FINAL BBN ANG 104 Reader-and-Workbook 2013autumn PDF

BBN-ANG-104
Academic Skills 1: Reader and workbook

Autumn 2013

Contents

Unit 1: Introduction 1
1.1 University regulations about plagiarism 2
1.2 Correction symbols 4
1.3 Library research worksheet 5
1.4 Reading skills: Getting the essential information 7
1.5 How to make good notes 15

Unit 2: The writing process (Audience, purpose, and style) 21
2.1 The writing process: Overview 22
2.2 Style: Formal and informal 28
2.3 Reading skills: Finding the main idea 32
2.4 Reading skills: Reading passage and practice tasks 37

Unit 3: Paragraph structure 41
3.1 Organization 42
3.2 Outlining 54
3.3 Selfediting worksheet: Paragraph structure 56
3.4 Reading skills: Defining vocabulary in context 57

Unit 4: Editing (Unity, coherence, and clarity) 63
4.1 Unity and coherence 64
4.2 Peerediting worksheet: Paragraph structure 82
4.3 Reading skills: The difference between fact and opinion 83

Unit 5: Proofreading (Punctuation, grammar, and mechanics) 89
5.1. Punctuation rules 90
5.2 Sentence problems 98
5.3 Reading skills: Putting it all together 108

Unit 6: Reading skills 115
6.1 Chronological order 116

Unit 7: Process paragraphs 123
7.1 Rhetorical patterns 124
7.2 Sample process paragraph 125
7.3 Organization 127
7.4 Reading skills: Order of importance 129

Unit 8: Argumentative paragraphs 139
8.1 Sample argumentative one-paragraph essay 140
8.2 Expressing opinions: Class survey 141
8.4 Self-editing worksheet 143
8.5 Reading skills: Compare and contrast 144

Unit 9: Comparison/contrast paragraphs 155
9.1 Peer-editing worksheet: Logical division of ideas 156
9.3 Comparison signals 160
9.4 Contrast signals 163
9.5 Reading skills: A look at cause and effect 166
9.7 Cause and effect structures 176

Unit 10: Revision 179
10.1 Reading skills: Putting it all together 180
10.2 Extra practice: Editing 1 (Sentence structures) 186
10.3 Extra practice: Editing 2 (Punctuation) 187
10.4 Giving oral presentations 189

Unit1:
Introduction
BBN-ANG-104 Reader and Workbook PAGE 1
TJKOZTAT
a plgiummal kapcsolatos rendelkezsekrl
az ELTE Blcsszettudomnyi Karn

1. Mi a plgium?

Plgiumnak minsl minden olyan ms szerztl tvett tartalom felhasznlsa, amelynek
forrst az rsbeli vagy szbeli munkban a szban forg munka szerzje nem jelzi
egyrtelmen. Ilyen tartalom lehet ms szerztl szrmaz:
kzzel rott, internetrl szrmaz, elektronikus, szbeli, brmilyen adatrgztn trolt,
illetve egyb forrsbl tvett sz s gondolat;
tlet, megllapts, kvetkeztets, vlemny, levezets, megfigyels;
kplet, modell;
adat, tnye, szm- vagy adatsor, statisztika, megolds;
bra, grafika, kp s fnykp.
Plgiumnak minsl az is, ha valaki sajtjaknt tntet fel olyan munkt, amelynek ms a
szerzje (pl. teljes dolgozatok, egyb munkk msolsa, ellenszolgltatsrt cserbe elkszttetett
brmilyen rsbeli vagy szbeli anyag).
Az eredeti munka szerzjt csak abban az esetben nem kell feltntetni, ha az illet ismeretlen,
de ebben az esetben is jellni kell ennek tnyt.

2. Milyen esetben kvetnk el plgiumot?

Minden esetben a plgium vtsgt kveti el az, aki az adott tartalmat a megfelel hivatkozs
nlkl sz szerint, vagy rszlegesen idzi, tfogalmazza, sszefoglalja, vagy ms nyelvbl
fordtja.
Az nll munka sorn a hallgat feladata lehet msok ltal ltrehozott tartalom felhasznlsa,
de ezeket minden esetben egyrtelm hivatkozsokkal el kell ltni. Amennyiben a hallgat
munkja sorn nem a tudomnyterlet szablyainak megfelel hivatkozsokkal lt el egy forrst,
csak formai hibt vt, ez esetben cselekedete nem minsl plgiumnak, de a dolgozat rtkelse
sorn figyelembe veszik.

3. Mire vonatkoznak a plgiummal kapcsolatos kari s egyetemi rendelkezsek?

A plgiummal kapcsolatos rendelkezsek vonatkoznak minden, a tanulmnyi kvetelmnyek
teljestse rdekben (rdemjeggyel rtkelt munka, egy kurzus teljestsre) vgzett munkra,
valamint az Egyetem gisze alatt pl. sztndjakhoz, tudomnyos dikkri munkhoz stb. beadott
rsbeli s szbeli teljestmnyre. Ide rtendek klnsen:
hzi feladat, illetve hzi dolgozat;
szeminriumi dolgozat;
diplomamunka, szakdolgozat;
projektmunka;
kutatsi beszmol vagy tudomnyos plyamunka;
sztndjplyzat;
szbeli prezentci, kiselads, refertum.

4. Milyen kvetkezmnyekkel jr a plgium elkvetsnek vtsge?

A plgium olyan fegyelmi vtsg, amely a munka elgtelen rdemjeggyel val rtkelse
mellett akr fegyelmi eljrst is vonhat maga utn, mely sorn az Egyetemmel fennll hallgati
jogviszonyt felfggeszthetik, vagy megszntethetik.
A kurzusrt felels, vagy az adott munka sorn a hallgatval konzultl, illetve az rintett
szakdolgozatot rtkel oktat jogosult eldnteni, hogy a hallgat elkvette-e a plgium vtsgt,
s a megfelel tovbbi intzkedsekrl gondoskodni.
Az Egyetem Szervezeti s Mkdsi Szablyzatnak II. ktete, a Hallgati
Kvetelmnyrendszer 76. (6) bekezdse rtelmben minden szakdolgozatot r hallgat kteles
a dolgozathoz csatolni egy nyilatkozatot, melyben kijelenti, hogy a dolgozat a sajt szellemi
termke, s minden felhasznlt forrs esetben betartotta a hivatkozsok s idzs megfelel
szablyait.
Fontos tudni, hogy a plgium vtsge akr az 1999. vi LXXVI. trvny a szerzi jogrl 12.
(1) s (2) bekezdst is srtheti, s gy ugyanezen trvny 329/A. (1) bekezdse alapjn vtsget
kvet el, s akr kt vig terjed szabadsgvesztssel is sjthat.
Correction Symbols
When marking written assignments, your instructor will UNDERLINE MISTAKES and INDICATE THE TYPE OF
MISTAKE above the word/expression or on the margin, using the correction symbols given below. ( and may both
indicate that something is missing)
Task Achievement
title no title
intr no introduction
concl no conclusion
U lacks unity
arg not an argumentative one-paragraph essay
arg ThS not argumentative thesis statement/topic sentence
S not enough support(-ing arguments)
= op opinion, not support for a claim
irrel irrelevant information/support (complete idea) OR irrelevant content point
add additional content point
paraph poor paraphrase (i.e., not concise & language not distant enough from source)
lift text lifted from the original (same idea expressed in same context as in the
original with the same word/s)
WN text shorter/longer than specified number of words
Coherence & Cohesion

coh lacks coherence
L missing linking device, transitional phrase
WL wrong linking device
logic no logical relationship
par paragraphing problem
org bad organisation
ref unclear reference
p bad punctuation
run-on run-on sentence (fused sentence or comma splice)
Grammar

(W)F wrong form (word-level mistake) (e.g., datas, decided to skiing)
T wrong tense
WO wrong word order

or something is missing ( goes under the line, between the words; goes above
the line, between the words)
not necessary (circle and cross out)
str bad structure (clause and phrase level mistake)
prep bad preposition
agr wrong agreement
aux bad/missing auxiliary
art bad/missing article
cap bad capitalisation

frag sentence fragment
range little/no range of grammatical structures
Vocabulary & Style

_ _ _ _ _ _ ? needs clearer expression, clumsy ( word ? is also OK)
(W)W wrong word
(W)E wrong expression
st stylistic problem(s)
sp bad spelling
range little/no range of lexical items

BBN-ANG-104
Academic Writing 1. Name:.

Library Research

I. The SEAS Library
1. What are the opening hours of the library?
2. Name three services the library offers (besides lending books).
3. List the different categories of books in terms of the time interval they can be on loan.
4. How are the books organized on the shelves in the library?
5. What did you find the most convenient in the library?
6. Name one thing you are not sure about concerning using the library and its facilities.
7. Ask a librarian about 6. and write down the answer.

II. Finding books in the library
1. How can you find a book in the library without asking a librarian?
2. Name at least two online catalogues to search databases.
3. Name three different types of monolingual dictionaries the library has available.
4. Find a book on writing. List its title and call number.
5. Name 2 periodicals the library carries that deal with news, politics and hot topics. List the
title, country of origin, frequency of publication, and the latest issue in the library.
6. Find a journal that deals with topics in applied linguistics. List the title and the latest issue in
the library.
7. Find the APA Publication Manual. List its call number. What purpose does this handbook
serve?


III. Useful terms
Match the terms with their definition.
(a) A periodical published mainly for entertainment. It usually has pictures, short articles, and a
variety of topics in one issue. Examples: Newsweek, People, Time.
(b) A periodical published mainly for scholarly research or information.
(c) A summary or shortened version of an article.
(d) An important word from title, text, or author's name of a published work used to search for
the document.
(e) Anything published on a regular basis, such as, magazines, journals, and newspapers.
(f) The company or person responsible for preparing a work for public distribution.
(g) The information that identifies your source. For example, author, title, publisher, publication
name, dates, page numbers, volumes, etc.

..Abstract
..Citation
..Journal
..Keyword
..Magazine
..Periodical
..Publisher

UILDING A
5TPONG
FOUNDATION
ou may not have thought of it this way befoie, but ciitical ieadeis aie a lot like
ciime scene investigatois. In theii seaich foi the tiuth, they do not let opinions
sway them; they want to know what actually happened. They collect tangible
evidence and facts and use this infoimation to diaw an infoimed conclusion. Sepaiating
fact fiom opinion is essential duiing a ciime scene investigation. It is also a ciucial skill
foi effective ieading.
When you iead, look foi clues to undeistand the authoi`s meaning. What is this pas-
sage about: What is this wiitei saying: What is his oi hei message: At times, it may seem
like authois aie tiying to hide theii meanings fiom you. But no mattei how complex a piece
nd. It
nd those clues. Be a good detective when you iead. Open youi eyes and ask
the iight questions. In othei woids, iead caiefully and actively.
ve lessons that follow covei the basics of ieading compiehension. By the end
of this section, you should be able to
nd the basic facts in a passage.
deteimine the main idea of a passage.
deteimine the meaning of unfamiliai woids fiom context.
distinguish between fact and opinion.

L
E
5
5
O
N
19
I
magine, foi a moment, that you aie a detective. You have just been called to the scene of a ciime; a house has
ist thing you should do when you aiiive:

a. See what`s on the TV.
b. Check what`s in the fiidge.
c. Get the basic facts of the case.
The answei, of couise, is c, get the basic facts of the case: the who, what, when, wheie, and how. What happened:
To whom: When: Wheie: How did it happen:
ist thing you should do is establish the
facts. What does this piece of wiiting tell you: What happens: To whom: When, wheie, and how: If you can answei
these basic questions, youìe on youi way to ieally compiehending what you iead. (You`ll woik on answeiing the
cult question- \hy did it happen:"- in Lesson 2.)
LE$$ON $UMMARY
The lirsr srep in increosing your reoding comprehension is ro leorn
how ro ger rhe 6osic inlormorion. Li|e o good derecrive, srorr wirh
rhe 6osic locrs. To ger rhe locrs, 6e on ocrive reoder ond loo| lor
clues os you reod.
Caress the detail, the divine detail.
-Vi:nixiv N:noxov, Russian-Ameiican novelist (1899-1977)
GETTING THE
E55ENTIAL
INFOPMATION
1
20
~GETTI NG THE E55ENTI AL I NFOPMATI ON~
Wbat Are tbe Facts?
nition. A fact is
something that we know foi ceitain to have
happened.
something that we know foi ceitain to be tiue.
something that we know foi ceitain to exist.
Much of what you iead, especially today in this
Infoimation Age," is designed to piovide you with
ce
pioceduie that you must follow; about how the new
computei system woiks; oi about what happened at
the staff meeting. If youìe taking a standaidized test,
you`ll piobably have to answei ieading compiehension
questions that ask about the facts in a ieading passage.
These facts aie not always easy to deteimine, especially
if the wiiting is dense oi complicated. To make it sim-
plei, ask youiself these questions as you iead: What
facts am I expected to know: What am I to leain oi be
awaie of: What happened: What is tiue: What exists:
Practice Passage 1
nding facts. The following
biief passage is similai to something you might see in a
newspapei. Read the passage caiefully, and then answei
the questions that follow. Remembei, caieful ieading is
active ieading (see the Intioduction), so maik up the
text as you go. Undeiline key woids and ideas; ciicle and
ne any unfamiliai woids oi phiases; and iecoid
youi ieactions and questions in the maigins.
On Fiiday, Octobei 21, at appioximately 8:30 :.x., Judith Reynolds, ownei of
iobbed and vandalized oveinight. The fiont window of the shop at 128 Bioad
Stieet was bioken, and chaiis and tables weie oveituined thioughout the caf
aiea. Additionally, the cash iegistei had been piied open and emptied of money.
The thieves attempted to open the safe as well, but weie unsuccessful. Ms. Reyn-
olds used hei cell phone to iepoit the ciime to the police. She also phoned the
piopiietoi of Piimo Pizza, located at 130 Bioad Stieet, as she noticed that the
dooi of that iestauiant showed signs of foiced entiy. The police depaitment is
asking anyone with infoimation to call 555-2323.
1. What happened to The Cupcake Factoiy:
2. When was the ciime discoveied:
3. Wheie did it happen:
4. What was stolen:
5. Who called the police:
6. What othei businesses weie affected:
21
Remembei, good ieading is active ieading. Did you maik up the passage: If so, it may have looked something
like this:
On Fiiday, Octobei 21, at appioximately 8:30 :.x., Judith Reynolds, ownei of
iobbed and vandalized oveinight. The fiont window of the shop at 128 Bioad
Stieet was bioken, and chaiis and tables weie oveituined thioughout the caf
aiea. Additionally, the cash iegistei had been piied open and emptied of money.
The thieves attempted to open the safe as well, but weie unsuccessful. Ms. Reyn-
olds used hei cell phone to iepoit the ciime to the police. She also phoned the
piopiietoi of Piimo Pizza, located at 130 Bioad Stieet, as she noticed that the
dooi of that iestauiant showed signs of foiced entiy. The police depaitment is
asking anyone with infoimation to call 555-2323.
You`ll notice that the answeis to the questions
have all been undeilined, because these aie the key
woids and ideas in this passage. But heie aie the
answeis in a moie conventional foim.
1. What happened to The Cupcake Factoiy: It was
rcbbed and vandalized.
2. When was the ciime discoveied: At 8.30 cn
Friday, Cctcber 21.
3. Wheie did it happen: 128 Brcad Street.
4. What was stolen: Mcney frcm the cash register.
5. Who called the police: }udith Reynclds, cwner cf
The Cupcake Factcry.
6. What othei businesses weie affected: Pcssibly
Primc Pizza.
Notice that these questions went beyond the
basic who, what, when, and wheie to include some of
the details, like why the piopiietoi of the iestauiant
next dooi was called. This is because details in ieading
compiehension, as well as in detective woik, can be
veiy impoitant clues that may help answei the iemain-
ing questions: Who did it, how, and why:
.|cc .|c
occ:|cc
|u-|cc--
.o- occ:cc
.|o: |occcc-
cc||cc occ
.occo||zo:|cc
ucc|coc ccc :||- cccc:
| oc:||cj .o- :o|cc
ccc |c|cc ||zzo
cccc .o-
-:c|cc
|c:ccc-:|cj
cc:o||
.|ccc
22
Practice Passage 2
This passage piovides instiuctions foi ienewing a diivei`s license. Read it caiefully and answei the questions
that follow.
Instructions for License Renewal
A diivei`s license must be ienewed eveiy foui yeais. A ienewal application is sent
ve to seven weeks befoie the expiiation date listed on the license.
Individuals who fail to ienew within thiee yeais of the license expiiation date
aie not eligible foi a ienewal and must iepeat the initial licensing piocess. To
ienew a license, you must visit a Motoi Vehicles Agency. You must piesent a
completed ienewal application; youi cuiient diivei`s license; acceptable pioof
cation, and addiess; and pioof of social secuiity in the foim of a
social secuiity caid, a state oi fedeial income tax ietuin, a cuiient pay stub, oi
a W-2 foim. You must also pay the iequiied fee. If all the documents and pay-
ment aie in oidei, youi photo will be taken and a new license will be issued.
7. What documents does one need to ienew a
diivei`s license:
8. What documents iepiesent pioof of social
secuiity:
9. How often must one ienew a diivei`s license:
10. How does one obtain the ienewal foim:
11. Tiue oi False: You can ienew youi diivei`s license
by mail.
Befoie you look at the answeis, look at the next
page to see how you might have maiked up the passage
to highlight the impoitant infoimation.
23
Instructions for License Renewal
A diivei`s license must be ienewed eveiy foui yeais. A ienewal application is sent
ve to seven weeks befoie the expiiation date listed on the license.
Individuals who fail to ienew within thiee yeais of the license expiiation date
aie not eligible foi a ienewal and must iepeat the initial licensing piocess. To
ienew a license, you must visit a Motoi Vehicles Agency. You must piesent a
completed ienewal application; youi cuiient diivei`s license; acceptable pioof
cation, and addiess; and pioof of social secuiity in the foim of a
social secuiity caid, a state oi fedeial income tax ietuin, a cuiient pay stub, oi
a W-2 foim. You must also pay the iequiied fee. If all the documents and pay-
ment aie in oidei, youi photo will be taken and a new license will be issued.
cccuccc:-
cccccc
cc cccc.o|
o||co:|cc .|||
|c co||cc
cu-: jc |c
cu: ccocc-:
|cco:|cc
|c|cj c|cc||cc||
|c. c:cc | cccc :c cccc.
With a maiked-up text like this, it`s veiy easy to
nd the answeis.
7. What documents does one need to ienew a
diivei`s license:
Ccmpleted renewal applicaticn
Current drivers license
caticn,
and address
Prccf cf sccial security
Mcney tc pay required fee
8. What documents iepiesent pioof of social
secuiity:
Sccial security card
State cr federal inccme tax return
Current pay stub
\-2 fcrm
9. How often must one ienew a diivei`s license:
Every fcur years.
10. How does one obtain the ienewal foim: It is sent
ve tc seven weeks befcre current license expires.
11. Tiue oi False: You can ienew youi diivei`s license
by mail. False. Ycu can renew cnly by visiting a
Mctcr Vehicles Agency.
Ser our ro reod wirh on explorer's eye ond sense
ol curiosiry 6y pro6ing inro deroils 6ehind |ey
ocrions ond evenrs. l you ore unlomilior wirh o
c locruol deroil in o possoge, consider
os|ing o lriend or lomily mem6er lor help, or
chec| o relerence source such os o dicrionory,
orlos, encyclopedio, or nrerner doro6ose. There
ore prinr ond nrerner orchive collecrions ond
speciolized li6rories covering olmosr every
imogino6le su6|ecrlrom spoce missions ond
hisrory ro rhe perlorming orrs.
Exomple: Louis B. Moyer Li6rory
Li6rory ol rhe Americon Film nsrirure
Exomple: Morgorer Herric| Li6rory
Acodemy ol Morion Ficrure Arrs ond
Sciences
TIP
24
Practice Passage 3
Now look at one moie shoit passage. Again, iead caiefully and answei the questions that follow.
cient and ieliable than evei befoie. Mail that
used to take months to move by hoise and foot now moves aiound the countiy
in days oi houis by tiuck, tiain, and plane. Fiist-class mail usually moves fiom
New Yoik City to Los Angeles in thiee days oi less. If youi lettei oi package is
uigent, the U.S. Postal Seivice offeis Piioiity Mail and Expiess Mail seivices.
Piioiity Mail is guaianteed to go anywheie in the United States in two to thiee
days oi less. Expiess Mail will get youi package theie oveinight.
12. Who oi what is this passage about:
13. How was mail tianspoited in the past:
14. How is mail tianspoited now:
15.
16. How long does Piioiity Mail take:
17. How long does Expiess Mail take:
Once again, heie`s how you might have maiked
up this passage:
cient and ieliable than evei befoie. Mail that
used to take months to move by hoise and foot now moves aiound the countiy
in days oi houis by tiuck, tiain, and plane. Fiist-class mail usually moves fiom
New Yoik City to Los Angeles in thiee days oi less. If youi lettei oi package is
uigent, the U.S. Postal Seivice offeis Piioiity Mail and Expiess Mail seivices.
Piioiity Mail is guaianteed to go anywheie in the United States in two to thiee
days oi less. Expiess Mail will get youi package theie oveinight.
You can see how maiking up a text helps make it
easiei to undeistand the infoimation a passage con-
veys.
12. Who oi what is this passage about: The U.S.
Pcstal Service.
13. How was mail tianspoited in the past: By hcrse
and fcct.
14. How is mail tianspoited now: By truck, train,
and plane.
15. Usually three
days cr less.
16. How long does Piioiity Mail take: Twc tc three
days cr less.
17. How long does Expiess Mail take: Cvernight.
.|o: o
|ccj :|cc|
:|cc
^
cc :|ccc
c:|cc
-cc.|cc-.
cc.
25
5ummary
ist essential step to compiehen-
sion. Why: Because active ieading foices you to ieally
see what youìe ieading, to look closely at what`s theie.
Like a detective who aiiives at the scene of a ciime, if
you look caiefully and ask the iight questions (who,
what, when, wheie, how, and why), youìe on youi way
to ieally compiehending what you iead.
Hone your reoding comprehension s|ills 6y
onswering rhese six essenriol quesrions olrer
reoding orricles in rhe doily newspoper:
Who?
Whor?
When?
Where?
Why?
How?
TIP

Unit2:
Thewritingprocess
(Audience,purpose,andstyle)
L
E
5
5
O
N
27
W
hen Lesson 1 talked about establishing the facts- the who, what, when, wheie, and how- it omitted
one veiy impoitant question: Why: Now youìe ieady to tackle that all - impoitant question. Just as
theie`s a motive behind eveiy ciime, theie`s also a motive behind eveiy piece of wiiting.
All wiiting is communication. A wiitei wiites to convey his oi hei thoughts to an audience, the ieadei: you.
Just as you have something to say (a motive) when you pick up the phone to call someone, wiiteis have something
to say (a motive) when they pick up a pen oi pencil to wiite. Wheie a detective might ask, Why did the butlei
do it:" the ieadei might ask, Why did the authoi wiite this: What idea is he oi she tiying to convey:" What youìe
ieally asking is, What is the wiitei`s main idea:"
why) that
usually deteimines the othei factois (the whc, what, when, where, and hcw). Similaily, in wiiting, the main idea
also deteimines the whc, what, when, and where the wiitei will wiite about, as well as hcw he oi she will wiite.
LE$$ON $UMMARY
A derecrive linds rhe locrs ro derermine "whodunir" ond whor rhe
morive wos. A reoder derermines rhe locrs nor only lor rheir own
so|e 6ur olso ro lind our why rhe ourhor is wriring: Whor's rhe moin
ideo? This lesson shows you how ro derermine rhe moin ideo ol
whor you reod.
There is an art cf reading, as well as an art cf thinking.
-Is::c Disv:vii, Biitish wiitei (1804-1881)
FINDING THE
MAIN IDEA
28
~FI NDI NG THE MAI N I DEA~
5ubject vs. Main Idea
Theie`s a diffeience between the subject of a piece of
wiiting and its main idea. To see the diffeience, look
again at the passage about the postal system. Don`t skip
ovei it! You iead it in Lesson 1, but please iead it again,
and iead it caiefully.
cient and ieliable
than evei befoie. Mail that used to take months to
move by hoise and foot now moves aiound the
countiy in days oi houis by tiuck, tiain, and plane.
Fiist-class mail usually moves fiom New Yoik City
to Los Angeles in thiee days oi less. If youi lettei oi
package is uigent, the U.S. Postal Seivice offeis Pii-
oiity Mail and Expiess Mail seivices. Piioiity Mail
is guaianteed to go anywheie in the United States in
two to thiee days oi less. Expiess Mail will get youi
package theie oveinight.
You might be asked on a standaidized test, What
is the main idea of this passage:"
Foi this passage, you might be tempted to answei,
ce."
But you`d be wiong.
This passage is abcut ce, yes- but
ce" is not the main idea of the passage.
ce" is meiely the subject of the passage
(whc oi what the passage is about). The main idea
must say something abcut this subject. The main idea
of a text is usually an asserticn about the subject. An
asseition is a statement that iequiies evidence (pioof ")
to be accepted as tiue.
The main idea of a passage is an asseition about
its subject, but it is something moie: It is the idea that
also holds togethei oi contiols the passage. The othei
sentences and ideas in the passage will all ielate to that
main idea and seive as evidence" that the asseition is
tiue. You might think of the main idea as a net that is
cast ovei the othei sentences. The main idea must be
geneial enough to hold all of these ideas togethei.
Thus, the main idea of a passage is
an asseition about the subject.
the geneial idea that contiols oi holds togethei the
paiagiaph oi passage.
Look at the postal seivice paiagiaph once moie.
ce." Now, see
if you can deteimine the main idea. Read the passage
again and look foi the idea that makes an asseition
about the postal seivice and holds togethei oi contiols
the whole paiagiaph. Then answei the following
question:
Which of the following sentences best summaiizes
the main idea of the passage:
Expiess Mail is a good way to send uigent
mail.
Mail seivice today is moie effective and
dependable than it was in the past.
Fiist-class mail usually takes thiee days oi less.
Because choice c- it tells us cnly about
Expiess Mail- it cannot be the main idea. It does not
encompass the iest of the sentences in the paiagiaph- it
ist-class mail. Choice
ist class mail,
so it, too, cannot be the main idea.
But choice -Mail seivice today is moie effec-
tive and dependable than it was in the past"- is geneial
enough to encompass the whole passage. And the iest
of the sentences suppcrt the idea that this sentence
asseits: Each sentence offeis pioof " that the postal
ciency
and ieliability of today`s postal seivice.
29
l you ore hoving rrou6le idenrilying rhe moin ideos
in o srory, rry os|ing yoursell rhese quesrions:
Whor unilying concepr is rhe ourhor
srriving ro communicore?
s rhere o morol or lesson rhor rhe ourhor
is rrying ro reoch?
Are rhere ony reoccurring sym6ols or
imogery rhor rhe ourhor is using ro com-
municore o deeper meoning?
TIP
Topic 5entences
You`ll notice that in the paiagiaph about the postal
ist
cient and
ieliable than evei befoie." A sentence, such as this
one, that cleaily expiesses the main idea of a paia-
giaph oi passage is often called a tcpic sentence.
In many cases, as in the postal seivice paiagiaph,
the topic sentence is at the beginning of the paiagiaph.
nd it at the end. Less often, but
on occasion, the topic sentence may be in the middle of
the passage. Whatevei the case, the topic sentence- like
cient and ieliable
than evei befoie"- is an asseition, and it needs pioof."
The pioof is found in the facts and ideas that make up
the iest of the passage. (Not all passages piovide such a
cleai topic sentence that states the main idea. Less obvi-
ous passages will come up in latei lessons.)
Practice in Identifying Topic
5entences
Remembei that a topic sentence is a cleai statement of
the main idea of a passage; it must be geneial enough
to encompass all the ideas in that passage, and it usu-
ally makes an asseition about the subject of that pas-
sage. Knowing all that, you can answei the following
question even without ieading a passage.
Practice 1
Which of the following sentences is geneial enough
to be a topic sentence:
The new health club has a gieat kickboxing
class.
Many diffeient classes aie offeied by the
health club.
Pilates is a populai class at the health club.
The yoga class is offeied on Satuiday
moinings.
The answei is choice , Many diffeient classes
aie offeied by the health club." Choices , , and aie
c examples of what is said in choice , so they
aie not geneial enough to be topic sentences.
Practice 2
Now look at the following paiagiaph. Undeiline the
sentence that expiesses the main idea, and notice how
the othei sentences woik to suppoit that main idea.
Eiik always played cops and iobbeis when he was a
cei. Suzanne always played
school as a little giil; today, she is a high-school
math teachei. Kaia always played stoie; today, she
owns a chain of ietail clothing shops. Long befoie
they aie faced with the question, What do you want
to be when you giow up:" some lucky people know
exactly what they want to do with theii lives.
Which sentence did you undeiline: You should
have undeilined the last sentence: Long befoie they
aie faced with the question 'What do you want to be
when you giow up:` some lucky people know exactly
what they want to do with theii lives." This sentence is
a good topic sentence; it expiesses the idea that holds
togethei the whole paiagiaph. The fiist thiee
sentences- about Eiik, Suzanne, and Kaia- aie spe-
c examples of these lucky people. Notice that the
topic sentence is found at the end of the paiagiaph.
30
Practice 3
Among the following eight sentences aie twc topic sen-
tences. The othei sentences aie suppoiting sentences.
Ciicle the two topic sentences. Then wiite the numbeis
of the suppoiting sentences that go with each topic
sentence.
1. Finally, theie is a concieige on duty 24 houis a day.
2. Some duties, like wiiting iepoits, have no iisk at
all.
3. ooi.
4. Not all police duties aie dangeious.
5. ceis at veiy
little iisk.
6. Tenants of the luxuiy apaitment building enjoy
many amenities.
7. Still othei duties, like investigating accidents,
ceis fiee of dangei.
8. In addition, the lobby has a diy cleanei, an ATM,
and a coffee shop.
Sentences 4 and 6 aie the two topic sentences
because both make an asseition about a geneial subject.
The suppoiting sentences foi topic sentence 4, Not all
police duties aie dangeious," aie sentences 2, 5, and 7.
The suppoiting sentences foi topic sentence 6, Tenants
of the luxuiy apaitment building enjoy many ameni-
ties," aie the iemaining sentences 1, 3, and 8.
Heie`s how they look as paiagiaphs:
Not all police duties aie dangeious. Some duties,
like wiiting iepoits, have no iisk at all. Otheis, like
ceis at veiy little iisk. Still
-
ceis fiee of dangei.
Tenants of the luxuiy apaitment building enjoy
many amenities. Foi example, theie is a pool on the
ooi. In addition, the lobby has a diy cleanei, an
ATM, and a coffee shop. Finally, theie is a concieige
on duty 24 houis a day.
You might have noticed that the suppoiting sen-
ist paiagiaph about police duties begin
with the following woids: scme, cthers, and still cther.
These woids aie often used to intioduce examples. The
second paiagiaph uses diffeient woids, but they have
the same function: fcr example, in additicn, and nally.
If a sentence begins with such a woid oi phiase, that is
a good indication it is nct a topic sentence-because it
c example.
Heie aie some woids and phiases often used to
c examples:
foi example
foi instance
in addition
fuitheimoie
in paiticulai
some
otheis
nding the main idea of
a paiagiaph, you might tiy eliminating the sentences
that you know contain suppoiting evidence.
31
5ummary
Now you can answei the last question- the why. What
is the wiitei`s motive: What`s the main idea he oi she
nding the sentence that makes an
asseition about the subject of the paiagiaph and that
encompasses the othei sentences in the paiagiaph, you
can uncovei the authoi`s motive.
To idenrily rhe moin ideo in o srory ir con 6e helplul
ro creore o srory mop or grophic orgonizer. n
seporore 6oxes in your grophic orgonizer, you should
include
rhe nomes ol mo|or ond minor chorocrers.
mo|or ond minor serrings.
icrs occurring 6erween chorocrers.
|ey evenrs.
mo|or resolurions.
ourhor's purpose. (s rhe ourhor's gool ro
enrerroin, reoch, inlorm, or persuode reoders
ro em6roce o porriculor philosophicol view-
poinr or concepr?)
TIP
READING PASSAGE 2
You shoula spena about 20 minutes on Questions 1-28 which are basea on Reaaing Passage
2 below.
Zoo conservation programmes
One oI London Zoo`s recent advertisements caused me some irritation, so
patently did it distort reality. Headlined 'Without zoos you might as well tell
these animals to get stuIIed, it was bordered with illustrations oI several
endangered species and went on to extol the myth that without zoos like
London Zoo these animals 'will almost certainly disappear Iorever. With
the zoo world`s rather mediocre record on conservation, one might be
Iorgiven Ior being slightly sceptical about such an advertisement.
Zoos were originally created as places oI entertainment, and their suggested
involvement with conservation didn`t seriously arise until about 30 years
ago, when the Zoological Society oI London held the Iirst Iormal
international meeting on the subject. Eight years later, a series oI world
conIerences took place, entitled 'The Breeding oI Endangered Species, and
Irom this point onwards conservation became the zoo community`s
buzzword. This commitment has now been clearly deIined in The World Zoo
Conservation Strategy (WZCS, September 1993), which although an
important and welcome document does seem to be based on an unrealistic
optimism about the nature oI the zoo industry.
The WZCS estimates that there are about 10,000 zoos in the world, oI which
around 1,000 represent a core oI quality collections capable oI participating
in co-ordinated conservation programmes. This is probably the document`s
Iirst Iailing, as I believe that 10,000 is a serious underestimate oI the total
number oI places masquerading as zoological establishments. OI course, it is
diIIicult to get accurate data but, to put the issue into perspective, I have
Iound that, in a year oI working in Eastern Europe, I discover Iresh zoos on
almost a weekly basis.
The second Ilaw in the reasoning oI the WZCS document is the naive Iaith it
places in its 1,000 core zoos. One would assume that the calibre oI these
institutions would have been careIully examined, but it appears that the criterion
Ior inclusion on this select list might merely be that the zoo is a member oI a
zoo Iederation or association. This might be a gooa starting point, working on
the premise that members must meet certain standards, but again the Iacts don`t
support the theory. The greatly respected American Association oI Zoological
Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA) has had extremely dubious members, and in
the UK the Federation oI Zoological Gardens oI Great Britain and Ireland has
5
Reaaing 2
occasionally had members that have been roundly censured in the national press.
These include Robin Hill Adventure Park on the Isle oI Wight, which many
considered the most notorious collection oI animals in the country. This
establishment, which Ior years was protected by the Isle`s local council (which
viewed it as a tourist amenity), was Iinally closed down Iollowing a damning
report by a veterinary inspector appointed under the terms oI the Zoo Licensing
Act 1981. As it was always a collection oI dubious repute, one is obliged to
reIlect upon the standards that the Zoo Federation sets when granting
membership. The situation is even worse in developing countries where little
money is available Ior redevelopment, and it is hard to see a way oI incorporating
collections into the overall scheme oI the WZCS.
Even assuming that the WZCS`s 1,000 core zoos are all oI a high standard
complete with scientiIic staII and research Iacilities, trained and dedicated
keepers, accommodation that permits normal or natural behaviour, and a policy
oI co-operating Iully with one another, what might be the potential Ior
conservation? Colin Tudge, author oI Last Animals at the Zoo (OxIord University
Press, 1992), argues that "iI the world's zoos worked together in co-operative
breeding programmes, then even without Iurther expansion they could save
around 2,000 species oI endangered land vertebrates". This seems an extremely
optimistic proposition Irom a man who must be aware oI the Iailings and
weaknesses oI the zoo industry, the man who, when a member oI the council oI
London Zoo, had to persuade the zoo to devote more oI its activities to
conservation. Moreover, where are the Iacts to support such optimism?
Today approximately 16 species might be said to have been 'saved by captive
breeding programmes, although a number oI these can hardly be looked upon
as resounding successes. Beyond that, about a Iurther 20 species are being
seriously considered Ior zoo conservation programmes. Given that the
international conIerence at London Zoo was held 30 years ago, this is pretty
slow progress, and a long way oII Tudge`s target oI 2,000.
6
Example Answer
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reaaing Passage 2?
In boxes 16-22 write
YES if the statement agrees with the writer
AO if the statement contraaicts the writer
AO1 CIJEA if it is impossible to sav what the writer thinks about this
16 London Zoo`s advertisements are dishonest.
17 Zoos made an insigniIicant contribution to conservation up until 30 years ago.
18 The WZCS document is not known in Eastern Europe.
19 Zoos in the WZCS select list were careIully inspected.
20 No-one knew how the animals were being treated at Robin Hill Adventure Park.
21 Colin Tudge was dissatisIied with the treatment oI animals at London Zoo.
22 The number oI successIul zoo conservation programmes is unsatisIactory.
Choose the appropriate letters A-D ana write them in boxes 23-25 on vour answer sheet.
23 What were the objectives oI the WZCS document?
A to improve the calibre oI zoos world-wide
B to identiIy zoos suitable Ior conservation practice
C to provide Iunds Ior zoos in underdeveloped countries
D to list the endangered species oI the world
7
Reading 2
Reaaing 2
List of Factors
A the number oI unregistered zoos in the world
B the lack oI money in developing countries
C the actions oI the Isle oI Wight local council
D the Iailure oI the WZCS to examine the standards oI
the 'core zoos
E the unrealistic aim oI the WZCS in view oI the
number oI species 'saved to date
F the policies oI WZCS zoo managers
25 What word best describes the writer`s response to Colin Tudges` prediction on captive
breeding programmes?
A disbelieving
B impartial
C prejudiced
D accepting
The writer mentions a number of factors which leaa him to aoubt the value of the WZCS
aocument. Which 1HREE of the following factors are mentionea?
8
Unit3:
Paragraphstructure

L
E
5
5
O
N
33
5
ometimes in youi ieading, you come acioss woids oi phiases that aie unfamiliai to you. You might be
lucky and have a dictionaiy handy to look up that woid oi phiase, but what if you don`t: How can you
undeistand what youìe ieading if you don`t know what all of the woids mean: The answei is that you
can use the iest of the passage, the ccntext, to help you undeistand the new woids.
LE$$ON $UMMARY
An ocrive reoder loo|s up unlomilior words. Bur whor il you don'r
hove o dicrionory? n o resring siruorion (or, lor rhor morrer, il
you're reoding on rhe 6us), you olmosr cerroinly won'r 6e o6le ro
loo| up words you don'r |now. nsreod, you con use rhe conrexr
ro help you derermine rhe meoning.
Ianguage is the dress cf thcught.
-S:xuvi Jouxsox, English authoi (1709-1784)
DEFINING
VOCAULAPY
IN CONTEXT
34
~DEFI NI NG VOCAULAPY I N CONTEXT~
Finding Meaning from Context
The following paiagiaph is about one of oui nation`s favoiite pastimes, ieality TV. Read it caiefully, maiking it
up as you go-but do not look up any unfamiliai woids oi phiases in a dictionaiy.
Most ieality TV shows centei on two common motivatois: fame and money.
The shows tiansfoim waitiesses, haiidiesseis, investment bankeis, counselois,
few successfully pailay theii 15 minutes of fame into celebiity. Even if you aie
not inteiested in fame, you can piobably undeistand the desiie foi lots of money.
Watching people eat laige insects, ieveal theii inneimost thoughts to millions
nancial
iewaid makes foi inteiesting enteitainment. Whatevei theii attiaction, these
shows aie among the most populai on television, and eveiy season, they piolif-
eiate like weeds in an untended gaiden. The netwoiks aie quickly ieplacing
moie tiaditional diamas and comedies with ieality TV piogiams, which eain
millions in adveitising ievenue. Whethei you love it oi hate it, one thing is foi
suie- ieality TV is heie to stay!
As you iead, you may have ciicled some woids
that aie unfamiliai. Did you ciicle cbscure and prclif-
erate: If so, don`t look them up in a dictionaiy yet. If
you do a little detective woik, you can deteimine theii
nitions by looking caiefully at how they aie used
in the paiagiaph.
What Does Obscure Mean?
Stait with cbscure. How is this woid used:
The shows tiansfoim waitiesses, haiidiesseis,
investment bankeis, counselois, and teacheis, to
name a few, fiom cbscure guies to household
names.
Even if you have no idea what cbscure means, you
can still leain about the woid by how it is used, by
examining the woids and ideas suiiounding it. This is
called deteimining woid meaning thiough ccntext.
Like detectives looking foi clues at a ciime scene, we
must look at the passage foi clues that will help us
ne this woid.
So, given the sentence we have heie, what can we
tell about cbscure: Well, since the shows tiansfoim
waitiesses, haiidiesseis, investment bankeis, counsel-
ois, and teacheis fiom one position(cbscure guies),
to anothei position (household names), that immedi-
ately tells us that an cbscure guie and a household
name aie two diffeient things.
Fuitheimoie, we know fiom the sentence that
the people in question aie involved in typical, eveiyday
jobs (waitiesses, haiidiesseis, bankeis, etc.) and that
fiom this position, they aie tiansfoimed into house-
hold names, which means they achieve some level of
fame and notoiiety. Now you can take a pietty good
guess at the meaning of cbscure.
35
1. Befoie they become household names, the
waitiesses, haiidiesseis, investment bankeis,
counselois, and teacheis aie
famous and notoiious.
unknown and undistinguished.
unique and distinctive.
The coiiect answei, of couise, is choice . It cei-
tainly can`t be choice , because we know that these
people aie not yet famous. The ieality shows will make
them famous, but until that happens, they iemain
cbscure. Choice doesn`t ieally make sense because we
know fiom the passage that these people aie waitiesses,
haiidiesseis, investment bankeis, counselois, and
teacheis. Now, these aie all veiy iespectable jobs, but
they aie faiily common, so they wouldn`t be desciibed
as unique oi distinctive. Fuitheimoie, we can tell that
choice is the coiiect answei because we can substitute
the woid cbscure with the woids unkncwn oi undistin-
guished in the sentence and both would make sense.
Peview: Finding Facts
Heie`s a quick ieview of what you leained in question 1.
Reality TV has the ability to take oidinaiy people and
make them famous.
2. Anothei ieason people paiticipate in ieality TV
shows is
foi money.
because they feel lucky.
because they aie boied.
A quick check of the facts in the paiagiaph will
tell you the answei is choice , foi money.
What Does ProIiferate Mean?
Look again at the sentence in the passage in which
prcliferate is used:
Whatevei theii attiaction, these shows aie among
the most populai on television, and eveiy season,
they prcliferate like weeds in an untended gaiden.
Again, even if you have no idea what prcliferate
means, you can still tell what kind of woid it is by the
way it is used. You know, foi example, that these shows
piolifeiate like weeds in an untended gaiden. Theie-
foie, you can answei this question:
3. Piolifeiate is a woid associated with
giowth.
ieduction.
disappeaiance.
The answei, of couise, is choice , giowth. How
can you tell: Well, we all know that weeds have a ten-
dency to giow wheievei they can.
Now that you`ve established that prcliferate ielates
c meaning
by looking foi moie clues in the sentence. The sentence
doesn`t only tell us that these shows piolifeiate like
weeds. It also tells us that they piolifeiate like weeds in
an untended gaiden. Just imagine a neglected gaiden,
one that has been left to its own devices. Weeds will
begin to giow in eveiy nook and cianny of that gaiden.
In fact, they`ll quickly take ovei, to the detiiment of the
plants. The phiase weeds in an untended gaiden" is
quite desciiptive, and as such, it seives as a wondeiful
clue. Based on the woids and phiases suiiounding it,
an active ieadei should have no pioblem deteimining
the meaning of the woid prcliferate.
4. Prcliferate in this passage means
deciease, shiink.
undeiestimate, play down.
inciease, spiead at a iapid iate.
fail, fall shoit.
36
The coiiect answei is choice , inciease, spiead
at a iapid iate." It can`t be choices oi because these
aie things associated with ieduction, not giowth. And
eveiyone knows that weeds in an untended gaiden will
giow fast and aggiessively. Choice is not an appiopii-
ate answei because if you ieplace prcliferate with
undeiestimate oi play down, it doesn`t ieally make
sense. In addition, you can tell that choice is the iight
answei because the iest of the passage piovides othei
clues. It tells you that ieality TV shows aie ieplacing
othei netwoik piogiams, that they aie populai, and
that they aie eaining millions of dollais in adveitising
ievenue. All these clues would indicate that ieality TV
shows aie spieading and giowing in numbei, not
shiinking oi declining. Hence, the meaning of prcliferate
must be , inciease, spiead at a iapid iate."
How Mucb Context Do You
Need?
In the pievious example, you would still be able to
undeistand the main message of the passage even if
guie out-the mean-
ing of cbscure and prcliferate. In some cases, howevei,
youi undeistanding of a passage depends on youi
undeistanding of a paiticulai woid oi phiase. Can you
undeistand the following sentence, foi example, with-
out knowing what adversely means:
Reality TV shows will adversely affect tiaditional
diamas and comedies.
What does adversely mean in this sentence: Is it
something good oi bad: As good a detective as you
may be, theie simply aien`t enough clues in this sen-
tence to tell you what this woid means. But a passage
with moie infoimation will give you what you need to
deteimine meaning fiom context.
Reality TV shows will adversely affect tiaditional
diamas and comedies. As ieality TV incieases in popu-
laiity, netwoik executives will begin canceling moie
tiaditional diamas and comedies and ieplacing them
with the latest in ieality TV.
5. In the passage, adversely most neaily means
mildly, slightly.
kindly, gently.
negatively, unfavoiably.
immediately, swiftly.
The coiiect answei is choice , negatively, unfa-
voiably." The passage piovides clues that allow you to
deteimine the meaning of adversely. It tells you that as
ieality TV becomes moie populai, netwoik executives
will cancel moie tiaditional diamas and comedies and
ieplace them with ieality TV piogiamming. So the
meaning of adversely is neithei choice , mild oi
slight," noi choice , kindly oi gently." And based on
the passage, you can`t ieally tell if these changes will
be immediate oi swift (choice ) because the sentence
doesn`t say anything about the exact time fiame in
which these changes will occui. Remembei, good
detectives don`t make assumptions they can`t suppoit
with facts-and theie aie no facts in this sentence to
suppoit the assumption that changes will occui imme-
diately. Thus, choice is the best answei.
You may also have noticed that ely is veiy
similai to ary. If you know that an adversary is a
hostile opponent oi enemy, then you know that
adversely cannot be something positive. Oi, if you know
the woid ity-haidship oi misfoitune- then
you know that adversely must mean something negative
cult. All these woids shaie the same ioot-
advers. Only the endings change.
37
l you ore unlomilior wirh o porriculor word, use
upon rhe imporronr clues in rhe senrences rhor
oppeor direcrly 6elore ond olrer rhe unlomilior word
or possoge. Funcruorion con help you decipher
unlomilior words:
Forenrheses ore olren used ro highlighr or
exploin words or phroses ond elo6orore
on rhe words rhor precede rhem.
An exclomorion poinr oppeors in o sen-
rence in which some |ind ol surprise,
shoc|, or exciremenr is ro|ing ploce.
Commos olren ser oll non-resrricrive
elemenrs rhor provide oddirionol inlor-
morion ond elo6ororion on o word.
Exomple: | wanted to Luy a dgta can-
era wth a zoon ens, whch s very costy.
(The phrose "which is very cosrly" pro-
vides odded inlormorion rhor con 6e
words rhor come 6elore rhe phrose.)
TIP
Practice
Read the following passages and deteimine the mean-
ing of the woids fiom theii context. The answeis
appeai immediately aftei the questions.
Although social woik is not a paiticulaily lucrative
caieei, I wouldn`t do anything else. Knowing I`m
helping otheis is fai moie impoitant to me than
money.
6. Iucrative means.
table.
highly iewaiding.
highly exciting.
When you aie in an inteiview, tiy not to show any
cvert signs that you aie neivous. Don`t shift in youi
chaii, shake, oi stuttei.
7. Cvert means.
embaiiassing, awkwaid.
subtle, suggestive.
obvious, not hidden.
By the time oui staff meeting ended at 8:00, I was
ravencus. I had skipped lunch and hadn`t eaten since
bieakfast.
8. Ravencus means
like a iaven, biidlike.
extiemely hungiy, gieedy foi food.
exhausted, ieady foi bed.
Answers
6. The wiitei says money is not impoitant to
him. If money is not an issue, it is okay that
social woik is not table, that it
doesn`t eain a lot of money.
7. Shifting, shaking, and stutteiing aie all
cbvicus, nct hidden signs of neivousness.
They aie not subtle oi suggestive (choice );
and though they may make the inteiviewee
feel embaiiassed oi awkwaid (choice ), the
signs themselves aie not embaiiassing oi
awkwaid.
8. Because the wiitei hadn`t eaten since bieak-
fast, she is extremely hungry, greedy fcr fccd.
She may also be exhausted (choice ), but the
context tells us that this woid has something
to do with eating.
38
5ummary
The ability to deteimine the meaning of unfamiliai
woids fiom theii context is an essential skill foi ieading
compiehension. Sometimes, theie will be unfamiliai
woids whose meaning you can`t deteimine without a
dictionaiy. But moie often than not, a caieful look at
the context will give you enough clues to meaning.
The generol rone or rheme ol rhe rexr con help
Tirles con olso provide clues o6our rhe rone ol o
srory ond rhe rype ol voco6ulory words rhor ore
li|ely ro 6e lound in rhe rexr. Whor overoll rone
does eoch ol rhe lollowing rirles convey?
"Bo6ylon Revisired" 6y F. Scorr Firzgerold
laradse Lost 6y John Milron
"The Foll ol rhe House ol Usher" 6y
Edgor Allon Foe
The Dev Wears lrada 6y Louren
Weis6erger
TIP
Unit4:
Editing
(Unity,coherence,andclarity)

L
E
5
5
O
N
39
LE$$ON $UMMARY
To mo|e sense ol whor you reod, you musr 6e o6le ro rell
wherher you're reoding locr or opinion. This lesson rells you
how ro disringuish whor someone |nows lor cerroin lrom whor
someone 6elieves.
W
hat`s the diffeience between fact and opinion, and what does it mattei, anyway: It matteis a gieat
deal, especially when it comes to ieading compiehension.
Duiing youi life, you`ll be exposed to a wide vaiiety of liteiatuie, ianging fiom analytical aiticles
ctional novels that aiise wholly fiom the authoi`s imagination. Howevei, much of
what you iead will be a mixtuie of facts and the authoi`s opinions. Pait of becoming a ciitical ieadei means ieal-
izing that opinions aie not evidence; foi opinions to be valid, they must be suppoited by cold, haid facts.
Facts aie
things kncwn foi ceitain to have happened.
things kncwn foi ceitain to be tiue.
things kncwn foi ceitain to exist.
ect cn what ycu read, paragraph by paragraph.
-S:xuvi T:siov Coivvincv, English poet (1772-1834)
4
THE DIFFEPENCE
ETWEEN FACT
AND OPINION
40
~THE DI FFEPENCE ETWEEN FACT AND OPI NI ON~
Opinions, on the othei hand, aie
things believed to have happened.
things believed to be tiue.
things believed to exist.
As you can see, the key diffeience between fact
and opinion lies in the diffeience between believing
and kncwing. Opinions may be based on facts, but they
aie still what we think, not what we kncw. Opinions aie
debatable; facts aie not.
Usi ng Facts to 5upport
Opi ni ons
Reascnable opinions aie those based cn fact, and indeed,
that is what much of wiiting is: the wiitei`s opinion
(an asseition about his oi hei subject) suppoited by
facts oi othei evidence.
Think about the topic sentences you foimed aftei
nished Lesson 2. Peihaps you made an asseition
like this:
c boss.
This sentence is a good topic sentence; it`s an
asseition about the subject, James. And it is also an
opinion. It is, aftei all, debatable; someone could just
as easily take the opposite position and say:
James is a teiiible boss.
This is anothei good topic sentence, and it`s
anothei opinion. Now, a good wiitei will show his oi
hei ieadeis that this opinion is valid by suppoiting it
with facts. Foi example:
doing. He lets us leave eaily oi come in late when we
have to take caie of oui childien. He always gives
holiday bonuses. And he offeis tuition ieimbuise-
ment foi any couise, even if it has nothing to do
with oui positions.
Notice how the topic sentence states an opinion,
wheieas the iest of the sentences suppoit that opinion with
facts about how James tieats his employees. That paia-
giaph is much moie effective than something like this:
James is a teiiible boss. I ieally don`t like him. He
just can`t get along with people. And he has stupid
ideas about politics.
Because it`s not just opinion. It`s opinion suppoited by
evidence. The second paiagiaph is all opinion. Eveiy
sentence is debatable; eveiy sentence tells us what the
authoi believes is tiue, but not what is kncwn to be
tiue. The authoi of the second paiagiaph doesn`t pio-
vide any evidence to suppoit why he oi she thinks that
James is such a lousy boss. As a iesult, weìe not likely
to take his oi hei opinion veiy seiiously.
ist paiagiaph, on the othei hand, the
wiitei offeis conciete evidence foi why he oi she
believes James is a gieat boss. Aftei the initial opinion,
c things James does
ed by othei obseiveis) that make
him a good boss. You may still not agiee that James is
a gieat boss, but at least you can see exactly why this
wiitei thinks so.
41
Practice 2
Now tiy the same exeicise with a complete paiagiaph. Undeiline the facts and use a highlightei oi coloied pen
nd fact and opinion togethei in the same sentence. When you`ve
nished, you can check youi answeis against the maiked passage that follows.
nancially
secuie futuie. Many people invest in stocks and bonds, but I think good old- fashioned
haid-eained money. Stocks and bonds aie often iisky, and it doesn`t make sense
to iisk losing the money you`ve woiked so haid foi. Tiue, iegulai savings accounts
and CDs can`t make you a millionaiie oveinight oi piovide the high ietuins
some stock investments do. But by the same token, savings accounts and CDs aie
fully insuied and piovide steady, secuie inteiest on youi money. That makes a
whole lot of cents.
Distinguisbing Fact
from Opinion
When you iead academic mateiials, veiy often you will
have to distinguish between fact and opinion- between
what the wiitei thinks and how the wiitei suppoits
what he oi she thinks, between what is pioven to be
tiue and what needs to be pioved.
A good test foi whethei something is a fact oi
opinion might be to ask youiself, Can this state-
ment be debated: Is this known foi ceitain to be
tiue:" If you answei yes to the fiist question, you
have an opinion; if you answei yes to the second, you
have a fact.
Somerimes "locrs" ore incorrecr or s|ewed 6ecouse
rhey were o6roined lrom involid or 6iosed sources.
imporronr ro nore rhe ourhor's credenriols ond his
or her sources. Use rhor inlormorion ro volidore rhe
legirimocy ol rhe "locrs" 6eing presenred.
TIP
Practice 1
Tiy these questions on the following statements. Read
them caiefully, and then wiite F in the blank if the
statement is a fact and O if it is an opinion. The answeis
appeai iight aftei the questions.
1. lm
industiy.
2. The Academy Awaids aie always fun to
watch.
3. lms should win
Academy Awaids.
4. The Academy Awaids aie an annual
event.
5. Best Diiectoi is the most inteiesting
Academy Awaid categoiy.
Answers
1. Fact
2. Opinion
3. Opinion
4. Fact
5. Opinion
42
Answers
How did you do: Was it easy to distinguish between the facts and the opinions: Heie`s what youi maiked - up
passage should look like. The facts aie undeilined and the opinions aie in boldface type.
nancially
secuie futuie. Many people invest in stocks and bonds, but I think good old -
cates of deposit) are the best way
to invest your hard - earned money. Stocks and bonds aie often iisky, and it
doesn't make sense to risk losing the money you've worked so hard for. Tiue,
iegulai savings accounts and CDs can`t make you a millionaiie oveinight oi
piovide the high ietuins some stock investments do. But by the same token,
savings accounts and CDs aie fully insuied and piovide steady, secuie inteiest
on youi money. That makes a whole lot of cents.
Practice 3
To stiengthen youi ability to distinguish between fact
and opinion, tiy this. Take a fact, such as:
FACT: \ednesday is the fcurth day cf the week.
Now, tuin it into an opinion. Make it something
debatable, like this:
OPINION: \ednesday feels like the lcngest day cf the week.
Heie`s anothei example.
FACT: Ycu must be 18 years cld tc vcte in the United
States.
OPINION: The vcting age shculd be lcwered tc 1 years
cf age.
Tiy these next. Suggested answeis come aftei the
questions.
6. FACT: Healthcare ccsts have risen cver the last
several years.
OPINION:
7. FACT: The 22nd Amendment cf the United States
Ccnstituticn establishes a twc-term limit
fcr the presidency.
OPINION:
8. FACT: Mcre than 58,000 Americans lcst their lives
in the Vietnam \ar.
OPINION:
43
9. FACT: The Mcticn Picture Asscciaticn cf Americas
R (Restricted) rating requires anycne under
17 tc be acccmpanied by a parent cr adult
guardian.
OPINION:
10. FACT: Use cf perfcrmance-enhancing drugs is
strictly prchibited in bcth amateur and
prcfessicnal spcrts.
OPINION:
Answers
Theie aie, of couise, many opinions you could foim
fiom these subjects. Heie aie some possible answeis.
6. Oui goveinment should make healthcaie a highei
piioiity.
Companies should give employees seveial health-
caie piogiams fiom which to choose.
People should stop complaining about health-
caie costs.
7. Piesidents should be allowed to seive foi thiee
teims.
Limiting seivice to two teims makes U.S. piesi-
dents moie effective.
Teim limits aie a veiy bad idea.
8. Ameiican soldieis should not have been sent to
Vietnam.
Oui goveinment did all the iight things concein-
ing the Vietnam Wai.

9. The Motion Pictuie Association of Ameiica
lms.
The Motion Pictuie Association of Ameiica
iatings should be taken seiiously by all paients.
Movie iatings aie useless.
10. Peifoimance-enhancing diugs should be legal.
Competitive spoits would be moie inteiesting
to watch if peifoimance-enhancing diugs weie
legal.
Peifoimance-enhancing diugs aie the woist thing
that evei happened to competitive spoits.
5ummary
The ability to diffeientiate between fact and opinion is
a veiy impoitant skill. Like a detective, you need to
know the diffeience between what people think and
what people kncw, between what people believe to be
tiue and what has been prcven to be tiue. Then you
will be able to see whethei wiiteis suppoit theii opin-
ions, and if they do, how they do it. This will allow you
to judge foi youiself the validity of those opinions.
crion rexr, see| our
ogs,
signoling rhor whor is 6eing presenred os "locr"
mighr ocruolly 6e o holl-rrurh or opinion.
TIP

Unit5:
Proofreading
(Punctuation,grammar,&mechanics)
L
E
5
5
O
N
45
I
n oidei to solve a ciime, a detective cannot just get the facts of the case, just discovei the motive, just deciphei
cult clues, oi just distinguish between fact and opinion. To be successful, a detective must do all these
things at the same time. Similaily, ieading ieally can`t be bioken down into these sepaiate tasks. Reading
compiehension comes fiom employing all of these stiategies simultaneously. This lesson gives you the oppoitu-
nity to combine these stiategies and take youi ieading compiehension skills to the next level.
LE$$ON $UMMARY
This lesson reviews whor you leorned in Lessons 14: gerring rhe
locrs, linding rhe moin ideo, derermining whor words meon in
conrexr, ond disringuishing 6erween locr ond opinion. n rhis les-
son, you'll ger virol procrice in using oll lour s|ills or once.
There is creative reading as well as creative writing.
-R:ivu W:ino Exvvsox, Ameiican poet (1803-1882)
5
PUTTING IT ALL
TOGETHEP
46
~PUTTI NG I T ALL TOGETHEP~
Peview: Wbat You've
Learned 5o Far
These aie the stiategies you studied in the pievious
foui lessons:
Lesson 1: Find the facts in what you read. You
piacticed looking foi the basic infoimation that
was being conveyed in the paiagiaphs: the who,
what, when, wheie, and how.
Lesson 2: Find the main idea. You leained about
topic sentences and how they expiess an asseition
about the subject of the paiagiaph. You saw how
the main idea must be geneial enough to encom-
pass all othei sentences in the paiagiaph; it is the
thought that contiols the paiagiaph, and the othei
sentences woik to suppoit that main idea.
Lesson 3: Determine the meaning of words from
context. You piacticed looking foi clues to
deteimine meaning in the woids and sentences
suiiounding the unfamiliai woid oi phiase.
Lesson 4: Distinguish between fact and opinion.
You leained that a fact is something kncwn to be
tiue, wheieas an opinion is something believed to
be tiue. You piacticed distinguishing between the
two and saw how good paiagiaphs use facts to
suppoit opinions.
If any of tbese terms or strategies sound
unfamiIiar to you, 5TOP. Take a few minutes
to review wbatever Iesson is uncIear.
Practice
In this lesson, you will shaipen youi ieading compie-
hension skills by using all of these stiategies at once.
This will become moie natuial to you as youi ieading
skills develop.
Practice Passage 1
Begin by looking at the following paiagiaph. Remem-
bei to iead actively; maik up the text as you go. Then
answei the questions. An example of how to maik up
the passage, as well as the answeis to the questions,
follow.
It is cleai that the United States is a nation that needs to eat healthiei and slim
down. One of the most impoitant steps in the iight diiection would be foi
school cafeteiias to piovide healthy, low-fat options foi students. In eveiy town
and city, an abundance of fast-food iestauiants luie teenage customeis with fast,
inexpensive, and tasty food, but these foods aie typically unhealthy. Unfoitu-
nately, school cafeteiias-in an effoit to piovide food that is appetizing to young
people-mimic fast food menus, often seiving items such as buigeis and fiies,
pizza, hot dogs, and fiied chicken. While these foods do piovide some nutii-
tional value, they aie ielatively high in fat. Many of the lunch selections school
cafeteiias cuiiently offei could be made healthiei with a few simple and inex-
pensive substitutions. Veggie buigeis, foi example, offeied alongside beef buig-
eis, would be a positive addition. A salad bai would also seive the puipose of
pioviding a healthy and satisfying meal. And tasty giilled chicken sandwiches
would be a fai bettei option than fiied chicken. Additionally, the beveiage case
should be stocked with containeis of low-fat milk.
47
1. What is the subject of this passage:
2. Accoiding to the passage, which of the following
options would make healthy, low-fat additions to
a school cafeteiia`s offeiings: (Ciicle all coiiect
answeis.)
a. tofu
b. veggie buigeis
c. low-fat milk
d. fiies
e. salad bai
f. giilled chicken sandwiches
g. stii-fiied vegetables
3. The meaning of mimic is
a. ieject.
b. copy.
c. ignoie.
d. disiegaid.
4. The fast-food iestauiants desciibed in the aiticle
aie noted foi seiving
a. veggie buigeis and salads.
b. tasty, inexpensive food.
c. seafood specialties.
d. home-cooked meals at an inexpensive piice.
5. Tiue oi False: One of the most impoitant steps
in the iight diiection would be foi school cafete-
iias to piovide healthy, low-fat options foi stu-
dents" is a topic sentence.
6. Tiue oi False: One of the most impoitant steps
in the iight diiection would be foi school
cafeteiias to piovide healthy, low-fat options foi
students" is an opinion.
Marking Practice Passage 1
Befoie you check the answeis, look again at the paiagiaph. Did you maik it up: If so, it may look something like this:
It is cleai that the United States is a nation that needs to eat healthiei and slim
down. One of the most impoitant steps in the iight diiection would be foi
school cafeteiias to piovide healthy, low-fat options foi students. In eveiy town
and city, an abundance of fast-food iestauiants luie teenage customeis with fast,
inexpensive, and tasty food, but these foods aie typically unhealthy. Unfoitu-
nately, school cafeteiias-in an effoit to piovide food that is appetizing to young
people-mimic fast food menus, often seiving items such as buigeis and fiies,
pizza, hot dogs, and fiied chicken. While these foods do piovide some nutii-
tional value, they aie ielatively high in fat. Many of the lunch selections school
cafeteiias cuiiently offei could be made healthiei with a few simple and inex-
pensive substitutions. Veggie buigeis, foi example, offeied alongside beef buig-
eis, would be a positive addition. A salad bai would also seive the puipose of
pioviding a healthy and satisfying meal. And tasty giilled chicken sandwiches
would be a fai bettei option than fiied chicken. Additionally, the beveiage case
should be stocked with containeis of low-fat milk.
48
Answers
1. The subject of the passage is healthier, lcw-fat
lunch cpticns in schccl cafeterias. Remembei, the
subject of a passage is who oi what the passage is
about.
2. b, c, e, f. These iesults aie all mentioned in the
passage. Tofu (a) and stii-fiied vegetables (g) aie
both healthy, low-fat lunch options, but they aie
not mentioned in the passage. Fiies (d) aie men-
tioned, but they aie not low-fat and aie mentioned
as one of the unhealthy items that should be
ieplaced.
Remembei, youìe looking foi the facts that the
authcr has piovided. It is extiemely impoitant,
especially in test situations, not to choose an answei
that isn`t piesent in the text. Logic may tell you
that tofu and stii-fiied vegetables aie healthy, low-
fat lunch options, but the paiagiaph doesn`t tell
you this. You need to stick to the facts. Any
assumption that you make about a passage must
be giounded in evidence found in that passage
itself.
3. b. Mimic means to copy. The most obvious clue is
the way the woid is used in the sentence: Unfoi-
tunately, school cafeteiias-in an effoit to piovide
food that is appetizing to young people-mimic
fast food menus, often seiving items such as buig-
eis and fiies, pizza, hot dogs, and fiied chicken."
Buigeis and fiies, pizza, hot dogs, and fiied
chicken aie all foods seived by fast-food iestau-
iants, and if school cafeteiias aie also seiving
those foods, they aie cleaily ccpying fast-food
menus, not rejecting, igncring, oi disregarding
them.
4. b. This is the coiiect answei because the text
desciibes the food seived by fast-food iestauiants
as fast, inexpensive, and tasty." Although the aiti-
cle mentions veggie buigeis (cited in choice c),
and while it is tiue that salads aie seived in some
fast food iestauiants, tasty and inexpensive aie the
qualities that aie mentioned in connection to fast-
food iestauiant menus in this aiticle. Seafood and
home-cooked meals aie nevei mentioned.
5. True. This sentence expiesses the main idea.
6. True. This sentence is an opinion. It is debatable.
Someone else might think that alteiing the menu
in school cafeteiias isn`t one of the most impoi-
tant steps to be taken in oidei to make the United
States a healthiei, slimmei nation. They might
think that launching a public seivice ad campaign
about the dangeis of fast food oi implementing
moie iigoious classioom education about eating
healthy is moie impoitant than changing the
menus of school cafeteiias.
How did you do: If you got all six answeis coi-
iect, congiatulations! If you missed one oi moie ques-
tions, check the following table to see which lessons to
ieview.
IF YOU MI55ED: THEN 5TUDY:
Ouestion 1 Lesson 2
Ouestion 2 Lesson 1
Ouestion 3 Lesson 3
Ouestion 4 Lesson 2
Ouestion 5 Lesson 2
Ouestion Lesson 4
Practice Passage 2
ist section. Once again, maik up the paiagiaph caiefully and then
answei the questions that follow.
Robeit Johnson is the best blues guitaiist of all time. Theie is little infoimation
available about this legendaiy blues guitaiist, and the infoimation is as much
iumoi as fact. What is indisputable, howevei, is Johnson`s tiemendous impact
on the woild of iock and ioll. Some considei Johnson the fathei of modein iock:
uence extends to aitists fiom Muddy Wateis to Led Zeppelin, fiom the
Rolling Stones to the Allman Biotheis Band. Eiic Clapton has called Johnson
the most impoitant blues musician who evei lived. Consideiing his ieputation,
it is haid to believe that Johnson iecoided only 29 songs befoie his death in 1938,
puipoitedly at the hands of a jealous husband. He was only 27 yeais old, yet he
left an indelible maik on the music woild. Again and again, contempoiaiy iock
aitists ietuin to Johnson, whose songs captuie the veiy essence of the blues,
tiansfoiming oui pain and suffeiing with the healing magic of his guitai. Rock
music wouldn`t be what it is today without Robeit Johnson.
7. Accoiding to the passage, fiom what musical
tiadition did Robeit Johnson emeige:
a. iock and ioll
b. jazz
c. blues
8. Johnson died in
a. 1927.
b. 1938.
c. 1929.
9.
ists, including Led Zeppelin and the Rolling
Stones.
10. Contempoiaiy iock aitists tuin to Robeit John-
son foi
a. uence.
b. life lessons.
c. iecoveiy fiom painful injuiies.
11. The most appiopiiate title foi this aiticle would be
a. A Fleeting Life"
b. The Woild`s Gieatest Musician
c. Blues Guitai Legend Robeit Johnson
12. The main idea of this paiagiaph is best expiessed
in which sentence in the paiagiaph:
13. Indicate whethei the following sentences aie fact
oi cpinicn:
a. Robeit Johnson is the best blues guitaiist of
all time."
b. Eiic Clapton has called Johnson the most
impoitant blues musician who evei lived."
c. Rock music wouldn`t be what it is today
without Robeit Johnson."
49
50
Answers
7. c. ist and second sentences. The next-to-last
sentence also piovides this infoimation.
8. b. See the sixth sentence.
9. True. See the fouith sentence.
10. a. ve, the authoi mentions that con-
tempoiaiy iock bands such as Muddy Wateis and
uenced by Johnson`s music.
In the last sentence, Johnson`s legendaiy musical
uence is communicated when the authoi
wiites, Again and again, contempoiaiy iock ait-
ists ietuin to Johnson." Based on the text, the
logical conclusion is that the contempoiaiy aitists
aie tuining to Johnson foi musical inspiiation.
11. c. Although A Fleeting Life" might be an appio-
piiate desciiption foi Johnson`s biief life span, it
desciibes only one aspect of his life. On the othei
hand, specifying that Robeit Johnson is a blues
Although some of his fans might considei John-
son to be The Woild`s Gieatest Musician," theie
aie many who would disagiee. The teim musi-
cian" coveis music in geneial, and while Johnson
might have been gieat in his paiticulai genie, he
would not likely be iecognized as the gieatest
musician" in all othei music genies, such as clas-
sical oi countiy music.
12. The third sentence. The point of the whole pas-
sage, which is Johnson`s impact on iock and ioll,
is veiy cleaily stated in the thiid sentence, What
is indisputable, howevei, is Johnson`s tiemendous
impact on the woild of iock and ioll."
13. Choice a is opinion. It is debatable whethei John-
son is the best blues guitaiist of all time.
Choice b is fact able infoimation.
Choice c is opinion because this is a debatable
pioposition.
How did you do this time: Bettei: If you missed
any questions, this time, ycu guie out which ques-
tions coiiespond with which lessons. This will help
you see with what categoiies you most need help.
The more olren you reod, rhe more li|ely ir is rhor
you will leorn new words. Becouse ir is somerimes
culr ro |now how ro pronounce o word solely
6y reoding ir, consider using on elecrronic
dicrionory wirh o pronunciorion leorure. Thor woy,
you con leorn rhe correcr pronunciorion ol on
unlomilior word or rhe some rime rhor you leorn irs
nirion.
TIP

Unit6:
Reading skills: Chronological order

L
E
5
5
O
N
53
T
ash backwaid to the beginning;
a few stait at the end and tell the stoiy in ieveise. In media res is a technique in which the authoi begins
ashback and simply iemembeiing a past
ashback a chaiactei is actually viewed ieliving the past event as if it weie occuiiing in the
ist
and then tell what happened next, and next, and so on, until the end. When wiiteis tell a stoiy in this oidei, fiom
beginning to end in the oidei in which things happened, they aie telling it in chrcnclcgical oidei. Chrcnclcgy is
the aiiangement of events in the oidei in which they occuiied.
LE$$ON $UMMARY
This lesson locuses on one ol rhe simplesr srrucrures wrirers use:
chronologicol order, or orrongemenr ol evenrs 6y rhe order in
which rhey occured.
cult as a beginning / In pcesy, unless perhaps the end.
- , Biitish poet (1788-1824)
6
5TAPT FPOM THE
EGINNING:
CHPONOLOGICAL
OPDEP
54
~5TAPT FPOM THE EGI NNI NG: CHPONOLOGI CAL OPDEP~
CbronoIogy and Transitions
Much of what you iead is aiianged in chionological
oidei. Newspapei and magazine aiticles, minutes of
meetings, and explanations of pioceduies aie usually
aiianged this way. Foi example, look at the following
paiagiaph that might be found in a company
newslettei:
This yeai`s employee awaid ceiemony was a tiemen-
ist awaid was given to Cailos Fe
foi Peifect Attendance. The second awaid, foi Most
Dedicated Employee, went to Jennifei Steele. Then
oui piesident, Maitin Lucas, inteiiupted the awaids
ceiemony to announce that he and his wife weie
nished, eveiyone stood up
foi a congiatulatoiy toast. Afteiwaid, the thiid
awaid was given to Kaien Hunt foi Most Inspiiing
Employee. Finally, Piesident Lucas ended the ceie-
mony by giving eveiyone a bonus check foi $100.
You`ll notice that this paiagiaph tells what hap-
nish. You`ll also
notice that you can tell the oidei in which things hap-
pened in two ways. Fiist, you can tell by the oidei of
ist, last things
last. Second, you can tell by the use of transiticnal
wcrds and phrases, which signal a shift fiom one idea
to the next. Heie is the same paiagiaph with the tian-
sitional woids undeilined:
This yeai`s employee awaid ceiemony was a tiemen-
ist awaid was given to Cailos Fe
foi Peifect Attendance. The second awaid, foi Most
Dedicated Employee, went to Jennifei Steele. Then
oui piesident, Maitin Lucas, inteiiupted the awaids
nished, eveiyone stood up
foi a congiatulatoiy toast. Afteiwaid, the thiid
awaid was given to Kaien Hunt foi Most Inspiiing
Employee. Finally, Piesident Lucas ended the ceie-
mony by giving eveiyone a bonus check foi $100.
The undeilined woids- rst, seccnd, then, when,
afterward, third, and -aie tiansitional woids
that keep these events linked togethei in chionological
oidei. Look at how the paiagiaph sounds without
these woids:
This yeai`s employee awaid ceiemony was a tie-
mendous success. The awaid was given to Cailos Fe
foi Peifect Attendance. The awaid foi Most
Dedicated Employee went to Jennifei Steele. Oui
piesident, Maitin Lucas, inteiiupted the awaids
nished; eveiyone stood up foi a
congiatulatoiy toast. The awaid was given to Kaien
Hunt foi Most Inspiiing Employee. Piesident Lucas
ended the ceiemony by giving eveiyone a bonus
check foi $100.
It doesn`t sound quite as good, does it:
Practice witb TransitionaI
Words and Pbrases
Practice Passage 1
Heie`s a moie extieme example of a paiagiaph with
the tiansitional woids and phiases omitted:
ling done. I
got theie; the phone staited iinging. My boss
walked in. He asked me to type a lettei foi him. He
asked me to make aiiangements foi a client to stay
in town oveinight. I looked at my watch; it was
alieady 11:00.
Now, take the paiagiaph and add the following
tiansitional woids and phiases:
55
immediately
as soon as
when
yesteiday
a moment latei
then
_____________ I went to woik eaily to get some
ling done. _____________ I got theie, the
phone staited iinging. ____________ my boss
walked in. ____________ he asked me to type a
lettei foi him. ____________ he asked me to make
aiiangements foi a client to stay in town ovei-
night. __________ I looked at my watch, it was
alieady 11:00.
Answers
You might have come up with a slightly diffeient vei-
ll in the blanks:
Yesteiday, I went to woik eaily to get some extia
ling done. As soon as I got theie, the phone staited
iinging. A moment latei, my boss walked in. Imme-
diately, he asked me to type up a lettei foi him. Then
he asked me to make aiiangements foi a client to
stay in town oveinight. When I looked at my watch,
it was alieady 11:00.
See how much bettei the paiagiaph sounds with
tiansitional woids and phiases to guide you:
Practice Passage 2
Heie is a seiies of events listed in iandom oidei. Use the
tiansitional woids and phiases in each sentence to help
you put them in piopei chionological oidei. Numbei
the sentences fiom 1 -6 in the blanks piovided.
If the penalty stiuctuie is to youi liking,
make suie that the money maiket
account is FDIC insuied.
Aftei you`ve found the best teims, be
nd out what the minimum
account balance is and ask what the
penalties aie if youi account diops
below the limit.
In oidei to open a money maiket
account, you should follow seveial
steps.
Then you should shop aiound foi the
best teims and yields available.
Finally, once the account is opened and
you aie eaining inteiest, you should
considei using that inteiest to pay off
outstanding ciedit caid debt.
Fiist, you should decide what featuies
aie impoitant to you.
Answers
You should have numbeied the blanks in this oidei: 5,
4, 1, 3, 6, 2. Heie`s how the sentences look togethei in
a paiagiaph.
In oidei to open a money maiket account, you
should follow seveial steps. Fiist, you should decide
what featuies aie impoitant to you. Then you should
shop aiound foi the best teims and yields available.
nd
out what the minimum account balance is and ask
what the penalties aie if youi account diops below
the limit. If the penalty stiuctuie is to youi liking,
make suie that the money maiket account is FDIC
insuied. Finally, once the account is opened and you
aie eaining inteiest, you should considei using that
inteiest to pay off outstanding ciedit caid debt.
56
The Inteinational Dinnei iaised $15,000 to ienovate the Beikshiie Paik Com-
fty people attended the dinnei, which was
held in the ballioom of a local hotel. Tickets weie sold in advance foi $50 each.
The attendees left the event feeling veiy good about theii community. The Beik-
ie six months ago. An enei-
getic committee of eight community membeis came up with the idea of the
Inteinational Dinnei to iaise funds to iepaii the damages. The plan was to cel-
ebiate the diveisity of the Beikshiie Paik Neighboihood Association by seiving
ethnic food that iepiesents the vaiious cultuies in the neighboihood. The com-
mittee also oiganized a silent auction with piizes donated by local businesses to
take place duiing the dinnei. The committee chaiipeison talked to a local news-
papei iepoitei at the dinnei and stated that the goal was to iaise $10,000. A
follow-up lettei to community membeis thanked eveiyone foi the huge success
of the fundiaisei and outlined a schedule foi the ienovation.
Notice that this paiagiaph is not aiianged in
chionological oidei. Take the ten diffeient events that
make up the stoiy and ieaiiange them so that they aie
in chionological oidei.
Heie`s the oidei of events as they aie piesented in
the stoiy.
The Inteinational Dinnei iaised $15,000 to ieno-
vate the Beikshiie Paik Community Centei.
fty people attended the
dinnei.
Tickets weie sold foi $50 each.
The attendees left the event feeling veiy good
about theii community.
ie six
months ago.
A committee of eight community membeis came
up with the idea of the Inteinational Dinnei to
iaise funds foi iepaiis.
The plan was to seive foods that iepiesent the vai-
ious cultuies in the neighboihood.
The committee oiganized a silent auction to take
place duiing the dinnei.
The chaiipeison talked to a local newspapei
iepoitei, stating that the goal was to iaise $10,000.
A lettei to community membeis thanked eveiyone
and outlined the schedule foi ienovation.
Practice Passage 3
Read the following paiagiaph, which desciibes a local community event.
57
Next, put the events in chionological oidei.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Now, take these chionologically oideied events
and make them into a cohesive paiagiaph. To do this,
you need to add tiansitional woids and phiases. Heie
is a list of tiansitional woids and phiases often used in
chionologically oiganized passages:
ist
second
thiid
next
now
then
when
as soon as
immediately
suddenly
soon
aftei
befoie
duiing
while
meanwhile
in the meantime
at last
eventually
nally
Wiite youi paiagiaph, putting the events in
chionological oidei with tiansitional phiases, below
oi on a sepaiate piece of papei.
Answers
Theie aie, of couise, many possible ways of using tian-
sitional woids and phiases to put this stoiy in chiono-
logical oidei. One paiagiaph might look like this:
The Beikshiie Paik Community Centei was damaged
ie six months ago. Soon aftei, a committee of
eight community membeis came up with the idea of
an Inteinational Dinnei to iaise funds to iepaii the
damages. The plan was to seive foods that iepiesent
the vaiious cultuies in the neighboihood. In addition,
the committee oiganized a silent auction to take place
duiing the dinnei. Befoie the event, tickets weie sold
foi $50 each. Duiing the dinnei, the committee chaii-
peison talked to a local newspapei iepoited and stated
that the goal was to iaise $10,000. Thiee hundied and
fty people attended the event, which iaised $15,000.
When the attendees left the event, they felt veiy good
about theii community. Aftei the event, a lettei was
sent to community membeis thanking them foi eveiy-
thing while outlining a schedule foi ienovation.
58
Practice Passage 4
Chionological oidei is veiy impoitant, especially when
it comes to pioceduies. If you peifoim the steps out of
chionological oidei, you won`t get the iesults you
desiie. Just imagine, foi example, that you aie tiying to
bake a cake. What happens when you do things out of
oidei: You go without desseit.
Of couise, the consequences of not following
piopei chionological oidei at woik can be much moie
seiious, so it`s impoitant that you stiengthen this skill.
Read the following paiagiaph, maiking it up to help
you keep tiack of the steps that an employee must fol-
low to get tuition ieimbuisement.
Oui company will be happy to ieimbuise you foi college couises that enhance
youi job peifoimance. Befoie you iegistei foi the couise, you must get appioval
ist fiom youi immediate supeivisoi and then fiom Human Resouices. If you
aie taking the couise foi ciedit, you must ieceive a C- oi bettei in the couise. If
you aie not taking it foi ciedit, you must pass the couise. Aftei you have com-
pleted the couise, you must wiite a iepoit explaining the content of the couise
ll out a ieimbuisement
iequest. Attach a tuition payment ieceipt, youi iepoit, and a copy of youi giades
to this iequest and piomptly submit this iequest to youi supeivisoi. Once youi
supeivisoi has appioved the iequest, you can then submit all these foims to
Human Resouices, and you should ieceive youi check within two weeks.
Theie aie eight sepaiate steps an employee must
take to be ieimbuised foi college couise woik. What
aie they: List them below in the oidei in which the
employee must do them.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
59
If you maiked up youi paiagiaph, you should easily see the diffeient steps. Heie`s how you might have
maiked it up. The tiansitional woids and phiases aie highlighted in bold.
Oui company will be happy to ieimbuise you foi college couises that enhance
youi job peifoimance. Before you iegistei foi the couise, you must get appioval
rst fiom youi immediate supeivisoi and then fiom Human Resouices. If you
aie taking the couise foi ciedit, you must ieceive a C- oi bettei in the couise. If
you aie not taking it foi ciedit, you must pass the couise. After you have com-
pleted the couise, you must wiite a iepoit explaining the content of the couise
and its ielevance to youi position. Then ll out a ieimbuise-
ment iequest. Attach a tuition payment ieceipt, youi iepoit, and a copy of youi
giades to this iequest and promptly submit this iequest to youi supeivisoi. Once
youi supeivisoi has appioved the iequest, you can then submit all these foims
to Human Resouices, and you should ieceive youi check within two weeks.
If you miss a step in this piocess, you won`t be
ieimbuised. Thus, it`s ciitical that you be able to iden-
tify each step and the oidei in which the steps must
be taken.
5ummary
Chionological stiuctuie is, of couise, a veiy useful
oiganizational pattein. Events happen in a ceitain
oidei, so wiiteis often piesent them in that oidei. Keep
an eye out foi the tiansitional woids and phiases that
signal this type of oiganization.
'
-:
occ.o|
2
cc
cc
jc: cc |c::cc|
-
:|
'
:|
ccuc-:
C
:|
cccc: jcocc-
:c ccuc-:
7
:|
-ucc.|-cc
:|
'
2

-
'
C
7

Borh newspoper reporrers ond derecrives possess o |een eye lor derermining ond reporring on o sequence
ol evenrs. As you ore reoding o newspoper orricle, derecrive srory, or novel, nore rhe merhods ond
longuoge rhor |ournolisrs ond derecrives use ro descri6e rhe riming, serring, ond sequence ol |ey evenrs.
Tronsirionol words ond phroses rhor pinpoinr rhe riming ol on evenr include:
Then
When
Alrer
Belore
Yesrerdoy
TIP
Unit7:
Processparagraphs

RHETORICAL PATTERNS

There are nine basic rhetorical patterns (also called modes) to write an essay. Strategies of
organization provide structure for both individual paragraphs and entire essays.

Match each description with a mode.

ARGUMENTATION
CAUSAL ANALYSIS (2x)
CLASSIFICATION
COMPARISON/CONTRAST
DEFINITION
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
NARRATION
PROCESS

a) tells a story (1st person or 3rd person point of view) to convey a dominant point
(controlling idea)

b) uses a dominant impression as a central theme to unify descriptive details (avoid
irrelevant details!)

c) begins with a generalization, which it then supports with specific cases. The examples
must be to the point, vivid, supportive of the generalization, and clearly connected to
it by an introductory phrase as for example or for instance.

d) focuses on specifying the characteristics of the subject first by showing the general
category it belongs to and then by distinguishing it from other items in the same
category.

e) examines items for similarities and differences. The items are compared on certain
specific bases, and the writer alternates from one to the other, indicating either
similarities or differences through the use of appropriate phrases.

f) gives step-by-step instructions on how to do something (directional) or how
something happened (informational).

g) divides something and groups its elements into major categories and types. it must
be based on a single principle, and it must be complete.

h) attempts to relate two events by asserting that the occurrence of one event is the
reason for the occurrence of the other.

i) relates two events by asserting one event is the result of another.

j) involves persuading the reader to the writers viewpoint. Such a paragraph or essay
will often be a combination of the strategies discussed so farthis type of paragraph
or essay has no single strategy of development...

(McCuen-Metherell & Winkler, 2009, p. 32-41)
SAMPLE PROCESS PARAGRAPH

CULTURE SHOCK

The process of reacting and adjusting to a new society, sometimes termed culture
shock, has four distinct stages. The first period, or honeymoon stage, may last as long as
several months. The visitors usually begin their stay in a hotel and meet sympathetic and
gracious nationals. During these initial encounters, every aspect of the new society seems
fascinating. A hostile attitude is typical of the second stage, which develops at that point
when the individual has to cope seriously with the day-to-day problems of, for example,
housing, shopping, and transportation. The visitor develops a sense of humor about his or
her problems on entering the third stage. By this time, visitors have usually learned the
language and are thus able to laugh at themselves. The final adjustment to a new culture
occurs when the visitor is able to function without anxiety. In conclusion, adapting to a new
cultural context involves a long process.
(153 words)

TASK 1
Read the short essay above and identify the main components of the paragraph and draw up
its outline.

TASK 2
Using the outline to help you, answer the following questions:
-What is the purpose of the short essay?
-How is this purpose achieved?

L
E
5
5
O
N
61
In my beginning is my end.
-T.S. Eiio1, poet and liteiaiy ciitic (1888-1965)
I
rst and last in a given session. Wiiteis
have known this instinctively foi a long time. That`s why many pieces of wiiting aie oiganized not in
chionological oidei but by crder cf impcrtance.
Imagine again that the wiitei is like an aichitect. How would this type of wiitei aiiange the iooms: By
hieiaichy. A hierarchy is a gioup of things aiianged by iank oi oidei of impoitance. In this type of oiganizational
pattein, hierarchy, not chionology, deteimines oidei. Thus, this aichitect would lay the iooms out like so: When
ce, then the vice piesident`s,
then the assistant vice piesident`s, and so on down to the lowest ianking woikei. Oi, vice veisa, the aichitect may
ist, the one with the least powei in the company. Then the
next, and the next, until at last, you ieach the piesident.
ist:
Not the one that happened ist, but the one that is mcst, oi least, impoitant.
LE$$ON $UMMARY
Conrinuing your srudy ol rhe srrucrure ol reoding moreriol, rhis
lesson shows you how wrirers use order ol imporronce lrom leosr
ro mosr imporronr or lrom mosr ro leosr imporronr. Undersronding
rhis commonly used srrucrure improves your reoding comprehen-
sion 6y helping you see whor's mosr imporronr in o piece ol wriring.
OPDEP OF
IMPOPTANCE
62
~OPDEP OF I MPOPTANCE~
Most Important
to Least Important
In the following paiagiaph, the wiitei staits with what
is most impoitant, hoping that by putting this item
ist, the ieadei will be suie to iemembei it. Aftei you
iead the passage, answei the questions that follow.
Each question is followed by its answei to guide you
thiough youi ieading of the passage.
Choosing a doctoi is an impoitant decision. Heie aie
some things you can do to make the best choice. The
single most impoitant thing is to inteiview the doc-
tois you aie consideiing. Ask questions about the
ce houis, and how quickly he oi she
iesponds to phone calls. Pay attention to the doctoi`s
communication skills and how comfoitable you aie
with him oi hei. The second thing you should do is
check the doctoi`s ciedentials. One way to do this is
to ask youi health insuiance company how they
checked the doctoi`s ciedentials befoie accepting
him oi hei into theii netwoik. Anothei thing you
can do is to look at the enviionment of the doctoi`s
ce. Be suie patients aien`t waiting too long and
ce is clean and piofessional. Finally,
spend some time talking with the ieceptionist. Keep
in mind that this is the peison you`ll come into con-
ce.
cient, it will ceitainly
make youi oveiall expeiience bettei.
1. Accoiding to the passage, what`s the most impoi-
tant thing you can do to be suie you choose the
iight doctoi:
The answei should be cleai: The wiitei tells you
cleaily that the single most impoitant thing is to
inteiview the doctois you aie consideiing."
2. What is the second most impoitant thing you
can to choose the iight doctoi:
When a wiitei staits out by saying the most
impoitant thing," you know that the wiitei will be
staiting with the most impoitant idea and ending with
the least impoitant. The second most impoitant thing,
theiefoie, is the second piece of advice offeied in the
paiagiaph: Check the doctoi`s ciedentials."
3. What`s the thiid most impoitant thing:
The wiitei is going fiom most to least impoitant,
so accoiding the passage, the thiid most impoitant
thing is to look at the enviionment of the doctoi`s
ce."
4. Finally, what is the least impoitant tip the wiitei
offeis:
The answei is the last piece of advice the wiitei
offeis: Spend some time talking with the ieceptionist."
Least Important
to Most Important
Some wiiteis piefei the opposite appioach, depending
on the subject and the effect they want theii wiiting
to have. Rathei than starting with the most impoitant
idea, they piefei to end with what is most impoitant.
Not only do they leave you with a stiong concluding
impiession, but they also take advantage of the snow-
ball effect." The snowball effect is the buildup" oi
foice that a wiitei gets fiom staiting with what`s least
impoitant and moving towaid what`s most impoi-
tant. Like a snowball, the wiitei`s idea builds and
builds, getting biggei and biggei, moie and moie
impoitant. By staiting with the least impoitant point,
wiiteis can also cieate suspense- the ieadei is waiting
nal idea. And each idea oi item builds upon
the ones that come befoie it.
63
Heie`s an example of a passage that builds fiom least impoitant to most impoitant. Read the passage, maik-
ing it up as you go along. Answei the questions that follow.
Theie aie a numbei of ieasons why the cuiient voting age of 18 should be low-
eied to 16. Fiist, a lowei voting age in the United States would encouiage othei
countiies to follow this example. Many countiies aie discussing and debating
the pios and cons of loweiing the voting age, and if the United States gives
16-yeai-olds the iight to vote, it will seive as an impoitant example foi the iest
of the woild.
Moie impoitantly, if 16-yeai-olds aie old enough to engage in othei adult
activities, then they aie old enough to vote. In many states, 16-yeai-olds can
woik, get a diivei`s license, and engage in many othei adult activities that make
them matuie enough to vote. If, at 16, young people aie old enough to manage
the iesponsibilities of woik and school, then it is cleai that they aie iesponsible
enough to make infoimed decisions about politics and politicians.
But the most impoitant ieason why the voting age should be loweied to
16 is that it will deciease apathy and cynicism while stimulating a lifelong intei-
est in political paiticipation. Many young people feel as though theii opinion
doesn`t mattei. By the time they ieach voting age, they aie often disenchanted
with politics and cynical about the entiie political piocess. If the voting age weie
loweied to 16, young people would know that theii opinion does count. They
would be inspiied to exeicise theii iight to vote not just as young adults but
thioughout theii lives. The long-teim iesults-a much highei peicentage of
In the following spaces, list the ieasons the authoi
piovides foi why the voting age should be loweied in
the crder in which they are listed in the passage. In the
next set of blanks, list those same ieasons in their crder
cf impcrtance.
Order of Presentation
1.
2.
3.
Order of Importance
1.
2.
3.
You can see that the oideis aie ieveised: The
authoi staits with what is least impoitant and ends
with what is most impoitant. Why: Why not the othei
way aiound:
64
This authoi uses a least-to-most-impoitant oiga-
nizational stiategy because he is making an aigument.
He`s tiying to convince you that the United States
should lowei the voting age to 16. In oidei to be con-
vincing, he must have a stiong aigument. If he staits
with what he feels is his most impoitant (and most
convincing) point, he has alieady shown his hand, so to
speak. Especially when the issue is contioveisial, wiiteis
often use the least-to-most-impoitant stiuctuie. That
way, if theii less impoitant points make sense to the
ieadei, then theii moie impoitant points will come off
even stiongei. Also, if they weie to oiganize theii ideas
in the ieveise oidei, most to least impoitant, ieadeis
might feel let down.
Thus, you can often expect to see this type of
stiuctuie-least to most impoitant-in an aigument.
As the saying goes, save the best foi last." In an aigu-
ment, that`s usually wheie the best" has the most
impact.
ist example, about choosing a doctoi, the
wiitei was not tiying to convince. She was simply giv-
ing some advice. Theie`s no need, then, foi a buildup.
Indeed, in that kind of paiagiaph, ieadeis might stop
nd it helpful.
ist-to
make suie they`ll be iead.
In othei woids, the wiitei`s puipose-his oi hei
uences the choice of oigani-
uences
how you take in and undeistand what you iead.
Practice
Look at the following list of ieasons to iead moie often.
If you weie to put these ieasons togethei in a paiagiaph
to convince ieadeis that they should iead moie, how
ist in
oidei of impoitance and then in the oidei in which you
would piesent them.
Five Peasons to Pead More Often
It will impiove youi vocabulaiy.
It will impiove youi ieading compiehension.
It will inciease youi ieading speed.
It will bioaden youi undeistanding of youiself and
otheis.
It will intioduce you to new infoimation and ideas.
Order of Importance to You
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Order of Presentation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In which oidei did you choose to piesent youi
ideas: Most impoitant to least impoitant: Oi least to
most: Eithei stiuctuie will woik beautifully with these
ideas. You may want to hit youi ieadeis with what`s
most impoitant fiom the stait so that you make suie
you catch theii attention. Oi you may want to save youi
best idea foi last so that youi ieadeis get thiough all the
ist and build up to the most impoitant.
You might piesent the ideas diffeiently, but heie aie two
veisions of the iesulting paiagiaph as examples.
65
ExampIe: Most to Least Important
ts to ieading moie often. Fiist
and foiemost, ieading moie will bioaden youi
undeistanding of youiself and of othei people. It
will also intioduce you to new infoimation and
ideas. Fuitheimoie, it will impiove youi oveiall
ieading compiehension so you`ll begin to undei-
stand moie of what you iead. In addition, ieading
moie will impiove youi vocabulaiy and inciease
youi ieading speed.
ExampIe: Least to Most Important
ts to ieading moie often. Fiist,
it will inciease youi ieading speed, so that you can
iead moie in less time. Second, it will impiove youi
vocabulaiy. Thiid, it will impiove youi oveiall iead-
ing compiehension, and you`ll undeistand moie of
what you iead. In addition, ieading moie will intio-
duce you to new infoimation and ideas. Most
impoitantly, it will bioaden youi undeistanding of
youiself and of othei people.
Peview
Transitions
Notice how the tiansitional woids and phiases aie
used in these paiagiaphs. Go back to each paiagiaph
and undeiline the tiansitional woids and phiases.
Heie aie the woids you should have undeilined
ist paiagiaph: rst and fcremcst, alsc, further-
mcre, and in additicn. The second paiagiaph uses dif-
feient tiansitional woids and phiases:
third, in additicn, and mcst impcrtantly.
Main Idea
By the way, what is the main idea of these two paia-
giaphs: Do you see a topic sentence: Wiite the main
idea of the paiagiaphs in this space.
ist
ts
to ieading moie often," is the topic sentence that gov-
eins each paiagiaph. This sentence is geneial enough
to encompass each of the diffeient ieasons given, and
it makes an asseition about ieading-that you should
do it moie often.
Three moin woys rhor ourhors orgonize rheir ideos
ore
Time orderrhe chronologicol sequence
ol evenrs
5pace orderdescri6ing rhe plocemenr
ol o porriculor person, rhing, or serring
using words ond phroses such os: Leow,
next to, Lehnd, n the ndde, Leyond,
6elore, ond n |ront o|
Order of importancegro66ing orren-
rsr impres-
sion 6y orgonizing ideos lrom mosr
imporronr ro leosr imporronr, or 6uilding
suspense ond rension 6y orgonizing
ideos lrom leosr imporronr ro mosr
imporronr
TIP
66
5ummary
Oiganizing ideas by oidei of impoitance is a stiuctuie
you will see often. Whethei a passage is oiganized fiom
most to least impoitant oi least to most, this technique
should now be easy foi you to iecognize.
VocabuIary You Can Use~5eriaI pIotting is o
plorring rechnique rhor 6uilds onriciporion 6y
creoring suspenselul choprer endings rhor leove
rhe reoder wondering whor will hoppen nexr.
TIP
READING
READING PASSAGE 7
You shoula spena about 20 minutes on Questions 1-12 which are basea on Reaaing
Passage 7 below.
A The compiling oI dictionaries has been historically the provenance
oI studious proIessorial types - usually bespectacled - who love
to pore over weighty tomes and make pronouncements on the
Iiner nuances oI meaning. They were probably good at crosswords
and deIinitely knew a lot oI words, but the image was always
rather dry and dusty. The latest technology, and simple technology
at that, is revolutionising the content oI dictionaries and the way
they are put together.
B For the Iirst time, dictionary publishers are incorporating real,
spoken English into their data. It gives lexicographers (people
who write dictionaries) access to a more vibrant, up-to-date
vernacular language which has never really been studied beIore.
In one project, 150 volunteers each agreed to discreetly tie a
Walkman recorder to their waist and leave it running Ior anything
up to two weeks. Every conversation they had was recorded. When
the data was collected, the length oI tapes was 35 times the depth
oI the Atlantic Ocean. Teams oI audio typists transcribed the tapes
to produce a computerised database oI ten million words.
C This has been the basis - along with an existing written corpus -
Ior the Language Activator dictionary, described by lexicographer
ProIessor Randolph Quirk as 'the book the world has been waiting
Ior. It shows advanced Ioreign learners oI English how the
language is really used. In the dictionary, key words such as 'eat
are Iollowed by related phrases such as 'wolI down or 'be a
picky eater, allowing the student to choose the appropriate phrase.
D 'This kind oI research would be impossible without computers,
said Delia Summers, a director oI dictionaries. 'It has transIormed
the way lexicographers work. II you look at the word 'like, you
may intuitively think that the Iirst and most Irequent meaning is
the verb, as in 'I like swimming. It is not. It is the preposition, as
in: 'she walked like a duck. Just because a word or phrase is
23
Reaaing 7
used does not mean it ends up in a dictionary. The siIting out process
is as vital as ever. But the database does allow lexicographers to
search Ior a word and Iind out how Irequently it is used - something
that could only be guessed at intuitively beIore.
E Researchers have Iound that written English works in a very
diIIerent way to spoken English. The phrase 'say what you like
literally means 'Ieel Iree to say anything you want, but in reality
it is used, evidence shows, by someone to prevent the other person
voicing disagreement. The phrase "it's a question oI" crops up in
the database over and over again. It has nothing to do with enquiry,
but it`s one oI the most Irequent English phrases which has never
been in a language learner`s dictionary beIore: it is now.
F The Spoken Corpus computer shows how inventive and humorous
people are when they are using language by twisting Iamiliar
phrases Ior eIIect. It also reveals the power oI the pauses and
noises we use to play Ior time, convey emotion, doubt and irony.
G For the moment, those beneIiting most Irom the Spoken Corpus
are Ioreign learners. 'Computers allow lexicographers to search
quickly through more examples oI real English, said ProIessor
GeoIIrey Leech oI Lancaster University. 'They allow dictionaries
to be more accurate and give a Ieel Ior how language is being
used. The Spoken Corpus is part oI the larger British National
Corpus, an initiative carried out by several groups involved in the
production oI language learning materials: publishers, universities
and the British Library.
24
List of Headings
i Grammar is corrected
ii New method oI research
iii Technology learns Irom dictionaries
iv Non-verbal content
v The Iirst study oI spoken language
vi Traditional lexicographical methods
vii Written English tells the truth
viii New phrases enter dictionary
ix A cooperative research project
x Accurate word Irequency counts
xi Alternative expressions provided
Questions 1-
Reaaing Passage 7 has seven paragraphs (A-C). Choose the most suitable heaaing for each
paragraph from the list of heaaings below. Paragraph C has been aone for vou as an example.
AB There are more heaaings than paragraphs, so vou will not use all of them. You mav use
anv heaaing more than once.
1 Paragraph A
2 Paragraph B
Paragraph C
3 Paragraph D
4 Paragraph E
5 Paragraph F
6 Paragraph G
25
Reading 7
Example
Current, real-liIe data
collected during
Rreaaing 7
Questions 7-11
The aiagram below illustrates the information proviaea in paragraphs B-F of Reaaing
Passage 7. Complete the labels on the aiagram with an appropriate wora or woras. Use AO
MORE 1HAA 1HREE WORDS for each space.
The portrayal oI
Ieelings through
... (11) ...
Data Irom
... (7) ...
written corpus
Spoken Corpus
computer
LANGUAGE
ACTIVATOR
Key words
and
... (8) ...
Most Irequently
used ... (9) ... oI
words.
DiIIerences between
written and
... (10) ... use
Choose the appropriate letter A-D.
12 Why was this article written?
A To give an example oI a current dictionary.
B To announce a new approach to dictionary writing.
C To show how dictionaries have progressed over the years.
D To compare the content oI diIIerent dictionaries
........................................
26
Unit8:
Argumentativeparagraphs
SAMPLE ARGUMENTATIVE ONE-PARAGRAPH ESSAY

EDUCATION WITHOUT LIMITS

Using the internet in education is beneficial both for the providers and consumers of
education. Firstly, it is seen as more economical, in that once a course is prepared, it can be
used by large numbers of students. The savings made by not having to employ so many
teachers should be reflected in cheaper course fees. The second benefit is convenience;
instead of having to attend classes at fixed times and places, students are free to study when
they choose and progress at their own pace. Furthermore, in studying from home there is no
need to travel to the college or university, which saves both time and money. A student
living in a small town in China, for example, can now study a course at an American college
without the worry of travelling, accommodation or homesickness. In conclusion, due to its
advantages education should integrate the use of the internet.
(150 words)
(adapted from Bailey, 2003, p.139)

TASK 1
Read the short essay above and identify the main components of the paragraph and draw up
its outline.

TASK 2
Using the outline to help you, answer the following questions:
-What is the purpose of the short essay?
-How is this purpose achieved?
L
E
5
5
O
N
67
W
e spend a good deal of oui lives compaiing and contiasting things. Whenevei we want to explain
something, foi example, we often use comparson (showing how two oi moie things aie similar).
We might say, foi example, that mint chocolate chip ice cieam tastes just like a peppeimint candy;
oi that the new managei looks just like Clint Eastwood. When we want to show how things aie different oi not
alike, we contrast them. We might say that peppeimint candies aie mintiei than any mint chocolate chip ice
cieam; oi that the new managei may look like Eastwood, but he doesn`t have Eastwood`s dimple.
LE$$ON $UMMARY
This lesson explores onorher orgonizorionol porrern wrirers olren
use ro srrucrure rheir wriring: comporison ond conrrosr.
It is well tc read everything cf scmething, and scmething cf everything.
-Lovn Hvxvs P. Bvoucu:x, Biitish stateman (1778-1868)
8
5IMILAPITIE5 AND
DIFFEPENCE5:
COMPAPE AND
CONTPA5T
68
~5I MI LAPI TI E5 AND DI FFEPENCE5: COMPAPE AND CONTPA5T~
How Comparison and
Contrast Work
When wiiteis compaie and contiast, they piovide a
way of classifying oi judging the items they aie discuss-
ing. They show how two (oi moie) things aie similai
oi diffeient when placed side by side. Considei, foi
example, the following paiagiaph. Read it caiefully,
and then answei the questions that follow.
Planting a gaiden is a lot like having a family. Both
iequiie a gieat deal of woik, especially as they giow
and as the seasons change. As summei days lengthen,
youi plants become dependent on you foi suste-
nance, much like youi childien depend on you foi
food and diink. Like a thiisty child asking foi a
diink of watei, youi plants do the same. Theii bent,
wilted body" language, tianslated, issues a demand
much the way youi child iequests milk oi juice.
When theii collective thiists aie quenched, you see
the way they both thiive in youi caie. The fussy
ed, and the plant ieaches towaid
nd that
you have to clean the space aiound youi plants
much like you would pick up toys and clothes that
have been thiown heltei-skeltei in youi toddlei`s
ioom. Similaily, plants shed spent petals, ioses need
to be piuned, and weeds need to be pulled. To keep
childien healthy, paients piotect theii childien
against disease with medicine, and gaideneis do the
same with insect iepellent. To nouiish them, paients
give childien vitamins, and gaideneis use feitilizei,
as both piomote healthy giowth. As childien giow
and become adults, they need less and less caie.
Howevei, heie`s wheie the similaiity ends. While
plants die and become doimant duiing wintei, chil-
dien still maintain a vital iole in the family unit.
Finding the Facts
1. What two things aie being compaied and
contiasted heie:
2. In what ways aie these two things similai:
(Theie aie foui similaiities; list them heie.)
a.
b.
c.
d.
3. In what ways aie these two things diffeient:
(Theie is one aspect that is diffeient; wiite it
heie.)
Answers
1. The two things being compaied and contiasted
aie a paient and a gaidenei.
2. Gaideneis aie like paients in that: a) plants aie
dependent on gaideneis as childien aie on pai-
ents; b) plants iequiie caie fiom gaideneis as chil-
dien do fiom theii paients; c) gaideneis tidy up
aftei theii plants, as paients do aftei childien; and
d) gaideneis piotect theii plants, as paients pio-
tect theii childien.
3. Gaideneis aie unlike paients in that theii iespon-
sibility foi theii plants ends when the plant dies
oi goes into wintei doimancy.
69
Finding the Main Idea
Now that you`ve answeied those questions, considei
one moie. Read the passage again, and then answei this
question:
4. What is the main idea of this passage:
Did you notice that the opening sentence, Plant-
ing a gaiden is a lot like having a family," is the topic
sentence that expiesses the main idea of this paiagiaph:
The paiagiaph does mention a difference between these
two ioles, but notice that the topic sentence does not
claim that gaideneis and paients aie exactly alike.
Instead, it asseits that they aie a lot" alike.
TransitionaI Devices
As you iead the paiagiaph about gaideneis and pai-
ents, did you notice the tiansitional woids and phiases
that show you when the wiitei is compaiing (showing
similaiity) and when the wiitei is contiasting (show-
ing diffeience): Heie`s the passage once moie. As you
iead it this time, undeiline the tiansitional woids and
nd.
Planting a gaiden is a lot like having a family. Both
iequiie a gieat deal of woik, especially as they giow
and as the seasons change. As summei days lengthen,
youi plants become dependent on you foi sustenance,
much like youi childien depend on you foi food and
diink. Like a thiisty child asking foi a diink of watei,
youi plants do the same. Theii bent, wilted body"
language, tianslated, issues a demand much the way
youi child iequests milk oi juice. When theii collec-
tive thiists aie quenched, you see the way they both
ed,
and the plant ieaches towaid the sun in a showy dis-
nd that you have to clean the
space aiound youi plants much like you would pick
up toys and clothes that have been thiown heltei-
skeltei in youi toddlei`s ioom. Similaily, plants shed
spent petals, ioses need to be piuned, and weeds need
to be pulled. To keep childien healthy, paients piotect
theii childien against disease with medicine, and gai-
deneis do the same with insect iepellent. To nouiish
them, paients give childien vitamins, and gaideneis
use feitilizei, as both piomote healthy giowth. As chil-
dien giow and become adults, they need less and less
caie. Howevei, heie`s wheie the similaiity ends. While
plants die and become doimant duiing wintei, chil-
dien still maintain a vital iole in the family unit.
Wiiteis use seveial tiansitional woids and phiases
to show compaiison and contiast. In this paiagiaph,
you should have undeilined the following woids: much
like, in the same way, similarly, and hcwever.
These woids and phiases show similaiity:
similaily
likewise
like
just as
in the same way
in a like mannei
and
also
These woids and phiases show diffeience:
but
on the othei hand
howevei
conveisely
yet
on the contiaiy
neveitheless
70
5tructure
Now look moie closely at the sample paiagiaph to
examine its stiuctuie. Exactly how is this paiagiaph
oiganized:
Fiist, you`ve noticed that the paiagiaph begins
with a topic sentence that makes the initial compaii-
son: Gaideneis aie like paients." Then, the paiagiaph
es foui ways in which gaideneis aie like pai-
ents:
1. Plants become dependent upon gaideneis as
childien do on paients.
2. Plants iequiie caie fiom theii gaideneis as chil-
dien do fiom paients.
3. Gaideneis clean up aftei theii plants as paients
do aftei childien.
4. Gaideneis piotect plants fiom dangeis" as pai-
ents piotect childien.
Finally, aftei pointing out these similaiities, the
paiagiaph concludes by pointing out an impoitant
diffeience between paients and gaideneis:
1. A gaidenei`s iesponsibility foi his oi hei plants
ends with time, while a paient`s doesn`t.
Peihaps you noticed something else in the way
this paiagiaph is oiganized. Did you notice that eveiy
time the paiagiaph mentions something about a pai-
ent`s iole, it also mentions something about a gaidenei:
Each aspect of the gaidenei`s iole is followed by a com-
paiable aspect of the paient`s iole. Thus, foi eveiy
aspect of A" (the gaidenei), the paiagiaph piovides a
compaiable aspect of B" (the paient) to compaie oi
contiast. The paiagiaph is theiefoie oiganized like
this: ABABABABAB.
This is called the pcint - by - pcint method of com-
paiison and contiast. Each aspect of A discussed is
immediately paiied with that aspect of B (being depen-
dent, iequiiing caie, cleaning up, and piotecting).
On the othei hand, some wiiteis piefei to deal
ist with all aspects of A and then with all aspects of B.
This is called the blcck method of compaiison and con-
tiast; it goes AAAAABBBBB. Heie is the same paia-
giaph aiianged using the block method:
Planting a gaiden is a lot like having a family. A
plant becomes dependent on the gaidenei and
begs foi watei on a hot summei day. Gaideneis
also have to clean up the space aiound theii plants
as they shed spent petals, as they iequiie piuning,
and as they become choked with weeds. Gaideneis
also piovide foi the health of theii plants thiough
insecticide and feitilizei applications. A gaidenei`s
iesponsibility foi his oi hei plants lessens as they
die at the end of the season oi they go into wintei
doimancy.
dependent upon them foi food and nouiishment.
Like gaideneis, paients aie constantly picking up
aftei theii childien, as toys and clothes aie scatteied
thioughout the house. Like gaideneis, paients pio-
vide foi the nouiishment and well-being of theii
childien with vitamin supplements, food, and med-
nd
that theii iesponsibility lessens as the child giows,
but it does not come to an end.
Heie, the passage tieats each of the things being
ist, all aspects
of the gaidenei, then all aspects of the paient- iathei
than one aspect of the gaidenei, one of the paient;
anothei of the gaidenei, anothei of the paient. So the
oiganization is quite diffeient.
But you should notice one thing that is similai in
both passages: They compaie and contiast aspects of A
and B that aie compaiable oi paiallel. If an aspect of A
is discussed, that same aspect of B (whethei similai to
oi diffeient fiom A) must be discussed at some point in
the passage. This coiiespondence of paits is essential
foi the compaie and contiast technique. Look what
happens, foi example, when the wiitei does not discuss
coiiesponding paits:
71
Being a paient is a lot like being a gaidenei. Paients
must bathe, clothe, and feed theii childien. Paients
must also cieate and maintain guidelines foi accept-
able behavioi foi childien. Also, paients must see to
it that theii childien get a piopei education.
Gaideneis nuituie the plants in theii gaidens.
They pull weeds and piune them to encouiage them
to giow. They feed them and apply insecticides.
owei and then witness theii
demise.
You`ll notice that this passage seems to focus on
diffeiences between gaideneis and paients iathei than
the similaiities. But is this ieally a faii contiast: Look at
the aspects of A (the gaidenei) that aie desciibed heie.
Do they have any ielationship to the aspects of B (the
paient) that aie desciibed: No. And a compaie and
contiast passage can`t be successful unless the aspects
of A and B aie discussed compaiably. These two paia-
giaphs don`t ieally seem to have a point- theie`s no
basis foi compaiison between gaideneis and paients.
Practice
Suppose you weie going to wiite a paiagiaph that
compaies and contiasts ieadeis and detectives. The
ve aspects of being a ieadei
ve aspects of being a detective. Only three items
in each list aie compaiable. Find those thiee items in
each list and paii each one with its matching item.
Remembei, these items may be eithei similaiities oi
diffeiences. What`s impoitant is that they aie compa-
iable aspects.
A ieadei:
1. looks foi clues to meaning.
2. has many diffeient types of books to iead.
3. can choose what book to iead.
4. builds vocabulaiy by ieading.
5. becomes a bettei ieadei with each book.
A detective:
1. has a dangeious job.
2. gets bettei at solving ciimes with each case.
3. iequiies lots of tiaining.
4. doesn`t get to choose which cases to woik on.
5. looks foi clues to solve the ciime.
nd the aspects that aie compaiable:
Did you match ieadei 1 with detective 5 (similaiity):
Readei 3 with detective 4 (diffeience): And ieadei 5
c
woik.
Heie`s how this infoimation might woik togethei
in a paiagiaph:
In many ways, ieadeis aie a lot like detectives. Like
detectives looking foi clues at the scene of the ciime,
ieadeis look foi clues to meaning in the books that
they iead. And, like detectives who get bettei and
bettei at solving ciimes with each case, ieadeis get
bettei and bettei at undeistanding what they iead
with each book. Unfoitunately foi detectives, how-
evei, they cannot choose which cases they get to
woik on, wheieas ieadeis have the pleasuie of
choosing which books they`d like to iead.
Wby Compare and Contrast?
In addition to following the ABABAB oi AAABBB
stiuctuie, compaie and contiast passages must, like all
othei passages, have a point. Theie`s a ieason that these
two items aie being compaied and contiasted; theie`s
something the wiitei is tiying to point out by putting
these two things side by side foi analysis. This ieason
oi point is the main idea, which is often stated in a
topic sentence.
72
ist paiagiaph you looked
at in this lesson was, Planting a gaiden is a lot like
having a family." In this paiagiaph, you leained that
cant similaiity between these
two ioles. Likewise, in the pievious paiagiaph, you see
a significant similaiity between ieadeis and
detectives.
In both cases, you may nevei have thought of
making such compaiisons. That`s pait of the beauty of
the compaie and contiast oiganization: It often allows
you to see things in a new and inteiesting way. In addi-
tion, it seives the moie piactical function of showing
you how two things measuie up against each othei so
that you can make infoimed decisions, like about
which cai to buy (a compaie and contiast essay might
tell you which cai is bettei) oi which savings bond to
invest in (a compaie and contiast essay will show you
which bond is best foi you).
When you ore reoding o comporison/conrrosr essoy or orricle, locus on rhe words or phroses rhor poinr our
|ey similoriries or dillerences.
The lollowing ore some ropics rhor lend rhemselves well ro comporison ond conrrosr:
Foshion rrends ol rhe 10s ond rhe 180s
6ose6oll ond loor6oll gomes
high school yeors ond college yeors
reenogers ond senior cirizens
orr srudenrs ond compurer science mo|ors
losr lood ond heolrh lood
living on o lorm ond living in on ur6on oreo
TIP
READING
READING PASSAGE 4
You shoula spena about 20 minutes on Questions 1-12 which are basea on Reaaing Passage 4
below.
Right and leIt-handedness in humans
Why do humans, virtually alone among all
animal species, display a distinct leIt or
right-handedness? Not even our closest
relatives among the apes possess such
decided lateral asymmetry, as psychologists
call it. Yet about 90 per cent oI every human
population that has ever lived appears to
have been right-handed. ProIessor Bryan
Turner at Deakin University has studied the
research literature on leIt-handedness and
Iound that handedness goes with sidedness.
So nine out oI ten people are right-handed
and eight are right-Iooted. He noted that this
distinctive asymmetry in the human
population is itselI systematic. 'Humans
think in categories: black and white, up and
down, leIt and right. It's a system oI signs
that enables us to categorise phenomena that
are essentially ambiguous.`
Research has shown that there is a genetic
or inherited element to handedness. But
while leIt-handedness tends to run in
Iamilies, neither leIt nor right handers will
automatically produce oIIspring with the
same handedness; in Iact about 6 per cent
oI children with two right-handed parents
will be leIt-handed. However, among two
leIt-handed parents, perhaps 40 per cent oI
the children will also be leIt-handed. With
one right and one leIt-handed parent, 15 to
20 per cent oI the oIIspring will be leIt-
handed. Even among identical twins who
have exactly the same genes, one in six pairs
will diIIer in their handedness.
What then makes people leIt-handed iI it is
not simply genetic? Other Iactors must be
at work and researchers have turned to the
brain Ior clues. In the 1860s the French
surgeon and anthropologist, Dr Paul Broca,
made the remarkable Iinding that patients
who had lost their powers oI speech as a
result oI a stroke (a blood clot in the brain)
had paralysis oI the right halI oI their body.
He noted that since the leIt hemisphere oI
the brain controls the right halI oI the body,
and vice versa, the brain damage must have
been in the brain`s leIt hemisphere.
Psychologists now believe that among
right-handed people, probably 95 per cent
have their language centre in the leIt
hemisphere, while 5 per cent have right-
sided language. LeIt-handers, however, do
not show the reverse pattern but instead a
majority also have their language in the leIt
hemisphere. Some 30 per cent have right
hemisphere language.
Dr Brinkman, a brain researcher at the
Australian National University in Canberra,
has suggested that evolution oI speech went
with right-handed preIerence. According to
Brinkman, as the brain evolved, one side
12
Reaaing 4
became specialised Ior Iine control oI
movement (necessary Ior producing speech)
and along with this evolution came right-
hand preIerence. According to Brinkman,
most leIt-handers have leIt hemisphere
dominance but also some capacity in the
right hemisphere. She has observed that iI a
leIt-handed person is brain-damaged in the
leIt hemisphere, the recovery oI speech is
quite oIten better and this is explained by
the Iact that leIt-handers have a more
bilateral speech Iunction.
In her studies oI macaque monkeys,
Brinkman has noticed that primates
(monkeys) seem to learn a hand preIerence
Irom their mother in the Iirst year oI liIe but
this could be one hand or the other. In
humans, however, the specialisation in
Iunction oI the two hemispheres results in
anatomical diIIerences: areas that are
involved with the production oI speech are
usually larger on the leIt side than on the
right. Since monkeys have not acquired the
art oI speech, one would not expect to see
such a variation, but Brinkman claims to have
discovered a trend in monkeys towards the
asymmetry that is evident in the human
brain.
Two American researchers, Geschwind and
Galaburda, studied the brains oI human
embryos and discovered that the leIt-right
asymmetry exists beIore birth. But as the
brain develops, a number oI things can aIIect
it. Every brain is initially Iemale in its
organisation and it only becomes a male
brain when the male Ioetus begins to secrete
hormones. Geschwind and Galaburda knew
that diIIerent parts oI the brain mature at
diIIerent rates; the right hemisphere
develops Iirst, then the leIt. Moreover, a
girl`s brain develops somewhat Iaster than
that oI a boy. So, iI something happens to
the brain`s development during pregnancy,
it is more likely to be aIIected in a male
and the hemisphere more likely to be
involved is the leIt. The brain may become
less lateralised, and this in turn could result
in leIt-handedness and the development oI
certain superior skills that have their origins
in the leIt hemisphere such as logic,
rationality and abstraction. It should be no
surprise then that among mathematicians
and architects leIt-handers tend to be more
common and there are more leIt-handed
males than Iemales.
The results oI this research may be some
consolation to leIt-handers who have Ior
centuries lived in a world designed to suit
right-handed people. However, what is
alarming, according to Mr. Charles Moore,
a writer and journalist, is the way the word
'right reinIorces its own virtue.
Subliminally he says, language tells people
to think that anything on the right can be
trusted while anything on the leIt is
dangerous or even sinister. We speak oI leIt-
handed compliments and according to
Moore, 'it is no coincidence that leIt-
handed children, Iorced to use their right
hand, oIten develop a stammer as they are
robbed oI their Ireedom oI speech.
However, as more research is undertaken
on the causes oI leIt-handedness, attitudes
towards leIt-handed people are gradually
changing Ior the better. Indeed, when the
champion tennis player Ivan Lendl was
asked what the single thing was that he
would choose in order to improve his game,
he said he would like to become a leIt-
hander.
Geoff Maslen
13
A Dr Broca
B Dr Brinkman
C Geschwind and Galaburda
D Charles Moore
E ProIessor Turner
Use the information in the text to match the people (listea A-E) with the opinions (listea
1-7) below. Some people match more than one opinion.
1 Human beings started to show a preIerence Ior right-handedness whenthey Iirst
developed language.
2 Society is prejudiced against leIt-handed people.
3 Boys are more likely to be leIt-handed.
4 AIter a stroke, leIt-handed people recover their speech more quickly than right-
handed people.
5 People who suIIer strokes on the leIt side oI the brain usually lose their power oI
speech.
6 The two sides oI the brain develop diIIerent Iunctions beIore birth.
7 Asymmetry is a common Ieature oI the human body.
Example Answer
Monkeys do not show a species speciIic preIerence Ior
leIt or right-handedness. B
14
Reading 4
Reaaing 4
Using the information in the passage, complete the table below.
Choose the appropriate letters A-D ana write them in boxes 11 ana 12 on vour answer sheet.
11 A study oI monkeys has shown that
A monkeys are not usually right-handed.
B monkeys display a capacity Ior speech.
C monkey brains are smaller than human brains.
D monkey brains are asymmetric.
12 According to the writer, leIt-handed people
A will oIten develop a stammer.
B have undergone hardship Ior years.
C are untrustworthy.
D are good tennis players.

15

Unit9:
Comparison/contrastparagraphs
L
E
5
5
O
N
73
F
oi eveiy action," famous scientist Sii Isaac Newton said, theie is an equal and opposite ieaction." Eveiy
action iesults in anothei action (a reaction); oi, foi eveiy action, theie is an effect caused by that action.
Likewise, each action is caused by a pievious action. In othei woids, each action has a cause- something
that made it happen- and each action has an effect-something it makes happen.
Cause: a peison oi thing that makes something happen oi pioduces an effect
Effect: a change pioduced by an action oi cause
Much of what you iead is an attempt to explain eithei the cause of some action oi its effect. Foi example,
an authoi might tiy to explain the causes of Woild Wai I oi the effect of undeiwatei nucleai testing; the ieason
a look at how wiiteis explaining cause oi effect might oiganize theii ideas.
LE$$ON $UMMARY
"Cne rhing leods ro onorher" rhor's rhe principle 6ehind couse
ond ellecr. Undersronding couse ond ellecr, ond rhe relorionship
6erween rhem, will mo|e you o 6errer reoder.
Be sure that ycu gc tc the authcr tc get at his meaning,
nd ycurs.
-Joux Rusxix, poet and ciitic (1819-1900)
9
WHY DO THING5
HAPPEN?
A LOOK AT CAU5E
AND EFFECT
74
~WHY DO THI NG5 HAPPEN? A LOOK AT CAU5E AND EFFECT~
Distinguisbing Cause
from Effect
A passage that examines cause geneially answeis the
question why something took place: Why was the com-
pany iestiuctuied: Who oi what made this take place:
A passage that examines effect geneially answeis the
question what happened aftei something took place:
What happened as a iesult of the iestiuctuiing: How
did it affect the company:
Practice
To help you distinguish between cause and effect, caie-
fully iead following the sentences. You`ll see that cause
and effect woik togethei; you can`t have one without
the othei. That`s why it`s veiy impoitant to be able to
distinguish between the two. See if you can deteimine
both the cause and the effect in each of the following
sentences:
Example: Robin got demoted when she talked
back to the boss.
Cause: Robin talked back to the boss.
Effect: Robin got demoted.
1. ation has caused us to iaise oui piices.
Cause:
Effect:
2. ce has been iunning
smoothly.
Cause:
Effect:
3. He iealized that his cai had stopped not because
it needed iepaii but because it ian out of gas.
Cause:
Effect:

4. The company`s budget ciisis was cieated by
oveispending.
Cause:
Effect:
5. As a iesult of oui new maiketing piogiam, sales
have doubled.
Cause:
Effect:
Answers
1. Cause: aticn
Effect: \e had tc raise cur prices.
2. Cause: \e hired }can.
Effect: ce has been running smccthly.
3. Cause: The car ran cut cf gas.
Effect: The car stcpped.
4. Cause: Cverspending
Effect: Budget crisis
5. Cause: The new marketing prcgram
Effect: Sales have dcubled.
If you aie having tiouble connecting causes and
cant events oi actions and
iewoid the situations in the foim of a question. The
phiase because of " is helpful in geneiating potential
causes, and the phiase iesulted in" can be used to foi-
mulate questions leading to effects.
Why did Jane lose hei job:
Jane lost hei job because of " cause]
What happened when Jane was constantly late:
Jane`s constant lateness iesulted in" effect]
Heie is a paitial list of woids and phiases that
indicate when a cause oi efffect is being examined.
Words Indicating Cause
because (of)
since
cieated (by)
caused (by)
75
Words Indicating Effect
since
hence
so
theiefoie
consequently
as a iesult
When Cause and Effect Are
InterreIated
Notice how the signal woids listed on the pievious
page aie used in the following paiagiaph. Undeiline
the signal woids as you come acioss them.
Ed became a mechanic laigely because of his fathei.
His fathei was always in the gaiage woiking on one
cai oi anothei, so young Ed would spend houis
watching his fathei woik. As a iesult, he became
fascinated by cais at an eaily age. His fathei encoui-
aged him to leain about cais on his own, so Ed
began tinkeiing with cais himself at age eight. Con-
sequently, by the time he was 13, Ed could teai an
engine apait and put it back togethei by himself.
Since he was alieady so skilled, when he was 15, he
got a job as the chief mechanic at a local iepaii shop.
He has been theie evei since.
You should have undeilined the following signal
woids and phiases in this paiagiaph: because cf, sc
(twice), as a result, ccnsequently, and since.
Notice that this paiagiaph`s puipose- to explain
why Ed became a mechanic- is expiessed in the topic
sentence, Ed became a mechanic laigely because of his
fathei." This paiagiaph`s puipose, then, is to explain
cause, and the piimaiy cause is Ed`s fathei.
You`ll notice, howevei, that some of the sentences
in this paiagiaph also deal with effect. This may seem
ist. Aftei all, why would a paia-
giaph about cause deal with effect: But it`s not a con-
tiadiction. That`s because theie isn`t just cne thing that
led to Ed`s becoming a mechanic. Although Ed`s dad
may have been the initial cause, theie was still a series
of actions and ieactions that occuiied- a seiies of
causes and effects. Once A causes B, B then becomes
the cause foi C.
In fact, six diffeient sets of cause and effect aie
ist cause
is piovided to get you staited.
Cause 1: Ed`s fathei was always in the gaiage.
Effect 1:
Cause 2:
Effect 2:
Cause 3:
Effect 3:
Cause 4:
Effect 4:
Cause 5:
Effect 5:
Cause 6:
Effect 6:
76
Answers
Cause 1: Ed`s fathei was always in the gaiage.
Effect 1: Ed would spend houis watching.
Cause 2: Ed would spend houis watching.
Effect 2: Ed became fascinated by cais.
Cause 3: Ed became fascinated by cais.
Effect 3: Ed began tinkeiing with cais.
Cause 4: Ed began tinkeiing with cais.
Effect 4: Ed`s fathei encouiaged him.
Cause 5: Ed`s fathei encouiaged him.
Effect 5: Ed could teai an engine apait by himself.
Cause 6: Ed could teai an engine apait by himself.
Effect 6: He got a job as the chief mechanic.
Variations
When One Cause Has 5everaI Effects
Sometimes, one cause may have seveial effects: Seveial
things may happen as a iesult of one action. In the fol-
lowing passage, the wiitei explains seveial effects of the
new maiketing campaign:
Oui new maiketing campaign has been a tiemen-
dous success. Since we`ve been adveitising on the
iadio, sales have incieased by 35%. Oui client iefei-
ences have doubled, and we`ve had gieatei client
ietention iates. Fuitheimoie, we`ve been able to hiie
ve new sales iepiesentatives and expand oui teiii-
toiy to include the southwestein United States.
Accoiding to the paiagiaph, what weie the effects
of the new maiketing campaign:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Answers
1. Sales have incieased 35%.
2. Client iefeiences have doubled.
3. Client ietention iates have incieased.
4. Five new sales iepiesentatives have been hiied.
5. Teiiitoiy has been expanded to include the
southwestein United States.
When One Effect Has 5everaI Causes
Just as one action can have many iesults, one action
can have many causes as well. The following announce-
ment is an example.
TO: All Commuteis
FROM: The Station Management
Unfoitunately, we will no longei piovide an aftei-
noon snack concession at the tiain station. Although
pooi sales aie one of the ieasons that this seivice
will no longei be piovided, theie aie actually seveial
ieasons why the concession is no longei a viable
option. In addition to pooi sales, the south wall of
the tiain station (wheie the concession is located)
will be undeigoing a six-month ienovation that will
foice the closuie of the snack concession. In fact, the
ticket windows on that wall will be closed as well.
Fuitheimoie, fiom this point foiwaid, the station
will close its doois at 6 v.x. due to new town iegula-
tions, which will cut the iush-houi commutei tiaf-
c coming thiough the station in half. Finally, Mike
77
Albeiti, the piopiietoi of the concession, has decided
to say faiewell to his concession business, and aftei
35 yeais on the job, Mike will be ietiiing next month.
While none of these factois on theii own would
have caused the long-teim closuie of the conces-
sion, combined, they make it impossible to continue
iunning an afteinoon snack concession foi the foie-
seeable futuie.
Why is the afteinoon snack concession at the
tiain station being discontinued:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Answers
You should have noticed foui causes in the
announcement:
1. Pooi sales.
2. A ienovation on the side of the tiain station wheie
the concession is located.
3. Town iegulations will now close the station at
6 v.x. c
cantly.
4. The piopiietoi of the concession has decided to
ietiie.
Contributing vs. 5ufficient Cause
You`ll notice that the pievious announcement infoims
commuteis that none of these factois on theii own
would have caused the long-teim closuie of the con-
cession." This means that each of these causes is a ccn-
tributing cause. A contiibuting cause helps make
something happen but can`t make that thing happen
by itself. It is only one factoi that ccntributes to the
cause.
On the opposite end of the cause spectium is the
cient
cient cause is
demonstiated in the following paiagiaph.
Deai Mi. Millei:
It has come to oui attention that you have
bieached youi lease. When you signed youi lease,
you agieed that you would leave Apaitment 3A at
123 Elm Stieet in the same state that you found it
when you moved in. You also agieed that if the
apaitment showed signs of damage upon youi
depaituie, then we (Livingston Piopeities) would
not ietuin the secuiity deposit that you gave us at
the time you moved into the building. Upon inspec-
tion, we have found a gieat deal of damage to the
appliances in the apaitment as well as the wood
oois. Consequently, we will not be ietuining youi
secuiity deposit.
Heie, you can see that theie is one cleai ieason
why Livingston Piopeities will not ietuin Mi. Millei`s
secuiity deposit. He bieached his lease by damaging
the apaitment he iented fiom them. (If you don`t know
what breach means, you should be able to deteimine
the meaning fiom the context.)
EvaIuating Opinions about
Cause and Effect
Sometimes, in a cause and effect passage, an authoi
will offei his oi hei cpinicn about the cause oi effect of
something, iathei than facts about the cause oi effect.
In that case, ieadeis must judge the validity of the
authoi`s analysis. Aie the authoi`s ideas logical: Does
he oi she suppoit the conclusions he oi she comes to:
Considei, foi example, two authois` opinions about
instituting mandatoiy school unifoims.
78
Paragraph A
Mandatoiy school unifoims aie a bad decision
foi oui distiict. If students aie iequiied to weai a
unifoim, it will gieatly inhibit theii ability to expiess
themselves. This is a pioblem because diess is one
of the majoi ways that young people expiess them-
selves. A school unifoim policy also diiectly violates
the fieedom of expiession that all Ameiicans aie
supposed to enjoy. Consequently, young people will
doubt that theii basic iights aie piotected, and this
will affect theii laigei outlook on civil libeities. Fui-
theimoie, school unifoims will inteifeie with the
weaiing of ceitain aiticles of ieligious clothing,
which will cieate tensions among ceitain ieligious
gioups that can lead to feelings of disciimination.
In addition, school unifoims will place an undue
nancial buiden on many low-income families who
may not have the money to spend on new unifoims
eveiy yeai, especially if they have seveial childien.
Finally, school unifoims will negate one of the most
impoitant concepts we can teach oui childien-
individuality. When push comes to shove, we`d all
be bettei off choosing individuality ovei unifoimity.
Mandatoiy school unifoims aie a step in the wiong
diiection.
Paragraph B
Mandatoiy school unifoims will have a tie-
mendously positive impact on oui distiict. If stu-
dents aie iequiied to weai a unifoim, it will gieatly
inhibit gang behavioi since they will no longei be
able to weai gang colois. As a iesult, schools will
expeiience an oveiall deciease in school violence
and theft. Since violence is one of the majoi con-
ceins that paients, teacheis, and students iaise about
oui distiict, this change will be welcomed with open
aims. In addition, school unifoims will instill a
much-needed sense of discipline in oui student
body, and discipline is something that is, unfoitu-
nately, in shoit supply in oui school distiict. Also,
students diessed in unifoims will feel a stiong sense
of community with theii peeis, which will lead to a
moie haimonious school enviionment. Finally, if
students weie weaiing school unifoims, administia-
tois and teacheis would no longei have to be cloth-
ing police, fieeing them to focus on moie impoitant
issues than whethei someone is weaiing a diess that
is too shoit oi a T-shiit with an inappiopiiate mes-
sage. You can make oui schools a bettei place by
suppoiting mandatoiy school unifoims.
What effects does the authoi of paiagiaph A
think mandatoiy unifoims would have:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What effects does the authoi of paiagiaph B
think mandatoiy unifoims would have:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
You`ll notice that both authois take one cause-
mandatoiy school unifoims-and offei seveial pos-
sible effects. Often, authois will use the cause and effect
stiuctuie to make aiguments like the ones we`ve just
seen: one foi and one against mandatoiy school uni-
foims. It is up to the ieadei to deteimine whose aigu-
ment seems most valid.
79
5ummary
Undeistanding cause and effect is an impoitant skill
not only foi ieading compiehension, but also foi youi
daily life. To analyze the events happening aiound you,
you must be able to undeistand why those events
happened- what caused them. Similaily, to make
decisions oi evaluate the decisions of otheis, you must
be able to considei the effects of a possible decision.
Reading" not only texts, but also events and situations,
iequiies you to undeistand cause and effect.
Whenever you reod rhe newspoper, 6e sure ro reod wirh o s|epricol eyesomerimes couses ond ellecrs
oren'r enrirely 6loc| ond whire. For exomple, porenrs, reochers, superinrendenrs, ond srudenrs mighr provide
dillerenr opinions on why o porriculor school is loiling 6osed on rheir own personol 6ioses or hidden ogendos.
nger-poinring rocrics.
Focus on |udging rhe couse (why somerhing hoppened) ond rhe ellecr (whor exocrly hoppened) 6y
derermining which porry is presenring rhe mosr logicol ond volid conclusion 6osed on documenred
rhor resulred in o porriculor ellecr.
TIP
READING PASSAGE 3
You shoula spena about 20 minutes on Questions 29-4 which are basea on Reaaing Passage
3 below.
ArchiIecIure is Ihe arI and
science oI designing bui|dings
and sIrucIures. A bui|ding
reI|ecIs Ihe scienIiIic and
Iechno|ogica| achievemenIs
oI Ihe age as we|| as Ihe ideas
and aspiraIions oI Ihe
designer and c|ienI. The
appearance oI individua|
bui|dings, however, is oIIen
conIroversia|.
The use oI an archiIecIura|
sIy|e cannoI be said Io sIarI or
Iinish on a speciIic daIe.
NeiIher is iI possib|e Io say
exacI|y whaI characIerises a
parIicu|ar movemenI. BuI Ihe
origins oI whaI is now
genera||y known as modern
archiIecIure can be Iraced
back Io Ihe socia| and
Iechno|ogica| changes oI Ihe
18Ih and 19Ih cenIuries.
lnsIead oI using Iimber,
sIone and IradiIiona| bui|ding
Iechniques, archiIecIs began
Io exp|ore ways oI creaIing
bui|dings by using Ihe |aIesI
Iechno|ogy and maIeria|s
such as sIee|, g|ass and
concreIe sIrengIhened sIee|
bars, known as reinIorced
concreIe. Techno|ogica|
advances a|so he|ped bring
abouI Ihe dec|ine oI rura|
indusIries and an increase in
urban popu|aIions as peop|e
moved Io Ihe Iowns Io work in
Ihe new IacIories. Such rapid
and unconIro||ed growIh
he|ped Io Iurn parIs oI ciIies
inIo s|ums.
By Ihe 1920s archiIecIs
IhroughouI Europe were
reacIing againsI Ihe
condiIions creaIed by
indusIria|isaIion. A new sIy|e oI
archiIecIure emerged Io reI|ecI
more idea|isIic noIions Ior Ihe
IuIure. lI was made possib|e by
new maIeria|s and consIrucIion
Iechniques and was known as
Modernism.
By Ihe 1930s many bui|dings
emerging Irom Ihis movemenI
were designed in Ihe
lnIernaIiona| SIy|e. This was
|arge|y characIerised by Ihe bo|d
use oI new maIeria|s and simp|e,
geomeIric Iorms, oIIen wiIh
|ike pi||ars. These were sIripped
oI unnecessary decoraIion IhaI
wou|d deIracI Irom Iheir primary
purpose - Io be used or |ived in.
Wa|Ier Gropius, Char|es
JeannereI (beIIer known as Le
Corbusier) and Ludwig Mies van
der Rohe were among Ihe mosI
inI|uenIia| oI Ihe many archiIecIs
who conIribuIed Io Ihe
deve|opmenI oI Modernism in
Ihe IirsI ha|I oI Ihe cenIury. BuI
Ihe economic depression oI Ihe
1930s and Ihe second wor|d war
Irom being wide|y rea|ised unIi|
Ihe economic condiIions
had Io be rebui|I. By Ihe 1950s,
Ihe lnIernaIiona| SIy|e had
deve|oped inIo a universa|
approach Io bui|ding, which
sIandardised Ihe appearance oI
new bui|dings in ciIies across Ihe
wor|d.
nIorIunaIe|y, Ihis ModernisI
inIeresI in geomeIric simp|iciIy
and IuncIion became exp|oiIed
Ior proIiI. The rediscovery oI
reinIorced concreIe and an
improved abi|iIy Io
preIabricaIe bui|ding secIions
meanI IhaI bui|ders cou|d
meeI Ihe budgeIs oI
commissioning auIhoriIies
and hand|e a renewed
demand Ior deve|opmenI
quick|y and cheap|y. BuI Ihis
|ed Io many bad|y designed
bui|dings, which discrediIed
Ihe origina| aims oI
Modernism.
lnI|uenced by Le
Corbusier's ideas on Iown
p|anning, every |arge BriIish
seemed Io oIIer a so|uIion Io
Ihe prob|em oI housing a
BuI Iar Irom meeIing human
needs, Ihe new esIaIes oIIen
proved Io be windswepI
deserIs |acking essenIia|
socia| Iaci|iIies and services.
Many oI Ihese bui|dings were
poor|y designed and
consIrucIed and have since
been demo|ished.
By Ihe 1970s, a new respecI
Ior Ihe p|ace oI bui|dings
wiIhin Ihe exisIing Iownscape
arose. Preserving hisIoric
bui|dings or keeping on|y Iheir
Iacades (or IronIs) grew
common. ArchiIecIs a|so
began Io make more use oI
bui|ding sIy|es and maIeria|s
IhaI were IradiIiona| Io Ihe
area. The archiIecIura| sIy|e
usua||y reIerred Io as High
Tech was a|so emerging. lI
9
Reaaing 3
ce|ebraIed scienIiIic and
engineering achievemenIs by
open|y parading Ihe
sophisIicaIed Iechniques
used in consIrucIion. Such
bui|dings are common|y
made oI meIa| and g|ass;
examp|es are SIansIed
airporI and Ihe L|oyd's
bui|ding in London.
Disi||usionmenI aI Ihe
Iai|ure oI many oI Ihe poor
imiIaIions oI ModernisI
archiIecIure |ed Io inIeresI in
various sIy|es and ideas Irom
Ihe pasI and presenI. By Ihe
1980s Ihe coexisIence oI
diIIerenI sIy|es oI archiIecIure in
Ihe same bui|ding became
known as PosI Modern. OIher
archiIecIs |ooked back Io Ihe
c|assica| IradiIion. The Irend in
archiIecIure now Iavours sma||er
sca|e bui|ding design IhaI
reI|ecIs a growing pub|ic
awareness oI environmenIa|
issues such as energy
eIIiciency. Like Ihe ModernisIs,
peop|e Ioday recognise IhaI a
we|| designed environmenI
improves Ihe qua|iIy oI |iIe buI is
noI necessari|y achieved by
adopIing one we|| deIined sIy|e
oI archiIecIure.
TwenIieIh cenIury
archiIecIure wi|| main|y be
remembered Ior iIs Ia||
bui|dings. They have been
made possib|e by Ihe
deve|opmenI oI |ighI sIee|
Irames and saIe passenger
|iIIs. They originaIed in Ihe S
over a cenIury ago Io he|p
meeI Ihe demand Ior more
economica| use oI |and. As
consIrucIion Iechniques
improved, Ihe skyscraper
became a rea|iIy.
RuIh Co|eman
Complete the table below using information from Reaaing Passage 3. Write AO MORE
1HAA 1HREE WORDS for each answer.
PERIOD
STYLE OF
PERIOD
BUILDING
MATERIALS
CHARACTERISTICS
BeIore 18th
century
Example
traditional
........
1920s
introduction oI
........
steel, glass and
concrete
exploration oI latest
technology
1930s -
1950s
........ geometric Iorms
1960s
decline oI
Modernism
pre-Iabricated
sections
........
1970s
end oI Modernist
era
traditional materials
.........
oI historic buildings
1970s
beginning oI
........ era
metal and glass
sophisticated techniques
paraded
1980s Post-Modernism ..........
10
Reaaing Passage 3 aescribes a number of cause ana effect relationships. Match each Cause
(3-4) in List A, with its Effect (A-H) in List B.
AB There are more effects in List B than vou will neea, so vou will not use all of them. You
mav use anv effect more than once if vou wish.
36 A rapid movement oI people Irom
rural areas to cities is triggered by
technological advance.
37 Buildings become simple and
Iunctional.
38 An economic depression and the
second world war hit Europe.
39 Multi-storey housing estates are
built according to contemporary
ideas on town planning.
40 Less land must be used Ior
building.
List A CAUSES
A The quality oI liIe is improved.
B Architecture reIlects the age.
C A number oI these have been
knocked down.
D Light steel Irames and liIts are
developed.
E Historical buildings are preserved.
F All decoration is removed.
G Parts oI cities become slums.
H Modernist ideas cannot be put
into practice until the second halI
oI the 20th century.
List
11
Reading 3
Unit10:
Revisionandextrapracticetasks
L
E
5
5
O
N
81
L
ike an aichitect designing a building, a wiitei must have a bluepiint- a plan foi how he oi she will
oiganize the passage. So fai in this section, we`ve looked at seveial ways that authois may oiganize theii
infoimation and ideas:
Lesson 6: Chronological order. Ideas aie aiianged in the oidei in which they occuiied (oi in the oidei in
which they should occui).
Lesson 7: Order of importance. Ideas aie aiianged in oidei of increasing impoitance (least impoitant idea
to most impoitant idea) oi in oidei of decreasing impoitance (most impoitant idea to least impoitant idea).
Lesson 8: Compare and contrast. Ideas aie aiianged so that paiallel aspects of item A and item B aie com-
paied and contiasted eithei in block style (AAAABBBB) oi point - by - point style (ABABABAB).
Lesson 9: Cause and effect. Ideas aie aiianged so that ieadeis can see what event oi seiies of events caused
something to take place oi what effect an event oi seiies of events had.
LE$$ON $UMMARY
Todoy's lesson pulls rogerher whor you've leorned in Lessons
ond gives you more procrice in discerning rhe srrucrure ol o reod-
ing possoge.
Reading is tc the mind what exercise is tc the bcdy.
-Ricu:vn S1vviv, Iiish wiitei (1672-1729)
EING
5TPUCTUPALLY
5OUND:
PUTTING IT ALL
TOGETHEP

82
~EI NG 5TPUCTUPALLY 5OUND: PUTTI NG I T ALL TOGETHEP~
If any of tbese terms or strategies seem
unfamiIiar to you, 5TOP. PIease take a few
moments to review wbatever Iesson is
uncIear.
Practice
Although wiiteis often iely on one paiticulai stiuctuie
to oiganize theii ideas, in many cases, wiiteis use a
combination of these stiuctuies. Foi example, a wiitei
may want to compaie and contiast the causes of Woild
Wai I and those of Woild Wai II; oi a wiitei may want
to desciibe, in chionological oidei, the events that led
to (caused) the failuie of a computei system. Thus,
today we will look at how wiiteis may combine these
stiategies. In addition, we`ll continue to stiengthen
youi ieading compiehension skills by including stiate-
ist week:
Finding the facts
Deteimining the main idea
ning vocabulaiy woids in context
Distinguishing between fact and opinion
Practice Passage 1
Begin with the following paiagiaph. Read it caiefully,
maiking it up as you go. Then answei the questions
that follow.
ist
occuiied about 18 months ago when Maik and I decided to stait a family. We
weie living in a one-bedioom apaitment and we knew that we wanted to move
into laigei quaiteis befoie we had a baby. We began to look at houses. Then,
much soonei than expected, I got piegnant. Soon aftei that, Maik`s company
announced that they weie ielocating to Flemington, which was in a less expen-
sive pait of the state, about 90 miles south of us. Maik`s company had been good
ts, family-
fiiendly policies, and a child-caie centei on site. With a baby on the way, these
things weie impeiative foi us. Since I ian my giaphic aits business fiom home,
I wasn`t bound to any paiticulai place, so we began looking at ieal estate in
Flemington and also did some ieseaich on theii school system as well as the
oveiall community. We weie veiy excited about what we found-ieasonable
housing costs, gieat schools, and a lively town. Maik then accepted the ieloca-
tion offei and we found a beautiful old Tudoi house. We`ll be moving about a
month befoie the baby is due. Let`s hope she doesn`t decide to come eaily.
1. Which two oiganizational stiategies does this
wiitei use:
a. chionological oidei
b. oidei of impoitance
c. compaie and contiast
d. cause and effect
2. Imperative means
a. tiivial, unimpoitant.
b. luxuiious, lavish.
c. piessing, ciucial.
83
3. What piompted the initial decision to move:
4. What happened aftei the initial cause set things
in motion:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Answers
1. a, d. The wiitei tells you the causes, in the oidei
in which they occuiied, that iesulted in hei move
to Flemington.
2. c. The sentence befoie the one that uses the woid
imperative is desciibing the attiactive family-
ts that Maik`s company offeis.
Since we know that the wiitei is piegnant, it would
ts would be piessing
oi ciucial foi hei, as opposed to the othei two
options.
3. The decision to begin a family spaiked the initial
desiie to move.
4. Aftei the wiitei and hei husband decided to stait
a family, the following events occuiied in this
oidei:
a. They began to look at houses.
b. The wiitei got piegnant.
c. Maik`s company announced plan to ielocate.
d. The couple began ieseaiching ieal estate,
schools, and community life in Flemington.
e. Maik accepted the ielocation offei.
f. They found a house.
How did you do: Weie you able to see how each
cause led to an effect, and how that effect caused some-
thing else to happen (anothei effect): If you missed
any of the questions, heie`s what you should do:
IF YOU MI55ED: THEN 5TUDY:
Ouestion 1 Lessons and
Ouestion 2 Lesson 3
Ouestion 3 Lesson
Ouestion 4 Lesson
Practice Passage 2
Now tiy the following passage. Again, iead it caiefully,
maiking it up as you go, and then answei the questions
that follow.
84
Theie aie seveial changes in the pioceduie foi employees who wish to apply foi
vacant positions within the company. These changes make it much easiei foi
ll vacancies that occui.
ed
of all available positions befcre the positions aie adveitised foi the geneial pub-
lic. Accoidingly, all in - house candidates will be inteiviewed befoie we see any
outside candidates, and we will offei the job to outside candidates only if no
ll the position.
Second, undei the new pioceduie, in - house employees can be hiied even
if they don`t meet all job iequiiements. Undei oui old policy, in - house employees
cations in oidei to obtain the vacant position. Now,
howevei, employees who have pioven themselves dedicated to the company will
cations;
tiaining will be piovided.
A thiid change involves iecommendations. Fiom now on, employees do
not need to be iecommended foi an in - house position befoie they apply. Instead,
employees may apply as soon as they aie awaie of the vacancy. The iemaining
pioceduies and policies (those iegaiding inciease in pay, inteiview pioceduie,
and hiiing appioval) iemain the same.
5. Which two oiganizational stiategies does this
wiitei use:
a. chionological oidei
b. oidei of impoitance
c. compaie and contiast
d. cause and effect
6. The authoi oiganizes hei ideas in oidei of
a. decieasing impoitance (most impoitant to
least impoitant).
b. incieasing impoitance (least impoitant to
most impoitant).
7. Undeiline the sentence in this passage that
expiesses the main idea.
8. The sentence you undeilined is a(n)
a. fact.
b. opinion.
Answers
5. b, c. The authoi uses oidei of impoitance in com-
paiing the old pioceduie to the new one.
6. a. The authoi oiganizes hei ideas in oidei of
decieasing impoitance. She staits with the most
impoitant change (Fiist, the most impoitant dif-
feience is . . .") and moves downwaid to the sec-
ond and thiid most impoitant changes.
7. The sentence that expiesses the main idea of all
ist
paiagiaph: These changes make it much easiei
ll vacancies." Although
ist sentence tells us what all the paiagiaphs
will be about (the changes in the pioceduie), it is
the second sentence that expiesses an opinion-
how the authoi feels about this subject-and
theiefoie, it is the main idea.
85
8. b. This sentence expiesses an opinion, not a fact.
Theie have indeed been changes-that is a fact-
but whethei those changes make things easiei foi
most employees is debatable. Theie may be some
things about the old pioceduie that we don`t know.
Peihaps, foi example, they opened the job to both
in - house employees and the geneial public at the
same time, but they inteiviewed all in - house
ist anyway. Because of oui limited
infoimation about the old pioceduie, we cannot
accept the idea that the change is bettei as fact.
If you missed some of these questions, now it`s
guie out which lessons to ieview.
Practice Passage 3
Now it`s youi tuin. In this exeicise, you`ll take a paia-
giaph that is oiganized one way-by cause and effect-
and add anothei stiuctuie: oidei of impoitance.
Heie`s what you should do: Reiead the following
two paiagiaphs about mandatoiy school unifoims.
Decide which authoi you agiee with most. Then, look
caiefully at the effects the authoi piedicts. Which effect
do you think is most impoitant: Which is least impoi-
tant: Rank these effects in oidei of impoitance. Then,
decide whethei you want to stait with the most impoi-
tant idea and end with the least impoitant, oi vice
veisa, stait with the least impoitant idea and end with
the most impoitant. Finally, put it all togethei in a
paiagiaph in the space piovided.
Paragraph A
Mandatoiy school unifoims aie a bad decision
foi oui distiict. If students aie iequiied to weai a
unifoim, it will gieatly inhibit theii ability to expiess
themselves. This is a pioblem because diess is one
of the majoi ways that young people expiess them-
selves. A school unifoim policy also diiectly violates
the fieedom of expiession that all Ameiicans aie
supposed to enjoy. Consequently, young people will
doubt that theii basic iights aie piotected, which
will affect theii laigei outlook on civil libeities. Fui-
theimoie, school unifoims will inteifeie with the
weaiing of ceitain aiticles of ieligious clothing, and
this will cieate tensions among ceitain ieligious
gioups that can lead to feelings of disciimination.
In addition, school unifoims will place an undue
nancial buiden on many low-income families who
may not have the money to spend on new unifoims
eveiy yeai, especially if they have seveial childien.
Finally, school unifoims will negate one of the most
impoitant concepts we can teach oui childien-
individuality. When push comes to shove, we`d all
be bettei off choosing individuality ovei unifoimity.
Mandatoiy school unifoims aie a step in the wiong
diiection.
Paragraph B
Mandatoiy school unifoims will have a tie-
mendously positive impact on oui distiict. If stu-
dents aie iequiied to weai a unifoim, it will gieatly
inhibit gang behavioi since they will no longei be
able to weai gang colois. As a iesult, schools will
expeiience an oveiall deciease in school violence
and theft. Since violence is one of the majoi con-
ceins that paients, teacheis, and students iaise about
oui distiict, this change will be welcomed with open
aims. In addition, school unifoims will instill a
much-needed sense of discipline in oui student
body, and discipline is something that is, unfoitu-
nately, in shoit supply in oui school distiict. Also,
students diessed in unifoims will feel a stiong sense
of community with theii peeis, which will lead to a
moie haimonious school enviionment. Finally, if
students weie weaiing school unifoims, administia-
tois and teacheis would no longei have to be cloth-
ing police, fieeing them to focus on moie impoitant
issues than whethei someone is weaiing a diess that
is too shoit oi a T-shiit with an inappiopiiate mes-
sage. You can make oui schools a bettei place by
suppoiting mandatoiy school unifoims.
86
1. Rank the ideas of the paiagiaph you have chosen
in oidei of theii impoitance to you.
2. Now wiite a paiagiaph, choosing whethei to put
the ideas in the oidei of incieasing impoitance
oi decieasing impoitance.
Cieating a biief outline is the best way to ensuie that
youi ideas aie oiganized accoiding to youi chosen
method of oideiing.
Some students piefei to discuss all of the similaiities
ist and then move on to discuss the
contiasting elements in the sepaiate blocks of paia-
giaphs that follow. Still otheis piefei to alteinate theii
focus by shifting fiom compaiison to contiast on a
point-by-point basis thioughout the entiie essay.
ne, as long as the key points aie iestated
in youi concluding paiagiaph.

FINAL BBN ANG 104 Reader-and-Workbook 2013autumn PDF

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

FINAL BBN ANG 104 Reader-and-Workbook 2013autumn PDF

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

BBN-ANG-104

Academic Skills 1: Reader and workbook

BBN-ANG-104 Reader and Workbook PAGE 7

BBN-ANG-104 Reader and Workbook PAGE 41

BBN-ANG-104 Reader and Workbook PAGE 63

BBN-ANG-104 Reader and Workbook PAGE 115

BBN-ANG-104 Reader and Workbook PAGE 123

BBN-ANG-104 Reader and Workbook PAGE 180

Você também pode gostar