SCE 3114:Topic 4 :Renewable energy

Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). In 2008, about 19 of global final energy consumption came from renewables, with 1! coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and !.2 from hydroelectricity."1# $ew renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) accounted for another 2.% and are growing &ery rapidly."1# 'he share of renewables in electricity generation is around 18 , with 1( of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity and ! from new renewables."1#"2# )ind power is growing at the rate of !0 annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 1(%,900 megawatts (*)) in 2009,"!#"+# and is widely used in ,urope, -sia, and the .nited /tates."(# -t the end of 2009, cumulati&e global photo&oltaic (01) installations surpassed 21,000 *)"2#"%#"8# and 01 power stations are popular in 3ermany and /pain."9# /olar thermal power stations operate in the ./- and /pain, and the largest of these is the !(+ *) /,3/ power plant in the *o4a&e 5esert."10# 'he world6s largest geothermal power installation is 'he 3eysers in 7alifornia, with a rated capacity of %(0 *). 8ra9il has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, in&ol&ing production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now pro&ides 18 of the country6s automoti&e fuel."11# ,thanol fuel is also widely a&ailable in the ./-. )hile many renewable energy pro4ects are large:scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas, where energy is often crucial in human de&elopment."12# 3lobally, an estimated ! million households get power from small solar 01 systems. *icro:hydro systems configured into &illage:scale or county:scale mini:grids ser&e many areas."1!# *ore than !0 million rural households get lighting and coo;ing from biogas made in household:scale digesters. 8iomass coo;sto&es are used by 120 million households."1!# 7limate change concerns, coupled with high oil prices, pea; oil, and increasing go&ernment support, are dri&ing increasing renewable energy legislation, incenti&es and commerciali9ation."1+# $ew go&ernment spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors."1(#

Overview

2008 worldwide renewable:energy sources. Source: REN21"12# <enewable energy flows in&ol&e natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, as the International ,nergy -gency e=plains>"1%# 1

<enewable energy is deri&ed from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its &arious forms, it deri&es directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen deri&ed from renewable resources. <enewable energy replaces con&entional fuels in four distinct areas> power generation, hot water? space heating, transport fuels, and rural (off:grid) energy ser&ices>"18#

Power generation. <enewable energy pro&ides 18 percent of total electricity generation worldwide. <enewable power generators are spread across many countries, and wind power alone already pro&ides a significant share of electricity in some areas> for e=ample, 1+ percent in the ../. state of Iowa, +0 percent in the northern 3erman state of /chleswig:@olstein, and 20 percent in 5enmar;. /ome countries get most of their power from renewables, including Iceland (100 percent), 8ra9il (8( percent), -ustria (22 percent), $ew Aealand (2( percent), and /weden ((+ percent)."19# Heating. /olar hot water ma;es an important contribution in many countries, most notably in 7hina, which now has %0 percent of the global total (180 3)th). *ost of these systems are installed on multi:family apartment buildings and meet a portion of the hot water needs of an estimated (0B20 million households in 7hina. )orldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of o&er %0 million households. 'he use of biomass for heating continues to grow as well. In /weden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. 5irect geothermal for heating is also growing rapidly."19# Transport fuels. <enewable biofuels ha&e contributed to a significant decline in oil consumption in the .nited /tates since 2002. 'he 9! billion liters of biofuels produced worldwide in 2009 displaced the eCui&alent of an estimated 28 billion liters of gasoline, eCual to about ( percent of world gasoline production."19#

ainstrea! for!s of renewable energy

"in# power
/ee also> )ind power, )ind farm, and )ind power in the .nited /tates -irflows can be used to run wind turbines. *odern wind turbines range from around 200 ;) to ( *) of rated power, although turbines with rated output of 1.(B! *) ha&e become the most common for commercial useD the power output of a turbine is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases dramatically."20# -reas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms. 'ypical capacity factors are 20:+0 , with &alues at the upper end of the range in particularly fa&ourable sites."21#"22# 3lobally, the long:term technical potential of wind energy is belie&ed to be fi&e times total current global energy production, or +0 times current electricity demand. 'his could reCuire large amounts of land to be used for wind turbines, particularly in areas of higher wind resources. Effshore resources e=perience mean wind speeds of F90 greater than that of land, so offshore resources could contribute substantially more energy."2!#

)ind power is renewable and produces no greenhouse gases during operation, such as carbon dio=ide and methane.

Hy#ropower
/ee also> @ydroelectricity and @ydropower

'he @oo&er 5am when completed in 19!2 was both the world6s largest electric:power generating station and the world6s largest concrete structure. ,nergy in water can be harnessed and used. /ince water is about 800 times denser than air,"2+#"2(# e&en a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy. 'here are many forms of water energy>

@ydroelectric energy is a term usually reser&ed for large:scale hydroelectric dams. ,=amples are the 3rand 7oulee 5am in )ashington /tate and the -;osombo 5am in 3hana. *icro hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100 ;) of power. 'hey are often used in water rich areas as a remote:area power supply (<-0/). 'here are many of these installations around the world, including se&eral deli&ering around (0 ;) in the /olomon Islands. 5amless hydro systems deri&e ;inetic energy from ri&ers and oceans without using a dam. Ecean energy describes all the technologies to harness energy from the ocean and the sea. 'his includes marine current power, ocean thermal energy con&ersion, and tidal power.

Solar energy
/ee also> /olar energy, /olar power, and /olar thermal energy

*onocrystalline solar cell. !

/olar energy is the energy deri&ed from the sun through the form of solar radiation. /olar powered electrical generation relies on photo&oltaics and heat engines. - partial list of other solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, daylighting, solar hot water, solar coo;ing, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes. /olar technologies are broadly characteri9ed as either passi&e solar or acti&e solar depending on the way they capture, con&ert and distribute solar energy. -cti&e solar techniCues include the use of photo&oltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. 0assi&e solar techniCues include orienting a building to the /un, selecting materials with fa&orable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

$io!ass
8iomass (plant material) is a renewable energy source because the energy it contains comes from the sun. 'hrough the process of photosynthesis, plants capture the sun6s energy. )hen the plants are burned, they release the sun6s energy they contain. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. -s long as biomass is produced sustainably, with only as much used as is grown, the battery will last indefinitely."22# In general there are two main approaches to using plants for energy production> growing plants specifically for energy use, and using the residues from plants that are used for other things. 'he best approaches &ary from region to region according to climate, soils and geography."22#

$iofuel

Information on pump regarding ethanol fuel blend up to 10 , 7alifornia. GiCuid biofuel is usually either bioalcohol such as bioethanol or an oil such as biodiesel. 8ioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. )ith ad&anced technology being de&eloped, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feedstoc;s for ethanol production. ,thanol can be used as a fuel for &ehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additi&e to increase octane and impro&e &ehicle emissions. 8ioethanol is widely used in the ./- and in 8ra9il. 8iodiesel is made from &egetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. 8iodiesel can be used as a fuel for &ehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additi&e to reduce le&els of particulates, carbon mono=ide, and hydrocarbons from diesel:powered &ehicles. 8iodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in ,urope. +

8iofuels pro&ided 1.8

of the world6s transport fuel in 2008."2%#

%eot&er!al energy
*ain articles> 3eothermal energy, 3eothermal heat pump, and <enewable energy in Iceland

Hrafla 3eothermal /tation in northeast Iceland 3eothermal energy is energy obtained by tapping the heat of the earth itself, both from ;ilometers deep into the ,arth6s crust in some places of the globe or from some meters in geothermal heat pump in all the places of the planet . It is e=pensi&e to build a power station but operating costs are low resulting in low energy costs for suitable sites. .ltimately, this energy deri&es from heat in the ,arth6s core. 'hree types of power plants are used to generate power from geothermal energy> dry steam, flash, and binary. 5ry steam plants ta;e steam out of fractures in the ground and use it to directly dri&e a turbine that spins a generator. Ilash plants ta;e hot water, usually at temperatures o&er 200 J7, out of the ground, and allows it to boil as it rises to the surface then separates the steam phase in steam?water separators and then runs the steam through a turbine. In binary plants, the hot water flows through heat e=changers, boiling an organic fluid that spins the turbine. 'he condensed steam and remaining geothermal fluid from all three types of plants are in4ected bac; into the hot roc; to pic; up more heat."citation needed# 'he geothermal energy from the core of the ,arth is closer to the surface in some areas than in others. )here hot underground steam or water can be tapped and brought to the surface it may be used to generate electricity. /uch geothermal power sources e=ist in certain geologically unstable parts of the world such as 7hile, Iceland, $ew Aealand, .nited /tates, the 0hilippines and Italy. 'he two most prominent areas for this in the .nited /tates are in the Kellowstone basin and in northern 7alifornia. Iceland produced 1%0 *) geothermal power and heated 82 of all houses in the year 2000 through geothermal energy. /ome 8000 *) of capacity is operational in total."citation needed# 'here is also the potential to generate geothermal energy from hot dry roc;s. @oles at least ! ;m deep are drilled into the earth. /ome of these holes pump water into the earth, while other holes pump hot water out. 'he heat resource consists of hot underground radiogenic granite roc;s, which heat up when there is enough sediment between the roc; and the earths surface. /e&eral companies in -ustralia are e=ploring this technology."citation needed#

Renewable energy co!!erciali'ation

*ain article> <enewable energy commerciali9ation

%rowt& of renewables
(

5uring the fi&e:years from the end of 200+ through 2009, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10B20 percent annually for many technologies. Ior wind power and many other renewable technologies, growth accelerated in 2009 relati&e to the pre&ious four years."18# *ore wind power capacity was added during 2009 than any other renewable technology. @owe&er, grid:connected 01 increased the fastest of all renewables technologies, with a 20:percent annual a&erage growth rate for the fi&e:year period."18# /elected renewable energy indicators"28#"29#"!0# Selecte# global in#icators ())* ())+ In&estment in new renewable capacity (annual) 10+ 1!0 ,=isting renewables power capacity, 1,0%0 1,1+0 including large:scale hydro ,=isting renewables power capacity, 2+0 280 e=cluding large hydro )ind power capacity (e=isting) 9+ 121 /olar 01 capacity (grid:connected) %.2 1!.( /olar hot water capacity 122 1+9 ,thanol production (annual) (0 29 8iodiesel production (annual) 10 1( 7ountries with policy targets for renewable energy use 28 %(

()), 1(0 billion ./5 1,2!0 3)e !0( 3)e 1(9 3)e 21 3)e 180 3)th %2 billion liters 1% billion liters 8(

Econo!ic tren#s
-ll forms of energy are e=pensi&e, but as time progresses, renewable energy generally gets cheaper,"!1#"!2# while fossil fuels generally get more e=pensi&e. -l 3ore has e=plained that renewable energy technologies are declining in price for three main reasons>"!!# Iirst, once the renewable infrastructure is built, the fuel is free fore&er. .nli;e carbon:based fuels, the wind and the sun and the earth itself pro&ide fuel that is free, in amounts that are effecti&ely limitless. /econd, while fossil fuel technologies are more mature, renewable energy technologies are being rapidly impro&ed. /o inno&ation and ingenuity gi&e us the ability to constantly increase the efficiency of renewable energy and continually reduce its cost. 'hird, once the world ma;es a clear commitment to shifting toward renewable energy, the &olume of production will itself sharply reduce the cost of each windmill and each solar panel, while adding yet more incenti&es for additional research and de&elopment to further speed up the inno&ation process."!!#

"in# power !ar-et

/ee also> Gist of onshore wind farms and Gist of offshore wind farms

)ind power> worldwide installed capacity 1992:2008 -t the end of 2009, worldwide wind farm capacity was 1(%,900 *), representing an increase of !1 percent during the year,"!# and wind power supplied some 1.! of global electricity consumption."!+# )ind power accounts for appro=imately 19 of electricity use in 5enmar;, 9 in /pain and 0ortugal, and 2 in 3ermany and the <epublic of Ireland."!(# 'he .nited /tates is an important growth area and installed ../. wind power capacity reached 2(,1%0 *) at the end of 2008."!2# -s of /eptember 2009, the <oscoe )ind Iarm (%81 *)) is the world6s largest wind farm."!%# -s of 2009, the 209 megawatt (*)) @orns <e& 2 wind farm in 5enmar; is the world6s largest offshore wind farm. 'he .nited Hingdom is the world6s leading generator of offshore wind power, followed by 5enmar;."!8#

.ew generation of solar t&er!al plants

/olar 'owers from left> 0/10, 0/20. *ain article> Gist of solar thermal power stations /ee also> /olar power plants in the *o4a&e 5esert Garge solar thermal power stations include the !(+ *) /olar ,nergy 3enerating /ystems power plant in the ./-, $e&ada /olar Ene (./-, 2+ *)), -ndasol 1 (/pain, (0 *)), -ndasol 2 (/pain, (0 *)), 0/20 solar power tower (/pain, 20 *)), and the 0/10 solar power tower (/pain, 11 *)). 'he solar thermal power industry is growing rapidly with 1.2 3) under construction as of -pril 2009 and another 1!.9 3) announced globally through 201+. /pain is the epicenter of solar thermal power de&elopment with 22 pro4ects for 1,0!% *) under construction, all of which are pro4ected to come online by the end of 2010."!9# In the .nited /tates, (,200 *) of solar thermal power pro4ects ha&e been announced."+0# In de&eloping countries, three )orld 8an; pro4ects for integrated solar thermal?combined: cycle gas:turbine power plants in ,gypt, *e=ico, and *orocco ha&e been appro&ed."+1# %

P&otovoltaic !ar-et
*ain article> Gist of photo&oltaic power stations

+0 *) 01 -rray installed in )aldpolen9, 3ermany 0hoto&oltaic production has been increasing by an a&erage of some 20 percent each year since 2002, ma;ing it a fast:growing energy technology."+2#"2# -t the end of 2009, the cumulati&e global 01 installations surpassed 21,000 megawatts."2#"%# -s of Ectober 2009, the largest photo&oltaic (01) power plants in the world are the Elmedilla 0hoto&oltaic 0ar; (/pain, 20 *)), the /trass;irchen /olar 0ar; (3ermany, (+ *)), the Gieberose 0hoto&oltaic 0ar; (3ermany, (! *)), the 0uertollano 0hoto&oltaic 0ar; (/pain, (0 *)), the *oura photo&oltaic power station (0ortugal, +2 *)), and the )aldpolen9 /olar 0ar; (3ermany, +0 *))."+!# *any of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use inno&ati&e trac;ing systems that follow the sun6s daily path across the s;y to generate more electricity than con&entional fi=ed:mounted systems. 'here are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations. 'opa9 /olar Iarm is a proposed ((0 *) solar photo&oltaic power plant which is to be built northwest of 7alifornia 1alley in the ./- at a cost of o&er L1 billion."++# @igh 0lains <anch is a proposed 2(0 *) solar photo&oltaic power plant which is to be built on the 7arri9o 0lain, northwest of 7alifornia 1alley."+(# @owe&er, when it comes to renewable energy systems and 01, it is not 4ust large systems that matter. 8uilding:integrated photo&oltaics or MonsiteM 01 systems ha&e the ad&antage of being matched to end use energy needs in terms of scale. /o the energy is supplied close to where it is needed."+2#

/se of et&anol for transportation

,9( trial bus operating in /No 0aulo, 8ra9il. /ee also> ,thanol fuel and 8io,thanol for /ustainable 'ransport

/ince the 19%0s, 8ra9il has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the world6s second largest producer of ethanol (after the .nited /tates) and the world6s largest e=porter."+%# 8ra9ilOs ethanol fuel program uses modern eCuipment and cheap sugar cane as feedstoc;, and the residual cane:waste (bagasse) is used to process heat and power."+8# 'here are no longer light &ehicles in 8ra9il running on pure gasoline. 8y the end of 2008 there were !(,000 filling stations throughout 8ra9il with at least one ethanol pump."+9# $early all the gasoline sold in the .nited /tates today is mi=ed with 10 percent ethanol, a mi= ;nown as ,10,"(0# and motor &ehicle manufacturers already produce &ehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. Iord, 5aimler7hrysler, and 3* are among the automobile companies that sell Pfle=ible:fuelQ cars, truc;s, and mini&ans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 8( ethanol (,8(). 8y mid:2002, there were appro=imately si= million ,8(:compatible &ehicles on ../. roads."(1# 'he challenge is to e=pand the mar;et for biofuels beyond the farm states where they ha&e been most popular to date. Ile=:fuel &ehicles are assisting in this transition because they allow dri&ers to choose different fuels based on price and a&ailability. 'he Energy Policy Act of 2005, which calls for %.( billion gallons of biofuels to be used annually by 2012, will also help to e=pand the mar;et."(1#

%eot&er!al energy co!!erciali'ation

'he )est Iord Ilat power plant is one of 21 power plants at 'he 3eysers. /ee also> 3eothermal energy in the .nited /tates 'he International 3eothermal -ssociation (I3-) has reported that 10,%1( megawatts (*)) of geothermal power in 2+ countries is online, which is e=pected to generate 2%,2+2 3)h of electricity in 2010."(2# 'his represents a 20 increase in geothermal power online capacity since 200(. I3- pro4ects this will grow to 18,(00 *) by 201(, due to the large number of pro4ects presently under consideration, often in areas pre&iously assumed to ha&e little e=ploitable resource."(2# In 2010, the .nited /tates led the world in geothermal electricity production with !,082 *) of installed capacity from %% power plantsD"(!# the largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at 'he 3eysers, a geothermal field in 7alifornia."(+# 'he 0hilippines follows the ./ as the second highest producer of geothermal power in the world, with 1,90+ *) of capacity onlineD geothermal power ma;es up appro=imately 18 of the country6s electricity generation."(!# 9

3eothermal (ground source) heat pumps represented an estimated !0 3)th of installed capacity at the end of 2008, with other direct uses of geothermal heat (i.e., for space heating, agricultural drying and other uses) reaching an estimated 1( 3)th. -s of 2008, at least %2 countries use direct geothermal energy in some form.

"ave far!s e0pansion

Ene of ! 0elamis )a&e ,nergy 7on&erters in the harbor of 0eniche, 0ortugal *ain article> )a&e farm 0ortugal now has the world6s first commercial wa&e farm, the Agucadoura Wave Park, officially opened in /eptember 2008. 'he farm uses three 0elamis 0:%(0 machines generating 2.2( *)."((#"(2# Initial costs are put at R 8.( million. - second phase of the pro4ect is now planned to increase the installed capacity to 21*) using a further 2( 0elamis machines."(%# Iunding for a wa&e farm in /cotland was announced in Iebruary, 200% by the /cottish 3o&ernment, at a cost of o&er + million pounds, as part of a .HS1! million funding pac;ages for ocean power in /cotland. 'he farm will be the world6s largest with a capacity of !*) generated by four 0elamis machines."(8#

1eveloping country !ar-ets

*ain article> <enewable energy in de&eloping countries <enewable energy can be particularly suitable for de&eloping countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can be difficult and e=pensi&e. 0roducing renewable energy locally can offer a &iable alternati&e."(9# 8iomass coo;sto&es are used by +0 percent of the worldOs population. 'hese sto&es are being manufactured in factories and wor;shops worldwide, and more than 120 million households now use them."1!# *ore than !0 million rural households get lighting and coo;ing from biogas made in household: scale digesters. -n estimated ! million households get power from small solar 01 systems. *icro:hydro systems configured into &illage:scale or county:scale mini:grids ser&e many areas."1!# Henya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita. *ore than !0,000 &ery small solar panels, each producing 12 to !0 watts, are sold in Henya annually."20# <enewable energy pro4ects in many de&eloping countries ha&e demonstrated that renewable energy can directly contribute to po&erty alle&iation by pro&iding the energy needed for creating businesses and employment. <enewable energy technologies can also ma;e indirect contributions to alle&iating po&erty 10

by pro&iding energy for coo;ing, space heating, and lighting. <enewable energy can also contribute to education, by pro&iding electricity to schools."21#

2n#ustry an# policy tren#s

/ee also> <enewable energy industry and <enewable energy policy

3lobal renewable energy in&estment growth (199(:200%)"22# 3lobal re&enues for solar photo&oltaics, wind power, and biofuels e=panded from L%2 billion in 200% to L11( billion in 2008. $ew global in&estments in clean energy technologies e=panded by +.% percent from L1+8 billion in 200% to L1(( billion in 2008."1(# ../. 0resident 8arac; Ebama6s -merican <eco&ery and <ein&estment -ct of 2009 includes more than L%0 billion in direct spending and ta= credits for clean energy and associated transportation programs. 7lean ,dge suggests that the commerciali9ation of clean energy will help countries around the world pull out of the current economic malaise."1(# Geading renewable energy companies include Iirst /olar, 3amesa, 3, ,nergy, T:7ells, /harp /olar, /iemens, /unEpta, /untech, and 1estas."2!# 'he International <enewable ,nergy -gency (I<,$-) is an intergo&ernmental organi9ation for promoting the adoption of renewable energy worldwide. It aims to pro&ide concrete policy ad&ice and facilitate capacity building and technology transfer. I<,$- was formed on Uanuary 22, 2009, by %( countries signing the charter of I<,$-."2+# -s of *arch 2010, I<,$- has 1+! member states who all are considered as founding members, of which 1+ ha&e also ratified the statute."2(# <enewable energy policy targets e=ist in some %! countries around the world, and public policies to promote renewable energy use ha&e become more common in recent years. -t least 2+ countries ha&e some type of policy to promote renewable power generation. *andates for solar hot water in new construction are becoming more common at both national and local le&els. *andates for blending biofuels into &ehicle fuels ha&e been enacted in 1% countries."22#

.ew an# e!erging renewable energy tec&nologies

$ew and emerging renewable energy technologies are still under de&elopment and include cellulosic ethanol, hot:dry:roc; geothermal power, and ocean energy."2%# 'hese technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or ha&e limited commerciali9ation. *any are on the hori9on and may ha&e potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and research, de&elopment and demonstration (<5V5) funding."2%# 11

Cellulosic et&anol
/ee also> 7ellulosic ethanol commerciali9ation 7ompanies such as Iogen, 8roin, and -bengoa are building refineries that can process biomass and turn it into ethanol, while companies such as 5i&ersa, $o&o9ymes, and 5yadic are producing en9ymes which could enable a cellulosic ethanol future. 'he shift from food crop feedstoc;s to waste residues and nati&e grasses offers significant opportunities for a range of players, from farmers to biotechnology firms, and from pro4ect de&elopers to in&estors."28# /elected 7ommercial 7ellulosic ,thanol 0lants in the ../."29#"%0# (Eperational or under construction) Co!pany 3ocation 4ee#stoc-bengoa 8ioenergy @ugoton, H/ )heat straw 8lueIire ,thanol Ir&ine, 7*ultiple sources 3ulf 7oast ,nergy *ossy @ead, IG )ood waste *ascoma Gansing, *I )ood 0E,' GG7 ,mmetsburg, I7orn cobs <ange Iuels"%1# 'reutlen 7ounty, 3- )ood waste /unEpta Gittle Ialls, *$ )ood chips Wethanol -uburndale, IG 7itrus peels

Ocean energy
/ystems to har&est utility:scale electrical power from ocean wa&es ha&e recently been gaining momentum as a &iable technology. 'he potential for this technology is considered promising, especially on west: facing coasts with latitudes between +0 and 20 degrees>"%2# In the .nited Hingdom, for e=ample, the 7arbon 'rust recently estimated the e=tent of the economically &iable offshore resource at (( ')h per year, about 1+ of current national demand. -cross ,urope, the technologically achie&able resource has been estimated to be at least 280 ')h per year. In 200!, the ../. ,lectric 0ower <esearch Institute (,0<I) estimated the &iable resource in the .nited /tates at 2(( ')h per year (2 of demand)."%2# 'he world6s first commercial tidal power station was installed in 200% in the narrows of /trangford Gough in Ireland. 'he 1.2 megawatt underwater tidal electricity generator, part of $orthern Ireland6s ,n&ironment V <enewable ,nergy Iund scheme, ta;es ad&antage of the fast tidal flow (up to + metres per second) in the lough. -lthough the generator is powerful enough to power a thousand homes, the turbine has minimal en&ironmental impact, as it is almost entirely submerged, and the rotors pose no danger to wildlife as they turn Cuite slowly."%!# Ecean thermal energy con&ersion (E',7) uses the temperature difference that e=ists between deep and shallow waters to run a heat engine.

En&ance# %eot&er!al Syste!s

*ain article> ,nhanced 3eothermal /ystems 12

En&ance# geot&er!al syste! 1><eser&oir 2>0ump house !>@eat e=changer +>'urbine hall (>0roduction well 2>In4ection well %>@ot water to district heating 8>0orous sediments 9>Ebser&ation well 10>7rystalline bedroc; ,nhanced 3eothermal /ystems are a new type of geothermal power technologies that do not reCuire natural con&ecti&e hydrothermal resources. 'he &ast ma4ority of geothermal energy within drilling reach is in dry and non:porous roc;."%+# ,3/ technologies MenhanceM and?or create geothermal resources in this Mhot dry roc; (@5<)M through hydraulic stimulation. ,3/ ? @5< technologies, li;e hydrothermal geothermal, are e=pected to be baseload resources which produce power 2+ hours a day li;e a fossil plant. 5istinct from hydrothermal, @5< ? ,3/ may be feasible anywhere in the world, depending on the economic limits of drill depth. 3ood locations are o&er deep granite co&ered by a thic; (!B( ;m) layer of insulating sediments which slow heat loss."%(# @5< wells are e=pected to ha&e a useful life of 20 to !0 years before the outflow temperature drops about 10 degrees 7elsius and the well becomes uneconomic. If left for (0 to !00 years the temperature will reco&er."citation
needed#

'here are @5< and ,3/ systems currently being de&eloped and tested in Irance, -ustralia, Uapan, 3ermany, the ../. and /wit9erland. 'he largest ,3/ pro4ect in the world is a 2( megawatt demonstration plant currently being de&eloped in the 7ooper 8asin, -ustralia. 'he 7ooper 8asin has the potential to generate (,000B10,000 *).

.anotec&nology t&in5fil! solar panels

/olar power panels that use nanotechnology, which can create circuits out of indi&idual silicon molecules, may cost half as much as traditional photo&oltaic cells, according to e=ecuti&es and in&estors in&ol&ed in de&eloping the products. $anosolar has secured more than L100 million from in&estors to build a factory for nanotechnology thin:film solar panels.

Ot&er
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Esmotic power (or salinity gradient po er) is the energy retrie&ed from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and ri&er water. 'wo practical methods for this are re&erse electrodialysis"%2# (<,5) and pressure retarded osmosis."%%# (0<E). - microbial fuel cell is a bio:electrochemical system that dri&es a current by mimic;ing bacterial interactions found in nature : con&erting chemical energy to electrical energy by the catalytic reaction of microorganisms.

Renewable energy #ebate

*ain article> <enewable energy debate <enewable electricity production, from sources such as wind power and solar power, is sometimes critici9ed for being &ariable or intermittent. @owe&er, the International ,nergy -gency has stated that deployment of renewable technologies usually increases the di&ersity of electricity sources and, through local generation, contributes to the fle=ibility of the system and its resistance to central shoc;s."2%# 'here ha&e been Mnot in my bac; yardM ($I*8K) concerns relating to the &isual and other impacts of some wind farms, with local residents sometimes fighting or bloc;ing construction."%8# In the ./-, the *assachusetts 7ape )ind pro4ect was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns. @owe&er, residents in other areas ha&e been more positi&e and there are many e=amples of community wind farm de&elopments. -ccording to a town councilor, the o&erwhelming ma4ority of locals belie&e that the -rdrossan )ind Iarm in /cotland has enhanced the area."%9#

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