Geophys. J. Int. (2010) 180, 1013–1029 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04457.

GJI Geomagnetism, rock magnetism and palaeomagnetism

Palaeomagnetism and magnetic anisotropy of Carboniferous red
beds from the Maritime Provinces of Canada: evidence for shallow
palaeomagnetic inclinations and implications for North American
apparent polar wander

Dario Bilardello∗ and Kenneth P. Kodama

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lehigh University, 31 Williams Drive, Bethlehem, PA 18015-3188, USA. E-mail: dabc@lehigh.edu

Accepted 2009 November 16. Received 2009 September 25; in original form 2009 July 2

SUMMARY
A palaeomagnetic and magnetic anisotropy study was conducted on the lower-middle Car-
boniferous Maringouin and Shepody red bed formations of the Maritime Provinces of Canada
to detect and correct inclination shallowing. Because of the shallow inclinations commonly
observed in red beds and the strong dependence of North America’s Palaeo-Mesozoic appar-
ent polar wander (APW) on red beds, inclination shallowing may substantially affect large
portions of North America’s APW path.
Hematite is the primary magnetic mineral carrier in these red beds, accompanied by sec-
ondary magnetite, maghemite, goethite and pigmentary hematite.
Thermal and chemical demagnetization of the Shepody Fm. successfully isolated charac-
teristic remanence directions of D = 177◦ , I = 20.4◦ , α 95 = 6.5◦ , N = 19 and D = 177.8◦
I = 17.7◦ , α 95 = 6.9◦ , N = 16, respectively. Thermal demagnetization of the Maringouin Fm.
isolated a characteristic remanence direction of D = 178.7◦ , I = 24.9◦ , α 95 = 14.5◦ , N = 9.
High field anisotropy of isothermal remanence followed by alternating field and thermal
cleaning on leached samples was used to isolate the fabric of hematite. Individual particle
anisotropy was measured directly from magnetic separates using a new technique. Hematite’s
magnetic fabric and particle anisotropy were used to apply an inclination correction.
Our inclination corrections indicate up to 10◦ of inclination shallowing, corresponding to
corrected palaeopole positions of 27.2◦ N, 118.3◦ E, A95 = 6.2◦ and 27.4◦ N, 117.2◦ E, A95 =
13.1◦ for the Shepody and Maringouin formations, respectively. This correction corresponds
to a ∼ 6◦ increase in colatitude for Carboniferous North America, which translates into
approximately a 650 km change in North America’s palaeogeographic position. The proposed
position of North America supports a Pangea B-type reconstruction.
Key words: Magnetic fabrics and anisotropy; Magnetic mineralogy and petrology; Palaeo-
magnetism applied to Tectonics; Palaeomagnetism applied to geologic processes; Rock and
mineral magnetism.

I N T RO D U C T I O N
Accurate measurement of the inclination of the palaeomagnetic field
is of fundamental importance to determine palaeolatitudes. Because
of the wide availability of continental sedimentary rocks, inclination
shallowing is one of the most important problems in palaeomag-
netism. Palaeomagnetists have extensively measured the remanence
of fine-grained red sedimentary rocks due to their abundance in
the rock record and the stability of their remanence. In particular,
∗ Now at: Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Ludwig-
Maximilians University, Theresienstrasse 41, 80333 Munich, Germany.
the North American apparent polar wander path (APWP) from the
mid-Palaeozoic to the early Mesozoic depends heavily on red bed-
derived palaeopoles (Van der Voo 1990; McElhinny & Lock 1993,
1996). Despite this heavy reliance on red beds, our understanding
of their magnetization acquisition mechanism is still incompletely
understood and is often case specific (Collinson 1965a; Dunlop &
Özdemir 1997).
Mechanism and timing of acquisition of a natural remanent mag-
netization (NRM) exert a fundamental control on the accuracy of
the remanence directions recorded in red beds. The characteris-
tic remanence-carrying hematite in red beds is mostly thought to
occur by chemical growth (Roy & Park 1972; Larson & Walker
1975; Turner 1980; Walker et al. 1981; Larson et al. 1982), in


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1014 D. Bilardello and K. P. Kodama

which case the NRM will be a chemical remanent magnetization Two parameters are of fundamental importance for inclination
(CRM) (Collinson 1974; Dunlop & Özdemir 1997). Furthermore, corrections, a measure of the magnetic fabric and the individual
protracted chemical processes during the post-depositional history particle anisotropy of the remanence carrier. The fabric of the
of the sediment lead to growth of secondary pigmentary hematite ChRM-carrying hematite was measured with high field anisotropy
that gives the sediment its characteristic red colour. Secondary of isothermal remanence (hf-AIR) (Bilardello 2008; Bilardello &
growth of pigmentary hematite can occur up to 10 Ma after de- Kodama 2009). Hematite’s individual particle anisotropy, the a fac-
position and the CRM it carries will not be an accurate measure tor, had previously only been estimated using a best fit to theoretical
of the magnetic field in which the sediment was deposited. Timing correction curves (Tan & Kodama 2002; Tan et al. 2003; Tan et al.
of acquisition of the CRM is thus important for palaeomagnetic 2007). We have measured it directly from magnetic separates using
studies (Roy & Park 1972; Walker et al. 1981; Larson et al. 1982; a newly developed technique (Kodama 2009).
Liebes & Shive 1982). Finally, we used the corrected inclinations to calculate
Specular hematite has also been documented to carry the charac- palaeopoles that require a revision of this portion of the North
teristic remanence (ChRM) in red beds, in which case the remanence American APWP. Our results suggest that because red beds control
is most likely a detrital remanent magnetization (DRM) (Collinson the APWP of Meso-Palaeozoic North America, this part of the path
1974; Elston & Purucker 1979; Steiner 1983; Tauxe et al. 1990; should be corrected for inclination shallowing.
Tan & Kodama 2002; Tan et al. 2007; Bilardello 2008; Bilardello
& Kodama 2009). The ChRM is acquired at deposition and pro-
vides a syn-depositional record of the ambient field. It will also GEOLOGY
have a primary depositional magnetic fabric (Tauxe et al. 1980;
The Maringouin formation and the overlying Shepody formation of
Tauxe et al. 1990; Tan & Kodama 2002; Tan et al. 2007; Bilardello
the Hopewell Group were deposited in the Carboniferous Cumber-
2008).
land basin between southeastern New Brunswick and western Nova
Depositional processes, however, such as rolling of particles af-
Scotia, Canada (Fig. 1).
ter they have settled or flattening of platy particles due to gravity
The Maringouin Formation is composed of red, calcareous mud-
(see review by Verosub 1977) have been proposed for magnetite-
stone and siltstone, with interbeds of fine-grained sandstone, repre-
bearing rocks as a cause of shallower than expected magnetic incli-
senting a transition from marine to continental (Gussow 1953). The
nation (Blow & Hamilton 1978; Celaya & Clement 1988; Arason
age of the formation has been reported to be Late Mississippian
& Levi 1990). Tauxe & Kent (1984) have also investigated similar
(Weeks 1963) and at least as old as microspore zone ‘a’ of M.S.
processes for hematite-bearing red sedimentary rocks. A variety
Barss (Belt 1965). Belt (1965) gave its age as Namurian A. Based on
of processes may also alter the DRM of magnetite and hematite-
correlations of North American and European timescales DiVenere
bearing rocks subsequently to deposition, for example biological
& Opdyke (1991) identified the Maringouin to be Chesterian, the
(bioturbation) processes lead to a post-depositional remanent mag-
inferred age range is 326.4–318.1 Ma (Gradstein et al. 2004).
netization (pDRM) (Kent 1973; Tucker 1980; Tauxe et al. 1990).
The overlying Shepody Formation is a coarsening upward fluvial
Mechanical processes such as compaction may also affect the re-
sequence of red interchannel lutites and thin-bedded sandstones;
manence after deposition and lead to shallow inclinations (Anson
Numerous channel units of greenish gray to red, fine to medium
& Kodama 1987; Sun & Kodama 1992). Both DRMs and CRMs
sandstones and limestone-pebble conglomerates also occur (Belt
acquired soon after deposition can be affected by post-depositional
1965). Microspores of microspore zone ‘c’ (Namurian C) were
processes, which can, in turn, impair the accuracy of recording the
identified by Barss (Belt 1965) and a very early Namurian plant
magnetic field.
assemblage was cited by Bell (1944). The age range of the formation
Red bed inclinations that are shallower than expected have been
is 318.1–315 Ma (Gradstein et al. 2004).
reported throughout the literature (Garcés et al. 1996; Gilder et al.
Sampled exposures of the Hopewell group are in the Maringouin
2001; Tan & Kodama 2002; Tan et al. 2003; Tauxe & Kent 2004;
peninsula (Maringouin and Shepody Fms) as well as in the Minudie
Kent & Tauxe 2005; Tan et al. 2007). Magnetic inclination is a
peninsula (Shepody Fm) (Fig. 1). Both the Maringouin and Minudie
function of the latitude of deposition, assuming that the geomagnetic
peninsulas are affected by folding. An anticline trends across the
field has remained a dipole throughout geologic history, and may be
Cumberland basin in an east–west direction. The north limb dips
related to latitude by the dipole equation: tan I 0 = 2 tan λ, where I 0
steeply to the north (∼85◦ ) and the south limb dips to the south
is field inclination and λ is latitude. The magnitude of inclination
(∼40◦ ). The folding is attributed to salt tectonics; the age of the
error has been found to vary with field inclination according to the
anticline is post-Boss Point and pre-Pictou (Gussow 1953) and is
relation: tan I m = f tan I 0 (King 1955; Griffiths et al. 1960; King &
equivalent to the Westphalian B of Europe and the Cumberland
Rees 1966), where I m is the measured (remanent) inclination and f is
group of the Maritimes. These beds were therefore folded not long
a flattening factor, found to range between 0.4 and 0.66 (King 1955;
(<25 Myr) after deposition, allowing a tight constraint on the timing
Kent & Tauxe 2005). This relationship predicts larger inclination
of magnetization.
errors for intermediate inclinations, which occur at intermediate
latitudes.
The lower-middle Carboniferous Shepody and Maringouin red
METHODS
bed formations of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia carry a stable
and primary remanent magnetization from which a reliable mag-
Sampling
netostratigraphy has been developed (DiVenere & Opdyke 1990,
1991). We have sampled the Shepody and Maringouin formations Twenty sites of the Shepody Fm were sampled from both the
for a rock magnetic and palaeomagnetic study in order to detect and Maringouin and the Minudie sections (sample denominators M1–3,
correct inclination shallowing. We were able to compare the results M10–11, Sh1-Sh5 from the Maringouin section and S1–S10 from
of the red bed corrections to a well-tested magnetite correction of the Minudie section), while nineteen sites of the Maringouin
coeval sedimentary rocks (Kodama 2009). Fm. were collected on the Maringouin peninsula only (sample


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Figure 1. Location map of the Cumberland Basin. The boxes indicate the sampled areas (Modified after DiVenere & Opdyke 1991).
denominators M4–19). Six to eight cores were drilled from each
site and oriented using a magnetic compass. Every core yielded two
to three standard-sized (22 mm × 25 mm) palaeomagnetic samples.
Palaeomagnetism
Remanent magnetization measurements and af- demagnetization
were performed with a 2G Enterprises superconducting magne-
tometer. Thermal demagnetization was conducted on an ASC TD-
48 thermal demagnetizer. The Shepody Fm samples were demag-
netized up to 685 ◦ C in 16 steps, while the Maringouin Fm samples
were demagnetized up to 685 ◦ C in 14 steps.
Chemical demagnetization was conducted by soaking the sam-
ples in 3N HCl in steps of 4 or 7 d. The Maringouin Fm was
demagnetized by leaching the samples up to 42 d of leaching in
six steps. Chemical demagnetization of the Maringouin Formation
isolated a stable component of remanence between 21 and 42 d
of leaching. Shepody samples from the Maringouin section were
demagnetized up to 33 d in six steps, while Shepody Fm samples
from the Minudie section was demagnetized up to 32 d in nine
steps. A stable component was typically isolated for the Shepody
Fm between 16–19 days and 33–39 d of leaching.
Magnetic mineralogy
The magnetic mineralogy was evaluated by acquisition and mod-
elling of isothermal remanent magnetizations (IRM) in fields up to
5 T (Kruiver et al. 2001) and thermal demagnetization of orthogo-
nal IRMs of 0.1, 0.3 and 1.2 T (Lowrie 1990) that were imparted
using an ASC impulse magnetizer. Low temperature measurements
of the remanence during successive heating and cooling between 20
and 300 K in the absence of a magnetic field were also performed
on a Quantum Designs cryogenic susceptometer at the Institute for
Rock Magnetism, University of Minnesota.
Magnetic fabrics
Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) was measured in con-
junction with chemical demagnetization with an AGICO KLY 3S

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Shallow inclinations and Carboniferous APW 1015
susceptibility bridge. To measure the AMS ellipsoid of the ChRM-
carrying grains we used the approach of Tan & Kodama (2002)
and Tan et al. (2003). The AMS was measured at every leaching
step. The reduced ellipsoid, representing the anisotropy of the grains
removed between two chemical demagnetization steps, was calcu-
lated by tensor subtraction between those two steps that isolated
the ChRM (Tan & Kodama 2002; Tan et al. 2003). It is assumed
that this will be a measure of the anisotropy of the ChRM-carrying
grains removed by chemical demagnetization between those two
steps.
Anisotropy of isothermal remanence (AIR) was measured with
the 2G magnetometer after imparting isothermal remanence mag-
netizations (IRMs) with an ASC Scientific impulse magnetizer. The
high field remanence anisotropy of hematite was isolated using the
method described in Bilardello & Kodama (2009).
The coercivity spectra of the low coercivity ferromagnetic grains
were determined from partial anhysteretic remanence magnetization
(pARM). The anisotropy of magnetite/maghemite was measured
by anisotropy of anhysteretic remanence (AAR) in a 20–60 mT
coercivity window, with a 0.1 mT DC field using a Schonstedt GSD-
5 tumbling specimen demagnetizer modified to apply pARMs. AAR
was determined following the method described by McCabe et al.
(1985), pARMs were applied in nine different orientations separated
by 100 mT demagnetization steps. The nine pARMs were used to
determine the best-fit anisotropy tensor by least squares.
Magnetic separates
Individual particle anisotropy was directly measured from the large,
dark coloured specular hematite particles extracted using the tech-
nique of Kodama (2009).
After ball milling and sieving our sediment particles are no larger
than 62.5 μm (the sieve mesh size) and although we don’t know
how small the sediment particles are, we assume that they are not
much smaller than the mesh size. Because of the high coercivities
observed (Bilardello 2008; Bilardello & Kodama 2009) it is reason-
able to assume the hematite in our samples is single domain (SD).
SD hematite has a critical size of ∼15 μm (Dunlop & Özdemir
1016 D. Bilardello and K. P. Kodama
1997). The hematite grains should therefore be smaller than 15 μm,
well below the mesh size of the sieve, and have probably not been
crushed by ball milling. Furthermore, because hematite carries a
magnetocrystalline anisotropy (Dunlop & Özdemir 1997) even if
grain size were affected the anisotropy would not be.
Individual particle anisotropy was measured by drying an epoxy
sample that contained magnetic extract in a DC magnetic field as
described in Kodama (1997).
Inclination correction
Shallowed detrital remanent magnetizations (DRMs) carried by
hematite will have a statistical tendency, expressed as magnetic
anisotropy, for particle short axes to become vertically oriented (i.e.
the hematite platelets are rotated towards bedding parallel), produc-
ing a remanent inclination that is shallower than that of the ambient
field during deposition.
As pointed out by Jackson et al. (1991), DRMs can be described
by the product of an anisotropic symmetric second rank tensor k D
and the depositional field vector H.
Inclinations of the DRM and of the applied field are related in
such a way that the ratio of their tangent, tan I DRM /tan I F , has a
constant value, f (≤1) (e.g. Verusub (1977) and references therein),
also equal to k D min/k D max (Jackson et al. 1991).
Measuring the DRM tensor by the magnetic anisotropy param-
eters that activate the same spectrum of coercivities as that of the
DRM, provides a method of recognizing and correcting inclination
errors. However, the anisotropy of a bulk sample results from an
anisotropic orientation distribution (OD) of the anisotropic individ-
ual particles within the sample. Jackson et al. (1991) utilized the
distribution of Stephenson et al. (1986), which considers magneti-
cally prolate particles to be aligned with their maximum anisotropy
axes parallel to each of the three principal axes of the bulk sample
anisotropy ellipsoid. For prolate magnetite particles the results are
the same as using a more realistic continuous particle OD func-
tion (Stephenson et al. 1986). Hematite, however, carries an oblate
particle anisotropy therefore a continuous particle OD function of
oblate particles best describes a complete relationship between in-
dividual particle and bulk sample anisotropy. The individual par-
ticle anisotropy is essential to the inclination shallowing process:
a preferential OD of anisotropic particles is necessary to cause a
deflection of the remanent magnetization from the magnetic field
direction. Conversely, a uniform OD of anisotropic particles will not
cause a bulk sample anisotropy or inclination error for the sample
(Tan & Kodama 2003).
In this paper, ChRMs were corrected for inclination shallowing
using the relationship between hematite anisotropy principal axes
and inclination error described by Tan & Kodama (2002, 2003) and
Tan et al. (2003):
tan I 0 [(2a + 1)qx − 1]
= , (1)
tan I m [(2a + 1)qz − 1]
where I 0 is the corrected palaeomagnetic inclination; I m is the
palaeomagnetic inclination measured; qx and qz are the normalized
maximum and minimum axes of the magnetic anisotropy ellipsoid
(qx + qy + qz = 1); a is the individual particle magnetic anisotropy
(a factor is easy magnetic axis/hard magnetic axis). An inclina-
tion correction may use either AMS or AIR parameters (for both
anisotropy principal axes and particle anisotropy), because the mag-
nitudes of the corresponding normalized principal axes are linearly
correlated (Stephenson et al. 1986; Tan & Kodama 2002, 2003; Tan
et al. 2003). Directions have been corrected using the measured a
factor and the measured anisotropy principal axes.
R E S U LT S
Magnetic mineralogy
The magnetic mineralogy of the Shepody Fm. was investigated and
described by Bilardello & Kodama (2009). Thermal demagneti-
zation of three orthogonal IRMs (Lowrie 1990), IRM acquisition
modelling (Kruiver et al. 2001) and low temperature demagneti-
zation revealed high unblocking temperature specular hematite to
be the characteristic remanence carrier, with magnetite, maghemite
and goethite also present (Bilardello 2008; Bilardello & Kodama
2009). Pigmentary hematite is also contributing to the remanence.
Because there is a strong grouping of hematite (latu sensu) un-
blocking temperatures for grains of all sizes occurring in a 50 ◦ C
range below their Curie temperatures (Dunlop & Özdemir 1997), it
is difficult to resolve the extent to which the pigment is contributing
to the remanence by their unblocking temperatures only. A combi-
nation of thermal and chemical demagnetization, discussed below,
indicates that specularite is the ChRM-carrier.
IRM acquisition modelling of samples from the Maringouin For-
mation identified two coercivity components: a lower, 50–60 mT co-
ercivity phase accounted for ∼10 per cent of the remanence, while
a 500–630 mT coercivity phase carried the remaining 90 per cent
(Figs 2a and c). These results are consistent with the IRM acquisi-
tion modelling conducted on the Shepody Formation, although for
the Shepody a third, higher coercivity, phase is also present (Figs 2b
and d).
Magnetic separates and magnetic particle anisotropy
We measured the AIR of the magnetic separates from both the
Maringouin and Shepody formations that had been set in epoxy resin
in aligning fields of 160 and 180 mT. When the fabrics are plotted
it is apparent that the particles are better aligned in higher fields,
with their easy magnetization axes parallel to the field direction,
which is along the X -axis in the stereonets of Figs 3(a) and (b).
Particle anisotropy was calculated as maximum/minimum axes for
samples set in 180 mT fields. The measured a factor for the Shepody
Formation ranges from 1.37 to 1.41 with a mean value of 1.39 and a
standard deviation of 0.02. For the Maringouin Formation only one
measurement of 1.34 was made for a sample set in 180 mT aligning
fields (Fig. 3c).
Palaeomagnetism
Shepody formation
Thermal and chemical demagnetization of the Shepody formation
were successful in isolating the same components of magnetiza-
tion (Figs 4a–d). Typically, three components of magnetization
are present, as previously reported by DiVenere & Opdyke (1990,
1991). The lowest temperature component, denoted the A com-
ponent, was removed at 200 ◦ C or after 4 d of leaching. The B
component, the next highest unblocking temperature component,
is observed at temperatures greater than 200 ◦ C or 4 d of leaching
and is sometimes stable up to temperatures of 650 ◦ C, but typically
the linear segment in the vector endpoint diagram only persists to
∼550–600 ◦ C or 16–19 d of leaching. This component is always

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 Shallow inclinations and Carboniferous APW 1017

Figure 2. IRM acquisition modelling (Kruiver et al. 2001) of samples of the Maringouin and Shepody formations. (a) and (b) are the synthetic IRM acquisitions,
while (c) and (d) are the first derivatives, or gradient plots. Modelling reveals two main components of magnetization peaking at 50–60 mT and 500–630 mT.
In the Shepody Formation a third component of coercivity >1000 mT is also present. These components are interpreted to be magnetite/maghemite, hematite
and goethite, respectively.

Figure 3. (a) and b) Stereonet projections and Flinn diagrams (Flinn 1962) showing the orientation and shape of the fabrics of the magnetic separates for the
Shepody and Maringouin formations, respectively. Orientation of the DC aligning field is parallel to the X -axis of the fabric. Maximum axes are clustered
around the X -axis, intermediate axes cluster parallel to the Y -axis, while the minimum axes cluster near vertical (sample Z-axis). A switching of the minimum
and intermediate axes is observed in (a). (c) Measured a factors of the Shepody (open triangles) and Maringouin (open squares) formations, oriented in drying
fields of 160 and 180 mT. One standard deviation error bars are shown for the mean measurements (solid triangles) of the Shepody Formation a factors.


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1018 D. Bilardello and K. P. Kodama
Figure 4. Orthographic projections of end vector demagnetizations
(Zijderveld 1967). Shepody Formation: (a) and (c) thermal demagnetiza-
tion, (b) and (d) chemical demagnetization. Maringouin Formation: (e) and
(g) thermal demagnetization, (f) and (h) chemical demagnetization. Indi-
cated are the most representative heating (◦ C) or leaching (days) steps.
southerly directed and has positive inclination (reverse polarity)
(Fig. 4). The fold tests of Tauxe & Watson (1994) and McFadden &
Jones (1981) reveal that the low temperature component (B compo-
nent of DiVenere & Opdyke (1990, 1991) is a 70 per cent unfolding
component, a result very similar to the incremental fold test of
DiVenere & Opdyke (1991). The mean direction in stratigraphic
coordinates is D = 174.9◦ , I = 17.4◦ , α 95 = 5.4◦ , N = 19, while
at 70 per cent unfolding it is D = 175.4◦ , I = 24◦ , α 95 = 3.4◦ , the
reader interested in a more detailed description of the B component
is referred to DiVenere & Opdyke (1990, 1991).
The highest unblocking temperature component, the C compo-
nent, typically occurs at temperatures greater than ∼550–600 ◦ C
and after 16–19 d of leaching in all samples. This component trends
towards the origin and is only fully resolved at the highest ther-
mal demagnetization temperatures and is therefore the Shepody’s
ChRM. Maximum unblocking temperatures are in the 675–685 ◦ C
range or 33–39 d of leaching. This component displays both normal
polarity (north directed and negative inclination) and reverse (south
directed and positive inclination). Normal and reverse means, when
plotted inverted to a common hemisphere on an equal area projec-
tion, have 95 per cent circles of confidence that overlap including
each other’s mean, passing the reversal test. Infrequently, specimens
(e.g. Fig. 4a) display only two components of magnetization, a low
temperature component between room temperature and 200 ◦ C and
a stable component between 200 and 680 ◦ C that trends towards
the origin. This last component is always reversed polarity. Because
the high temperature directions in two-component samples are sta-
tistically indistinguishable from the clearly defined C component
magnetization in samples with three magnetization components,
the high temperature component in these two component samples
is interpreted to be the C component on the basis of its unblock-
ing temperature. Site mean directions for the high temperature C
component are presented in Table 1.
We have performed the Tauxe & Watson (1994) fold test as well
as the McFadden & Jones (1981) fold test. Results from thermal de-
magnetization data indicate passage of the fold test showing that the
magnetization could have been acquired at 87 per cent (min SCOS)
or 92 per cent (max k), but these values cannot be distinguished
at the 95 per cent confidence level from a pre-folding magnetiza-
tion (Fig. 5a). The formation mean directions of this component
of magnetization in stratigraphic coordinates are D =, 177.4◦ I =
20.4◦ , α 95 = 6.5◦ N = 19 for thermal demagnetization and D =
178.4◦ I = 17.9◦ α 95 = 7.2◦ , N = 16 for chemical demagnetization
(Table 1). These directions are statistically indistinguishable from
those isolated by DiVenere and Opdyke (1990, 1991).
Maringouin formation
For the Maringouin formation, chemical demagnetization was not
always effective at isolating the same components of magnetization
isolated by thermal demagnetization (Figs 4e–h).
As observed for the Shepody formation, three components of
magnetization are present in the Maringouin Formation. There are
only very few points at the lowest temperature range of our demag-
netograms, so the lowest temperature component, the A component,
is poorly resolved. It appears, however, that this component persists
up to 300 ◦ C of thermal demagnetization or 7 d of acid leaching.
The low unblocking temperature B component becomes observ-
able after 300 ◦ C or 7 d of leaching and is sometimes stable up
to temperatures of 665 ◦ C. Typically, the linear segment only per-
sists up to thermal demagnetization temperatures of ∼550–600 ◦ C.
For chemical demagnetization, the points defining the demagneti-
zation vectors are more scattered than those obtained from thermal
demagnetization. The B component can be stable up to 21 d of
leaching, after which the trend becomes unclear. In some samples
the B component is the most resistant to chemical demagnetization

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 Shallow inclinations and Carboniferous APW 1019

Table 1. Site mean directions and Fisherian statistics for the ChRM of the Shepody Fm. isolated through thermal
and chemical demagnetization in in situ and stratigraphic coordinate system.
Shepody Fm. ChRM (C-component)
Site Geo D Geo I Strike Dip Strat D Strat I N R k α 95
Thermal demagnetization
m1 183.2 52.9 63 45 171.1 11.2 9 8.972 285.6 3.1
m2 13.2 −55.3 65 39 357.2 −21.4 7 6.7701 26.1 12
m3 149 71.1 69 36 155 35.4 6 5.9458 92.3 7
m 10 354 51.2 270 68 356 −18.7 5 4.8818 33.8 13.3
m 11 329.9 37.5 256 65 331.8 −25.6 7 6.8786 49.4 8.7
s1 188.5 48 67 42 177.7 9.8 5 4.9548 88.5 8.2
s2 190.8 40.6 78 50 185.2 −6.8 6 5.9489 97.9 6.8
s3 166.2 57.7 81 35 168.3 22.8 4 3.974 115.5 8.6
s4 220.1 60.7 83 32 198.7 34.3 4 3.8261 17.3 22.8
s5 195.4 59 85 34 186.5 26.2 5 4.9654 115.7 7.1
s7 11.8 −53.8 65 40 356.9 −18.3 4 3.8556 20.8 20.6
s8 351.4 −54.6 86 40 353.2 −14.7 3 2.9735 75.6 14.3
s9 189.4 43.9 67 46 179.7 2.5 3 2.9785 92.9 12.9
s 10 188.5 48.1 62 37 176.4 15.8 3 2.9954 431.5 5.9
sh1 27.4 −63.3 72 46 2.3 −23.2 4 3.1717 3.6 56.5
sh 2 69.8 −70.1 86 45 20.1 −36.7 4 3.5132 6.2 40.3
sh 3 175.7 −31.7 241 73 177 35.8 11 10.9834 603.9 1.9
sh 4 21.9 −50.3 66 40 4.8 −17.7 7 6.9961 1532.1 1.5
sh 5 6.8 −56.1 67 41 353.9 −18 7 6.8859 52.6 8.4
Mean 186 46.3 – – 177.4 20.4 19 18.3456 27.5 6.5

Chemical demagnetization
m1 190.2 47.4 63 45 177.7 8.4 6 5.5818 12 20.2
m2 33.3 −54 65 39 16.2 −19.3 5 4.6504 11.4 23.6
m3 172.2 66.2 69 36 165 31.6 3 2.9906 213.8 8.5
m 10 24.3 −38.7 266 68 19.8 −23.8 4 3.3519 4.6 48
m 11 324.3 40 256 65 328.5 −21.3 3 2.9564 45.8 18.4
s1 177.8 46.9 67 42 171.2 6.6 3 2.9911 225.4 8.2
s3 179.6 43.2 81 35 177.3 8.5 4 3.9866 223.7 6.2
s4 185.7 56 83 32 180.8 24.4 3 2.796 9.8 41.7
s5 186.8 60.6 85 34 181.5 27 3 2.9663 59.3 16.1
s7 2.4 −47.3 65 40 353.5 −18.8 4 3.8387 18.6 21.9
s9 187.8 45.3 67 46 178.1 3.4 2 1.9998 6026.3 3.2
s 10 181.6 42.9 62 37 173.1 9.1 2 1.9999 8413.8 2.7
sh 1 36.9 −61.8 72 46 7.1 −24.6 4 3.3445 4.6 48.4
sh 2 1 −43.2 86 45 359.6 1.5 3 2.9931 290.1 7.3
sh 3 173.3 −31.7 241 73 174.8 36.8 6 5.9647 141.7 5.6
sh 4 27.9 −48.8 66 40 9.1 −18.4 5 4.9855 276 4.6
Mean 185.7 39.3 – – 178.4 17.9 16 15.4499 27.3 7.2

and end point vectors continue towards the origin until complete
demagnetization is achieved after 42 d of leaching. This compo-
nent is always southerly directed and has a positive inclination (re-
verse polarity). The highest unblocking temperature C component
appears at temperatures higher than ∼550–600 ◦ C thermal demag-
netization or in very few cases above 665 ◦ C and is completely
unblocked by 685 ◦ C. This component can be either normal or
reverse polarity and passes the reversal test. Chemical demagneti-
zation only reveals the reverse polarity C component, which is un-
blocked between 21 and 42 d. Since this component trends into the
origin on vector endpoint diagrams it is the Maringouin formation’s
ChRM.
Mean directions for the C component in stratigraphic coordinates
are D = 178.7◦ , I = 24.9◦ , α 95 = 14.5◦ , N = 9 for thermal demagne-
tization and D = 183.3◦ , I = 3.8◦ , α 95 = 14.7◦ , N = 10 for chemical
demagnetization (Table 2).
When performing Tauxe & Watson’s (1994) fold test (Fig. 5b)
and also the McFadden & Jones (1981) fold test for the directions
isolated through thermal demagnetization, results indicate passage
of the fold test, showing that the magnetization could have been
acquired at 91 per cent (min SCOS) or 97 per cent (max k), but these
values cannot be distinguished at the 95 per cent confidence level
from a pre-folding magnetization. When comparing these directions
to those isolated by DiVenere & Opdyke (1990), the formation
means for thermal demagnetization fall within each other’s α 95 .
The directions isolated through chemical demagnetization in this
study, though, are considerably shallower than those isolated by
DiVenere & Opdyke (1990). We have not combined results from
thermal and chemical demagnetization to calculate mean directions
for either the Shepody or the Maringouin Formation. We have used
only the thermal demagnetization results because they are always
better quality (lower MAD and α 95 ).


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1020 D. Bilardello and K. P. Kodama
Figure 5. Fold tests of the ChRM showing a pre-folding component of mag-
netization (Tauxe & Watson 1994): (a) Shepody Formation, (b) Maringouin
Formation.
Magnetic fabrics
AMS
Because acid leaching was successful at isolating the characteristic
remanence C component (ChRM from hereafter) for the Shepody
Fm, we were able to use the AMS calculated at different steps of
leaching to determine the AMS fabric of the ChRM-carrying grains
using the technique of Tan & Kodama (2002) and Tan et al. (2003).
The AMS fabric of the Maringouin Fm was also calculated, although
chemical leaching was not as effective at isolating the ChRM.
The ChRM of the Shepody formation was isolated between 19
and 33 d of leaching (Maringouin section), and between 16 and 39 d
(Minudie section). The AMS ellipsoid for both sections determined
for days 16 and 19 (Fig. 6a) is bedding parallel with vertical min-
imum axes and maximum and intermediate axes scattered in the
horizontal in stratigraphic coordinates. On a Flinn diagram (Flinn
1962) this fabric is oblate. After 33–39 d of leaching (Fig. 6b) some
samples show a switching of the maximum and minimum axes.
This fabric is either oblate or prolate at different sites. The reduced
AMS ellipsoid for the Shepody formation is shown in Fig. 6(c). It
is strongly bedding parallel with minimum axes clustered around
the vertical and intermediate and minimum axes scattered in the
horizontal.
AMS data for the Maringouin formation (Figs 6d–f) shows the
same overall pattern as the Shepody. The ChRM was isolated be-
tween 21 and 42 d of leaching. For these leaching steps, the AMS
minimum axes cluster around the vertical while maximum and min-
imum axes are scattered in the horizontal in stratigraphic coordi-
nates. The fabrics corresponding to 21 and 42 d of leaching are
both oblate, however, when the reduced ellipse is calculated by ten-
sor subtraction the fabric becomes triaxial with some site means in
the prolate region of the Flinn diagram (Fig. 6f).
hf-AIR
The fabric carried by specular hematite in the Shepody Formation
has been isolated using a high field anisotropy of isothermal re-
manence technique (hf-AIR) (Bilardello & Kodama 2009) applied
to samples that had been leached in HCl until the red coloration
was removed throughout the sample. The fabric of the Shepody
formation obtained from 19 sites is imbricated with minimum axes
steeply dipping to the SE, with 95 per cent confidence ellipses that
include the vertical. The intermediate axes cluster to the NNW close
to the horizontal, while the maximum axes show good clustering
to the WSW with shallow inclinations. The maximum axes define
a distinct magnetic lineation oriented ENE–WSW (Fig. 7a). On a
Flinn diagram (Fig. 7b) the fabric carried by hematite is mostly
oblate with a few site means in the prolate region. Only nine sites
of the Maringouin Fm. were available for application of the hf-AIR
technique. The fabric is not very well defined and the principal axes
do not show good clustering. Four site means out of seven have
minimum principal axes that dip steeply to the east and maximum
and intermediate axes that gently plunge towards the west and lie
along a great circle. However, at three other sites the axes have
switched positions, with the intermediate and maximum principal
axes steeply dipping to the east (Fig. 7c). The shape of this fabric
can be evaluated on a Flinn diagram (Fig. 7d). Only one site has an
oblate fabric, while the others range from triaxial to prolate.
AAR
We have also measured the magnetic fabric of the grains that
carry the low temperature B component of the Shepody Fm. us-
ing anisotropy of anhysteretic remanence (AAR) between 20 and
60 mT. This fabric is very noisy and not well defined (Fig. 8). It is
very scattered in both geographic coordinates and at 70 per cent
unfolding, presumably when the magnetization was acquired.
However in stratigraphic coordinates (Figs 8a and b) the fabric

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 Shallow inclinations and Carboniferous APW 1021

Table 2. Site mean directions and Fisherian statistics for the ChRM of the Maringouin Fm. isolated through
thermal and chemical demagnetization.
Maringouin Fm. ChRM (C-component)
Site Geo D Geo I Strike Dip Strat D Strat I N R k α 95
Thermal demagnetization
m4 199.7 40 64.5 44.5 187.5 4.6 5 4.9863 291.4 3.7
m5 199.9 52.6 69 40 183.8 18.3 5 4.9905 422.3 3.0
m6 354.7 −47.8 74.5 48 351.3 −0.3 5 4.3443 6.1 25.4
m8 241.9 62.5 90.5 39 209.5 33.4 5 4.9641 111.3 5.9
m9 295.3 −68.8 75 39 325.3 −35.3 5 4.8980 39.2 10.0
m 12 175.3 −22.4 263.5 56.5 175.5 34.1 5 4.8406 25.1 12.5
m 14 197.7 −45.4 260.5 64 189.9 14.4 5 4.9780 181.6 4.6
m 15 178.8 63.8 66.5 38.5 167.3 26.6 5 4.9708 137 5.3
m 16 343.5 −79.3 88 30.5 353.9 −49.1 3 2.7849 9.3 26.5
Mean 187 46.3 – – 178.7 24.9 9 8.4074 13.5 14.5

Chemical demagnetization
m4 192.9 41.5 64.5 44.5 182.3 3.5 4 3.9733 112.5 6.6
m5 196.1 40 69 40 186.7 5.7 4 3.9818 164.8 5.5
m7 181.9 43.2 53.5 60 170.8 −8.8 4 3.9668 90.3 7.4
m8 212.6 59.3 90.5 39 197.7 23.3 4 3.9478 57.5 9.2
m9 178.9 13.7 75 39 179.8 −24.2 3 2.9824 113.6 7.6
m 12 182.1 −15.8 263.5 56.5 184.3 40 4 3.9387 48.9 10.0
m 13 3.8 70.9 263.8 65.6 357.1 5.6 4 3.8182 16.5 17.2
m 14 188 −42.3 260.5 64 184.2 19.8 4 3.9978 1388.1 1.9
m 15 179.7 51.2 66.5 38.5 171.3 14.6 4 3.9814 161.1 5.5
m 16 198.8 −2.3 88 30.5 202.3 −30.6 4 3.8723 23.5 14.4
Mean 189 14.9 – – 183.3 3.8 10 9.2308 11.7 14.7

becomes more discernible and seems to somewhat mimic the spec-
ular hematite fabric isolated with hf-AIR.
DISCUSSION
The low coercivity IRM phase determined for both the Shepody and
Maringouin formations carries ∼10–20 per cent of the remanence.
It is interpreted to be magnetite or maghemite based on IRM acqui-
sition and thermal demagnetization results (Peters & Dekkers 2003).
Iron sulphides also have these coercivities, however, we believe the
presence of sulphides to be highly unlikely in such highly oxidized
rocks. The high coercivity phase responsible for 70–80 per cent
of the remanence is indicative of hematite (specular and pigmen-
tary). The highest coercivity (>1000 mT) phase that is responsible
for 5–15 per cent of the remanence of the Shepody Formation
only is interpreted to be carried by goethite based on thermal de-
magnetization and IRM acquisition results (Bilardello & Kodama
2009).
Palaeomagnetism
The lowest temperature/shortest acid leaching component is poorly
constrained with a significant amount of directional scatter. It is
most likely a present-day field viscous overprint, as observed by
DiVenere & Opdyke (1990, 1991).
The intermediate unblocking temperature/acid leaching B com-
ponent is a syn-folding magnetization interpreted as carried by
the lower coercivity phase. DiVenere & Opdyke (1990, 1991)
isolated the same component of magnetization, but never identi-
fied the remanence-carrying mineralogy. A detailed rock magnetic
study of the Shepody Formation (Bilardello 2008; Bilardello &
Kodama 2009) indicates that the B component is carried by mag-
netite/maghemite and to some extent by finer grained, lower un-
blocking temperature hematite. The similar lower coercivity phase
present in the Maringouin Formation (Fig. 2) is also interpreted
to be magnetite and/or maghemite. The secondary B component
is a Kiaman age overprint that has been observed throughout the
Maritime Provinces (Roy & Park 1969; Kent 1982; Irving & Strong
1984; DiVenere & Opdyke 1990, 1991) and in other parts of North
America and the world (Creer 1968; Irving & Pullaiah 1976; Kent
& Opdyke 1979; Roy & Morris 1983, McCabe & Elmore 1989;
Elmore & McCabe 1991).
The highest temperature C component, the ChRM, with antipo-
dal directions agrees with what has been previously reported (Roy
& Park 1969; DiVenere & Opdyke 1990, 1991) and has unblock-
ing temperature ranges corresponding to the Néel temperature of
hematite. Modelling of the IRM acquisition curves also confirms
these results.
Finer hematite grains are dissolved before the larger particles by
acid leaching. Grain sizes are estimated to range between 1 and
10 μm on the basis of the range of coercivities observed (between
500 and 630 mT) (Bilardello 2008; Bilardello & Kodama 2009;
Kletetschka & Wasilewski 2002; Peters & Dekkers 2003), indicating
that the larger hematite grains are SD (Dunlop & Özdemir 1997).
These results support the hypothesis that the largest hematite grains
carry the most stable remanence (Collinson 1965b, 1966; Tan &
Kodama 2002; Tan et al. 2003). Based on the size of the grains and
the bedding parallel, foliated fabric (Fig. 6), we interpret these large,
high coercivity-high temperature particles to be detrital specularite
grains that carry a stable DRM. These results validate the technique
for measuring the anisotropy of the ChRM-carrying grains using
the reduced AMS/chemical demagnetization technique of Tan &
Kodama (2002) and Tan et al. (2003).


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1022 D. Bilardello and K. P. Kodama
Figure 6. AMS fabrics in stratigraphic coordinates of the Shepody and Maringouin formations: circles, triangles and squares are minimum, intermediate
and maximum axes, respectively. (a) and (d) are the fabrics isolated at the leaching steps corresponding to the appearance of the ChRM on the end vector
diagrams. (b) and (e) are the fabrics isolated at the leaching steps that correspond to complete unblocking of the ChRM. (f) and (g) are the reduced ellipses of
the ChRM-carrying grains only calculated through tensor subtraction.
Magnetic fabrics
AMS
Chemical demagnetization isolated a bedding parallel AMS fabric
for the first demagnetization steps that also isolated the ChRM
(Figs 6a and d). Based on the orientation of the principal axes
this fabric can be interpreted as a primary DRM fabric or as a
compactional fabric (Tauxe et al. 1990; Tan & Kodama 2002; Tan
et al. 2003). In either case it can be used to correct inclination
shallowing (Tan & Kodama 2002; Tan et al. 2003). The inversion
of the principal axes and change in shape of the AMS fabric (Fig. 6)
with acid leacing is interpreted as an effect of grain size reduction.
Potter & Stephenson (1988) noted a grain size dependence of the
AMS, whereby multidomain (MD) particles of magnetite or similar
strongly magnetic particles with shape anisotropy, exhibit a maxi-
mum susceptibility parallel to their easy magnetization axes, while
uniaxial SD particles exhibit a maximum susceptibility perpen-
dicular to their easy axes. Because remanence particle anisotropy is
greater than the susceptibility particle anisotropy, lineated rocks will
appear foliated and vise versa, giving the impression of an inverted
fabric. We have measured the AAR of selected leached samples to
test the effects of leaching on the AAR fabric also (Fig. 8). The
measured AAR clearly shows a normal fabric, we therefore believe
that acid leaching is decreasing the size of magnetite particles to
SD, so that the overall AMS fabric appears inverted.
Together with this fabric change during progressive chemical
demagnetization, there are other considerations that may invali-
date the AMS/chemical demagnetization technique for the Shepody
and Maringouin rocks. AMS measures the bulk anisotropy of the
samples without targeting magnetic grains with specific coercivity
ranges. For multimineralogy rocks, the AMS measures, therefore, a
composite fabric (Jackson 1991; Bilardello 2008). If multiple gen-
erations of magnetic minerals are present, with both primary and
secondary minerals, then the AMS fabric will be a composite fab-
ric and difficult to interpret. Moreover, because the susceptibility
is dependent on the spontaneous magnetization, for equal amounts
of magnetic minerals with different magnetizations (e.g. magnetite
and hematite), the highest magnetization mineral will always have
greatest susceptibility and the resulting susceptibility will thus be
strongly biased towards those minerals. Incomplete dissolution of
any magnetite/maghemite present will therefore affect the AMS
fabrics derived by leaching. Even for relatively small amounts of
magnetite/maghemite, the AMS fabric would still be a measure of
the secondary fabric carried by magnetite/maghemite rather than
the one carried by the primary hematite, and should therefore be
treated with caution for an inclination correction. It is also not to be
excluded that paramagnetic minerals (like micas, that are visible in
some of our samples) may be somewhat contributing to the AMS.
The AMS fabric of the Maringouin formation does not display
the inversion of the fabric that is observed in the Shepody formation
during chemical demagnetization, however, the presence of a low

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Figure 7. hf-AIR fabrics of the Shepody and Maringouin formations (cir-
cles are the minimum principal axes, triangles are the intermediate principal
axes, while the squares are the maximum principal axes). (a) and (b) orien-
tation and shape of the Shepody Formation fabric; (c) and (d) orientation
and shape of the Maringouin Formation fabric. Both fabrics have steeply
plunging minimum axes and gently plunging maximum and intermediate
axes. Note that the Maringouin fabric has two minimum and intermediate
axes that have exchanged positions, and one steep maximum axis which has
been interpreted to be an outlier.
coercivity mineralogy makes the use of this fabric for inclination
corrections of the hematite remanence questionable. Furthermore,
thermal and chemical demagnetization for the Maringouin did not
isolate the same components of magnetization, so the chemical
demagnetization data should be treated with caution.
hf-AIR
The considerations above led to the necessity of developing a tech-
nique that targets the coercivity of hematite enabling the isolation
of its contribution to the fabric. We have developed a high field
anisotropy of isothermal remanence (hf-AIR) technique for this
purpose (Bilardello & Kodama 2009). The foliated fabric of the
Shepody formation, measured with hf-AIR appears to be that of
a depositional/compactional fabric. The fabric has minimum axes
steeply plunging to the SE and a pronounced magnetic lineation
oriented ENE–WSW. The magnetic lineation is interpreted as an
intersection lineation (Pares & van der Pluijm 2002) of hematite
platelets oriented along subbedding parallel planes that have been
reoriented by strain during folding (Bilardello & Kodama 2009).
The fabric of the Shepody Formation has been interpreted as an
original compactional, bedding parallel, fabric that has been mod-
erately reoriented by strain. The minimum axes of the hematite
platelets have been rotated by flexural flow in opposite direction
to the rigid body rotation of the fold limbs (Bilardello & Kodama
2009). If the strain had rotated the ChRM (Kodama 1988), the mag-

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Shallow inclinations and Carboniferous APW 1023
Figure 8. AAR fabric of the syn-folding low temperature/coercivity com-
ponent of the Shepody Formation (circles, triangles and squares are the min-
imum, intermediate and maximum principal axes, respectively): (a) original
data in stratigraphic coordinates; (b) bootstrap data in stratigraphic coor-
dinates; (c) original data at 70 per cent unfolding; (d) bootstrap data at
70 per cent unfolding.
netization would appear syn-folding (Stamatakos & Kodama 1991).
At the 95 per cent confidence interval the fold tests indicate a pre-
folding magnetization, indicating that the remanence has not been
affected appreciably by strain. Therefore, the magnetic fabrics can
be used for inclination corrections.
hf-AIR of the Maringouin formation shows most site averages
with minimum axes steeply dipping to the east, consistent with the
hf-AIR of the Shepody formation.
We interpret the switching of the intermediate and minimum axes
at two sites (Figs 7a and c) as being caused by the small difference
in their relative length (Figs 7b and d). The site mean with a steeply
dipping maximum axis is interpreted to be an outlier.
AAR
The AAR fabric of the secondary, syn-folding component of the
Shepody Formation shows the best clustering of the principal axes
in stratigraphic coordinates (Fig. 8). The orientation of this fab-
ric carried by magnetite/maghemite is very similar to the primary
fabric carried by hematite and is therefore interpreted to be also
primary. The detrital magnetite/maghemite would have been sub-
sequently remagnetized during folding, acquiring the B component
magnetization.
Inclination correction
Results of the inclination corrections
We used the measured individual particle anisotropy values together
with the hf-AIR fabrics to apply an inclination correction. For
the Shepody Formation we were able to measure a mean fabric
1024 D. Bilardello and K. P. Kodama

moves from 30.4◦ N, 117.3◦ E, A95 = 12.6◦ to a new position of

27.4◦ N, 117.2◦ E, A95 = 13.1◦ (Fig. 10a).

Latitudinal variation of inclination corrections

Since inclination shallowing is a function of initial inclination which
is in turn a function of latitude, then inclination shallowing is a
maximum at mid-latitudes, following the relationship tan I m = f tan
I 0 , where I m is the measured inclination, I 0 is the field inclination
and f is a shallowing factor (King 1955; Tauxe & Kent 1984).
If initial inclinations of 30◦ suffer from up to 10◦ of shallow-
Figure 9. Site means of (a) the Shepody Fm. and (b) the Maringouin Fm. ing (this study), then inclinations of ∼45◦ –50◦ may suffer up to
before (open circles) and after (closed circles) inclination correction. 20◦ –25◦ of shallowing, like the Siwalik group of Pakistan and the
Kapusaliang Formation of northwest China (Tauxe & Kent 1984;
Tan et al. 2003; Kodama 2009). Correcting an inclination that has
been shallowed by ∼25◦ corresponds to an increase in colatitude
for every site. For the Maringouin Formation, we have applied a
of over 13◦ , much larger than a typical palaeopole A95 . Such an
correction using the measured fabrics, however, for the two sites
increase in colatitude highlights the importance of inclination cor-
(12 and 15) with steep intermediate axes, these were used instead
rections to palaeogeographies adding a bias towards lower palaeo-
of the minimums, while for the outlier site 14 and for sites 5 and
latitudes. When corrected, the Shepody and Maringouin formation
6, for which we do not have a measure of the fabric, we used the
palaeopoles are translated southward and are in good agreement
average formation fabric. For the particle anisotropy, we used one
of each other (Fig. 10a). When these corrected palaeopoles are
‘formation’ value (1.39 for the Shepody Formation and 1.34 for the
compared to the other poles from the Canadian maritimes, the lat-
Maringouin Formation), based on our measurements. Moreover, in
itudinal and longitudinal variation reflects plate movement (APW)
a recent inclination correction study of the Passaic Formation red
during the lower-mid Carboniferous (DiVenere & Opdyke 1991).
beds Tan et al. (2007) report an individual particle anisotropy of
The lower Carboniferous corrected palaeopole of the Mauch Chunk
1.37 as a reasonable value to use for hematite. The a factor of Tan
Formation (Tan & Kodama 2002) has not been considered because
et al. (2007) is calculated on the basis of the relationship between re-
recent work shows that the corrected Mauch Chunk Formation
manence anisotropy principal axes and susceptibility principal axes
palaeopole may have been affected by tectonic strain and is not
(Stephenson et al. 1986; Tan & Kodama 2002; Tan et al. 2003).
reliable (Kodama 2009). The closer agreement of the corrected
A similar value was obtained by measuring remanence acquisition
Shepody and Maringouin formation corrected palaeopoles makes
of oriented hematite flakes parallel and orthogonal to their basal
the apparent drift of North America less smooth than observed by
plane (Tan et al. 2007). Tan et al.’s value does not come, however,
DiVenere & Opdyke (1991) using uncorrected palaeopoles. We at-
from direct measurement of the hematite grains extracted from the
tribute the closer agreement between the corrected palaeopoles to
Passaic Fm, as we have done for the Shepody and Maringouin
the Maringouin Formation having suffered from smaller amounts of
formations.
inclination shallowing than the Shepody Formation. However, the
The uncorrected formation mean for the Shepody is D = 177◦ ,
fabric of the Maringouin Formation is not as well constrained as the
I = 20.4◦ , α 95 = 6.5◦ , determined from thermal demagnetization of
fabric of the Shepody Formation, also leading to smaller amounts
19 sites, while for the Maringouin the uncorrected formation mean
of correction.
is D = 178.7◦ , I = 24.9◦ , α 95 = 14.5◦ determined from thermal
Using the relationship described above between palaeomagnetic
demagnetization of nine sites. After correction, the declinations
inclination and field inclination, tan I m = f tan I 0 , it is possible
remain virtually unchanged while the inclinations increase to I =
to correct the other red bed formations from North America and
30.1◦ (α 95 = 7.7◦ ) for the Shepody and I = 29.1◦ (α 95 = 15.3◦ ) for
evaluate the effects of inclination corrections on a larger portion
the Maringouin, indicating 4◦ –10◦ of shallowing (Fig. 9).
of the APWP. To do so, however, requires knowledge of the value
For comparison we have also performed an inclination correc-
of f , the shallowing factor, which appears to be formation-specific
tion using the elongation/inclination method (E/I) that relies on the
(King 1955; Tauxe & Kent 1984; Kent & Tauxe 2005). The relation-
TK03.GAD field model of the geomagnetic field (Tauxe & Kent
ship predicts a larger amount of shallowing (and therefore a greater
2004). The correction was performed using the PmagPy software
correction) for sediments deposited at mid-latitudes. This implies a
find EI (Tauxe 2009). Results indicate a corrected inclination of
correction greater than that of the Shepody and Maringouin Forma-
26.2◦ (lower and upper inclinations: 18.1◦ and 41.8◦ , respectively)
tions for the Deer Lake Group, for example, because it is located
for the Shepody Formation and 30.9◦ (17◦ , 55.3◦ lower and upper
at higher latitude. Overall the general trend of the APWP will be
inclinations) for the Maringouin Formation. These results were ob-
maintained (Fig. 10a).
tained from 19 and 9 site means of the two formations, while Tauxe
& Kent (2004) argue that at least 100 sites are necessary to represent
the distribution of directions drawn from plausible models of the
Implications of corrected palaeolatitudes
geomagnetic field. It is nevertheless interesting to notice the effects
of the different methods. The inclination correction performed corresponds to up to 6◦ in-
The mean formation palaeopoles were calculated from virtual crease of co-latitude for Carboniferous North American sites located
geomagnetic poles (VGPs) determined from the corrected site mean at these latitudes. This correction corresponds to over 650 km of
directions. The Shepody Formation uncorrected palaeopole moves misfit in palaeogeographic reconstructions and has important im-
from 33.4◦ N, 118.5◦ E, A95 = 5.5◦ to a corrected position of 27.2◦ N, plications when determining the offset of displaced terranes with
118.3◦ E, A95 = 6.2◦ , while the Maringouin Formation palaeopole respect to the craton (e.g. Irving & Strong 1984; Housen et al.


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 Shallow inclinations and Carboniferous APW 1025

Figure 10. (A) Middle-lower Carboniferous palaeopoles from the Maritime Provinces of Canada: small (large) diamonds are uncorrected (corrected) Shepody
Fm. palaeopoles (this study); small (large) triangles are uncorrected (corrected) Maringouin Fm. palaeopoles (this study); small dots are Shedopy Fm. (320
Ma) (DiVenere & Opdyke 1990, 1991), Maringouin Fm. (329 Ma) (DiVenere & Opdyke 1990); and Deer Lake Group (335 Ma) (DL) (Irving & Strong 1984);
black line with gray shading is the Laurentia APW path of Torsvik et al. (1996) in North American coordinates. (B) Pangea B-type reconstruction by Torsvik &
Van der Voo for 310 Ma using a Geocentric Axial Dipole (GAD) model, with superimposed in gray shading, our corrected position for North America for that
time period. (C) Pangea A-type reconstruction by Torsvik & Van der Voo (2002) for 310 Ma using a 10 per cent octupole field (G3 = 0.1 model) for Gondwana,
with superimposed in gray shading, our corrected position for North America for the same time period. Modified after Torsvik & Van der Voo (2002).

2003; Kim & Kodama 2004; Vaughn et al. 2005). The effects of
the inclination corrections to palaeogeographies can also be evalu-
ated in terms of the distribution of latitude sensitive deposits in the
Maritime Provinces of Canada and the fit of the corrected position
of North and South America in the reconstruction of Pangea.
Distribution of coal
Coal formation is restricted to humid climates, which, according to
modern climate patterns, are mostly located in a thin belt around the
equator extending from 4◦ –8◦ north to 4◦ –8◦ south and at latitudes
higher than ∼35◦ –40◦ .
The earliest that coal seams in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia
are observed is in the Riversdale Group (Westphalian A), how-
ever, most all the productive coal seams are found in the succeed-
ing Cumberland and Pictou Groups (Westphalian B) (Belt 1965;
Hacquebard & Donaldson 1969; Hacquebard 1970; Legun & Rust
1982; Van de Poll 1983). Similarly, minor coal seams first formed
in Newfoundland in the Westphalian A Howley Formation (Hyde
1984). Prior to the coal deposits of the Pennsylvanian, the Missis-
sippian deposits of the Maritime Provinces indicate a much more
arid climate. The Viséan Windsor Group is characterized by thick
progressive sequence of limestone, gypsum and potash salts with
later interbedding of red mudrocks and fossiliferous marine lime-
stones and evaporites (Geldsetzer et al. 1980). Above the Windsor
group, the Cansoan rocks (including the Shepody and Maringouin
Formation), also referred to as the Mabou Group (Belt 1965), con-
tain in their lower part interbeds of gypsum, anhydrite and salt. The
lithologies then progress into red and grey mudrocks, sandstones
and minor thin limestone beds. The abundant red strata indicate
a river-mudflat-lacustrine complex deposited in a prevailing dry
climate with highly seasonal precipitation. These observations are
consistent with a progressive change in climate to much wetter con-
ditions during the Early Pennsylvanian that allowed for extensive
deposition of grey sandstones and mudrocks with coal deposits
(Hacquebard & Donaldson 1969; Hacquebard 1970; Geldsetzer
et al. 1980).
The corrected palaeomagnetic data support the stratigraphic
record. The measured and corrected inclinations of the Shepody
and Maringouin Formations correspond to an increase in palaeo-
latitude from ∼10◦ to ∼16◦ south of the equator, placing North
America closer to the latitude of the subtropical high, and a more
arid climate. An inclination correction performed on the Viséan
Deer Lake Group rocks of Newfoundland (Bilardello 2008) cor-
responds to a palaeolatitude change from ∼18◦ and ∼30◦ south,
pushing this part of North America into the subtropical high. Ac-
cording to the corrected palaeomagnetic data and the stratigraphic
record, the Maritimes move northward, from an arid environment in
the Middle Mississippian, as indicated by the position of the Deer
Lake palaeopole and the Windosorian evaporates of Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick, to a semi arid environment during the upper
Mississippian- lower Pennsylvanian, as indicated by the position of
the corrected Shepody and Maringouin Formations palaeopoles. It
is only in the upper Pennsylvanian that the climate started to get
more humid with the first formation of coal seems in the Rivers-
dale Group of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia and the Howley


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1026 D. Bilardello and K. P. Kodama
Formation of Newfoundland as a result of the continued northward
movement of North America towards a more equatorial climate
zone.
Palaeogeography
From the Late Carboniferous through the Middle Jurassic North
America was assembled with Laurussia and Gondwana to form the
Pangea supercontinent, a classic concept dating back to Wegener
(1915) or even earlier (e.g. Snider-Pelligrini 1858). Wegener’s
Pangea was based on fitting coastlines and matching Late Palaeo-
zoic glacial relicts and faunal similarities, however palaeomagnetic
data pointed to flaws in this supercontinent reconstruction, which
led to the proposition of four different models of Pangea, A1, A2, B
and C (Morel & Irving 1981). Figs 10(b) and (c) show reconstruc-
tions at 310 Ma following the Pangea B and A models, respectively.
The main flaw in the Pangea A1 fit is between Gondwana and the
combined northern continents. It produces an overlap before the
Permian, of present Central America and the US Atlantic margin
with South America and Africa. Pangea A2-type reconstructions
involve the smallest departure from Pangea A1, but cannot fully
account for the overlap. Because the palaeolongitude is uncon-
strained by palaeomagnetic data, Pangea B and C models place
Gondawana at more easterly positions thus eliminating the overlap.
However, the transition to a Pangea A1 configuration required by
younger palaeomagnetic data, necessitates a large-scale continental
shear, which would have been active during the Permian (Muttoni
et al. 2003). Such a megashear, however, is not strongly supported
by structural and other palaeomagnetic data (Weil et al. 2001).
Rochette & Vandamme (2001) proposed that the need for the
overlap between North and South America during the Permo-
Triassic, and thus also the megashear, can be eliminated by ap-
pealing to inclination shallowing. This is because North and South
America are in the northern and southern hemisphere, respectively;
so steepening the inclinations would move them further apart. How-
ever, the overlap remains for older periods, including the Carbonif-
erous, when both continents are located in the southern hemisphere
(Muttoni et al. 2003; Torsvik & Cocks 2004). Muttoni et al. (2003)
suggest that for the Late Permian palaeomagnetic data would allow
a Pangea A configuration, thus inclination shallowing does not need
to be invoked.
The results of the inclination shallowing correction presented
here reposition the Maritime Provinces southwards, in the south-
ern hemisphere, by 12◦ during the Middle Mississippian and by
6◦ in the Upper Mississippian-Pennsylvanian (Figs 10b and c), ef-
fectively increasing the overlap between North and South America.
Unless South America has also been affected by inclination shallow-
ing, our corrected palaeomagnetic data therefore requires a Pangea
B assemblage during the Carboniferous, a configuration that must
have persisted up to the Early Permian (Muttoni et al. 2003). The
subsequent transformation from Pangea B to Pangea A took place
during the Permian because Late Permian palaeomagnetic data al-
low a Pangea A configuration.
To fully evaluate the effects of the inclination correction, how-
ever, it is necessary to consider the placement of Gondwana. In
particular, the Carboniferous Gondwana palaeopoles are derived
primarily from sedimentary rocks, which are likely to have been
affected by inclination shallowing.
Torsvik & Cocks (2004) present palaeogeographic reconstruc-
tions that are based on palaeomagnetic data listed in Torsvik &
Van der Voo (2002). For the Early Carboniferous (340 Myr) their
placement of western Gondwana is based entirely on five North
African palaeopoles, four palaeopoles are based on sedimentary
rocks and only one is based on intrusive igneous rocks. For the Late
Carboniferous (310 Myr), the placement of western Gondwana is
constrained by seven North African palaeopoles, six are based on
sedimentary rocks and only one is derived from extrusive igneous
rocks, and by seven South American palaeopoles, three of which are
derived from volcanic rocks. It would appear that the positioning of
Gondwana is better determined for the Late Carboniferous than it
is for the Early Carboniferous, although an inaccurate knowledge
of the palaeohorizontal of igneous rocks may still lead to a shallow
inclination bias.
The overlap between Laurussia and Gondwana, therefore, may
be explained by inclination shallowing in Gondwana sedimentary
rocks for the Early (Africa) and Late (Africa and South America)
Carboniferous. It is interesting to note that Torsvik & Cocks (2004)
use a 10 per cent non-dipole component in their Late Carboniferous
results (Torsvik & Van der Voo 2002), which has the same effect
as correcting for inclination shallowing. Nevertheless our results
indicate that North America needs to be moved more to the south.
Because South America has been moved south already in Torsvik &
Cocks’ (2004) reconstruction by introducing a non-dipole compo-
nent (Torsvik & Van der Voo 2002), our results suggest that an even
larger non-dipole component is required or inclination shallowing
must be considered for Gondwana.
Relying solely on existing data, the Torsvik & Cocks (2004) re-
construction, our inclination shallowing corrections for the North
American Mississippian close the Palaeotethys Ocean, and create
an overlap between North and South America, requiring a Pangea B
assemblage. Furthermore, palaeomagnetic work on Early Permian
volcanic rocks from Adria, shown to be part of Gondwana, inte-
grated with published coeval data from Godwana and Laurussia,
again only from igneous rocks (Muttoni et al. 2003), convincingly
supports a Pangea B model for this period.
Our inclination shallowing results on North American red beds,
together with the Adria results of Muttoni et al. (2003) and the
reconstructions of Torsvik & Cocks (2004), would require a Pangea
B model from the Carboniferous to the Early Permian.
C O N C LU S I O N S
A palaeomagnetic and rock-magnetic study of the lower-middle
Carboniferous Shepody and Maringouin Formations from the Mar-
itime Provinces of Canada indicates that magnetic anisotropy con-
trols the accuracy of the palaeomagnetic inclination of these red,
hematite-bearing sedimentary rocks. ChRM directions isolated by
thermal demagnetization have an average inclination of 20.4◦ and
24.9◦ for the Shepody Formation and Maringouin Formation, re-
spectively. Near bedding-parallel fabrics measured by anisotropy of
isothermal remanence (hf-AIR) can be used to correct the inclina-
tion shallowing of the ChRM caused by depositional and/or com-
pactional processes. The individual particle anisotropy, the a factor,
a critical parameter needed for an accurate inclination correction,
was measured by the AIR of oriented magnetic separates. Mea-
sured a factors are 1.39 and 1.34 for the Shepody and Maringouin
Formations, respectively.
The corrected inclinations are steepened to 30.9◦ (Shepody For-
mation) and 29.1◦ (Maringouin Formation) and indicate up to 10◦
of inclination shallowing.
Palaeopoles of 33.4◦ N 118.5◦ E and 30.4◦ N 117.3◦ E calculated
from the Shepody and Maringouin formations, become 27.2◦ N
118.3◦ E and 27.4◦ N 117.2◦ E, respectively, after the correction.

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These new pole positions correspond to ∼6◦ increase in co-
latitude for Carboniferous North America. Because of the strong
dependence of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic North American APWPs
on red beds, we believe this study has significant implications for
this portion of the APWP and that the APWP should be corrected
for inclination shallowing. The corrected palaeolatitude of North
America agrees well with the palaeoenvironmental data indicat-
ing an arid- to semi-arid climate up to the Pennsylvanian, with a
subsequent change towards a more humid climate, marked by the
distribution of Upper Carboniferous coal deposits throughout the
Maritime Provinces of Canada. Furthermore, the corrected position
of North America increases the overlap between North and South
America, requiring a Pangea B-type reconstruction until the Early
Permian.
This study also highlights the problems associated with using
AMS in rocks where multiple magnetic mineralogies co-exist,
showing that AMS measures a composite fabric and cannot always
be used to measure only the fabric of the ChRM-carrying grains.
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
The research was supported by National Science Foundation grant
EAR-540204 to K. P. Kodama. The authors would also like to
thank Dennis Kent for initial comments on the manuscript and the
thoughtful comments and reviews by V. J. DiVenere and an anony-
mous reviewer. Michael Newton conducted the initial sampling of
the Shepody and Maringouin Formations and the palaeomagnetic
measurements of the Maringouin Formation.
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