EXPERIMENT 1 : ERROR AND ANALYSIS

1. Errors and Uncertainty In scientific measurements, some quantities are believed to have particular values within certain limits. The length of a stick is 7.8 cm plus or minus 5%. This means that the stick is more than likely bigger than 7.4 cm (95% of 7.8) and less than 8.2 cm (105% of 7.8). In this example we would say that our best estimate of the "true" length of the stick is 7.8 cm with an uncertainty of 5%. To complete this lab course successfully, you need to learn the estimation of the "best value" from your measurement and how to estimate uncertainties, that is, the range around your "best value" in which the actual value probably lies. Good measurements are both accurate and precise.

A precise measurement is one where independent measurements of the same quantity closely cluster about a single (possibly wrong) value An accurate measurement is one where independent measurement cluster about the true value of the measured quantity

2. Types of Errors Experimental errors can be generally classified as being of three types: personal, systematic, and random errors. 2.1. Personal Error Personal error arises from personal bias or carelessness in reading an instrument, in recording observations, or in mathematical calculations. Examples of personal errors include: 2.1.1. Biases in observations In performing a series of measurements, an observer (especially students who want to leave early) may become biased in favor of the first observation. Falsely assuming this observation to be correct, the observer attempts to make other measurements agree with it through biased estimations of fractional scale divisions. This incorrectly gives more significance to one reading than to succeeding ones. All observations taken under the same experimental conditions are equally valid and should be retained for analysis. 2.1.2. Errors in reading a scale Reading a value from a scale involves lining up an object with the marks on the scale. A reading may appear to be different when viewed with one eye or the other, or when the head is moved from side to side or up and down. This apparent change in position due to a change in the position of the eye is called parallax. Such errors can be minimized by using a line of sight perpendicular to the scale and placing the meter stick edgewise against the object. 2.1.3. Not observing significant figures in calculations. This will be discussed in the section 3: Significant figures.

2.2. Systematic Errors Systematic errors are associated with particular measurement instruments or techniques. Conditions from which systematic errors can result include: 2.2.1. an improperly "zeroed" instrument such as a micrometer or ammeter 2.2.2. a thermometer that reads 101oC, instead of the correct 100oC, when immersed in boiling water at standard atmospheric pressure

2.2.3. personal bias of an observer, who, for example, always takes a low reading of a scale division. Thus, a personal error may be a systematic error Avoiding systematic errors depends on the skill of the observer to detect them and to prevent or correct them.

2.3. Random Errors Random errors result from unknown and unpredictable variations in experimental situations. Random errors are sometimes beyond the control of the observer. Conditions in which random errors can result include: 2.3.1. unpredictable fluctuations in temperature or line voltage 2.3.2. mechanical vibrations of the experimental setup 2.3.3. unbiased estimates of measurement readings by the observer The effect of random errors can be reduced and minimized by (a) improving and refining experimental techniques and (b) repeating the measurement for a sufficient number of times so that the erroneous readings become statistically insignificant.

3. Significant Figures The number of significant figures (s.f.) in a number is the number of physically meaningful digits, not including zeroes to the left. The numbers 12.0, 511, and 0.00321 all have three significant figures. You don't count zeroes to the left because the number of such zeroes depends on the units used. For instance, 2.3 cm = 0.023 m = 0.000023 km (kilometers) - these all have 2 significant figures. On the other hand, zeroes on the right are vitally important when counting significant figures. Suppose you measure the width of a desk with a meter stick and you find that it is exactly 1500 mm - as nearly as you can tell. If you give the answer in meters, you should write it as 1.500 m (not 1.5 m). Here are important things to know about using significant figure:

when reporting numbers, always include just as many significant figures as the uncertainty allows. (x = 150.5 0.2, but never y = 2.66667 0.1). When writing a number and its uncertainty, the last digit on the right (the least significant digit) in both the number and its uncertainty should be in the same decimal location. Correct: 27 3, 4.56 0.03, 0.0062 0.0003. WRONG: 25 0.2 (should be 25.0 0.2)

when you write an uncertainty, you should never include more than 1 or 2 s. f. because, in general, uncertainties are not known precisely enough to report to 3 s. f. (Write x = 0.4 cm or sometimes m = 0.15g, but never t =0.667s ). a number like 45,000 is ambiguous in that you cannot tell how many significant figures it has, unless you give the uncertainty. It might mean 45,000 1, in which case it has 5 s. f.. Or it might mean 45,000 1000, and then it only has 2 s. f.. To be clear, you can either include the uncertainty or write it in scientific notation, like this: 4.500x104(4s.f.)

4. Writing Experimental Numbers Every measured number must be accompanied by an estimate of its uncertainty. For example, say that the edge of a block was measured, and the best estimate of its size is 2.59 cm, but given the experimental procedure, the number might be as small as 2.57 cm or as large as 2.61 cm. Denoting the edge length by L, a proper way to report the measurement is L = (2.59 0.02) cm. Experimental numbers must be written in a way consistent with the precision to which they are known. In this context, one speaks of significant figures, meaning digits that have physical meaning. The number of significant figures is determinedly the precision of the measurement. As a general rule, all definitely known digits and the first doubtful digit are considered significant. The length measurement in the example we quoted to three places because we were certain of the first two digits but dubious about the third. But recording the number as 2.590 cm would be incorrect because it would imply that the nine was definite and only the zero is in doubt. There are several meaningful ways to quote the uncertainties of a measurement. One could quote the absolute uncertainty, which means the uncertainty expressed in the units of the measured quantity, as was done in the example above. Alternately, one can express the error as a percentage of the value, which is often useful since the percentage error is independent of the units used to express the result. Now 0.02 is 0.77% of 2.59. But we nearly always round off error estimates to one figure. So L = 2.59 cm 0.8% is the proper way to express of measured value. Important summary: we quote one significant figure for the error (occasionally two figures, especially if the second number is a five) and a number of significant figures for the result that is consistent with the size of the uncertainty. So writing L = 2.593 cm + 0.8% would be wrong, since 0.8% of 2.593 is 0.03. It is impossible for the third decimal place to be meaningful when the second itself is uncertain by 0.03. Zeros often present a problem, since a zero can either be significant digit or merely a place holder indicating the position of the decimal point. Suppose that we make a length measurement accurate to three figures and obtain 2.31 cm. This could be written as

0.0231 m tha has exactly the same number of significant figures: the zero directly to the left of the `2' simply forces the decimal point to the correct position. Trailing zeros are even more of a problem. A racetrack might have a length of 1.2 km or 1200 m. The second form is ambiguous, since it does not distinguish between a length known to four decimal places (the last two of which happen to be zeros) or a length known to two decimal places in kilometers and then converted to meters. Clearly, power of ten (scientific) notation eliminates both types of problems: only significant digits are written down and the decimal place indicated by the power of ten. The numbers 1.2 Km and 1.2x103 m manifestly have the same number of significant figures.

5. Error and Uncertainty Analysis Very often in experimental work, you measure several quantities, and then calculate some other quantities based on your measurements. The subject of error analysis describes how to determine the uncertainty of the calculated quantity, given the known uncertainties of the measured quantities. In general, this is a difficult problem. However, instead of computing the uncertainty, it can also be roughly expressed by writing the final answer using the correct number of significant figures. The uncertainty of a calculated quantity can be roughly determined by simply counting significant figures. For problems involving multiplication and division and most other operations, except addition and subtraction, the rule is: the final answer should not have more significant figures than the least precise input number. Here, "least precise" means the number with the fewest significant figures. For example, suppose that x = 5.1cm, y = 26.8cm and z = 42.11cm (all with uncertainties of 1 in the last place) and suppose we would like to know the value of

xy z
In this case, the number x is the least precise input number with only 2 s. f.. So, the answer is

xy (5.1cm )(26.8cm ) = = 3.2458cm 3.2cm z 42.11cm The final answer should be rounded to 2 s. f..

This procedure of counting significant figures works well for multiplication or division or more complicated operations like tangents, exponential, etc., but it does not work for simple addition or subtraction. For addition or subtraction, the rule is: the answer should have the same decimal precision (10's or 1's or tenths or hundredths, etc.) as the input number with the least decimal precision. For example, x = 12.52cm, y = 11.3cm, x - y = ? In this case, x is known to about 0.01; its decimal precision is hundredths. But y is known to only 0.1; its decimal precision is tenths. So the answer should have a decimal precision of tenths. x - y = (12.52 - 11.3)cm = 1.2 cm (not 1.22cm). Another example: suppose a = 5321.2cm, b = 5.1cm (both with uncertainties of 0.1), then the sum a + b = 5326.3cm. In this case, both input numbers, a and b, have a decimal precision of tenths, so the final answer should have a decimal precision of tenths, that is, an uncertainty of about 0.1. In this case of addition, you should definitely not round the final answer to 2 s. f., even though b has only 2 s. f.. To summarize: For multiplication or division, the final answer should have the same number of significant figure as the input number with the least number of significant figure For addition or subtraction, the final answer should have the same decimal precision (tenths, hundredths, etc.) as the input number with the least precise decimal precision

6. Expressing Error and Uncertainty

7.1. Percent Error The accepted or "true" value of a quantity found in textbooks and physics handbooks is the most accurate value (usually rounded off to a certain number of significant figures) obtained through sophisticated experiments or mathematical methods. The fractional error is the ratio of the absolute difference to the accepted value: fractional error = absolute difference E A = accepted value A

The percent error is the fractional error formatted into percentage. percent error = EA absolute difference %= % accepted value A

(E = experimental value and A = accepted value) 7.2. Percent Difference It is sometimes instructive to compare the results of two equally reliable measurements when an accepted value is not known. The comparison is expressed as a percent difference, which is the ratio of the absolute difference between the experimental values and to the average or mean value of the two results, expressed as a percent. percent difference = E E1 absolute difference %= 2 % E2 + E1 average ( ) 2

7.3. Average (Mean) Value If personal and systematic errors have been minimized, a set of measurements will be subject predominantly to random errors. The measurements will all be equally trustworthy or probable. With this assumption it can be shown mathematically that the true value is most probably given by the average or mean value.

x=

x1 + x2 + x3 + ... + xn 1 n = xi n n i =1

7.4. Deviation from the Mean The deviation from the mean of any measurement with a mean value is di = xi x . Some of the deviations will be negative and some positive. The average deviation from the mean will always be zero, and therefore not a very useful number.

7.5. Standard Deviation The standard deviation () is a measure of how much the data is spread out. It is an indicator of the precision of the data.

(x

x)

d
n

2 i

7.6. Propagation of Errors (i). For addition and subtraction, the absolute uncertainties are additive. Example: a = (65.06 0.07)cm; b = (16.13 0.01)cm; c = (22.68 0.02)cm

D = a + b + c = (65.06 0.07)cm + (16.13 0.01)cm - (22.68 0.02)cm = (58.51 ?)cm

D2 = a2 + b2 + c2

D = a2 + b2 + c2
=

( 0.07 )2 + ( 0.01)2 + ( 0.02)2

= 0 . 07

0.07 x100% = 0.12% 58.51

So, D = (58.51 0.07)cm or D = 58.51cm 0.12%

(ii). For multiplication and division, the absolute uncertainties are additive. Example: a = (13.67 0.02)cm; b = (120.4 0.2)cm; c = (4.623 0.006)cm

D=

ab (13.67 0.02)cm(120.4 0.2)cm = = (356.0 ?)cm (4.623 0.006)cm c

( D ) rel = ( a ) rel + ( b ) rel + ( c ) rel

2 2 2 2

( D ) rel = ( a ) rel + ( b ) rel + ( c ) rel

2 2 2

0.02 0.2 0.006 = + + 13.67 120.4 4.623

0 . 0015

)2

+ ( 0 . 0017

)2

+ ( 0 . 0013

)2

= 0.0026

D = 356.0 x ( 0.0026) = 0.9

0.9 x100% = 0.26% 356.0
So, D = (356.0 0.9)cm or D = 356.0cm 0.26%

7. Bad Data

Sometimes you will record a value for a measurement that is clearly "out of line" with other measurements of the same quantity. It may be almost certain such a value represents a mistake that either the measuring instrument was incorrectly read, or it was read correctly but the number incorrectly recorded or whatever. The best thing to do is to ignore a data point that seems to be inconsistent with the rest of the data set. Don't just erase the number or pretend that it was never recorded. Rather, just make a note to the reader that such a point is omitted from subsequent calculations. And, if possible, explain to your reader why the point is "obviously" a mistake.

8. Graphing

y y = mx + c Slope = m =
y2 y1 x2 x1

y2

y1
c = intercept of the curve on y-axis at x = 0

Best straight line fit

data point

c 0 0

x1

x2

Simple graphing rules: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. A title on the graph, describing the graph, is essential. Always label the axis. Units are essential. The independent variable is plotted on the horizontal axis. The dependent variable is plotted on the vertical axis. Data points must show on the graph paper. Use a straight edge when drawing a straight line. Use a French Curve when drawing a smooth curve. Choose your scales so that you use as much of the graph paper as possible. Determine the slope from the straight line, not from data points unless they happen to fall on the straight line. The straight line should represent the best average of all the data points. Show your slope calculation on the graph paper.

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