslims in the West is, again, a very important area to analyze! )n Lanuary =EEC, the $K based think tank *olicy &(change produced a survey on the thinking of the first , second and third generation Muslims in Mritain! According to this survey, about CF percent of 7J =F year olds @i!e! third generation MuslimsA preferred that Muslim women choose to wear a veil or hi1ab, compared to only =H percent of Muslims aged BB years and over @i!e! first generation MuslimsA! When asked whether they should be ruled according to >hari%ah @)slamic religious lawA in Mritain or the e(isting Mritish law, IC percent of 7J =F year olds said they would prefer to live under >hari%ah, as opposed to only 7D percent of Muslims over the age of BB! "here are three issues that Muslims in the West in particular will have to debate and address! "he first concerns the nature of the state religion relationship! "he American 4onstitution tried, over two centuries ago, to settle this issue in favor of separation, but it very much alive and 'uite heated today! "he theocratic model is out of the 'uestion but the purely secular model is also dying away! >ecularism could have coe(isted with 7Dth century liberalism, wherein life was divided into self sufficient and self contained compartments, but this approach is almost impossible in the present world! ,ow, the state has a positive role to play in policy making, education and society, so neutrality is not an option at all! )ndeed, it is irrelevant and those who are harping on about it are not doing 1ustice to human society and polity! 2owever, there is a long range between the poles of secularism and theocracy in which many variations and articulations may be found! Muslim intellectuals, practitioners and politicians ultimately have to address this critical contemporary issue! "he second issue is related to the relationship between the nation state and the $mmah! )n this age of globalization, a lot of literature has been written on the concept of the nation state and its demise! "herefore, when there is a discussion about )slam, )slamic culture, )slamic civilization and Muslim community, most people speak under the shadow of dying nationalism! A very important phenomenon in this regard is the rise of the masses and the grassroots revolution! )n the past, the masses were not obliged and had no avenues of articulation, leverage and influence! )n contemporary globalization, however, while there is one root which is the rubric of hegemony of the powerful, there is another wave of the feelings and aspirations of the people! "his is a new and emerging superpower and those who are interested in the issues of human rights, 1ustice and in1ustice, poverty and its eradication, duplicity, imperialism, and capitalism and its e(ploitation have a common agenda! )n 3ondon, the agitation against American aggression in )ra' was led by the Muslim Association of Mritain and participated in by all

groups from the left, right and center! )n this conte(t, the concept of $mmah is a great blessing and a model for globalization! "hirdly and lastly, in the present international scenario, inter faith dialogue is e(tremely important! "he only thing we need to safeguard against is imposition! "he first important Muslin 4hristian dialogue took place in 7DB= in 3ebanon and its proceedings were published! "he )slamic 4ollo'uium in *rinceton in 7DBF and its follow up in 7DBH in 3ahore were very important movements in this direction! )t is neither a trap for hunting, nor a mere change of tactics0 it is, rather, a very important platform to perform debates at the intellectual, practical, community, service level and even at the level of the political and economic agenda of the world! Munira Mirza, Abi >enthilkumaran and Xein La%far, Lanuary =EEC, 3iving apart together, 3ondon8 *olicy &(change @http8TTwww!policye(change!org!ukTimagesT libimagesT=FJ!pdf + August 7H, =EECA!

Religion( State and Society

Written by Khurshid Ahmad, Mahmood Ahmad Ghazi Khurshid Ahmad "he )slamic approach to life and its problems is that while human life can be divided into different spheres and in fields of activity, there is an integral unity influenced and shaped by values, beliefs, ideas and ideologies! Muslims do not want to hide under the rubric of pseudo ob1ectivity or scientism and claim that they are value free! "hey are not0 perhaps no human being can be! :ne might even say it is more scientific to know the values that influence us and to transform the implicit into e(plicit because this helps everyone to understand + and to differ! "o understand the )slamic approach, a few facts need to be borne in mind! ?irst, )slam claims that it is not a new religion0 that divine revelation has come to all people since the first man, Adam @uhbpA! "he source of this revelation has always been the same, notwithstanding the differences, conflicts and contradictions that subse'uently arose between peoples! "hus, *rophet Muhammad @pbuhA is not the founder of )slam, but the last prophet in a long chain of prophets! Messengers of Allah have come to all parts of the world, and Muslims have no reason to doubt that the land now called )ndia received its share of divine revelation! )ndians today have every right to be fully attuned to the contemporary secular approach to life! ,evertheless, it would be beneficial for them to reflect on the ideas of at least two

of their own writers and thinkers8 Mahatma Gandhi and former )ndian *resident #adha Krishna! #adha Krishna%s work on the relationship between the state and religion, in particular, is very important! 2e looks upon the issue both from a philosophic perspective and in the light of 2indu tradition! Muslims believe that religion is not confined to the private, personal relationship between every human being and God! God, to us, is the 4reator, the >ource of light, wisdom and value! )t seems absurd to us to say that God is God as long as we are in our homes or temples or mos'ues, but that 2e ceases to have authority over us when we enter other spheres of our life! )n the Muslim view, God%s guidance and the individual%s bond with 2im should not be put aside in any realm, be it the home or place of worship, or the society at large and the state! :f course, there are crucial issues in this approach8 what is #eligionN 2ow universal and relevant it is todayN "he values + including the universally acknowledged values + principles and guidance that God has revealed represent, in a way, the substance of the divine impact on humankind! &arlier divine revelations were not preserved, but that has changed with )slam8 the revealed value framework has been preserved and protected, and is available for all human beings to approach and obtain guidance without any intermediary! ,ow, if religious guidance is universal, as Muslims claim it is, it is important that the religious value framework should be capable of meeting the demands of change! "his raises the 'uestion8 what is the value framework and how is it adaptable to changeN "he )slamic approach is that faith, values and principles and some key institutions such as the 5uran and sunnah provide the permanent framework! Within that framework, there is a lot of fle(ibility for change and e(perimentation! )slamic commands have been divided into five categories! :n the one end are fardh, the obligatory re'uirements, which are specific and occupy a relatively small proportion of commands! :n the other end are haram @forbiddenA elements8 this is the bottomline that may not be crossed! Metween these two ends are desirable elements of conduct @mustahabA and undesirable elements @makruhA! "he rest of human activity falls in the vast middle area of mubah @permissibleA conduct, which may be regarded the domain of human freedom! "he capacity to meet the demands of change is in built in this system! #eligion does not seek to burden or tie down each and every aspect of the society and state! #ather, it gives Muslims a vision + a perspective for considering everything in life0 personal motivation, piety, God consciousness, truthfulness, and a spiritual dimension0 and a set of rules and guidance, which contain certain permanent elements, certain desirable ones, and a vast area for e(perimentation! )slam does not bind people to any one particular model reflecting any particular space and time condition0 rather, through this framework, it enables Muslims to respond effectively to changing challenges! "here is nothing very rigid or infle(ible about the )slamic state and )slamic society0 of course, models do e(ist, but they serve as e(amples to learn from and emulate, and may be adapted to cope with new situations!

)t would be pertinent to discuss the two nation theory in this conte(t! "he 9two< in the name of this theory does not simply mean one plus one0 it represents the concept of plurality! *luralism enabling people of different faiths, cultures, societies, systems and ideologies to coe(ist is integrated in the )slamic vision! Muslims acknowledge that paradigms other than the )slamic paradigm have a right to e(ist! "hose who belong to these different paradigms have to coe(ist, interact, even learn from each other! "olerance is a cornerstone of this approach8 there may be no compulsion in matters of faith and religion, Muslims believe, and they re1ect the imposition of ideas and values of faith by force! "he two nation theory stands for plurality! "he approach it represents for Muslims could arise in two different situations! Where Muslims comprise the ma1ority in a country, the two nation theory demands that they use the opportunity to live according to their faith and values, while non Muslims have an e'ual right to live according to their faith and their values! What is envisaged is a ma1ority minority relationship based not 1ust on coe(istence but physical pro(imity, harmonious environment and e'ual opportunities for progress and prosperity! )n the second situation, where Muslims are a minority, they have the right to maintain their identity and should not be forced to dissolve this religion , value and culture based identity into some overriding identity, for that would be a kind of fascism and imperialism! )n other words, different groups may coe(ist as long as they are all allowed to thrive as parallel, not forcefully merged, streams! "he two nation theory is thus relevant to the current global situation and reflects historical reality! A special situation arose in the )ndian conte(t! Muslims in [pre *artition- )ndia perceived, correctly or incorrectly, that a situation had arisen where authentic coe(istence with the ma1ority in )ndia was not possible! )t would appear that they tried their best to live in within )ndia, as a minority in a pluralistic society! 2owever, )ndia was becoming a nation state along the lines of the Western post &nlightenment concept of a nation state based on secularism and territorial nationalism8 in essence, this was a negation of the country%s plurality! )t is this conceptual flaw owing to which, in the entire history of nation states, problems have arisen wherever there were more than one nationalities in a nation state! "he dilemma was not an e(clusively )ndian phenomenon0 it is everywhereY in the history of &urope, in the reports of the 3eague of ,ations, and in the cultural, ethnic, linguistic strife of =Eth century &urope! At first, Muslims in )ndia tried to live by the two nation theory within a pluralistic society! When this failed, they strove for political sovereignty in areas where they were in ma1ority with a view to establishing a system in which they would be free to pursue their faith and which, being more truly pluralistic, would accord to minorities an e'ual right to preserve their identities! "he two nation theory accepts two of the three cornerstones of secularism! )t agrees with the principle of tolerance for other religions and according the opportunity to coe(ist! )t also accepts the rule that this world is important and that religion does not mean abdication of the world! "hese two features are part of the two nation paradigm! 2owever, the theory challenges the third assertion of secularism that religion has nothing to provide for guidance in matters of society and state0 that only human reason and e(perience should guide there! )n other words, it is the notion of irrelevance of religious

values and faith that Muslims challenged! Genuine variety and multiplicity are denied under the garb of secularism! )ndeed, here secularism contradicts its own principle of tolerance for other faiths and communities! "hus, the two nation theory is not a dirty word that was merely coined to create *akistan! )t is a concept that has been there from time immemorial! )t is relevant to *akistan and )ndia, to &urope and to the rest of the world because it lays down the principle of plurality of systems! )t denies the idea that one identity must prevail upon all other identities! Gifferent identities can flourish together as different flowers grow in a garden, or as different colors glow in the rainbow, each band keeping its own identity, while the rainbow holds a separate identity! "he two nation theory provides a very sound basis for friendly, peaceful and harmonious relationships, both within a state and between states! )) Mahmood Ahmad Ghazi )n order to fathom the nature of the message or the ideology of )slam as contained in the 5ur%an and as understood by the Muslims, it needs to be understood that )slam is not a 91ust a religion< like other religions or a dharma like other dharams! "he assumption that it is makes it difficult for people to understand the Muslim point of view and position on many issues! )n reality, )slam is a code of life that includes a legal system, a culture and a civilization, a society based on some social norms, moral principles and values! Gifferent people emphasize different aspects of )slam, such as the legal, the spiritual and the social! "his is why the e(perts on )slam fall into different groups, such as the /ulema @scholarsA, the >ufis @spiritual guidesA, and the social reformers! 2owever, all of these groups acknowledge and appreciate the integral significance of the other aspects of )slam! $nlike many other religions and ideologies, )slam is not confined to any ethnic group, any geographical area, or any particular civilization! )t is a universal brotherhood! )t has gone to every part of the globe, affecting and influencing cultures and civilizations everywhere in different countries and continents! )ndeed, )slam has had an international role from the very beginning! )ts divine book, the 5ur%an, is perhaps the only religious book in the religious literature available now that takes into cognizance followers of different religions and categorizes them differently with respect to their relations with Muslims! When )slam deals with legal issues, it provides comprehensive guidance! )n terms of /meta 1urisprudence,% it addresses meta constitutional issues, i!e! the central issues that make up the Weltanschauungof )slam! Mased on this, Muslim 1urists developed law and 1urisprudence over the past fourteen hundred years and a comprehensive legal system came into e(istence! "hat legal system, which we call fi'h,is an integral part of )slam! >ome Western writers and scholars have opined that )slam is basically a law oriented religion! "his is true insofar as high significance is accorded to law and legal issuesin the )slamic system! )mportantly, however, the law is not an end in itself! )slam does not content itself with statements and declarations about what is right or wrong0 it seeks to translate these ideals into practice, and to integrate them in individual and collective

human life! )n some spheres, law is a necessary means for achieving this purpose, and it is for this reason that it is an integral part of Muslim society! "herefore, in )slamic terms, religiosity includes abiding by )slamic law0 in fact, such abidance enhances the religiosity and spirituality of an individual! )n an )slamic system, there is no concept of spiritual growth or religious e(cellence without full observance of the legal code as well! "his code is comprehensive and gives guidance to regulate many aspects of human life, including international relationships and dealings! )n the first century of the 2i1ra, the Muslim community spread from the Arabian *eninsula to places as far as eastern and southern &urope, Africa, and the )ndian >ubcontinent! Muslim settlements were visible in "hana, Mombay and other southern provinces of the >ubcontinent during the days of the >econd 4aliph! "his regional spread created a need and a challenge for the Muslim community to develop a mechanism for developing international dealings and relations, both at diplomatic and commercial levels, and in times of hostile and peaceful relations! Muslim scholars of the late first century and early second century ah addressed themselves to the task of developing a law that may be called Muslim international law! More than a dozen books on this sub1ect were written by Muslim writers in that period! "hese books are e(tant, and some have also been translated into &nglish, ?rench and other Western languages! "hus, international relations and international dealings have been something central and integral to )slamic society! "here was guidance from the very beginning, in the form of )slamic >hari%ah and )slamic law, to regulate the international role of the Muslim community and keep it in conformity with the )slamic ideals of 1ustice! "here was a continuous effort, even struggle, to bring Muslim society in particular and human society in general as close as practical and possible to the re'uirements of morality and spirituality! "his constant endeavor is called 1ihad in )slamic terminology @3iterally, 1ihad means constant endeavor and struggleA! "he purpose of this 1ihad has been summarized and epitomized in the 5ur%an as the ideal of 1ustice! "he 5ur%an says that the ultimate ob1ective of the entire divine scheme, the divine books, and messages and messengers is the establishment of real 1ustice! Muslims, therefore, feel that all international dealings and interaction should be based on a common ideal and endeavor in which all humanity should participate with the ob1ective of realizing the goal of real 1ustice in human life, as e(plained in the 5ur%an and e(emplified by the *rophet of )slam! ))) 5uestion and Answer >ession 58 "he sub1ects discussed in the two lectures were really new for most of us! )n fact, this was the first lecture on )slam that ) have attended! My 'uestion is to Gr! Ghazi! >ir, you said that )slam recognizes other religions! ) want, out of curiosity, some specific answers that what status you accord to 4hristians, Lews and particularly to 2indus who worship idolsN

A8 Gr! Ghazi8 )slamic law has categorized the religions outside the fold of )slam into four ma1or categories! And these categories have been mentioned directly in the 5ur%an, which is the divine book for the Muslims! ?irst, there is the category of 9*eople of the Mook!< "his is a term given by the 5ur%an to the followers of 4hristianity, Ludaism and some other religions that were the offshoots of 4hristianity or Ludaism in the Middle &ast! "hese have been accorded, to use modern parlance, the /Most ?avored ,ations% status, in the sense that a kind of interaction that is not allowed with others is allowed with the followers of these religions! "hen, there is a second category of those religions for which it is debatable, or not claimed by the followers of those religions, or doubtful that the origin is Givine! "he terms used for this category by Muslim 1urists are 9>emi *eople of the Mook< or 95uasi *eople of the Mook!< #egarding relations with people in this category, there is a hadith of the *rophet of )slam telling Muslims to deal with and treat them the way they treat and deal with the *eople of the Mook, e(cept that intermarriages with their women are not allowed! "his status was given to the *arsis, and to the 2indus and the Muddhists in the >ubcontinent! When )slam came to the >ubcontinent formally, which was towards the end of the first century of the 2i1ra, specifically D=ah, the first 'uestion that was raised by Muslims was how to interact with the local 2indus in the >indh and Multan area! "here were two views! "he minority view was that they should be treated like the *eople of the Mook8 there should be marriages with them, and all those other relations that are permitted with the *eople of the Mook! "he ma1ority view was that since the origin of the local religion was not known clearly, it could not be determined with certainty that it was divine! "herefore, Muslims could not deal with the people at par with 4hristians and Lews! "hey should be treated as people belonging to the second category, i!e! 5uasi *eople of the Mook, and intermarriages with them should not be allowed! "he ma1ority view continued to govern the general practice for almost thirteen hundred years, with some e(ceptions and individual opinions in favor of the second view! A ma1or departure from this popularly accepted interpretation was made was during the reign of Akbar, when some scholars e(pressed the opinion that intermarriages should be allowed, and some did take place between the royal family and the 2indu #a1as of 4entral )ndia! 2owever, by and large, the prevalent opinion was that intermarriages should not be allowed! "he third category is of those religions which acknowledge, in one way or the other, the Givine &(istence but do not claim to be of a divine origin! ?inally, the fourth category is that of the atheists, who deny Givinity or God%s e(istence completely! All these categories have been mentioned in the 5ur%an! "he sayings of the *rophet @pbuhA have given some further details about how treatment and interaction should be coordinated! ?inally, )slamic legal e(perts have elaborated the legal rulings on these issues! 58 )n continuation with the earlier 'uestion itself, among all these four categories, one word Muslim have often used is kafir8 who among them are kuffar [plural of kafir-N

A8 Gr! Ghazi8 Kafir is a term given by the 5ur%an in a different conte(t! Kafir literally means a denier! "hose who deny the e(istence of God are kuffar! "hose who do not cannot be called kuffar! 58 4ould you throw some light on the importance of 1ihad in )slam and the current theory and practice of 1ihad basically, and how it can be reconciled with the current rubric of international relationsN A8 Gr! Ghazi8 As ) submitted earlier, 1ihad literally means a constant endeavor, or a constant e(ercise and struggle! "he struggle is primarily moral in its character and approach! "he 5ur%an refers to different levels and stages of 1ihad! "he first stage or level is the 1ihad or struggle with reference to the 5ur%an itself, i!e! the missionary activity to propagate the message of )slam in different corners of the globe! "hen, there is a 1ihad that is known as 1ihad bil 'alam @1ihad with the penA! Again, this is about spreading the message of )slam to different 'uarters of human society! ?inally, a stage may come where a confrontation becomes inevitable with a non Muslim or with an enemy group! "hose eventualities have been laid down in the 5ur%an! "hese have not been left to be decided by the sweet will of an individual or a group of people! )n that case comes the final stage of 1ihad, i!e! the struggle with the sword, for the defense or in support of the persecuted! "here are three areas that have been mentioned in the 5ur%an where the sword can be used or use of force is allowed8 @iA in self defense, @iiA in solidarity with a persecuted humanity group, and @iiiA to remove unnecessary hurdles in the propagation of )slam, where the use of force is allowed under certain conditions! "hose conditions have been discussed in the law of war, elaborated by Muslim 1urists right from the second century of the 2i1ra! "he most important thing is that it should always be conducted under the leadership and with the permission of a legitimately established Muslim government! Without the permission and leadership of a legitimately established formal government, 1ihad with the sword is not allowed! 58 Pou talked about these different stages or categories of 1ihad but that is a development that came only after the twelfth or thirteenth century ah, by which time )slam had captured the ma1or parts of what became the 4aliphate and is now part of the )slamic world! "here are only one or two ahadith which 'uote the *rophet @pbuhA as saying8 ) came from the lesser 1ihad to greater 1ihad! )t has not been mainstream thought0 it happened only after eleventh or twelfth century ad8 by the time when the 1ihad with the sword was almost over! "he >ufistic interpretations came only after tenth or eleventh century! "his is my first 'uestion, and the second is with regard to Arabs of >indh! Muhammad bin 5asim took permission from Mansur bin 2a1a1, the governor of )ra', who in his own personal opinion asked him to ignore the new sub1ects, 2indus, because he did not know how to deal with them instead of directly referring the matter to 4aliph Al Walid! >o, ) feel it is more on personal level that the rulers of that time gave a kind of concession to the people, otherwise, according to the 5ur%an and references from the ahadith + one

from )mam Muslim and the other from )mam "irmizi + there are only three categories of people8 one, *eople of the Mook, Ahle Kitab0 second, Xoroastrians and >abians0 and then there are infidels who are given only two options + )slam or the sword! A8 Gr! Ghazi8 ?irst of all, it was 2a11a1 Min Pusuf not Mansur Min 2a11a1! Pou are absolutely right there is a hadith in which the *rophet of )slam @pbuhA said, we have returned from the minor 1ihad to the ma1or or bigger 1ihad! )t simply establishes that these two categories of 1ihad were present in the mind of the *rophet of )slam and these were not introduced later in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries under the influence of the >ufis! >ome of the >ufis might have emphasized the larger category of 1ihad, that is 1ihad bin nafs @1ihad with the soulA, but the fact remains that these two categories have been mentioned by the *rophet @pbuhA and some of them have been mentioned by the 5ur%an! Pou would recall that the #evelation of the 5ur%an can be divided into two periods8 the Makki 5ur%an, which the *rophet @pbuhA received while he was in Makkah, before his migration to Madina, and the Madani 5ur%an, which he received after he migrated to Madina! )n Makkah, he was living in a minority without any state, without the wherewithal of the state, and even in those days, when he was living as a persecuted minority, he received guidance about the 1ihad with the 5ur%an!Z "his simply means that the first category of 1ihad that was commanded, in terms of time and in terms of preference and precedence, was the 1ihad with the 5ur%an, that is, peaceful and missionary activities! >o, it is irrelevant to mention the emphasis given to the spiritual 1ihad by >ufis in later centuries! #egarding the 'uestion about the Arabs in >indh, ) am not aware whether the opinion was given by 2a1a1 or not0 ) have not read it! "he earliest source of historical information about the Muslims% con'uest of >indh is the ?utuhul Muldan, compiled by the historian Al Maladhuri, which is followed by Ali Kufi%s 4huchnama, which was originally written in the >indhi language! ) have had the occasion of translating 4huchnama into Arabic, so ) have read each and every word! )t is primarily derived from Maladhuri%s works @Maladhuri is available in &nglish and $rdu translationA, and there is no mention that a ruling was given by 2a1a1! >upposing 2a1a1 had given this ruling, the fact remains that it was accepted by the ma1ority of Muslims in the >ubcontinent, and continued to be considered valid for seven to eight centuries until the time of Akbar0 even then, the ma1ority of the Muslims did not accept Akbar%s departure from that ruling as valid! >o, the statement about 2a1a1%s ruling does not make a difference! )t simply shows, if it is correct, that the ruling given by 2a1a1 bin Pousuf on his own personal understanding was accepted by Muslims, not only in the >ubcontinent but also by scholars in other parts of the world! ,obody is reported to have ob1ected to that interpretation! "hen, you say in "irmizi, three categories [of religions other than )slam- have been mentioned! Pes, in some ahadith two categories have been mentioned0 in some, four categories have been mentioned! Gifferent statements of the *rophet @pbuhA relate to the different situations! 2e was operating in the Arabian *eninsula0 there was no encounter with the 2indus in those days! "here was no encounter with many other people in those days! Muslims during his time encountered only the idol worshipers of Arabia, Lews,

4hristians or the Magians, so he mentioned these three categories! )n some ahadith, where there was also an encounter with the fourth category, it was mentioned! >o, the conte(t of the *rophet%s statements has to be kept in perspective! Ahadith do not negate the four categories mentioned in the 5ur%an! "he 5ur%an, in any case, would take precedence over the statement of others, including the reported statements of the *rophet @pbuhA! 58 While hadith talks about lesser 1ihad and greater 1ihad, a verse in the 5ur%an itself says that any person who wages 1ihad with the sword is anyway better than the person sitting at home, something like that! A8 Gr! Ghazi8 )f there is a call for 1ihad with the sword, if there is a need to rise in self defense! )f a country is attacked and self defense is needed, some people sitting idle cannot be e'uated with those who are defending their country! ) think it is as simple as that! 58 ) want to know how central is the role of rituals in )slam8 can somebody be a faithful and a pious Muslim without doing, say, namaz @prayerA or any of the other rituals! >econdly, is there any space for 'uestioning God in )slamN )s there space for an atheistN A8 Gr! Ghazi8 ) would first of all submit that we do not use the word 9rituals,< because these have a separate connotation! )n )slamic terminology, we do not have any term similar to this term, so we can use it only tentatively, within 'uotation marks! Most of the so called /rituals% of )slam, relate to worship and areas related to worship that is offered to the Almighty in order to show one%s profound humility to 2im and one%s indebtedness to the 4reator and one%s total dependence on 2is Will and Gesire! "his is something between the individual Muslim and the 4reator!

)n )slamic terminology, rights are classified into two categories8 #ights of Allah, i!e! rights of the 4reator, and rights of human beings! )f the rights of human beings are violated then it is for the human beings to demand them! )f the rights of Allah are violated, then it is up to Allah! )f somebody does not perform prayer, ) do not know how Allah will deal with him! 2e may accept him without /rituals,% or 2e may not! ,either ) nor anybody else has the right to pass any 1udgment on somebody who does not pray! )t is to be decided only by Allah! :ur duty is to constantly emphasize the significance and importance of prayer and worship, and to not give it up! )f somebody has given it up and does not pray, then Allah will deal with him on the Gay of Ludgment! We have nothing to do with him! We are not allowed to pass 1udgment! A great >ufi from the >ubcontinent + your part of the >ubcontinent + used to advise his followers that everyone should consider himself to be inferior to every human being! A follower asked him how he could consider himself inferior to a person who is not a believer, i!e! a kafir, as you said! 2e said, you consider yourself inferior to everybody in your present situation and inferior to all human beings

in your position on the Gay of Ludgment, because a person may get a better position than you while you may get a lower position on the Gay of Ludgment! >o, this is the )slamic teaching as far as the /ritual% is concerned! "here is a space for 'uestioning every teaching of )slam but )slam does not encourage 'uestioning the e(istence of the Almighty because the 5ur%an tells us that the Greatness of God is so awesome and )nfinite that it may be beyond the reach of common human perception! )f one is incapable of realizing and admiring 2is #eality, it would generally be futile to delve into various dimensions of 2is Meing on a superficial level! 58 2ow do you see the $> attack on Afghanistan! )s it invasionN A8 Gr! Ghazi8 )t is invasion, ) condemn it! ) do not consider it to be acceptable in terms of )slamic law! )t is a persecution of a defenseless community! )t is )slamically wrong, it is humanly wrong! ) have no doubt about that! 58 )t was nice to hear about the concept of plurality in )slam but it is really painful to hear about the clashes between >hiites and >unnis during Muharram! ) mean, )slamic teachings are so encompassing, as you say, and it is so tolerant! 2ow do you e(plain these clashesN A8 Gr! Ghazi8 :ur main problem is that Muslims have abandoned )slam! "hey have not lived by )slam! :ur effort is to make them live and abide by )slam! As soon as they start abiding by )slam and living by )slam, these problems will be over! "hat is a problem you have rightly pointed out! "hese difficulties have not arisen by observance of )slam! "hese problems are there because of non observance of )slam! *rof! Ahmad8 ?irst of all, we must realize that Muslims are also human beings! And no human being is perfect! "here are human failings! >o, if the value reference is correct, then, you see, you can identify the failings, and not sanctify them! >o, if there is sectarian strife, it is not something desirable, it is something bad! And secondly, unfortunately, in the current global situation particularly, as we are seeing in )ra', the >unni >hi%a disturbance is not a sectarian problem! "hey have lived together for centuries and there has never been, ) can claim, a single incident of sectarian clash in )ra' for the last thousand or eleven hundred years! Pes, there may be discriminations, there may be differences, but the type of clashes you are witnessing today is totally new! )t is has nothing to do with )slam, nothing to do with being >unni, nothing to do with being >hi%a! )t is a part of a design to divide )ra' and array one group and one leader against the other! >o much so that while all the Kurds are >unni but they are never described as >unni! >o, there are Kurds, there are >hi%as, and then there are >unnis; "his categorization is very much imposed from the outside as part of the overall aggression in the region!! >o, do not look at it as a religious phenomenon8 it is primarily a political, and not only political but also an e(ternally implanted, phenomenon!

Gr! Ghazi8 ) would add to what *rof! Khurshid has said! Pou see Muslims +>unnis and >hi%as + e(isted in the >ubcontinent from the fifteenth century onwards! )t was mostly with the establishment of the Mughal &mpire that the >hi%a element was introduced! Mut they lived peacefully without any difficulty in different parts of the >ubcontinent8 in Gelhi, 3ucknow, in eastern )ndia, and in the present *akistan! "here was no difficulty and no problem! "he >hi%a >unni clash took place in the >ubcontinent after the coming of the Mritish! *reviously, there were not very many 2indu Muslim clashes0 there were only one or two incidents in the whole history of one thousand years! Why did the fre'uency of 2indu Muslim clashes increase after the arrival of the MritishN "hese 'uestions will answer the 'uery! Marrister >aadia Abbasi8 ) would like to add to what *rof! Khurshid has said! "he issue of sectarian violence in *akistan is an artificially created phenomenon! )t is not possible to go into its genesis within the time we have, but please bear in mind that in )ra', there was a >hi%a ma1ority population and a >unni ruler! 3ook at the e(ample of )ran! A >hi%a ma1ority population and >hi%a government, yet there is no violence against >unnis! >o, why in *akistanN "here is a global dimension in it and there is interaction of many factors0 that is what you must bear in mind and throughout your career! Pou will be facing it and you will be addressing it, so do not take things only at their face value! 58 My 'uestion is to both Gr! Ghazi and *rof! Khurshid Ahmad! Pou said that )slam is much more than a religion and it also has directions which a society or state are to follow to become an ideal state or society! )n the contemporary world, there are many )slamic states, claiming to be )slamic states, so in your view, which are nearest to the idealN A8 Gr! Ghazi8 ) can only talk about *akistan%s case! We have combined different e(periments and practices! "he Mritish pattern, which is common between you, Mangladesh and us, we have inherited in tradition from our colonial past! :ur institutions have been fashioned out of it! "hen, we have taken something from the American model! :ur >upreme 4ourt is the custodian of the 4onstitution0 it is the interpreter of the 4onstitution! "he *arliament has to abide by the interpretation of the >upreme 4ourt and there is a balance between the *arliament and the >upreme 4ourt! "his, we have taken from the American 4onstitution! We have integrated many )slamic principles and concepts in our 4onstitution8 that Allah is the >overeign0 that all laws should be brought into conformity with the 5ur%an and >unnah0 that all e(isting laws should be revised and changed and institutions re'uired for the implementation of )slam should be established0 and the >tate should proactively promote )slamic ideals! "hese things have been taken from )slam! A combination has been designed which is being practiced! "here are failings undoubtedly, but there are achievements as well! >o ) can say, as a student of contemporary )slam, that our model is the most viable model and if it succeeds + and succeed it will, inshaAllah, though it may take time + it will generate a similar interest in other Muslim countries! 58 Goes )slam support the acts of Al 5aeda under the name of 1ihad to kill innocent peopleN

A8 Gr! Ghazi8 "he killing of innocent people is not allowed! "he )slamic law of war re'uires that only those should be targeted who are on the battlefield and who are using arms against you! )f somebody is not using arms against you, you are not allowed to use arms against him! )f innocent people are being killed anywhere in any situation, it is murder in terms of )slamic law, not 1ihad! 58 2ow do you e(plain the intolerance shown by the "aliban, which implemented )slamic values in Afghanistan but destroyed Mamiyan Muddhas, which were a world heritage! A8 Gr! Ghazi8 "aliban would better e(plain their position than ) do! ) do not hold any brief for "aliban + why should ) defend their point of viewN 58 Gon%t you think they were trying to implement )slamic valuesN A8 Gr! Ghazi8 As ) said, there could be different paradigms of an )slamic state0 there could be different models! Afghanistan is basically a tribal society! )t is primarily a society that is different from *akistani society! )f they wanted to develop their own paradigm or model, we have no ob1ection! We may have a difference of opinion on some of the details and some issues but they are in a better position to defend their paradigm! ) can defend *akistan%s paradigm, no doubt, but ) should not speak on behalf of a group of people who have not authorized me to speak on their behalf! 58 My 'uestion is about culture! )s there any specified )slamic culture or are there different cultures in different parts of the worldN A8 Gr! Ghazi8 "he culture may be different in different parts of the world but there will have to be some common elements! An )slamic culture would be based on )slamic fundamentals8 on the spiritual values of )slam, on the moral principles of )slam, especially concerning the nature of the relationship between se(es, and the nature of interaction between individuals and groups of individuals! Getails may be different from country to country and from situation to situation! )f you allow me to use a simile, ) can say that )slamic culture in different parts of the world is as different as the children of one father and one mother are0 it is also as common everywhere as the children of one father are! *rof! Ahmad8 )slam has given some instructions! )n case of dress, for instance, )slam says it should not be revealing, it should necessarily cover certain parts of the body, it should be decent, it should be simple and it should not be pompous! After that, any garment can work, whether it is shalwar and 'amiz, whether it is trousers and shirt, whether it is 1alabiah, whether a turban is worn or not! All the variety is there! )n culture, there will always be variety! :ne unifying factor is the value framework, the value base! 58 What about artworkN

A8 *rof! Ahmad8 Pes, why not; Muslims have produced some of the best pieces of art and architecture! "hey would, however, avoid figurative +human figurative + presentations! Pet, Muslims have articulated their artistic talent in architecture, calligraphy, in geometric art, in the floral art, and in so many other fields! "his is a historical reality! 58 Would you like to say a few words on the )ndia *akistan relationshipN A8 Gr! Ghazi8 ?irst of all, before ) answer this 'uestion or say something about the future of the )ndia *akistan relationship, ) must clear one thing8 ) am not a politician, nor am ) an e(pert on international relations! ) am basically an educationist and ) teach )slamic studies, although ) have held some political office! ) would like to invite your attention to a higher issue8 this area houses the largest human assembly or at least the second largest human assembly in one geographical region! )n fact, >outh Asia is one of the most thickly populated regions on the surface of the globe! We have been living together for the last more than one thousand years and we will go on living together! A life of conflict, hatred or aloofness will do no good to any of us! :ur past is common0 our future will have to be common! When ) say our future will have to be common, ) mean our future as independent distinct Muslims and your future as independent )ndians or 2indus or Muddhists, etc! $nless we develop an understanding, based on mutual respect, mutual understanding, acknowledgement of each other%s positions and rights as human beings, we will not be able to give a peaceful life to our coming generations! We should come forward to think about it! "here might have been some pre1udices in the minds of those + with apologies to *rof! Khurshid >ahib +who participated in the *akistan Movement because those were heated days and there was a charged atmosphere! We are not living in that charged atmosphere any more! We are perhaps in a better position to look at issues dispassionately! "here are two ways of looking at things! :ne, with apologies to my )ndian friends and guests, there is a formula every )ndian talks about! Whenever ) meet )ndians, they say, we are one and these boundaries are unnatural and they should be obliterated, and so forth! We are one and we will become one! ,o; We will not become one, we were never one in that sense! We lived together for more than one thousand years, Muslims remained Muslims and 2indus remained 2indus! Muslims will remain Muslims in future and 2indus will remain 2indus in future! With the acknowledgement of that distinct character and with the acknowledgement of the collective decisions of the Muslims of the >ubcontinent to have their own homeland, we should develop a paradigm whereby we can live together peacefully and with mutual dependence and cooperation in the spirit in which it was conceived by 5uaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Linnah! As ) have often said, the nature of the relationship between us should be like the one between America and 4anada! 2ow much time we will take and how long we have to go in that wayN ) do not know! Mut our future lies in understanding, cooperation and removal of this unnecessary hatred and conflict! "his is how ) look at the future of )ndia and *akistan!

58 Pou said that )slam challenges one of the principles of secularism that religion should not be brought into the state and the society! )n that conte(t, could you throw some light on + ) think Gr! Ghazi has preempted the answer + but my 'uestion is how does contemporary )slam view democracyN A8 *rof! Ahmad8 3et%s consider, what is democracyN "he original idea came from the Greeks and the substance was rule of the people! "hen, of course, we had monarchy, we had 4hristendom, while #enaissance and #eformation constitute the ne(t ma1or historical watershed, and the &nlightenment gave us the idea of modern secular democracy! "his system represented a rebellion against God and the 4hurch8 its proponents% point was, we should depend on our rationality and our e(perience, and religion should not have any say in the affairs of the society and the state! )t also represented a revolt against the medieval arrangement in which people were irrelevant! "he voice of the ruler or the monarch had been the law! ,ow, the secularists said, no + the focus should shift from all that to the people! >o, the sovereignty of the people, or popular sovereignty, became the fundamental principle of democracy! 3ater, it was translated into a new operational institutional arrangement8 in the form of representative democracy, elections, and the slogan 9Government of the people, by the people and for the people!< As a philosophical base, the sovereignty of the people is accepted to the e(tent that they are the source of all law and values! And they can change values, if they so desire! ?rom the )slamic viewpoint, we divide the concept of democracy into two different dimensions! We say that as far as the ultimate source of values and guidance is concerned, it is God, Who is the >ource of guidance that is not changeable by the human vote! Mut within that framework, as ) e(plained in my earlier presentation, there is a very vast area of choice! And in that area of choice, no individual, no group of people, not even the religious people or any family has the right to decide! )t is the people who decide! We call it Khilafat8 instead of sovereignty of man, we say vicegerency of man0 and our system is popular, which means that all members of the society have to be consulted and it is they who should be deciding who should rule, how and what policies should be formulated! "hen there is accountability to people! >o, in )slam, there are two pillars of legitimacy! :ne8 belief in God and the supremacy of the Givine 3aw0 "wo, reference to the people, and their authority to conduct their affairs by mutual consultation! "he 5ur%anic principle is8 "heir affairs are conducted by consultation among themselves! "his is not 1ust a choice, it is an amr @commandmentA0 it is not recommendatory, it is mandatory! >hura, or consultation, is possible only when there is freedom! )f there is no freedom, there can be no discussion! "here cannot be dissent! "here cannot be variety of opinions! >hura also means that those who have to run the affairs should be elected by shura, not imposed on people! "hen, they should run the affairs by shura! >o, rule of law, fundamental rights of freedom, right to differ, change through people, all this is integral!

) would say the )slamic concept of democracy has a vast area of commonality with the contemporary human e(perience at the operational institutional level! At the level of principles too there are common points, like the rule of law, right to dissent, freedomY even separation of powers + between the 1udiciary, legislature, and the e(ecutive! Mut where we differ is8 we do not concede to the people, to ourselves, the right to change the Givine 3aw! >o, there is democracy, it is not merely compatible, it is mandatory! "he ideal period of the #ighteous 4aliphs @Khulafa e #ashdeenAwas democratic, but there was deviation and there were efforts to restore that and, in the contemporary world, we are trying to see how these ideals can be actualized in our own conte(t! Marrister >aadia8 ) would 1ust like to add that yesterday we had a very good lecture by Mr! Anwar )brahim, former Geputy *rime Minister of Malaysia, on 9Gemocracy in )slam!< "here was a general consensus that there is no incompatibility between democracy and )slam, and )slam is about 1ustice and e'uity and giving the due rights to the people! )n fact, the problems of the Muslim world are the problems of denial of those rights to the people! "hat is why we have the problems that are there in the Muslim world today! When you deny people their basic rights, you are denying them their )slamic rights! 58 My first 'uestion is regarding ?idaeen attacks, which ususally cause collateral damage of so many innocent lives! Goes )slam give that blank in1unction wasting the lives of innocents and is the highest purpose of that 1ihad served through ?idaeenN "he second is that, even in the 5ur%an, there are some tempting verses where *aradise or Lanna are described in beautiful terms and it is said people who die for the cause of 1ihad will be rewarded in 2eaven with all the beautiful pleasures and all the essentials! >o, does it not give an incentive to die and does it not imply that human life is very cheapN A8 *rof! Ahmad8 "hank you very much! "his is a very topical 'uestion, thank you for it! >uicide bombing is not something new! )f you read history, you will find that more than two thousand years back, historians relate there was a group of zealots, and this group had a Lewish background, who were the first suicide bombers in history! )n contemporary history, you must have heard that the Lapanese in the >econd World War used this [suicide bombing- as an instrument of war! )f ) remember correctly, there were about CEE and they destroyed some =EE American vessels! After that, if you read about military strategy, you will find there is a portion called 9>uicide Mission,< which is part of military strategy! And if you read the latest studies on this sub1ect, two very important books have come out8 one is from :(ford, My Mody is My Weapon, and the other is an even more important study from 4hicago $niversity *rofessor #oger Gutt, Gying to Win! "his is the most valuable and scientific study on the sub1ect! "he author has made a complete profile of all suicide bombings from 7DHE to =EEI! "here are some very interesting findings! Gutt comes to the conclusion that religion has nothing to do with suicide bombing! "he analysis shows that DB percent of individual bombing occurs owing to a strategic secular purpose! "hose bombers, out of desperation, are prepared to sacrifice their lives! "he author says that as long as there is in1ustice and occupation, and

there is no way out for the grievances to be corrected, it becomes a kind of imperative act! )f you read 2untington%s 4lash of 4ivilizations, a flawed book with some insights, he says that 9"errorism is the weapon of the weak against the strong!< )f the strong are not prepared to offer themselves to any law and 1ustice then what option do the weak haveN When there is a clash between an ant and an elephant, there is no comparison, until the ant travels into the trunk of the elephant! )t would be an interesting situation then for the elephant to call the ant a suicide bomber; >o, ) think you have to see things in their conte(ts! As far as the religious position is concerned, as Gr! Ghazi rightly e(plained, the killing of any innocent human being, indeed, killing yourself as well + in )slam even suicide is not permitted, what to speak of suicide bombing + is forbidden, because )slam believes that your body has been created by God! )t is an amana @a trustA! Pou can use it for certain purposes, but you cannot destroy it! &ven the )slamic concept of property is very different! )n the Anglo >a(on law, you can ac'uire, sell, or destroy property! )slamic law says you have the right to ac'uire and to use, but you cannot destroy it! "he right to destroy is not part of the right to own! >o suicide is prohibited in )slam! Mut if people are in a desperate situation, they depart from the law! And ) would like you to read the interview of the spokesman of 2amas, published in ,ewsweek! 2e was asked this 'uestion pointedly, and he said, ) will be honest with you8 we regard it haram in )slam, but we are under occupation, a state is unleashing unlimited terror on us, thousands upon thousands are being killed and we have no way to redress! And all our appeals and efforts are dismissed! Pes, )slam does not deny the demands of human nature and the pleasures of life! )t also mentions pleasures in Lannah, and the highest pleasure is the spiritual elevation and the blessing of seeing God! ?urther, ) would not add much to what my brother Gr! Ghazi has said and he is very right about that the earlier 'uestion about the "aliban, which should be addressed only by the "aliban! Mut, had they been here, they might have said8 Pes! *erhaps we committed a mistake because Muslims have ruled Afghanistan for twelve hundred years and these statues were there! )n *akistan, there are hundreds of Muddhist statues! Mut didn%t you commit a crime too when you demolished Mabri Mos'ueN 58 )n te(t books on )slam, /peace be upon him% is written after the name of *rophet Muhammad! )s that a religious re'uirementN A8 *rof! Ahmad8 Whenever the name of any *rophet is mentioned, you should pray that Allah%s blessings and peace be upon him! "his is not 1ust the case with the name of *rophet Muhmmad @pbuhA, but whenever we say Adam, we also say Alaihissalaam + $pon him be peaceA, Musa Alaihissalaam, and &isa Alaihissalam, i!e! we pray for them

and pay our respects! )n the same way, we say8 *eace Me $pon 2im + >alallaho Alaihi wa >allam! [ "his three part article is based on a roundtable discussion on 9#eligion, >tate and >ociety,< which was hosted by )*> on March D, =EEJ, for officers of the )ndian ?oreign >ervice Academy @)?>AA, who were on a visit to *akistan! "he )*> 4hairman, >enator *rof! Khurshid Ahmad, spoke on the main theme, while Gr! Mahmood Ahmad Ghazi, a member of )*>%s ,ational Academic 4ouncil @,A4A, dilated on a related theme, 9)slam and )nternational #elations!< "he two brief speeches have been given in the first and second part while the third part coves the 5QA session! >enator >aadia Abbasi, another )*> ,A4 member, also took part in the discussion! "he two nation theory was the basis for the Muslim demand, before 7DFC, for partition of )ndia so that Muslims could live freely, without fear of repression as a minority, after the Mritish &mpire withdrew from the >ubcontinent! "he 2i1ra marks the beginning of the )slamic calendar, which opens with the first month of the Arabic lunar year in Lune J==, and proceeds in pure lunar years of IBF days without intercalation! Where a date is given according to the )slamic calendar, it is followed by the e(pression 9ah,< meaning 9in the year of the 2i1ra!< Z 9wage Lihad against them with this 5ur%anO< @Al ?ur'an =B8B=A