GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

DATA INPUT METHODS There are two types of spatial data namely of analogue (non-digital) and digital sources of Spatial data. Analogue data are normally in paper form and include paper maps, tables of Statistics and hardcopy aerial photographs. All these forms of data need to be converted to digital Form before use in a gis. Digital data like remote sensing data are already in computer-readable Formats and are supplied on diskette, magnetic tape or cd-rom or across a computer network. There are four methods pf data input which are widely used: Keyboard entry Manual digitizing Automatic digitization scanning 4.6. 1.KEYBOARD ENTRY Often referred to as key coding, is the entry data into a file at a computer terminal. This Technique is used for attribute data that are available only on paper. The attribute date once in Digital format are linked to the relevant map features in the spatial database using identification Codes. There are unique codes that are allocated to each point, line and area feature in the dataset. This method leads to obtain very high degree of precision data by entering the actual surveying Measurements. 4.6.2. MANUAL DIGITIZING It is the process of converting the spatial features on a map into a digital format. Point, line, area features that form a map are converted into (x, y) coordinates. Thus digitizing is the process of capturing a series of points and lines. Manual digitizing requires a table digitizer that is linked to a computer workstation. Digitizers are the most common devices for extracting spatial information from maps and photographs. 4.6.3. Digitizing operation The map is affixed to the digitizing table. Three or more control points are to be identified and Digitized for each map sheet. The coordinates of the control points will be known in the Coordinate system to be used in the final data such as latitude and longitude. The control points are used by the system to calculate the necessary mathematical transformations to cover all coordinates to the final system. The more the control points the more the accuracy of digitization. Digitizing the map contents can be done in two different modes: point mode and stream mode. 4.6.4. SCANNING AND AUTOMATIC DIGITIZING Scanning is the most commonly used method of automatic digitizing. Scanning is an appropriate method of data encoding when raster data are required, since this is the automatic Output format from most scanning software. Thus scanning may be used as a background raster Dataset for the over plotting of vector infrastructure data, such as, pipelines and cables. A scanner is a piece of hardware for converting analogue source document to a digital raster Format. There are two types of scanners-flatbed scanner and rotating drum scanners. The Cheapest scanners are small flatbed scanners and high quality and large format scanners are Rotating drum scanners in which the sensor moves along the axis of rotation. Moving an electronic detector across the map surface produces a digital image of the map. The size of the map area viewed by the detector and scanning should be processed or edited to improve the quality and convert the raster to vector after online digitization. The accuracy of the Scanned output data depends on the quality of the scanner, the quality of the software used to Process the scanned data, and the quality of the source document.

4.7. DATA EDITING The input data that is encoding may consists of a number of errors derived from the original Data source as well as errors that have been introduced during the encoding process. There may Be errors in coordinate data as well as in accuracy's and uncer1ainty in attribute data. Before successfully using the methods of data analysis for any specific application, it is better to Intercept errors before they contaminate the gis database. The process of detecting and removing errors through editing is called cleaning. Data editing and cleaning of gis database are covered under detecting and correcting errors Data reduction and generalization Data matching and rubber sheeting 4.8. Raster and vector data structures In gis, the location component of geographic information are represented using two formats, such as Raster format (grid cell) Vector format (polygon)

Raster or grid data structures have formed the basis for many gis packages. A raster based system displays, locates, and stores graphical data by using a matrix or grid of cells. A Unique reference coordinate represents each pixel either at a corner or the centroid. In turn each Cell or pixel has discrete attribute data assigned to it. Raster data resolution is dependent on the Pixel or grid size and may vary from sub-meter to many kilometers. Generally, raster data requires less processing than vector data, but it consumes more computer storage space. Scanning Remote sensors on satellites store data in raster format. Digital terrain models (dtm) and digital elevation models (dem) are exam les of raster data.

In grid-based or raster systems there are two general ways of including attribute data for such object (entity). The simplest is to assign a single number, representing an attribute (e.g., a Class of land cover), for each grid cell location. By positioning these numbers, we ultimately are Allowing the position of the attribute value to act as the default location for the entity. For Example if we assign a code number

of i to represent water, then list this as the first number in the x or column direction and the first in the y or row direction, by default the upper left grid cell is the location or a portion of the earth representing water. In this way, each grid cell can hold Only a single attribute value for a given map, an alternative approach, actually an extension of the One adjust discussed, is to link the grid cells to a database system, with the result that more than one Attribute can be represented by a single grid cell. This approach is becoming more prevalent because it reduces the amount of data that must be stored and because it can easily linked to other Data. Structures that also rely on database management systems to store, search and manipulate Data, a line number and column number define the cell's position in the raster data. The data is Then stored in a table giving the attribute value of each cell. (Shown in figure 2), A major advantage of the raster system is that the data form their own map in the Computer's memory. An operation such as comparing a grid cell with its neighbors can be performed by looking at the values in the next and preceding row and column of the grid cells in Question. However, the raster is not very good at representing lines or points, since each becomes A set of cells in the grid. Lines can become disconnected or wide if they cross the grid at too shallow an angle.

In case of raster data, the scan orders such as boustrophedon order, Morton order, Quad trees etc., are important in order to achieve loss-ices compression and cfficicnt storage. Row order and boustrophedon scan order. In case of row order, the scan is always from left to right for each row. But, in case of Boustrophedon order, the scan is from the left to right for the first row and then from the right to left to right for the second row and so on. Boustrophedon is from the Greek, explaining how an ox Ploughs the field and results in compressions because adjacent cells are more likely to be the same

In case of Morton order, the scan order is as detailed below. Start in the lower left corner NAD then executes a basic pattern given below. This basic pattern is repeated three more times to get blocks of 16. These blocks can be repeated indefinitely, to fill up the object space. The sample figure is given below. The ordering can only be applied to a square matrix, of dimensions 2', by 2, where! Is an integer.

The most popular method of retaining spatial relationships among features is to explicitly Record adjacency information in what is known as the tojjologic data model. Topology is a Mathematical concept that has its basis in the principles of feature adjacency and connectivity. Several different vector data models exist, however only two are commonly used in gis data Storage. The topologic data structure is often referred to as an intelligent data structure because Spatial relationship ips between geography ic features are easily derived when us ing them. Primarily if For this reason the topologic model is the dominant vector data structure currently used in gis Technology. Many of the complex data analysis functions cannot effectively be undertaken without a topologic vector data structure. The secondary vector data structure that is common among gis software is the computer- Aided drafting (cad) data structure. This structure consists of listing elements, not features, Defined by strings of vertices, to define geographic features, e.g. Points, lines, or areas. There is Considerable redundancy with this data model since the boundary segment between two polygons can be stored twice, once for each feature. The cad structure emerged from the development of. Computer graphics systems without specific considerations of processing geographic features. Accordingly, since features, e.g. Polygons, are self-contained and independent, questions about The adjacency of features can be difficult to answer. The cad vector model lacks the definition of spatial relationships between features that is defined by the topologic data model

4.9. L.Introduction: The analysis is as the very heart of the gis:

 Pre processing procedures are used to convert a data set into a form suitable for Permanent storage. When the gis data base for application development. A large proportion of data entered onto gis requires to make at a data type, geo Referencing system and data structure that as compatible with the system. The end result of the pre processing phase as a coordinated set of thematic data layers. The first step as to data format conversion and other method of analysis as spatial Measurement, reclassification, buffer analyses, man over lay analyses, modeling Surfaces (dtm) & not work analysis model. 4.9.2. FORMAT CONVERSION: As conversion between different digital data structures and conversion between Different data media. The conversion of digital data structures as modifying one data structure onto another. The conversion of different data media as converting source material such as paper Maps, photographic, print and printed tables onto computer based digital data either by Means of manual digitization on by means of scanning. Data structure conversion: * Data produced by remote sensing as an array of brightness values for each Wave length band and the sensor. * These system generate data sets that are comparable to any multivariate collection of Raster data, including problems of bands or between different clales of acquisition. * The most important and commonly used method of organizing gis data sets are band Sequential band enter leaved by pole and band inter leaved by line. In band sequential each variable data link deviations annual rainfall, and different Spectral data can be arranged as a separate array and each array is kept as a separate File on the magnetic desk or tape. A one data file would contain elevation array and Desperate file would contain elevation array and separate file would contain rainfall Values. Band enters leaved by pixel as a singer array containing multivariable pixel. The Element on this second format would contain the elevation value and second element would contain rainfall value of same pixel information about the pixel is kept together. Band enter leaved by line (bil) master is middle between the extremes of bsq and Bib. In the method the different themes corresponding to a row on the file are relatively near each other on the file are relatively near each other a file ie all the Values of a single line are stored before the values of another variable a same Line. 4.9.3.conversion of different raster formats: Usually a portion of the data on one format is read onto a memory based storage array And appropriate pointers as created to extract the data value on whatever sequence as Required for the new format. It is generally expensive to create topological information when it is not explicitly Present in vector data structure. To converting data from an arc- node to relational one is very easy, because these 2 Data structures are really storing the some information with slightly different syntax. converting data an a whole polygon structure to an are node structure: (1) In a polygon structure where data set stored there is very little explicitly Identified topology * and list of nodes that form the boundaries of each Individual polygon is stored Now we will consider the extracting the arc nock list. 1. We must go through entire list of polygons and create a list of unique nodes. 2. Create arc list which pass through whole polygon file, and create pointers. Vector into raster data: Is concept wise straight forward, although practically difficult. For point data elements, the cell or pixel on the. Raster array whose centre is the closest To the geographic coordinate of the point is coded with the attribute of the point. Thus the elevation of surveyed b.m is transferred to raster cell whose location is Closest to the original point. (but this method changes the stored location of the Point). Due to this different objects occupies the same cell and these is the limitations of Converting vector to a raster data a structure. Examples: linear data, polygon

4.9.4. Skeletonisang: (thinning). In this method 2 general functions are required to convert raster into vector. Skeleton sang as required because the input data are not generally sample. Algorithm for determining the skeleton of an object are done where the outside edges Of thick lines are peeled away leaving a unit width vector. A symmetrical alternative method (approach) is done to expend the areas between line With same goal. The aim of this low method is to produce narrower vector out line. The third method is medial axis approach to identify the centre of a line by finding the Set of interior pixels that are away from the outside edges of original line. After raster data had such thinning operation. The vectors stored on the raster are . Extracted. Data medium conversion: Special data available from development of various applications are not an computer Comparable format. (maps, on different scales, printed manuscript and imaginary) converting all These materials into a format comparable with digital geographic information system can be very Expensive and time consuming. The most common method is digitization. 4.9. S.RECIASSIFICATION: Reclassification is an important variation of the query idea on gis performance queries on a Gis database to retrieve data is an very important part queries ate useful all stages in gis Analysis for checking the quality of data and results obtained. A query may be used to obtain the Name and address of the college in tamilnadu from the colleges data base there are two types of Queries that can be prepared by gis i.e., spatial and non spatial Boolean operators are used on creating the queries on gis environment. For example we well consider the raster land use image and we want to extract information on Areas of tomato vegetation. The question is what is the area under tomato vegetation? To answer: this query first reclassification should be done and a set of rules should be formed. In Original image the vegetation had a value of 20 and now we have to give new values Cells with values 20 should be take new value 1 Cells with values other than 20 should take new value 0 As result a new image will be generated with all vegetation codes with value 1 and all Other areas with value 0. This is called Boolean image. Boolean image will have 2 code image which is very much useful an future analysis Since it contains 0 and 1. Other reclassification methods are tell ring techniques polygonal neighbor hoods, etc. 4.9.6. BUFFERING TECHNIQUES: buffering is the creation of polygon that surrounds other points, lines or polygon. The user may do to for excluding a certain amount of area around line, point or Polygon or to include only the buffer area in the study. The creation of buffer is based on location, shape characteristics of influential Parameters. The creation of buffer also influences its neighbor or the character of an entity. . A buffer may be termed as point buffer, line buffer and area buffer based on type of Entity, point, line and area/polygon. Creation buffer zones around point features or entity isa circle simply drawn around Each point as centre and they are of influence under study as radius. Then buffer is created by measuring specified distance an all directions from the line Target measuring the distance with an area measured from its outer perimeter can create area Buffer. Sometimes another buffer is created around first buffer and it is known as Drought nut buffer. buffering are useful for analysis of landscapes, eia, water quality studies, pipe Alignment studies. 4.9.7. OVERLAY ANALYSIS: Map over lay is a process by which it is possible to take two or more different thematic Map layers of the same area and overlay them * above other to from a composite map. The technique is used further overlay of vector data (pipe lines) on a raster background mage. (Scanned topographic map) overlays and new spatial data sets are created Involving the merger of data.

 Vector based system is time consuming; computer where raster based is quick, Straightforward & efficient. take an example of soil erosion analysis Soil erosion studies involves analysis of cell by cell analysis of original data files and Creating three data files ie slope, soil readability and surface run off potential Slope conformation can be obtained from the topography of the area. Readability is an attribute data associated with sod type can be extracted formal Relational data base management system. run off potential is an attribute data, which is associated with, land cover type which Is obtained from aerial photograph. From these 3 data high sod erosion potential [that depends on steep slopes and highly erodible soil-cover combinations]. 4.9.8. VECTOR OVERLAY CAPABILITIES: In vector all objects are stored using points and arcs. Attributes and entity types can be displayed by varying colors, line patterns and point Symbols. In vector gis one may display only a subset of data, example one may select all Political boundaries and boundaries. Relational query is an important concept an vector overlay analysis. Structured query language [sql] is used as relational queries. it provides a standard way an querying spatial data bases. using relational queries the user can select objects interested an producing map out put Using colors, symbols, text annotations and so on. consider a sod map and we want to produce a map of major sod types and this is done In 3 steps (l) Reclassify areas by a single attribute i.e. Soil areas by soil (2) Dissolve boundaries between the areas of same type by detecting the arc Between 2 polygons (3) Merge polygons onto large objects and rebuild topology by giving new identity