Int. J. Miner. Process. 84 (2007) 51 58 www.elsevier.

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Gas dispersion measurements in flotation cells

C.O. Gomez , J.A. Finch
McGill University, Canada Received 7 June 2006; received in revised form 30 January 2007; accepted 28 March 2007 Available online 12 April 2007

Abstract Progress in science and engineering relies on accurate and precise measurements. Flotation is no exception. It is arguable that progress in both fundamental understanding (modeling) and plant practice has been limited by the lack of instruments and sensors capable of functioning in operating flotation machines. The McGill Mineral Processing group has developed instruments and procedures to measure three variables in industrial cells: superficial gas velocity, gas-holdup and bubble size distribution. This communication describes advances on equipment and operating procedures, and introduces a protocol for sensor installation and documentation that makes possible the correction of measurements to bubble-collection-point conditions. 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Flotation; Gas dispersion measurements; Gas velocity; Gas holdup; Bubble size

1. Gas dispersion sensors Gas dispersion is the collective term for superficial gas (air) velocity (or gas rate, volumetric air flow rate per unit cross-sectional area of cell, Jg), gas-holdup (volumetric fraction of gas in a gasslurry mix, g), and bubble size distribution (Db). The sensors and devices we have used to measure these variables in flotation machines have been described in the literature (Gomez and Finch, 2002). They have been used to characterize gas dispersion in cells ranging from microunits (e.g. 50 mL Hallimond tube variations) to tank cells up to 160 m3 in volume. The emphasis here will be on developments since the first review (Gomez and Finch, 2002) including integration of the measurements, and use of the units to characterize the response of cells and circuits. Data
Corresponding author. E-mail address: cesar.gomez@mcgill.ca (C.O. Gomez). 0301-7516/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.minpro.2007.03.009

from some 20 sites on 5 continents have been collected to date. The devices, initially designed for stationary installation in flotation columns, were modified for sequential measurements in circuits of mechanical machines. The requirements were for compact, robust units that could be multiplexed and were adaptable for on-line measurement. The designs have been refined to a point that continuous (gas velocity and gas holdup) or relatively high frequency (bubble size) measurements are possible within the plant environment on individual and multiple flotation cells. 1.1. Gas velocity sensor (Fig. 1) The gas velocity sensor is an automated version of the inverted graduated cylinder used by plant engineers in the past, i.e., it is based on the collection of bubbles from the pulp zone into a vertical tube partially immersed in the cell (Gomez and Finch, 2002; Gomez et al., 2003a). The sensor is constructed around a piece

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of PVC plastic tube of 10 cm diameter which is large enough to minimize bubble-sampling biases common in small tubes. The collected bubbles rise until they reach the liquid surface in the tube and burst. If the tube is closed at the top, the gas accumulates, pressure increases, and the slurry (and any froth layer) is pushed down the tube. The signals from pressure sensors are permanently recorded in a data collection computer. The rate of descent is related to the superficial gas velocity and can be monitored by the slope of the pressure change (Gomez et al., 2003a). The measurement begins when valve A (Fig. 1a) is closed to accumulate gas within the tube and pressure increases, and ends when the tube is full of gas. Simultaneous measurements in many cells are possible by opening and closing (manually or automatically using solenoid valves) the valves on the tubes installed in each cell. Calculation of the gas velocity from the rate of pressure change requires the bulk density of the fluid (aerated pulp) which provides the backpressure to the gas accumulating in the tube. By including a second tube (Fig. 1a) with its bottom end closer to the pulp/froth interface and with valve B closed (i.e., second tube is always full of air) then, knowing the immersion length difference between the two tubes, the bulk density can be calculated from the pressure difference measured after the first tube fills with gas (this second tube is referred to as the bubbler tube to distinguish from the original sensor tube). A continuous version of the sensor based on the use of an orifice has been developed (Fig. 1b) (Torrealba-Vargas

et al., 2003). In this case the sensor includes two valves and is operated with valve A closed and valve B open to direct air to the orifice until a steady state pressure is reached (rate of air entering the tube from the cell equals that leaving the tube through the orifice). From a prior calibration of the flow through the orifice the volumetric flow of air (and hence Jg after dividing by tube crosssectional area) is known. A major advantage is that measurement of bulk density is not required, but practical limitations are that different orifices are required to cover a range in Jg and sometimes froth builds in the tube and reaches the orifice which biases the measurement of the steady state pressure. Efforts to solve this latter problem are in progress. 1.2. Gas-holdup sensor (Fig. 2) Gas holdup represents the volumetric proportion of gas in the pulp. The sensor is based on Maxwell's model that relates the concentration of a non-conducting dispersed phase to the conductivities of the continuous phase and the dispersion (Tavera et al., 1996). This means two measurements, made in two tubes (flow cells), one that measures the conductivity of aerated slurry and the second, by inducing a siphon action to eliminate the bubbles, measures the conductivity of the air-free slurry (Fig. 2). The ratio of the two signals is used to solve Maxwell's model to estimate the fraction of nonconducting phase (i.e., gas holdup) in the dispersion. The conductivity cells (note Fig. 2) have 3 concentric conductivity rings the two outer at the same polarity to

Fig. 1. Schematic of the two versions of the gas velocity sensor.

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Fig. 2. Schematics and picture of the gas-holdup sensor showing details of the open and siphon conductivity cells.

constrain the field inside the cell. Some prior knowledge of the pulp liquid-phase conductivity, which in plants with highly saline pulps may reach 100 mS/cm, is needed to setup the conductivity meter. Fluctuations in pulp conductivity during measurements are not a problem since the technique is one of relative difference between the open and siphon cells, and not absolute values (Gomez et al., 2003b). The method gives a continuous signal. The key for effective operation lies in excluding bubbles from the siphon cell. The cell design (a conical bottom) is a consequence of this requirement. The conical opening hinders entry of rising bubbles, and the cell contents quickly develop a higher density than the dispersion outside the cell, generating a flow out through the bottom opening, replenished by pulp from the top, which completes the exclusion of bubbles from the siphon cell. To ensure that no bubbles are entrained into the cell from the top, the pulp velocity entering the top of the cell must be lower than the terminal velocity of the smallest size bubble present in the system. This condition is met by selecting the bottom-opening size. 1.3. Bubble size measurement (Fig. 3) Bubble size (Db) measurement is a full characterization of the entire size distribution made from images collected using McGill's unique bubble-viewing chamber (Hernandez-Aguilar et al., 2002). The viewing chamber (and camera and light source) is mounted on an aluminum frame to facilitate installation and operation (Fig. 3). In operation, bubbles are collected via a sampling tube and directed into a viewing area where

they are exposed under pre-set lighting conditions to be imaged (Fig. 4). Operation follows a sequence of steps to create a continuous flow of rising bubbles through the chamber. The unit is initially filled with water through the top opening (normally plant process water) to provide the liquid column in which the bubbles rise to provide a clear image (particles in the slurry do not enter the unit) for up to several minutes (till particles dislodged from bursting bubbles cloud the viewing chamber). As a consequence of its elevated location above the flotation cell pulp level, the pressure inside the viewing chamber remains below atmospheric during operation. Although the accuracy of the technique is hard to establish (there is no gold standard against which to compare) the approach is now widely used, and continues to evolve as improvements dictated by field experiences are implemented. The characteristic that distinguishes the technique is the quality of the images

Fig. 3. Schematics of bubble viewer depicting main components.

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Fig. 4. Bubble viewer in operation.

attained by photographing bubbles against backlighting (i.e., the bubble shadow is imaged) as they slide up a 15degree sloped window. This window spreads the bubbles into a near monolayer, providing both an unambiguous plane of focus and reducing bubble overlap and ghost images of bubbles in the background. The measurement involves three steps: image collection, image processing, and data analysis; progress in each area has been substantial. In image collection, the latest cylindrical bubble viewer design and the support structure automates integration with the video-camera and light source while facilitating transportation, installation and cleaning of the unit between measurements. Safety issues related to window integrity have been addressed by incorporating a pressure relief valve and using tempered glass. Software has been developed to drive the camera for collecting, naming, and storing images at a user-defined rate and directly in the format necessary for image processing (lengthy image transfer and digitization are no longer required). Parameters to consider during image collection are magnification (normally 25 pixels/mm in plant work), and image number and frequency (normally five hundred at a rate of two every second). Experience has demonstrated that the most effective way of operating the camera is using a fixed shutter speed (1/1000 or 1/2000 of a second, depending on the intensity of the light) in auto-iris mode. In image processing, software developed at McGill drives Northern Eclipse, a commercial image analysis program, to automatically handle all images collected in one measurement. For every image (for the camera currently in use, a set of positioned pixels in a matrix of 720 535 elements each representing light intensity through a grayscale value from black 0 to white 255), properties such as area, perimeter, and minor and major

axes are determined for every object discriminated. The processing requires the selection of threshold (maximum grayscale intensity value of a pixel to discriminate objects from background), and up to six bubble selection criteria (e.g., minimum major and minor axes size, aspect ratio range, and shape factor) to establish what objects are bubbles. In industrial measurements, as the collection of images advances, solid particles released when the bubbles burst at the surface of the liquid in the viewing chamber progressively reduce the background light intensity, and the threshold needs continual adjustment. The software includes an option to process with a threshold automatically calculated for every image utilizing an algorithm based on the picture intensity histogram. Processing starts by creating a binary image when pixel intensities are compared to the threshold (pixels with values below or equal to the threshold are given a value of 1, while those with higher values are given a value of 0). Groups of adjacent 1 pixels are considered objects. Twodimensional properties of individual objects are derived from the pixel arrangement and converted to sizes using the magnification. Objects complying with all selection criteria are accepted as bubbles. Use of a magnification of 25 pixels/mm means minimum bubble sizes of around 0.2 mm (smallest circular object is considered to be 5 pixels in diameter). As the number of bubbles counted is normally between five and ten thousand, the information generated in a single test is massive (an eighteen-column Excel file with as many rows as bubbles counted). To facilitate examination of the files, software was developed to calculate, analyze and display size distributions from the files stored in a Windows subdirectory. The program retrieves the data and, based on the equivalent diameter (diameter of a circle with the same area as that exposed

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in the image), sorts the bubbles into frequency distributions with bin sizes (arithmetic or geometric intervals) defined by the user. Frequency and cumulative size distributions are displayed in plots with both linear and logarithmic size scales, and average diameters such as D10 or D32 are calculated as well. A useful option for comparison purposes is the simultaneous display of up to five size distributions, in frequency or cumulative form. 2. Sensor installation The literature includes several reports of measurements performed during the development stage of the sensors. As the sensors became more robust and reliable for use in industrial cells, simultaneous measurements to characterize gas dispersion demonstrated that an installation strategy was necessary. Because the volume of a

mass of gas depends on its pressure and temperature, gas dispersion measurements will be affected by the location and geometry of the sensors. At the same time, as the conditions existing at the measurement points are not the same for the three sensors (and are different from those prevailing within the flotation cell at the bubblecollection point), corrections are necessary. In bubble size determination, for example, diameters are measured from images of bubbles in the bubble viewer which operates under vacuum; bubbles are larger than their sizes in the cell. A similar situation occurs with the measurement of gas velocity where a volume of gas is accumulated under variable pressure at conditions different from those existing at the location where bubbles enter the tube. Corrections to common conditions are straightforward for bubble size and gas velocity by applying Boyle's law, given that air behaves as an ideal gas under flotation conditions.

Fig. 5. Location of the sensors and relevant lengths and distances for calculation and correction of gas dispersion parameters.

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Installation of the gas dispersion sensors during cell characterization exercises requires careful documentation to be effective; integration of the gas dispersion results with metallurgical data requires information collected at the same time under strictly controlled conditions. An adequate response to the non-homogeneity of gas dispersion in industrial cells is to locate all sensors as close together as possible. Respecting the inevitable restrictions imposed by local situations, it is recommended that sensors are operated through the same sampling port, to collect bubbles from the same radial position at the same depth (Fig. 5) to facilitate correction of measurements to cell conditions. In general, similar results are obtained at the same radial distance, but relative distance to baffles or to the feed entrance, or different impeller rotation direction in two cells may lead to different values. In the case of depth, installation must be carefully selected considering that there will be only one position where the three gas dispersion parameters will be known (reference plane in Fig. 5 at the middle ring of the gas-holdup open cell). Although gas velocity and bubble size can be easily corrected to different depths our current inability to do the same for gas holdup makes this reference depth unique. No method has been found to correct a gas holdup resulting from the flow of a swarm of different diameter bubbles. To try to have all sensors sampling the same bubble population, the gas velocity sensor and the bubble viewer are installed with the bottom end of their sampling tubes immersed to the same depth as that of the open cell of the gas-holdup sensor (Fig. 5). The second tube (bubbler) used to measure the bulk density (required for the dispersion above the bottom end of the gas velocity sensor tube) is installed at about 0.25 m below the interface (or about 0.5 m below the cell lip if froth depth is unknown), with a recommended minimum immersed length difference (HBD) of 0.5 m. Calculations and corrections of the measurements require some of the distances indicated in Fig. 5: 1) total length of the Jg sensor tube (HL); 2) length of the sensor tube above the cell overflow (HO); 3) immersed length difference between the Jg sensor and bubbler tubes (HBD); 4) distance between the middle ring and the bottom end of the open cell in the gas-holdup sensor (HE); 5) total length of the bubble viewer collection tube (H1); 6) vertical distance between camera focal point and bottom of bubble viewer (H2); 7) vertical distance between camera focal point and water level in the bubble viewer (H3); and 8), froth depth. There is a small variation (a few cm) in H3 during measurement as more bubbles accumulate at the top of the bubble viewer; it is

our practice to use an average of the distance before and after images are collected. 3. Calculation and correction of gas dispersion measurements 3.1. Gas velocity Operation of the double-tube sensor provides the data for calculating gas velocity. The data, pressure vs. time in both tubes, is processed to derive the slope dp / dt (normally an average of five values) and then to derive the average of pressures p1 and p2 when both tubes are full of air. The bulk density is first calculated from averages of the pressures p1 and p2, and the immersed length difference between the sensor and bubbler tubes (HBD): b p1 p2 HBD 1

The gas velocity calculation is based on the following equation relating this variable to the slope of the pressure vs. time curve when the gas is accumulating in the tube. This equation was obtained applying a mass balance to the tube volume filled with gas (a cylinder with variable volume and pressure), and using the ideal gas equation to relate mass to pressure and volume, and the weight of a column of fluid to relate pressure to volume: Jg;L Patm b HL dp cm=s b Patm b HL HO dt 2

Distances (defined in Fig. 5) are measured in cm, while pressures pi are manometric and Pi are absolutes, both in cm H2O. The calculated gas velocity Jg.L corresponds to that entering the sensor tube at a depth (HL HO). To correct the measured gas velocity to a different location (different hydrostatic pressure) Boyle's law is used. To calculate, for example, the gas velocity at the reference plane (Jg,ref) the following equation is used: Jg;ref Jg;L PL Patm p1 Jg;L Pref Patm p1 b HE 3

In plant measurements, gas velocities at the reference plane are typically about 3% larger than the values obtained from Eq. (2). 3.2. Gas holdup Gas holdup is calculated utilizing Maxwell's equation (Eq. (4)) with averages of the conductivity k over

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time (typically 5 min) for both the open and siphon cells, which measure the conductivity of the dispersion (bubbles plus pulp) kd, and pulp only kp, respectively: eg
d 1k kp d 1 0: 5 k kp

4. Concluding statements Sensors for measuring superficial gas velocity, gasholdup and bubble size distribution in industrial flotation machines have been refined to a point that continuous (in the case of the gas velocity and gas holdup) or relatively high frequency measurements are possible within the plant environment on individual and multiple flotation cells. Hardware and software improvements have simplified measurement and reduced the time required for data processing. The techniques will continue to evolve as modifications dictated by use are put into effect. As the sensors have become more robust and reliable, simultaneous measurements were practiced to better characterize cell response to changes in operating conditions. In response to the non-homogeneity of gas dispersion in industrial cells an installation protocol, which requires careful documentation to be effective, was necessary to integrate measurements in one cell and to compare with those collected in different units. Gas dispersion measurements are affected by sensor location and geometry. Because the volume of a mass of gas depends on its pressure and temperature, corrections are necessary. Conditions existing at the measurement points are not the same for the three sensors, and are different again from those prevailing within the cell at the bubble-collection point. Corrections are straightforward for bubble size and gas velocity by applying Boyle's law, considering that air behaves as an ideal gas under flotation conditions. However, no method is available to correct gas holdup to conditions different from those existing at the measuring point. This makes the location of the gas-holdup sensor the reference point. Standardization of sensor installation and correction procedures has taken the technique to a stage where it can be effectively transferred to operations. Units have been supplied to several groups along with training. Work will continue towards our long-term goal, establishing a relationship between gas dispersion measurements, notably bubble surface area flux, and metallurgical performance. Acknowledgements The effort and dedication of current and former graduate students, Dr. Alejandro Uribe-Salas, Dr. Francisco Tavera, Franklin Cortes-Lopez, Ralph Dahlke, Marta Bailey, Dr. Jose Hernandez-Aguilar, Dr. Jorge Torrealba-Vargas, Helin Girgin, Jason Doucet, Claudio Acua and Davin Knuutila in the development and testing of these sensors is gratefully recognized. Funding for sensor development is from two Natural

3.3. Bubble size In the case of bubble size, images are collected at the point where the focal plane of the camera meets the sloped window (a vertical distance H3 from the gas liquid interface in the bubble viewer); at this point the absolute pressure is below atmospheric. To correct bubble sizes to the cell reference plane, the pressure in the bubble viewer PBV needs to be measured, or in its absence, estimated from equalizing two hydrostatic pressures at the bubble-collection point, namely that from the air-water column inside the bubble viewer and collection tube (water density assumed), and that from the pulp and froth column in the cell: PBV H2 O H1 H2 H3 Patm p1 5

The pressure p1 is known (measured to estimate the bulk density) and with distances H1, H2, and H3 the pressure in the bubble viewer can be calculated: PBV Patm p1 H2 O H1 H2 H3 6

Once PBV is known, measured bubble sizes Db,image can be corrected to reference conditions (Db,ref) again using Boyle's law: s r PBV H2 O H3 3 3 Pimage Db;ref Db;image Db;image Pref Patm p1 b H3 7 In plant measurements, bubble sizes at the reference plane are about 8% smaller than the values obtained directly from image analysis. Although the volume of gases is also affected by temperature, no corrections for this variable are normally applied because gas temperature differences are usually not large. If large temperature differences are detected between the gas in the pulp and that accumulated during the measurement of Jg or Db, then a temperature correction in Eqs. (2), (3) and (7) has to be considered. It is recommended that pulp temperatures be measured in case results from cells in different banks, circuits and plants need to be compared or related.

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C.O. Gomez, J.A. Finch / Int. J. Miner. Process. 84 (2007) 5158 Gomez, C.O., Cortes-Lopez, F., Finch, J.A., 2003b. Industrial testing of a gas holdup sensor for flotation systems. Minerals Engineering 3, 17031713. Hernandez-Aguilar, J.R., Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A., 2002. A technique for the direct measurement of bubble size distribution in industrial flotation cells. Proceedings 34th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Mineral Processors. CIM, pp. 389402. Tavera, F.J., Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A., 1996. Novel gas holdup probe and application in flotation columns. Trans. Instn Min. Metall (Sec. C: Mineral Process. Extr. Metall.), 105, pp. C99C104. Torrealba-Vargas, J.A., Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A., 2003. Continuous air rate measurement in flotation cells: a step towards gas distribution management. In: Gomez, C.O., Barahona, C. (Eds.), Proceedings Copper 2003. Mineral Processing, vol. 3, pp. 91102.

Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada grants; one sponsored by Noranda, Inco, Falconbridge, Teck Cominco, COREM and SGS Lakefield Research, and the other by Amira International under the P9N project, and is greatly appreciated. References
Gomez, C.O., Finch, J.A., 2002. Gas dispersion measurements in flotation machines. CIM Bulletin 95 (1066), 7338. Gomez, C.O., Torrealba-Vargas, J.A., Dahlke, R., Finch, J.A., 2003a. Measurement of gas velocity in industrial flotation cells. In: Lorenzen, L., Bradshaw, D.J. (Eds.), Proceedings of the XXII International Mineral Processing Congress, pp. 17031713.